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Transcription, Translation & Protein Synthesis Gene Expression

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Transcription, Translation & Protein Synthesis Gene Expression Transcription, Translation & Protein Synthesis Genes are used by the cell to synthesize proteins. In order to produce a protein, genes must be transcribed and translated by the machinery of the cell. Gene Expression The use of genes to produce proteins is called gene expression. Two main processes are involved in gene expression: transcription and translation. 1. During transcription, DNA in the nucleus of a cell is copied into messenger RNA molecules. 2. The messenger RNA then moves into the cell's cytoplasm and attaches to a ribosome, where it is translated into a protein. Central Dogma of Molecular Biology Once DNA is transcribed into messenger RNA and translated into a protein, the process cannot be reversed. That is, information cannot be transferred from the protein back to the nucleic acid. This is the central dogma of molecular biology. Transcription The sequence of nitrogenous bases in a gene provides the genetic instructions needed to construct a protein. Transcription occurs when a series of chemical signals within the cell causes the gene for a specific protein to "turn on," or become active. During transcription, a segment of DNA is transcribed, or copied, to produce a complementary strand of messenger RNA (mRNA). Transcription occurs in the nucleus of the cell. The three main processes that occur during transcription are described below. 1. Initiation — During initiation, enzymes bind to a DNA sequence and unwind the double helix to expose a strand of nucleotides. 2. Elongation — As the DNA molecule unwinds, an enzyme called RNA polymerase pairs complementary RNA nucleotides with the DNA nucleotides on one of the exposed strands. Adenine (A) on DNA pairs with uracil (U) on RNA, cytosine (C) pairs with guanine (G), and thymine (T) pairs with adenine (A). For example, if the DNA strand reads 'ACG,' the complementary RNA strand would read 'UGC.' 3. Termination — Once the gene is transcribed, the new RNA molecule breaks away and the DNA strands are wound back together. During transcription, a DNA molecule is unwound, and an RNA strand is synthesized using an exposed DNA strand as a template. Now that transcription is completed, the RNA molecule moves to the cytoplasm of the cell, where it will be translated into a protein. Translation Translation occurs in cell organelles called ribosomes. Ribosomes contain proteins and a type of RNA called ribosomal RNA (rRNA). It is a major component of cellular ribosomes and it can act as a catalyst in chemical reactions. During translation, an mRNA strand is used to synthesize a chain of amino acid residues called a polypeptide. When mRNA leaves the nucleus, it travels until it reaches a ribosome. Each three-base segment of the mRNA strand is called a codon. A polypeptide is formed by matching the anticodon of a transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule—each of which carries a specific amino acid—to the corresponding codon on the mRNA strand. Later, the polypeptide will fold into a functional protein. The steps of translation are shown below. 1. A ribosome attaches to the 5' end of the mRNA strand. 2. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules carrying amino acids approach the ribosome. 3. The tRNA molecule whose anticodon corresponds to the first codon on the mRNA strand quickly attaches at the ribosome. 4. A new tRNA molecule carrying another amino acid attaches to the next codon on the mRNA strand. 5. As amino acids are added next to each other, peptide bonds form between them. 6. The previous tRNA molecule detaches from the mRNA strand and departs from the ribosome, leaving its amino acid behind. 7. The chain of amino acid residues continues to grow until the ribosome reaches a stop codon at the 3' end of the mRNA strand. This signals that no more amino acids should be added. The result is a polypeptide. During translation, tRNA molecules bring amino acids to the ribosome, where they are linked together by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide. Codons & the Genetic Code How exactly does a sequence of nucleotides result in a chain of amino acids? The answer lies in the genetic code (or triplet code), which determines which amino acid corresponds with each three-base codon. Because codons contain three nitrogenous bases, the genetic code could theoretically produce 64 amino acids (four possible bases in the first position multiplied by four in the second position and four in the third). However, most amino acids are coded for by more than one codon. Consequently, the genetic code can only produce 20 different amino acids. While this phenomenon may seem inefficient at first glance, such redundancies often allow cells to produce the correct protein even if a gene has been affected by a mutation. For example, suppose a mutation caused a CUU codon to change to CUC, CUA, or CUG. In all three cases, the correct amino acid, leucine, would be produced. The genetic code is shown in the table above. To determine which amino acid corresponds to a codon, find the row matching the first RNA base, the column matching the second base, and the specific codon containing the third base. An mRNA transcript must have distinct starting and ending points, which are indicated by a start codon (AUG, which codes for methionine) and a stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA). As with all nucleic acid sequences, codons are transcribed and translated in the 5'→3' direction. Gene Sequence Determines Protein Structure The final structure of a protein is determined by the sequence of its amino acid residues. In turn, the amino acid sequence is determined by the original gene sequence that was transcribed and translated. Once a chain of amino acid residues is produced, it undergoes a series of folds, bends, and twists to arrive at its final structure. There are four distinct levels of protein structure: Primary Structure — The primary structure of a protein is simply its linear amino acid sequence (polypeptide). Each type of protein has a unique primary structure that distinguishes it from every other protein. Secondary Structure — In certain places, hydrogen bonding causes the polypeptide to twist into structures called alpha helices or fold into structures called beta sheets. Most proteins contain both of these structures. Tertiary Structure — Tertiary structure refers to the tightly compacted form of a single protein molecule. This three-dimensional structure is primarily determined by the hydrophobic (water repelling) amino acid residues in the polypeptide, which naturally face inward, while hydrophilic amino acid residues face outward. Quaternary Structure — Many proteins are actually composed of multiple subunits. When these subunits (each of which is translated separately) come together, the protein achieves quaternary structure. As shown in the diagram, the oxygen-carrying protein hemoglobin is made up of four distinct subunits. Proteins and Life The process of protein synthesis produces the proteins that carry out the functions needed for life. These functions include breaking down food, protecting a body from bacteria and viruses, and moving muscles. This is a small list of the life functions carried out by proteins. These functions are performed by specialized cells, which synthesize the specific proteins needed to perform a function. The genes that are expressed by a specialized cell determine the proteins that the cell can synthesize. The structure of a protein determines its function. Specialized cells and the proteins that they synthesize are essential for life. Comparing DNA & RNA Both DNA and RNA play a role in storing and transmitting cellular information, but there are key differences in the structures and specific functions of the two types of nucleic acids. DNA Structure vs. RNA Structure The diagram below shows several key structural differences between DNA and RNA. The nitrogenous bases found in each molecule are also shown. DNA and RNA share key similarities, but there are also significant structural differences between them. Molecular Shape DNA is composed of two nucleotide chains wound together into a double helix. RNA is composed of one nucleotide chain in a single helix. Nitrogenous Bases DNA contains the nitrogenous bases cytosine (C), guanine (G), adenine (A), and thymine (T). RNA contains the nitrogenous bases cytosine (C), guanine (G), adenine (A), and uracil (U). Nucleotide Components DNA nucleotides each consist of a nitrogenous base, a phosphate group, and a deoxyribose five-carbon sugar. RNA nucleotides each consist of a nitrogenous base, a phosphate group, and a ribose five-carbon sugar. DNA Function vs. RNA Function Together, DNA and RNA contain all the instructions a cell needs to carry out its life functions. However, they differ in function. Several of these key differences are discussed below. DNA is the ultimate source of genetic information in the cell. DNA is used as a template to produce RNA during the process of transcription. Before a cell divides, it copies its DNA so its genetic information can be passed on to new cells. RNA has several unique roles in the cell. There are three main types of RNA: mRNA, or messenger RNA, is used to produce proteins. It carries information from the nucleus to ribosomes. tRNA, or transfer RNA, attaches amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain during translation. rRNA, or ribosomal RNA, is the major structural component of cellular ribosomes. Base Pairing Rules DNA and RNA molecules each contain a unique sequence of nucleotides that ultimately determines their function in the cell. Even though there are only four nitrogenous bases in a strand of DNA or RNA, these bases can be ordered in innumerable ways. This enables the production of the incredible variety of substances, such as proteins, enzymes, and RNA structures, that support an organism's life processes. There are two classes of nitrogenous bases: purines and pyrimidines. Purines Pyrimidines Nitrogenous bases are held together by hydrogen bonds that occur only between complementary bases.
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