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I Political Communication in Indonesia an Analysis of the Freedom of The i Political Communication in Indonesia An Analysis of the Freedom of the Press in the Transition Process after the Downfall of the Soeharto-Regime (1998-2004) A Dissertation Presented to the Institute of Media and Communication Science, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, Technical University of Ilmenau, in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy By Lukas S Ispandriarno December 2008 urn:nbn:de:gbv:ilm1-2009000071 ii Political Communication in Indonesia An Analysis of the Freedom of the Press in the Transition Process after the Downfall of the Soeharto-Regime (1998-2004) A Dissertation Presented to the Institute of Media and Communication Science, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, Technical University of Ilmenau, in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy By Lukas S Ispandriarno December 2008 urn:nbn:de:gbv:ilm1-2009000071 iii DECLARATION I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person nor material which to a substantial extent has been attached for the award of any other degree or diploma of the university or other institute of higher learning, except where due acknowledgment has been made in the text. Ilmenau, December, 2008 Lukas S Ispandriarno iv APPROVAL This dissertation had been approved by the advisors and presented before the Promotion Commission, Institute of Media and Communication Science, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, Technical University of Ilmenau, on 10 December 2008 in Room 2325 Ernst-Abbe-Zentrum. Advisor: Prof.Dr.Martin Loeffelholz Promotion Commission: Prof.Dr.Martin Loeffelholz (Chief) Prof.Dr.Andreas Will (Member) Dr.Liane Rothenberger (Member) Examiners: Prof.Dr.Martin Loeffelholz (Technical University of Ilmenau, Germany) Prof.Dr.Jens Wolling (Technical University of Ilmenau, Germany) Dr.Dedy N.Hidayat (University of Indonesia, Indonesia) v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my gratitude to my advisor, Prof.Dr.Martin Loeffelholz who had given me unlimited supports since I submitted my application in the doctoral program in the Institute of Media and Communication Science, Technical University of Ilmenau, Germany until the completion of my study. My sincere thanks also go to Pak Martin who gave me the opportunities to teach in the Institute either as his partner or individual. This constitues a meaningful part of the academic and cultural study in my academic career. My sincere gratitude and appreciation to Dr.Dedy N.Hidayat, the advisor from Universitas Indonesia, for his criticism and inputs, also to Prof.Dr.Jens Wolling for the opportunity to hold discussions and his time to become my examiner. This work might not be present without supports from the informants, namely Atmakusumah Astraatmaja, Leo Batubara, Amir Effendi Siregar, late RH Siregar, Paulus Widiyanto, late Zainal Suryokusumo,YB Wiyanjono, Bimo Nugroho, Trias Kuncahyono, St.Sularto, Erdy Taufik, Iskandar Siahaan, Dewi Fortuna Anwar, Cornelis Lay, Adhi M.Massardi. My appreciation goes to the chief of the Slamet Rijadi Foundation, Rector of Atma Jaya Yogyakarta University, and Dean of Faculty of Social and Political Sciences as well as my colleagues and friends in the Administration Departmentof of the Faculty. I will not forget thanking Marcus and Emanuel for their linguistic assistance. Last but not least, in the overall process of my study as part of my life pilgrimage, my wife Benedicta, my children: Angga, Tita, and Galing serve as my chief sponsors of love. Thank you. Lukas S.Ispandriarno Ilmenau December 2008 vi Political Communication in Indonesia An Analysis of the Freedom of the Press in the Transitional Process after the Downfall of the Soeharto-Regime (1998-2004) Table of Content Declaration iii Approval iv Acknowledgments v 1.Introduction and Research Design 1 1.1 Background and Objectives 1 1.2 Methodology, Research Design and Methods 2 1.3 Organization of the Book 7 2.Theoretical Framework 9 2.1 Unstable Democracy 9 2.1.1 Democracy and Press Freedom 14 2.1.2 Democracy and the Media 17 2.2 Relationship between the Government and Media 17 2.2.1 Power of the Media 21 2.2.2 Government Regulations 22 2.3 Political Communication 24 2.3.1 Early Development 24 2.3.2 Relevance of Political Communication 27 2.3.3 Dimensions of Political Communication 32 2.3.3.1 Process of Negotiation 32 2.3.3.2 Relationship of Various Elements 33 2.3.3.3 Cultural Dimension 35 2.3.3.4 Ethical Dimension 38 2.4 Conclusions 39 3.Comparative Anaylis of Political Communication in other Countries 44 3.1 Political Communication in Industrialized Countries 44 3.1.1 United States of America 44 3.1.1.1 Media System 44 3.1.1.2 Government-Media-Relations 47 3.1.2 Germany 50 3.1.2.1 Media System 50 3.1.2.2 Government-Media-Relations 52 3.1.3 Great Britain 56 3.1.3.1 Media System 56 3.1.3.2 Government-Media-Relations 57 3.1.4 Conclusions 60 3.2 Political Communication in Transitional Countries 62 vii 3.2.1 Philippines 63 3.2.1.1 Media System 63 3.2.1.2 Government-Media-Relations 65 3.2.2 Russia 68 3.2.2.1 Media System 68 3.2.2.2 Government-Media-Relations 70 3.2.3 Hungary 72 3.2.3.1 Media System 73 3.2.3.2 Government-Media-Relations 74 3.2.4 Conclusions 75 4.Politics and Media in Indonesia before the Downfall of Soeharto-Regime 78 4.1 Indonesia and Independence 78 4.2 Political Culture in Indonesia 80 4.2.1 Political Culture 81 4.2.2 Major Dimensions 83 4.2.3 The ‘Bapak-ism” of Soekarno and Soeharto 87 4.3 Political Structure and Institutions 90 4.3.1 Informal Political Institutions 90 4.3.2 Political Parties and “Golongan Karya” 91 4.3.3 Government as a Formal Political Institusion 93 4.3.3.1 Executive Institutions: President and Ministers 94 4.3.3.2 Legislative Institution: House of Representatives 95 4.3.3.3 Judicial Institution: Supreme Court and Constitutional Court 96 4.4 Media System in the “Law and Power”-Eras 96 4.4.1 Media System in the Era of Soekarno: Free Press, Caged Press 97 4.4.2 Media System in the Era of Soeharto 102 4.4.2.1 Key Principles of the Press 106 4.4.2.2 Regulations for Broadcasting 105 4.4.2.3 Broadcasting Law 108 4.4.2.4 The Internet and the Fall of Soeharto 110 4.5 Conclusions 112 5. Political Communication in Indonesia in the Era of Transition 114 5.1 The Analysis of Political Communication 114 5.2 Indonesia as a Transitional Society 117 5.2.1 Transitional Society 118 5.2.2 Causes of Transition 121 5.2.3 The Role of the Press 122 5.2.4 Transition in Indonesia from 1998 until 2004 126 5.3 Press Freedom in Transition Periods 126 5.3.1 Political Changes 132 5.3.2 The Concept of Press Freedom 134 6. Press Freedom in the Period of Habibie (1998-1999) 138 6.1 General Analysis 138 viii 6.1.1 Government-Media- Relations 140 6.1.2 BJ Habibie’s Openness 142 6.1.3 BJ Habibie’s Political Burden 144 6.1.4 Pressure against Media 146 6.2 Case Study: The Drafting of the Press Law 148 6.2.1 How Kompas covered the Drafting of the Press Law 148 6.2.2 How Politicians view the Drafting of the Press Law 163 6.2.3 How Political Activists view the Drafting of the Press Law 176 6.2.4 How Kompas channelled the Pressure of the Press Activists 178 6.2.5 Major Issues in the Discussion of the Draft of the Press Law 179 6.2.6 The Birth of the Draft of Press Law Year 1999 180 6.2.7 Crucial Issues 182 6.2.7.1 Press Freedom 197 6.2.7.2 Legal Protection for Journalists 199 6.2.7.3 Prohibition to publish 202 6.2.7.4 Trial by the Press 206 6.2.7.5 Press Publication Registration 212 6.2.7.6 Foreign Capital 215 6.2.7.7 An Independent Press Council 219 6.2.7.8 From Press Freedom to Press Council 223 7. Press Freedom in the Periods of “Gus Dur” and “Mega” 226 7.1 General Developments:Approach to Contemporary Indonesian Democracy 226 7.2 Press Freedom in the Period of Abdurrahman Wahid (1999-2001) 234 7.2.1 Government-Media-Relations 236 7.2.2 Pressure against Media 237 7.2.3 Professional and Unprofessional Media 239 7.2.4 A Controversial Figure 240 7.3 Press Freedom in the Period of Megawati Soekarnoputri (2001-2004) 242 7.3.1 Government-Media-Relations 245 7.3.2 The Roles of Press Council and Ombudsman 245 7.3.3 The Closemouthed Mega 249 7.3.4 Capital Investors and Broadcasting Law 2002 253 8. Summary, Conclusions and Outlook 260 8.1 Theories of Democracy, Press Freedom and Political Communication 260 8.2 Political Communication in Transitional and Industrial Countries 262 8.3 Politics and Media before the Transition of Indonesia 266 8.4 Political Communication in the Transition of Indonesia 268 8.5 Press Freedom, Media and the Press Law in the Period of BJ Habibie 273 8.6 Press Freedom under Abdurrahman Wahid and Megawati Soekarnoputri 276 8.7 The Indonesian Press System: Reflection and Outlook 283 Bibliography 386 ix List of Tables 1.1 Research Method 6 2.1 Operation of Democracy Consolidation in Indonesia during the 13 Governance of President BJ Habibie, Abdurrahman Wahid, and Megawati Soekarnoputri 2.2 Part of Picards’s Press Theory 18 2.3 Different Objective of Deregulation based on a Political System 24 5.1 Political Dimension of Democratic Transition 119 5.2 Comparison of Press Law no 21 year 1982 to Press Law no.40 127 year 1999 6.1 Relation of Government-Media in Several Legal Cases 147 6.2 The Opinion of Political Actors (Government) 149 6.3 The Opinion of Political Actors (Head of Parliament) 151 6.4 The Opinion of Political Actors (Political Party) 152 6.5 The Opinion of Political Actors (Mass Media) 153 6.6 The Opinion
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