PEOPLES’ FRIENDSHIP UNIVERSITY OF RUSSIA (RUDN UNIVERSITY)
As a manuscript
Adebayo Kafilat Motunrayo
MAIN DIRECTIONS AND FEATURES OF NIGERIAN-RUSSIAN BILATERAL RELATIONS (1999-2020)
Speciality 07.00.15 - History of International Relations and
Foreign Policy
THESIS
for a PhD Degree in history
Scientific Supervisor:
Ph. D, Associate Professor
Elena Mikhailovna Savicheva
Moscow – 2021 Федеральное государственное автономное образовательное учреждение высшего образования «РОССИЙСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ ДРУЖБЫ НАРОДОВ»
На правах рукописи
АДЕБАЙО КАФИЛАТ МОТУНРАЙО
ОСНОВНЫЕ НАПРАВЛЕНИЯ И ОСОБЕННОСТИ НИГЕРИЙСКО- РОССИЙСКИХ ДВУСТОРОННИХ ОТНОШЕНИЙ (1999-2020 гг.)
Специальность 07.00.15 – История международных отношений и внешней политики
ДИССЕРТАЦИЯ на соискание ученой степени кандидата исторических наук
Научный руководитель: кандидат исторических наук, доцент Елена Михайловна Савичева
Москва – 2021 TABLE OF CONTENT
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………...4 CHAPTER ONE: FACTORS OF FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF BILATERAL RELATIONS…...... 23 1.1. Historical Background of the Nigerian-Russian Bilateral Relation…………..24 1.2. Russia in Africa and External Factors Affecting Bilateral Relations between Nigeria and Russia ………………...……………………………………………...37 CHAPTER TWO: BILATERAL RELATIONS OF NIGERIA AND RUSSIA IN THE POLITICAL AND MILITARY SPHERES…………...... 54 2.1. Political Relations between Nigeria and Russia after the Establishment of Democratic Government in 1999………………………………………………….54 2.2. Military Cooperation between Nigeria and Russia…………………………...74 2.3. Relations between Nigeria and Russia in the Fight against Terrorism in Nigeria…………………………………………………………………………….80 CHAPTER THREE: ECONOMIC COOPERATION AND EDUCATIONAL AND CULTURAL TIES…………………………...... 89 3.1. Nigerian-Russian Trade and Economic Relations……………………………89 3.2. Nigerian-Russian Energy Cooperation & Projects: Success and Problems….114 3.3. Relations between Nigeria and Russia in the fiels of Education and Culture ………………………………………………………………………………...…130 CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………....155 LIST OF SOURCES AND LITERATURE………………………………...…162
INTRODUCTION
The relevance of the study implies range of factors. The period of the late XX - early XXI century is characterized by important changes in world politics and international relations, which led to the formation of a multipolar world and the growing role of developing states, which is manifested in the change of the unipolar paradigm of Western centrism and the emergence of new centers of power in world politics. The author chose to study Nigeria and Russia, which plays an important role in regional and world politics, respectively. Modern Nigeria is one of the leading African states, claiming regional leadership and demonstrating fairly rapid economic growth and foreign policy activity in recent years. Russia in the modern world is one of the great powers actively advocating the further formation of multi-polarity, thereby helping the countries of the developing world, including African ones, to reach a new level of development and positioning in the international arena. The relevance of the study is also due to the mutual interest of Nigeria and Russia in the development of mutually beneficial bilateral relations. Nigeria, as one of the largest economies in sub-Saharan Africa, seeks to fulfill its foreign policy ambitions for regional leadership and to reach the international level of influence, which is rooted in the active cooperation with Russia. In addition to political influence, Nigeria might gain from the bilateral engagement an enormous potential in technology and trade, which Nigeria desperately needs. In turn, Russia, as the heir to the Soviet Union, possessed tremendous influence on the African continent during the Cold War, seeks to regain its lost positions in Africa, thus shaping the African agenda in its foreign policy. Such agenda is relatively new and, in fact, has become widely implemented only since 2019 as a result of the Russia-Africa summit and economic forum in Sochi.
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All of the factors present the relevance of the study of bilateral relations between Nigeria and Russia, that will contribute to the further formation of a new world order. Literature review. Scientific works of African, Russian and Western researchers devoted to topical problems of international relations and foreign policy became important were applied in the research. The number of scientific studies by Russian experts devoted to the study of Africa is very limited in comparison with Western ones, which can be explained by the long period of passiveness within the bilateral relations between Russia and the countries of the region. Nevertheless, Russian scientists have made a significant contribution to the study of the African continent.1 Among the Russian authors who studied the processes in West Africa, one can single out the leading Russian specialist in African studies, T.S. Denisov, who studied the role of the political factor in the development of the countries of the region, as well as the features and prospects of the political development of Nigeria2. The political and economic factors of the country's development were analyzed by V. Usov and T. L. Deutsch.3 The authors examine the formation of BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) as a positive factor for future economic relations within Africa with Nigeria`s role in regional economic development, stimulating the need to strengthen the country's economic ties with the BRICS. Despite the fact that Nigeria already maintains bilateral relations with each
1 Балезин А.С. История Африки в Институте всеобщей истории РАН. К 45-летию создания Центра африканских исследований //Новая и новейшая история. 2017. № 2. С. 125-136. 2 Денисова Т.С. Тропическая Африка: эволюция политического лидерства // Институт Африки Российской академии наук. – М., 2016; Денисова Т.С. Нигерия 2015: смена руководства // Азия и Африка сегодня. 2015, № 8, с. 12-17. 3Усов В.А., Дейч Т.Л. Африканский вектор политики БРИКС //Российский совет по международным делам (РСМД), 2015. URL: https://russiancouncil.ru/analytics-and- comments/analytics/afrikanskiy-vektor-politiki-briks/ (дата обращения: 04.01.2020). 4 member of the union, the level of cooperation varies considerably. In this context, the work of T.L. Deutsch on the contribution of China to the transport infrastructure of Africa4 presents the role of the Chinese factor in the development of Africa. Within the study of the African continent and Russian politics, the monograph by L. Fituni and I.I. Abramova was of high value. In their joint research «The Africa`s resource potential and national interest of Russia in the XXI century», the current status of the economic relations between Nigeria and Russia, interests of Russia in Nigeria, as well as possible prospects in this direction within the context of the RUSSAFRICA project aimed at stimulating the development of Russia-Africa relations were considered5. In this context, it is also necessary to note the studies of Soviet and Russian specialists devoted to bilateral relations of African countries, including Nigeria, with Russia. First of all, it is worth highlighting the works of E.N. Korendyasov and A. Vasiliev. In their joint work «Russian-African relations in ten years: a new start» (2013) 6. They as well as another researcher - S.V. Kostelyanets noted that the reason for the slow development of relations bases on the inability of both countries to ratify most bilateral agreements and treaties7. At the same time, E.N. Korendyasov in his subsequent work «Is Russia Returning to Africa?» 8 states that the African vector is becoming increasingly important in Russia's foreign policy strategy, and the activity
4 Дейч Т.Л. Вклад Китая В Транспортную Инфраструктуру Африки / Африка: устойчивое развитие и дипломатия диалога: Ежегодник – 2017 = Africa: Sustainable Development and the Diplomacy of Dialogue: Yearbook – 2017 c. 137-150. 5 Фитуни Л., Абрамова И. Ресурсный потенциал Африки и национальные интересы России в XXI веке. М., 2010. 6 Корендясов Е.Н., Васильев А. Pоссийско-Aфриканские отношения через десять лет: новый старт // РСМД, 21.06.2013. URL: https://russiancouncil.ru/en/analytics-and- comments/analytics/russian-african-relations-in-ten-years-a-new-start/ (accessed: 04.01.2020). 7 Костелянец С.В. Страны Африки: проблемы и пути экономического развития // Восток. Афро-Азиатские общества: история и современность. 2014. № 5. С. 189-191. 8 Корендясов Е.Н. Россия возвращается в Африку? // Азия и Африка сегодня № 5, M. 2015. 5 of Russian-African relations is increasingly being observed in the political and diplomatic sphere. The works by G.M. Sidorova, diplomat, doctor of political sciences, leading specialist of the Center for the Study of Russian-African Relations and Foreign Policy of African Countries, such as «Russia and security on the African continent»9 and «Russia and International Initiatives in Africa»10 devoted to the policy of the Russian Federation in Africa and its role in ensuring regional security. The works by S.V. Mazov give an idea of the history of bilateral relations,11 as well as A. Tolstukhina’s paper «Conditions for the bilateral cooperation development between Nigeria and Russia»12 . They are rich in factual material and were also useful within the study of the Nigerian-Russian cooperation. Among the works devoted to international relations in Africa, as well as the interaction of the continent's countries with the outside world, it is worth noting the works of scientists from the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia and other research centers, among them - "Africa: Sustainable Development and Dialogue Diplomacy: Yearbook - 2017"13, «Africa: Seeking Identity and Dialogue with
9 Сидорова Г.М. Россия и безопасность на Африканском континенте // Азия и Африка сегодня. 2011, № 11 p.20-24. 10 Сидорова Г.М. Россия и международные инициативы в Африке // Дипломатическая служба. 2011. № 3. С.46-49. 11 Мазов С.В. Советско-нигерийские отношения накануне и в начале гражданской войны в Нигерии, 1966—1967 гг.(по материалам российских архивов) // Электронный научно- образовательный журнал" История". 2020. Том 11 № 8. 12 Толстухина А. Нигерия и Россия имеют все условия для развития двустороннего сотрудничества // Международная жизнь, 21.06.2018. URL: https://interaffairs.ru/news/show/20073 (accessed: 04.01.2020). 13 Африка: устойчивое развитие и дипломатия диалога: Ежегодник – 2017 = Africa: Sustainable Development and the Diplomacy of Dialogue: Yearbook – 2017: сб. статей / под ред. Н. С. Кирабаева, Л. В. Пономаренко, В. И. Юртаева, Е. А. Долгинова. – Москва: РУДН, 2017. – 340 с. 6
Humanity: Yearbook 2018»14 and « Africa: Inclusion and Social Development: Yearbook 2019»15. The role of an external factor is highlighted in the works of V.R. Filippov, a leading researcher at the Center for the Study of Tropical African Countries at the Institute for African Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences.16; cybersecurity issues are considered in the works of an Africanist expert from St. Petersburg University K.A. Panserev.17; the role of the personal factor in the history of African countries is raised in the works by T.M. Gavristova.18 In this context, it is necessary to note studies devoted to international processes in Africa, such as the works of Nigussie M. Kassae: «Ethnic conflicts and their resolution in Africa at the beginning of the XXI century»19 and «Process of regional integration in Africa»20, which provide a detailed description of Africa as a regional subsystem of international relations. It is also necessary to note the monograph by L.V. Ponomarenko, which is also of great contribution for the dissertation research –the work «RUDN and Africa»21, dedicated to the historical aspect of interaction between the USSR and African countries. The study also
14 Африка: поиск идентичности и диалог с миром: Ежегодник – 2018 = Africa: in Search of Identity and Dialogue with Mankind: Yearbook – 2018: сб. статей / под ред. Н. С. Кирабаева, Л. В. Пономаренко, В. И. Юртаева, Е. А. Долгинова. – Москва: РУДН, 2018. – 256 с. 15 Африка: интеграция и социальное развитие: Ежегодник –2019 = Africa: Integration and Social Development: Yearbook – 2019: сб. статей / под ред. Н. С. Кирабаева, Л. В. Пономаренко, В. И. Юртаева, Е. А. Долгинова. – Москва: РУДН, 2019. – 364 с. 16 Филиппов В.Р. Тайная война Франции в Биафре// Политика и общество. Издательство Nota Bene. 2016. № 3. С.285-300. 17 Панцерев К.А. Страны Африки в цифровую эпоху: к вопросу обеспечения информационного суверенитета //Азия и Африка сегодня. 2019, № 10. 18 Гавристова Т.М. Неизвестная Африка: история в биографиях: монография. Ярославль: Филигрань, 2014. – 192 с. 19 Ныгуссие М.Кассае. Этнические конфликты и проблемы их разрешения в Африке в начале XXI века // Конфликтология. 2016. № 3. С. 183-189. 20 Ныгуссие М.Кассае. Региональные интеграционные процессы в Африке. М., РУДН, 2014. 21 Пономаренко Л.В. Патрис Лумумба: Жизнь во имя свободы Африки. – М.: Изд-воУДН, 1989; Пономаренко Л.В., Зуева Е.Г. РУДН и Африка. – М.: РУДН, 2009. 7
highlights papers by D.A. Degterev22, I.V. Sledzevskaya23. The works by V.I. Yurtaev24 presented the African factor in BRICS and the migration issue on the continent. The issue of identity and self-determination in modern Africa was the subject of the works of A.N. Moseiko and E.V. Kharitonova25 research, that helped the author to accurately characterize the positioning of Africa in the modern international relations. When considering the processes within the African continent, the security factor is an integral part of the regional system, in particular, activities to counter terrorist organizations. The Boko Haram insurgency and its activities in West Africa, especially in Nigeria, attract the attention of Russian scholars in the field of conflict resolution and security research. The works of E.O. Pashkovskaya26 on the gender
22 Шиитов В.Н., Дегтерев Д.А. Международные отношения в Африке // Современные международные отношения / под ред. А.В. Торкунова, А.В. Мальгина. М.: Аспект-Пресс, МГИМО-Университет, 2012; Дегтерев Д.А. Африканские банки в начале XXI века // Мировая экономика и международные отношения. – 2004. – №5. - С.89-94. 23 Следзевский И.В. Самоорганизация Кризисного Социума: Религиозная Мобилизация Масс в Постколониальной Африке // Африка: поиск идентичности и диалог с Миром: Ежегодник – 2018, Москва: РУДН, 2018, C.8-20. 24 Юртаев В.И. БРИКС: Вызовы сотрудничества на Африканском континенте // Вестник Российского Университета Дружбы Народов. Серия: Международные Отношения. Издательство: Российский университет дружбы народов (РУДН) (Москва), Том: 16, №: 2. 2016, 191-202; Коммегни Джоаддан Фонганг Приска, Юртаев В.И. «Конфликтная миграция» в Западной Африке: вызовы и пути решения / Африка: интеграция и социальное развитие: Ежегодник – 2019 = Africa: Integration and Social Development: Yearbook – 2019, c.152-162. 25 Мосейко А.Н., Харитонова Е.В. Самоопределение и идентичность в современной Африке: культурные и цивилизационные коды? (к постановке проблемы) // Африка: устойчивое развитие и дипломатия диалога: Ежегодник – 2017 = Africa: Sustainable Development and the Diplomacy of Dialogue: Yearbook – 2017 / под ред. Н. С. Кирабаева, Л.В. Пономаренко, В.И. Юртаева, Е.А. Долгинова. М., РУДН, 2017. С. 269-300. 26 Пашковская Е.О. Гендерный подход к анализу деятельности террористической организации «Боко Харам» в Нигерии / Африка: интеграция и социальное развитие: Ежегодник – 2019 = Africa: Integration and Social Development: Yearbook – 2019 c. 111-122. 8
analysis of the Boko Haram movement activities in Nigeria, E.N. Zanoskina`s 27 research on the fight against the Boko Haram funding, the works by M.R. Avdalyan, H.Yu. Glazkova, E.V. Lobashova28, I. Nikolsky29, A.E. Yachlavsky30, D.A. Nechitailo31, R.V. Dmitrieva and I.A. Zakharova32 and also Nigerian authors, Bakare Ilesanmi Abioduna33, D.O. Omo-Ogbebor34. The work of A.D. Savateev, a specialist at the Institute for African Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, notes the presence of this movement in other regions of the world in the research project of radical movements «Christians and Muslims in Tropical Africa»35. Among the Western Authors is a demonstration of a significant interest in African studies and the Russian factor in the region. In particular, the Brookings Institute`s paper «The Future of Nigeria in the Global Arena» analyzed in detail the
27 Заноскина Е.Н. Борьба с финансированием «Боко харам» / Африка: интеграция и социальное развитие: Ежегодник – 2019 = Africa: Integration and Social Development: Yearbook – 2019 c.99-110. 28 Авдалян М.Р., Глазкова Х.Ю., Лобашова Е.В. От становления до раскола: историко- политологическое исследование деятельности «Боко Харам» с обзором ликвидации ее последствий // Африка: интеграция и социальное развитие: Ежегодник – 2019 = Africa: Integration and Social Development: Yearbook – 2019. М., РУДН, 2019. С. 88-95. 29 Никольский И. Радикальное движение Боко Харам // Коммерсантъ, 2013. № 3, c. 11–15. 30 Яшлавский А. Экстремистская группировка «Боко Харам» в Нигерии: угроза местного или глобального уровня? // Мировая экономика и международные отношения. 2015. № 1. С. 17–20. 31 Нечитайло Д. Нигерийский «Талибан» и его последователи» // Россия и мусульманский мир. 2014. № 1 (259). С.143-149. 32 Дмитриев Р.В., Захаров И.А. Межобщинный конфликт в Нигерии как результат конфессиональной поляризации населения Африки // Известия Иркутского Государственного Университета. Серия: Политология. Религиоведение. 2015, Том: 13. С. 109-116. 33 Бакаре Илесанми Абиодун. Деятельность террористической группы «Боко Харам» как угроза региональной безопасности в Западной Африке. Диссертация на соискание ученой степени к.и.н. М., РУДН, 2017. 34 Омо-Огбебор Д.О. Роль Нигерии в интеграционных процессах в Западной Африке (1999- 2016). Диссертация на соискание ученой степени к.и.н. М., РУДН, 2017. 35 Саватеев А. Мусульмане и христиане Тропической Африки // Россия и мусульманский мир. – 2004. № 7. с. 75-87. 9 country's modern foreign policy, focusing on factors such as population growth, economic potential of Nigeria, in order to predict the most acute problems in the state for the future.36 Analyzing the prospects for Nigerian-Russian relations, Daisy Lane, professor of public administration at the University of Washington, noted the priority of economic interest in Nigeria's foreign policy in relations with Russia, and the essence of bilateral cooperation, in her opinion, is to strengthen trade in order to further economic development37. Referring to the issue of the prospects for Nigerian-Russian relations, research professor Daisy Lane notes the priority of trade and economic interests 38 , the work of the famous American scientist George Mason Robert Smith, who analyzes the threats and challenges posed by the activities of terrorist organizations, including Boko Haram, is devoted to security issues on the African continent. Kaitlyn S. Pauling's work, US Congress and Boko Haram, also aroused great interest, which noted that international concerns about the Boko Haram insurgency exists not only in Nigeria, but also poses threat to West Africa and the African region as a whole39. Author also review paper by B. Agande «Terrorism: 1200 Nigerian security officers leave for Russia»40 dedicated to cooperation between the two countries in the field of security.
36 Antoinette Sayeh. The future of Nigeria in the global arena // Brookings Research Institution, Washington, 2016. http://www.brookings.edu/research/topics/sub-saharan-africa (accessed: 04.01.2020). 37 Daisy Lane. Nigeria foreign policy towards Russia. Cambridge University Press, 2015. 38 Robert Smith. Nigeria’s Vulnerability to Boko Haram and the Need for a Super power. // Boko Haram, Anatomy of a Crisis. Bristol, 2013, pp. 35-45. 2013. 39 Caitlin Poling. U.S Congress and Boko Haram // Boko Haram, Anatomy of a Crisis; Bristol, 2013, pp. 73-84. 40 Agande, B. Terrorism: 1,200 Nigerian security personnel leave for Russia // Vanguard News, September 27, 2014 // URL: https://www.vanguardngr.com/2014/09/terrorism-1200-nigerian- security-personnel-leave-russia (accessed: 04.01.2020). 10
Thus, the historiographic base of the dissertation is very extensive; nevertheless, the declared topic was not the subject of special research, which explains its relevance. The object of this study is the Nigerian-Russian relations in 1999-2020. The subject of the study is the main directions, forms and mechanisms of interaction between Nigeria and Russia in the period under study. The purpose of the study is to identify the key areas and features of bilateral Nigerian-Russian relations within the 1999-2020 period. In order to achieve the purpose, the following research tasks shall be solved: - study of internal and external factors influencing the bilateral interaction between Nigeria and Russia; - to consider the legal and regulatory framework for cooperation between the two countries; - to identify the features, forms and content of political, economic and cultural ties between Nigeria and Russia; - review of the energy cooperation between the two states; - define the specifics of bilateral cooperation between Nigeria and Russia in the field of security, including the fight against terrorism; - analyze potential spheres of Nigerian-Russian cooperation, strengthening the bilateral relations. The chronological scope of the study covers the period from 1999 to 2020. The lower boundary of the study is defined by 1999 due to the inauguration of President Olusegun Obasanjo as the democratically elected President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, which ended the period of military rule in the country and determined the activities of the elected Government. The lower boundary of the study is also defined by the beginning of Vladimir Putin's presidential term, who came to power at the end of 1999. According to the author, these events served as a
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stimulus for a new stage in the development of bilateral relations between Nigeria and Russia. Review of the source base implies a wide range of documents in Russian and English languages arranged from Nigerian, Russian and Western (British and American) sources that impacted the study and provided a deep understanding of bilateral relations between Nigeria and Russia. When classifying sources, the following groups can be distinguished. The first group is represented by regulatory and legislative sources, which include the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999)41, The Constitution of the Russian Federation (1993),42 Seven Point Agenda of the Federal Republic of Nigeria43, The Foreign Policy Concept of the Russian Federation (2013)44, The Foreign Policy Concept of the Russian Federation (2016)45, Decree of the President of the Russian Federation «On the Strategy for the Development of the Information Society in the Russian Federation for 2017-2030»46, Resolution of the
41 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Abuja: Government Press, 1999. https://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/ng/ng014en.pdf (accessed: 20.04.2020). 42 Constitution of the Russian Federation, 1993. URL: https://publicofficialsfinancialdisclosure.worldbank.org/sites/fdl/files/assets/law-library- files/Russian%20Federation_Constitution_1993_EN.pdf (accessed: 20.04.2020). 43 Seven Point Agenda of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Nigeria High Commission. Nigerian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Abuja, Aso Rock, 08. 07. 2010. URL: https://www.marxist.com/yaraduas-seven-point-agenda-nigeria.htm (accessed: 20.04.2020). 44 The Foreign Policy Concept of the Russian Federation 2013. Moscow, Russia / Voltairenet. https://www.voltairenet.org/article202037.html (accessed: 04.01.2020). 45 The Foreign Policy Concept of the Russian Federation 2016. MFA, Moscow, Russia. https://www.mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/official_documents/- /asset_publisher/CptICkB6BZ29/content/id/2542248 (accessed: 10.12.2020). 46 Указ Президента РФ от 9 мая 2017 г. № 203 «О Стратегии развития информационного общества в Российской Федерации на 2017 - 2030 годы», Москва, Кремль, 2017. URL: https://dokipedia.ru/document/5339673 (accessed: 10.12.2020). 12
Government of Russia «On approval of the program» Digital Economy of the Russian Federation 2017»47. Also included in this group are interstate agreements: Agreement on Investments (2009)48, Agreement on cooperation in the design, construction, operation and decommissioning of the Center based on a multipurpose research reactor in Nigeria (2016)49, Agreement on cooperation in the atomic field for peaceful purposes (2019)50, Agreement on the mutual promotion and protection of investments (2010)51, Agreement on serving the sentence of persons sentenced to imprisonment (2009)52, Military Cooperation Agreement between Nigeria and Russia, (2017)53, Treaty on Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters (2018)54. Protocol between the Government of the USSR and the Federal Military
47 Распоряжение Правительства России от 28 июля 2017 г. №1632-р «Об утверждении Программы «Цифровая экономика Российской Федерации» // Правительство Российской Федерации, Москва, 28.06.2017. 48 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria on the mutual promotion and protection of capital investments, Abuja, 24.06.2009. 49 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria on cooperation in the design, construction, operation and decommissioning of the Center based on a multipurpose research reactor in the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 30.05.2016. URL: http://docs.cntd.ru/document/420362972 (дата обращения: 10.12.2020). 50 Agreement by the government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the government of the Russian Federation on Cooperation on Nuclear Energy for Peaceful Purposes. Nigerian Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, Abuja, Aso Rock, 27.06.2019. 51 Agreements between the Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the Government of the Russian Federation on the mutual promotion and protection of capital investments // Nigerian Ministry of Finance, 24.06.2009. 52 Agreement between the Russian Federation and the Federal Republic of Nigeria on the transfer to serve sentences of persons sentenced to deprivation of liberty, Abuja, 24.06.2009. URL: http://docs.cntd.ru/document/902210962 (дата доступа: 04.01.2020). 53 Agreement between the Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the Government of the Russian Federation on military cooperation. // Nigeria Ministry of Defence, Abuja, Aso Rock, 16.10.2017. 54 О подписании Договора между Российской Федерацией и Федеративной Республикой Нигерией о взаимной правовой помощи по уголовным делам // Москва, Кремль 7.03.2018. URL: http://docs.cntd.ru/document/556716497 (дата обращения: 04.03.2020). 13
Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria on the equivalence of degrees, diplomas and certificates (1975)55, Agreement on the Trade Representation of the Russian Federation in the Federal Republic of Nigeria (1993)56. The second group represents administrative sources and includes reports of international and regional organizations, such as: the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA), the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, the United Nations High Commissioner for Affairs Refugees, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)57. This group of sources can also include references and reports from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, as well as from other government agencies, for example, Report on the work of the Nigerian-Russian intergovernmental joint commission on economic, scientific and technical
55 Протокол между Правительством Союза Советских Социалистических Республик и Федеральным Военным Правительством Федеративной Республики Нигерия об эквивалентности степеней, дипломов и свидетельств, выдаваемых и присуждаемых учебными заведениями обеих стран. Москва., 1975. URL: http://docs.cntd.ru/document/1901824 (accessed: 04.01.2020). 56 Соглашение о торговом представительстве Российской Федерации в Федеративной Республике Нигерия (1993). Москва, 23 октября 1993 г. N 1894-р. http://docs.cntd.ru/document/901110996 (accessed: 04.01.2020). 57 UNCTAD Nations Treaty Collection. URL: https://treaties.un.org/pages/UNTSOnline.aspx?id=3&clang=_en (дата обращения: 04.01.2020); Taking Stock of the Global Partnership for Development // United Nations report on MDG. URL: http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/ (дата обращения: 04.01.2021); Security ranking of Nigeria // United Nations, 2014. URL: http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr14-report-en-1.pdf (дата обращения: 04.01.2020); Curbing Violence in Nigeria (II): The Boko Haram Insurgency // International Crisis Group, Africa Report № 216, 03.04.2014; ECOWAS Protocol Relating to the Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Mechanism, Management, Resolution, Peacekeeping and Security, 1999. URL: http://www.zifberlin.org/fileadmin/uploads/analyse/dokumente/ECOWAS_Protocol_ConflictPre vention.pdf (дата обращения: 04.01.2020). 14
cooperation 58, Report of the Soviet government delegation on the proclamation of the independence of the Federation of Nigeria (1960)59. The third group is media sources. This group is represented by such documents as statements and speeches of heads of state and officials, which include the inaugural speech of the president U.M. Yar'Adua dated 29.05.200760, statement by the Spokesperson of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs M.V. Zakharova on the release of Russian sailors in Nigeria 61, statement by the Russian Foreign Ministry in connection with the terrorist attack on a military camp in Niger 62, speech by the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia S.V. Lavrov dated 05.05.201763.
58 Report on the Protocol on Inter-Governmental Nigeria-Russia Joint Commission on Economic, Scientific and Technical Cooperation. // Nigerian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Abuja, Aso Rock, 11.11.2016. 59 Отчет советской правительственной делегации, выезжающей на торжества по случаю провозглашения независимости Федерации Нигерии, 26 сентября - 3 октября 1960 г. / Россия и Африка. Документы и материалы. XVIII век 1960, Институт всеобщей истории РАН, 1999. 60 Yar’Adua, U.M. Inauguration Speech of President 29.05.2007// Nigerian Federal Ministry of Information & Communications, Vision 2020, Abuja. 61 A brief by the official representative of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs M.V Zakharova on the release of Russian sailors in Nigeria // The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, 31.01.2019. URL: https://www.mid.ru/web/guest/foreign_policy/news//asset_publisher/cKNonkJE02Bw/content/id/ 3492764#28 (accessed: 04.01.2020). 62 A brief by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation in connection with the attack of terrorists on a military camp in Niger. // The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, 12.12.19. URL: https://www.mid.ru/en/maps/ne//asset_publisher/gr5p5x4K0yCa/content/id/395388 (accessed: 04.01.2020). 63 Speech and answers to media questions by the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia during a joint press conference with the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Nigeria on the basis of negotiations // the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, Moscow, 30.05.2017. URL: https://www.mid.ru/vistupleniya_ministra//asset_publisher/MCZ7HQuMdqBY / content / id / 2769879 (accessed: 04.01.2020). 15
The fourth group contains statistical sources. The group includes materials from international database systems such as Global Terrorism DataBase64, OPED65, IMF66, which were especially useful in studying energy cooperation between Nigeria and Russia, as well as their joint action in the fight against terrorism. In this regard, the complexity and representativeness of the source base of the study provided a pathway for a comprehensive research of the topic. Methodology of research results from the multifaceted nature of the chosen topic and bases on a systematic approach to the study of the history of international relations. The principles of historicism, scientific reliability and objectivity were applied within the research process. This research was carried out within the framework of the theory of neorealism using a number of general scientific principles and methods. In analyzing the problem posed, the principles of historicism, scientific reliability and objectivity were applied. The principle of historicism made it possible to study the prerequisites for the formation of Nigerian-Russian relations, establish cause-and-effect relationships, and identify emerging trends in bilateral dialogue. The principle of objectivity, which presupposes an analysis of the entire sum of factors, reliance on extensive factual material, made it possible to analyze historical facts from the point of view of objective laws. The principle of scientific credibility implies the use of primary sources and proven scientific data. The author applies general scientific research methods such as analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction. Historical-descriptive, hermeneutic and historical-
64 Information about the study and its results // Global Terrorism Index. URL: http://gtmarket.ru/ratings/global-terrorism-index/info (accessed: 04.01.2020). 65 Africa Interest in Energy Cooperation with Russia // OPED, 19.05.2019. URL: https://www.eurasiareview.com/19052019-africa-interested-in-energy-cooperation-with-russia- oped/( accessed: 04.01.2020). 66 International Energy Agency – Oil Market Report. // International Monetary Fund, 18.01.2012. 16 comparative methods were applied from the special historical research methods. The historical-descriptive method made it possible to trace the course of chronological events and highlight the stages in the development of cooperation between Nigeria and Russia. The hermeneutic method contributed to the detailed and complex analysis of historical documents. The historical-comparative method made it possible to compare the points of view and approaches of various researchers and experts to the problems under consideration, as well as to compare the positions of various administrations of Nigeria regarding cooperation with Russia in different periods starting from 1999. The scientific novelty of the dissertation lies in the fact that, it is based on a wide range of sources and taking into account expert assessments of Russian, Western and Nigerian researchers, a comprehensive analysis of the content and characteristics of Nigerian-Russian relations in the context of the evolution of foreign policy of the Federal Republic of Nigeria under various political regimes is carried out. The novelty of the research is also the identification of the personality factor in assessing the content and degree of effectiveness of the Nigerian-Russian interaction. In this study, the stages in the development of bilateral relations are firstly revealed, and their features are characterized. The evolution of relations between Nigeria and Russia is considered taking into account the transformation of the system of international relations and the formation of a new multipolar world order. The author analyzes the nature and characteristics of bilateral cooperation, factors influencing their development, examines issues of national and regional security in the context of Nigerian-Russian relations at the present stage. The novelty of the work is the fact that the dissertation presents a new perspective in covering the interaction of the two countries in connection with the threats of international terrorism and the need to jointly fight this global threat.
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The dissertation includes the author's assessment of the prospects and potential areas of cooperation between Nigeria and Russia in the framework of achieving the goals of sustainable development. The work uses materials and original sources in Russian and English, many of which are introduced into scientific circulation for the first time.
Key points for presentation 1. Bilateral Nigeria-Russia relations possess a solid historical basis, formed during the Soviet Union period when all-round assistance to young independent African states was provided. After independence, Nigeria faced serious social and economic problems and was in dire need of external assistance and support, which was provided by Moscow, especially during the tragic period of Nigeria`s history, the civil war in 1967-1970. 2. Following the establishment of democracy in Nigeria in 1999, the foreign policy priority of the state, claiming to be a regional and Pan-African leader, implied establishment and development of close bilateral ties with leading world powers, including Russia. The prioritized field of cooperation is the military-political interaction, extremely necessary for Nigeria for its national and regional security and stability, including the fight against terrorism, in particular, the Boko Haram insurgency, and conflicts settlement. This trend reflects the overall development goals of the state as outlined in the Vision for 2020. 3. Within the modern international relations, the importance of energy diplomacy cannot be overestimated – it goes beyond the purely economic sphere and becomes one of the most influential factors in world politics. To ensure its energy security, Nigeria firmly focuses on energy cooperation with Russia, at the same time Russia is ready to develop energy cooperation with the countries of Africa on a mutually beneficial basis. Russia has invested heavily in energy projects in Nigeria,
18 expecting from the partner country to carry out an adequate policy for the implementation of its energy projects, such as oil refining, pipeline construction technologies, hydroelectric power plants, and infrastructure facilities. 4. Nigeria aims to develop business cooperation with foreign countries wishing to contribute to their development of the socio-economic sphere and human capital. Russia possesses such resources coupled with rich experience and is ready to share it with African partners, including Nigeria, for instance, within the areas of technologies in medicine and the development of peaceful atom. Russia also offers assistance in the construction of industrial facilities in the agricultural sector (factories processing the agricultural raw materials, light industry). The activation of the African direction in Russia's foreign policy is confirmed by the first Russia- Africa summit held in Sochi in October 2019, resulted in initiation of major economic and investment projects. For Nigeria, it was a good signal to intensify bilateral dialogue with Russia, the tenth largest trading partner. 5. Education and cultural ties are an integral part of Nigerian-Russian bilateral relations. Russian assistance in the training of Nigerian personnel has been significant and consistent since the signing of the Agreement on education in 1979. Education within scientific and technological progress and rapid development of new technologies acquires strategic importance. Nigeria signed bilateral cultural and humanitarian agreements with more than 70 countries and has opened cultural centers in a number of BRICS countries such as Brazil and China. However, Nigeria has yet to establish the one in Moscow. This will, to a large extent, contribute to strengthening ties in the field of education and culture between the two countries, as well as promoting the Russian scientific and cultural potential in the global information space, which will positively affect the formation of a positive image of the Russian Federation both on the African continent and in the international arena.
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The theoretical significance lies in the fact that the dissertation makes a certain contribution to the deepening of scientific knowledge on the theory and history of international relations, modern foreign policy of Nigeria and the problem of building partnerships with foreign nations, including the Russian Federation. Thanks to the introduction of a large number of factual and analytical material into scientific circulation, it becomes possible to fill a number of gaps in the study of the foreign policy of African states, and international relations on the African continent. The dissertation is a comprehensive study and can serve as a basis for further study of Nigerian-Russian relations, as well as the African factor in world politics. The conclusions contained in the dissertation can also be used in the further study of the relationship between foreign and domestic political activities of African countries and contribute to the growth of scientific knowledge in this area. The practical significance of the study is due to the fact that the main provisions and conclusions contained in the dissertation can be used as recommendations for the foreign ministries of Nigeria and Russia, as well as for government structures associated with cooperation with African countries in political, trade, economic and cultural humanitarian areas. The content of the study can also be used by regional organizations for the development of interstate relations, such as ECOWAS, the African Union. The factual material contained in the work, the main provisions and conclusions may be of interest to specialists studying the history of international relations and the African factor in modern international processes. The results obtained may be applied within lectures and practical workshops on the history of international relations, foreign policy of Nigeria, African countries, Russian policy in West Africa and cooperation in the Russia-Africa format. Reliability and validity of scientific results is provided by a representative source and information base, a systematic approach to the analysis of the problems
20 posed, an appeal to expert assessments of Russian, Western and African researchers, and the use of various scientific research methods. Approbation of research results. The main results and conclusions of the research are reflected in 10 scientific publications, including 4 articles published in peer-reviewed scientific journals included in the RUDN University List, and 1 article in a publication included in the international citation databases Web of Science. The main theoretical provisions and conclusions, as well as suggestions and recommendations were presented by the author in reports and abstracts at conferences: 6th International multidisciplinary scientific conference on social sciences and arts (SGEM, 2019). The main theoretical provisions and conclusions, as well as suggestions and recommendations were presented by the author in reports and abstracts at conferences held at RUDN University, the Institute for African Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, MGIMO, Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov. Volume and structure of the thesis. The dissertation consists of the introduction, three chapters, conclusion, list of sources and literature.
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CHAPTER ONE: FACTORS OF FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF BILATERAL RELATIONS
The Nigeria-Russia relations can historically be traced to the time of the Soviet Union. The Nigeria and Soviet Union relations can be termed as ‘cold to lukewarm.’ At the initial stage of the Nigeria and the Soviet Union relations, there was a lack of trust. However, sooner they realized, there was a solid foundation for both nations to uncover their value for each other. The foundation was created when the Soviet Union, one of the world’s largest arms, made its weapon available for Nigeria who was also in desperate need of those arms. Hence, both nations were able to effectively partner together. This development subsequently made a huge difference in the alteration of the path of the Nigeria civil wars, and one could note that during the most crucial time in the history of Nigeria, the Soviet Union made an appearance and selflessly rendered enormous assistance to Nigeria. However, it is essential to note that due to the lack of utmost support from Nigeria’s traditional allies, Britain and the United States, the relations could not blossom as they should have. The most critical evidence of the 1991-1999 phase concerning the Nigeria- Russia relations was that the Russian Federation was economically inexperienced, devastated by the political disruption of a large proportion, with oligarchs and all series of political groups forcefully competing for control of the state. As a result, Russia paid very minimal attention to its relations with African nations. Nigeria was not left out in difficulty during that period. In addition to Nigeria’s domestic political challenges, it was also faced with severe economic challenges, including lack of industrial capacity, decreased income from oil exports, inadequate investment, unemployment, and poverty.
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1.1. Historical Background of the Nigerian-Russian Bilateral Relations
The relations between Nigeria and Russia can be traced back to the time of the Soviet when the relationship was established in 1960, ever since which both nations have maintained cordial diplomatic, political, economic, and cultural relations. The establishment of their relation prompted the Soviet Union to render the Nigerian government with sufficient political and military aid during the Nigerian Civil War in 1967 and 1970. Although it was ascertained that Nigeria and the Soviet Union had an emergence of their diplomatic relations in 1960 after Nigeria gained its independence. However, this does not automatically equate that they had a very cordial relationship at the initial stage. It was mainly since both nations had an ideological difference at that time. The Soviet Union's objectives towards Nigeria include establishing reliable and long-lasting economic relations and Nigeria's cultural relations. The Soviet Union became Nigeria’s best ally. After the civil war ended in 1970, Nigeria had made a step ahead to create a door opening to the Soviet Union in such a way that Nigeria could import consumer goods and industrial manufacture from Moscow. In addition to this, Nigerian youths almost immediately became core recipients of Soviet scholarship for higher education in the Soviet Union. It resulted in an ample opportunity for the Soviet Union to establish itself in sub-Saharan Africa's central state67. We could note that the Soviets, in return, could only reap economic and not political benefits for their undying efforts. Even though Nigeria did not adopt the socialist path, it became an economic partner. According to Russia and Africa documents and materials of XVIII century 1960, there was a Report of the Soviet government delegation traveling to the festivities on the occasion of the
67 Deborah Fuji. The Soviet Union and Nigeria Economic Relations // Journal of Asian and African Affairs. 1971. 2(3). P. 24-27. 23 declaration of independence of the Federation of Nigeria, September 26 - October 3, 1960.68 Our research also discovered a note stating the necessary letter to the Prime Minister of Nigeria A.T. Balev on establishing diplomatic relations between the USSR and Nigeria, which were by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, October 20, 196069. Also, there record on the Report on a trip to Nigeria for the transfer of letters A.A. Gromyko A.T. Soviet Embassy by the advisor to the Embassy of the USSR in Ghana I.S. Byakov - Ministry of Foreign Affairs, December 24, 196070. Dating back to 1965 to 196671, a report had it that there was an urge to the Soviet Union to stabilize and expand its trade with the developing nations. This can be achieved by offering them long-term credits, which are preferable to be connected with joint extraction and/or with the processing of natural resources, not leaving out the forming of mixed companies. It is gathered that in these mixed companies, the Soviet Union would take lower profits for their shares than it would be with a Western partner. However, it came with the understanding that the assisted nation could generally bring up these shares. In respect to this, the Community and Public Sector Union Congress of 1966 called for structural reform and changes in trade with the developing countries, which could be done by expanding machinery and equipment exports. Nigeria made an offer of an enormous potential market, which
68 Отчет советской правительственной делегации, выезжавшей на празднества по случаю провозглашения независимости Федерации Нигерии, 26 сентября – 3 октября 1960 / Россия и Африка. Документы и материалы. М., Институт всеобщей истории РАН, 1999 69 Записка с обоснованием необходимости направления письма премьер-министру Нигерии А.Т. Балеве об установлении дипломатических отношений между СССР и Нигерией. М., Министерство иностранных дел СССР, 20 октября 1960 г. 70 Отчет о поездке в Нигерию для передачи письма А.А. Громыко А.Т. Балеве с предложением рассмотреть вопрос об учреждении в Лагосе советского посольства / Советник посольства СССР в Гане И.С. Бяков. МИД, 24 декабря 1960 г. 71 Soviet Aid Relations 1960 - 68. // Nigeria: Bulletin on Foreign Affairs. 1972. January. P. 8. 24 was not just for long-term credits in connection with manufacturing companies but also for the benefit of Soviet machinery and Equipment. Nigeria-Soviet Union Ajaokuta Steel Mill Cooperation Without a doubt, the utmost strength and durability of steel caused this engineering material to be classified as an essential foundation of our present-day civilization. Sometimes it is used as one of the indices to measure countries' economic development and advancement because it is a widespread either direct or indirect application. Nigeria has long time recognized both the commercial importance and the strategic importance of steel. The recognition has prompted the successive government to initiate several plans that are designed in order to create a metallurgical industry. They proceed to expand their manufacturing output and exher production of more oil. Also, Nigeria's biggest industrial undertaking is creating an iron and steel complex utilizing a combined investment of 5,000 million nairas as Nigeria emphasized to resolve to attain greater self-reliance72. A vital motivation in the technical aid policy of the Soviet Union was the pursuit of national prestige, which certainly enhanced if a core show-case project could be taken away from the western entrepreneurs. The Soviets highly welcomed the opportunity to design the iron and steel complex for Nigeria. They immediately recommended that instead of old-fashioned, an expensive blast furnace should be constructed, not minding that they were giving the path to the continuous casting or rather to the direct reduction system. It was the equivocation of the western powers in the aspect of rights and wrongs of the Nigeria civil war crisis that later led the Nigerian government to dangle such a massive project in front of the Soviet Union in 1967, although the Soviet Union initially stated that it was only interested in doing the necessary geological surveys. However, the successful completion of the survey
72 Ray Ofoegbu. Foreign Policy and Military Rule // Nigerian Government and Military Rule, 1966-1979. London, 1979. P. 139. 25 automatically put Moscow in Lagos's excellent book and then began the Ajaokuta steel mill's utmost project. Ajaokuta Steel Company Limited (ASCL), also referred to as Ajaokuta Steel Mill, is a steel mill located in Ajaokuta, Kogi State of Nigeria73. It was built on a 59,000 acres site, which started in 197974 , and it is the largest steel mill in Nigeria, of which the byproducts plant are larger than the combination of all refineries in Nigeria75. However, our research posits that the project was mismanaged and remained incomplete a few decades later. Only the light mills have been managed and put into operation for small-scale fabrication and iron rods production76, but about three-quarters of the complex have been left unattended. The Ajaokuta Steel Mill was undertaken under the auspice of the Soviet Union under a cooperation agreement between it and Nigeria. In 1967, the Soviet experts made a recommendation of prospect for iron ore in Nigeria because the known deposits were accurate of low quality to be used for steelmaking. In 1973, In Itakpe, Oshokoshoko and Ajabanoko were discoveries required quality of iron ore. Even though the Ajaokuta Steel Company Limited was incorporated in 197977[Philip John, 2019], the steel mill reached up to 98 percent completion in 1994, with 40 out of 43 plants being built. In order to supply the Ajaokuta Steel Mill with raw materials and also in the attempt to connect it with the world market, a contract was awarded in 1987 for the sole construction of Nigeria's first-ever standard gauge railway. It was from
73 Robson, Lorna. Nigeria of the present. London: Evans Brothers, 2005. P. 27. 74Ibid 75 Oluyole, Francisca. How Nigeria's Largest Industrial Project Failed // Premium Times Abuja. 26 December 201. Pp.34-46. 76 Nigeria: Steel factory will open after 40 years // Al Jazeera. 16 June 2018. 77 Philip John. Keeping up with the Lagos-Ibadan Standard Guage Railway Project // This Day Lagos. 23 May 2019. 26 the iron mines in Itakpe straight to the steel mill at Ajaokuta and proceeded to the Atlantic Ocean in Warri78. Concurrently, the tremendous amount of revenue derived from oil was a start to strengthen the Nigerian economy's material base. Even though there were reservations about the attitude and relatively low-performance record of the Soviets, they were still awarded the metallurgical contract mainly because the Nigerian government felt that it was a politically wise step to take. Unfortunately, both of the projects have been mismanaged. As earlier noted, the Ajaokuta Steel Mill was still unfinished four decades after construction had begun. Subsequently, the Itakpe- Warri Railway fell into disrepair, and a part of the track was vandalized. In 2016, the Nigerian government awarded contracts to the China Civil Engineering Construction Corporation and Julius Berger to repair and complete the railway79. Analyzing the situation, we opined that several developing countries had to run against what might have appeared to be a concrete brick wall in an attempt to produce their steel. This refers to the ideological, strategic, and power interests. Looking into the case of Nigeria, it is ascertained that following the United Kingdom and the United States' vacillations, it is posited that the primary contract for the construction of black Africa's largest steel complex was awarded to the Soviet Union in 1979 after prolonged lengthy geological surveys. These protracted negotiations lasted for somewhat twelve years. We ascertain that due to several failed attempts at privatization was the core reason why the federal government of Nigeria took back control of the project in 2016 as the Ajaokuta Steel Mill is yet to produce a single sheet of steel. However, the light mills were finally able to put into operation in 2018 for small-scale fabrications.
78 Rotimi Amaech. Itakpe-Ajaokuta-Warri rail line to start operation in June 2018 // Vanguard News. 7 August 2017. 79 Ibid 27
Fundamentals preliminary of the bilateral relations between Nigeria and Russia Nigeria and Russia both cemented their interest in working with each other by establishing diplomatic offices in both countries. Russia (formerly USSR) took the first steps of establishing its embassy in Nigeria in 1961, while Nigeria followed suit in 1962 with its embassy in Russia. All these happened during the Cold War. As suggested by Onafowokan 2010, it did not translate into a cordial relationship as Russia opposed the capitalist ideology that rendered the relationship cold to the lukewarm range. 80 The relationship between the two countries took a turn when Nigeria found itself amid a civil war without its allies (Britain and the USA). It triggered a cry for help, which Russia answered by providing the Nigerian army with weapons, Russia’s main comparative advantage (as they were the world’s largest producer of arms). It strengthened the bilateral relations between the two states, such that consumer goods and industrial manufacturing equipment from Russia were imported to Nigeria. As highlighted by Fawole 1993, this created an opportunity for Russia to deepen its relations and presence in sub-Sahara Africa. Scholarships were given to Nigerian students to study in Russia, and other areas of cooperation included the petroleum and metallurgy industries. As Nigeria benefited from the support from the bilateral relations, Russia also benefited economically. Companies from Russia won contracts for the construction of some companies toward the then sitting government's industrialization agenda. One of such projects was the construction of the Ajaokuta Steel company. The dynamics of Russia and Nigeria's relationship changed when Russia became a state on its own by the Belovezh Accord of 1991. Russia took up all the assets and liabilities of all the USSR's former states and thus gained international
80 Adekaiya, A. Nigeria Foreign policy// Stears Business Forum. June, 2008. URL: https://www.stearsng.com/article/foreign-policy-under-president-buhari/ 28 recognition as the successor of the USSR. At the same time, the other states also became independent. It led Russia to redefine its foreign policy and make other policy reforms with its allies. The redefinition of Russia’s foreign policy indicating a change in its direction was evident in its 1993 foreign policy. Its focus had now shifted to its national security, protecting its sovereignty and unity by using diplomacy as a tool. The establishment of its market economy increased its exports, integrating states within the commonwealth of independent states and forming strong partnerships with nearby states in Europe, especially central Europe. Russia also sought to form stronger partnerships with other transitioning economies with similar problems and to focus on human rights and the reformation of its domestic security. The central backbone of achieving its policies was forming ‘real partnerships’ from all angles using diplomacy. Since its policies had changed, it sought partners in Europe, Asia (China, India, Japan), and Latin America81. Its focus had shifted from Africa in order to satisfy the needs of its interests. Consequently, the Nigeria-Russia relationship suffered as Nigeria failed to conduct any meaningful partnerships with Russia. Politics in Nigeria further suffered relations due to military rule, which barred freedom of speech in all forms. This period persisted in Nigeria until 1999, when a democratically elected government emerged led by Olusegun Obasanjo. The change in Nigeria coincided with the change in government in Russia who also had a democratically elected government led by President V.V. Putin. It led to the re-establishment of Russia and Nigeria's diplomatic relations, opening new doors of opportunity for both states. A new door of opportunity was opened to both states to exploit the maximum potential of their relations and cooperation in political, economic, and cultural spheres. This opinion can be backed up by referencing the coming of V.V. Putin into office in 2000, which
81 Adeniyi Ajala, Nigeria and Its Foreign policy// Daily Times Business. August, 2006, 3 (7). P.57-79. 29 of course, slowly and steadily gradually stabilized the Russian society and its economy. During that time of the year, Russia was engaged in the difficult task of mending its relations and ties in the International arena. Especially in re-engaging the African states with so many of its high profile Russian officials were visiting African countries, of which Nigeria was a participant. Based on the evidence provided, it is valid to say that until there was some ideological solidarity, Nigerian-Soviet relations remained correct and low-keyed for the most part. The barring of extraordinary events such as an organized civil war or a massive intrusion of force that could be from outside the polity could be termed to be difficult, especially when it is fascinating to see how Nigeria could make a change from a capitalist welfare state. In summary, Nigerian-Russia relations remained cautious throughout the era even though there was a somewhat foreseeable future. However, with a fluctuating intensity dependent on Nigeria's anti-Western activities and several opportune crises that were exploitable by both sides. The rebirth of democracy in Nigeria, from our investigations, was positively welcomed by the Nigerian citizens and by friends of Nigeria. This new chapter in Nigeria's history provided the country with an opportunity to repair its almost damaged image and be placed on a new path of socio-economic development for global acceptance and recognition. The then-president, Musa Yar’ Adua’s attention could be said to have been centered on fixing Nigeria’s economic crisis by reinforcing its leadership role on the African continent to ensure it re-establish itself as a significant factor in the global economic and political arena82. He also had a goal of making sure Nigeria’s economy is among the 20 largest economies in the world by the year 2020. This goal was indeed a clear indication of the priority of domestic interest to shape the country’s foreign policy. His agenda was posited to
82Alao, A. Nigeria and the global powers: Continuity and change in policy and perceptions // South African Foreign Policy and African Drivers Programme. SAIIA, 2001. 30 have been properly comprehensively articulated. Implementing the strategies was also adequately laid out to ensure that the realization of the Vision 20:2020 comes to reality83. As earlier stated, Nigeria-Russia bilateral relations strengthened after both countries elected democratic governments. In March 2001, the President of Nigeria Olusegun Obasanjo visited Moscow. During the visit, President V.V Putin and President Olusegun Obasanjo signed the declaration “On the Principles of Friendly Relations and Partnership Between the Russian Federation and the Federal Republic of Nigeria.” A program of cooperation in bilateral and international formats between Russia and Nigeria, a comprehensive program of interaction in bilateral and international formats, was signed. In particular, the intention to enter the future on a full-scale Friendship and Partnership Treaty is recorded. The two leaders met again at the G8 summit in Evian, in July 2007, on the sidelines of the G8 summit in Heiligendamm84. Over the years, Nigeria and Russia have taken ultimate steps to deepen diplomatic, economic, and military relations. In a few of their official visits, the Foreign Ministers of both countries have held diplomatic sections on issues that concerned continuity in developing the two countries' bilateral relations in diplomatic, economic, military, and humanitarian areas. In addition to this, it is of significance to note that there was also a significant concentration on the prospects of bilateral cooperation in the sphere of nuclear energy, several infrastructural projects, and exports of goods and services from Russia to Nigeria.
83Yar’Adua.U.M. Inauguration Speech of President, 29 May 2007 . Nigeria, Federal Ministry of Information & Communications // Vision 2020. 84 Saunders, Doug. Weight of the world too heavy for G8 shoulders// Globe and Mail (Toronto). July 5, 2007. 31
To further discuss the bilateral treaties that have been signed between Nigeria and Russia, it is essential to understand what bilateral treaties are. A treaty is an agreement (a binding one) between two or more sovereign states or powers85. Bilateral treaties are agreements between two sovereign states. These treaties usually contain articles that outline and elaborate the agreement's details between the two states or parties. Treaties are quite similar to contracts in that both parties agree to take on specific responsibilities and duties, which are legally binding. There have been several treaties or joint documents of agreements signed between Nigeria and Russia. Prominent among these bilateral treaties before both states changed to a democratic system include air communication (1967)86, economic, scientific, and technical partnerships (1968), exchanges in the area of culture, and scientific cooperation (1970). In 1973, the agreement on the equivalence of scientific certificates, diplomas, and degrees issued or awarded by educational institutions in both states. It was followed by treaties on technical and economic cooperation in the construction and creation of the metallurgical industry in Nigeria (1976); a trade agreement in 1987, agreement in the establishment of an intergovernmental commission on trade, science, economic and technical cooperation (1989)87, agreements on political consultations in 1990, and the agreement for both parties to cooperate against illegal drugs and psychotropic substances in 1999. As earlier discussed, the treaties mentioned above led to Russia’s involvement in Nigeria at some point in time. Pipelines were created by Russia on the conditions of general contract in Nigeria between 1977 and 1982, spanning about 920km with
85 Wils Govu. Treaties and Executive Agreements // U.S. Eighty-third Congress. University of Minnesota Library. January 05, 1981. 86 Adetokunbo Abiodun. Nigeria - Russia Bilateral Relations: Problems and Prospects //RUDN Journal of History. 2017. Vol.16. No3. Pp.477-490. 87 Ibid 32 a capacity of 18.7 million tons per year.88 The metallurgical industry also benefited from such treaties. Geological surveys on some raw materials such as coal, iron- ore, and some other non-metallic raw material were carried out between 1971 and 1980. The Ajaokuta metallurgical plant was born out of these agreements. According to Obasekola 2011, by 1988, the bilateral treaties between Nigeria and Russia had boosted Nigeria's economy by 184 million US Dollars89. The first visit to Nigeria by a Russian president after the Russian Federation's creation in 1991 was in June 2009 by President D. A Medvedev90. It was greeted with delight as it was seen as a significant milestone in the relationship between Nigeria. This visit was further cemented with the signing of six bilateral treaties, including cooperation in the peaceful use of nuclear energy, investment promotion and protection, a memorandum of understanding on the exploration of outer space for peaceful reasons; and another memorandum of the association on some joint ventures between GAZPROM and NNPC91. The previous agreement was on cooperation between the Ministry of Justice of Russia and that of Nigeria. The bilateral agreement between Nigeria and Russia initiated in 2009 on cooperation in the peaceful usage of nuclear technologies, cooperation in construction, design, operation, and the decommissioning of Nuclear Power Plant and the construction of a Nuclear Research Centre was revisited in 201792. An agreement was signed between Nigeria and Russia in 2017 to construct a research center and the construction and operation of the nuclear power plant. The deal was
88 Obasekola: 2011 89 Ibid 90 Segun Adebayo. Russian-Nigerian talks took place in Abuja // Daily Times. June 24. 2009. 6 (12). Pp.23-37. 91 Eze Kalu. Energy Joint Ventures between GAZPROM and NNPC // Premium Talks. June 24. 2009. 9(9). Pp. 78-90. 92 Andrew Herbert. Nuclear power plant and construction plan between Nigeria and Russia // Premium Talks. March 23, 2017. 33 reported to be worth around 20 billion US Dollars. A roadmap was agreed upon and signed to ensure cooperation in the peaceful usage of nuclear energy. The Nigerian representative, Vivian Nwunaku Rose Okeke, mentioned that the Nigerian government believed that the signing of the agreement will strengthen Nigeria’s position as one of the African continent's leading countries and determine the extent of the Nigeria-Russia relationship.93 Implementing the bilateral treaty signed on Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters aimed to enhance cooperation and collaboration between the two sovereign states in the administration of criminal justice. The treaty was signed on 26th November 2018 by the Honourable Attorney General of the Federation and Minister of Justice, Abubakar Malami (SAN), accompanied by the Ambassador of Nigeria to the Russian Federation, Prof. Steve Davies Ugbah, and the Acting Minister of Justice of the Russian Federation, Mr. Oleg Anatoyevich Plokhoy. After signing these agreements, both ministers believed it would improve the cooperation and partnership between both states.94 The result from these various contracts and treaties was that Russia was able to proceed to embark on initiatives with the National Commission on Atomic Energy of Nigeria event in order for the agreements to be ratified, and an experimental research nuclear plant project was initiated near Abuja. To implement their agreement, In 2011, Nigeria, with assistance from Russia, was able to launch Nigeria SATX and SAT2 satellites into space orbit via a Russian Dnepr rocket launched from the town of Yasny in south Russia95. On the other hand, Russia mostly
93 Nigeria And Russia Sign $20 Billion Nuclear Project Development Agreements 1st November, 2017 https://ittelecomdigest.com/nigeria-russia-sign-20-billion-nuclear-project-development- agreements/ 94 Nigeria Embassy Moscow, Nigeria-Russia signed new Treaty 27th November 2018 https://www.nigerianembassy.ru/index.php/nigeria-russia-signed-new-treaty.html 95 Stephen Clark. Dnepr Rocket Launches 7 New Satellites into Earth Orbit // Space Flight News. August 18. 2011. 34 benefited from the trade initiatives that resulted from the signing of the bilateral treaties. Chief Assam Assam, the then Nigerian Ambassador to Russia, reported in 2013 that the trade relations favored Russia in that about 360million US Dollars’ worth of goods were exported from Russia to Nigeria while no goods changed hands from Nigeria to Russia96. He further mentioned that the trade imbalances were addressed by encouraging Russian investments in the Niger-Delta region's oil and gas industry. The export of agricultural-based raw materials to Russia was also an option to help with the imbalance97.
96 Onochie Anibeze. Nigeria: Ambassador Assam E. Assam - Talks on Diplomacy // Vanguard News. July 23. 2013. 97 Ibid 35
1.2. Russia in Africa and External Factors Affecting Bilateral Relations between Nigeria and Russia It is essential for African countries to develop cooperation with foreign partners interested in their development and are willing to share new technologies and deliver these technologies and implement them to promote industrial and human development. Of course, Russia has the expertise and is ready to share this knowledge with its partners on the African continent if they are interested (for example, medical technologies and peaceful atom technologies)98. Russia can also offer expert reviews during nuclear power plant's construction and other infrastructural facilities in the energy and agricultural sectors (light industry facilities, hydroelectric power stations, agricultural raw materials processing factories). Also, in the oil refining and pipeline construction technologies and the space industry's development, satellites could be launched in Africa. Over the past century, African societies have undergone tremendous historical changes. These changes are especially noticeable in sub-Saharan Africa99. The First All-African Peoples Conference (1958) declared the critical mainstream of struggle for independence. The Soviet delegation with Ivan Potekhin was a participant in this Conference100. His reports on the conference's work to the Academic Council of the Institute of Ethnography have contributed immensely to the activation of African studies in the USSR. Subsequently, the Institute of Africa of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, of which the main tasks were set for Soviet African Studies. In the first half of the twentieth century, the Africa community societies' effort
98 Benard Johnson. The Africa of Today // University of Ibadan Students’ Journal. 2017. Vol. 3(4). Pp. 45-79. 99 Следзевский И.В. Самоорганизация кризисного социума: религиозная мобилизация масс в постколониальной Африке //Африка: поиск идентичности и диалог с миром: Ежегодник – 2018. М., РУД, 2018. C.8-20. 100 Львова Э.С, Потехин И.И. На первой конференции народов Африки // Африка: поиск идентичности и диалог с миром : Ежегодник – 2018. М., РУДН, 2018. C.208-225. 36 strived for more extensive projects. Conquest political independence gave a powerful impetus to the process, such as political and economic spheres, the formation of national economies institutions' systems, and accelerated development of export-oriented industries101. Korendyasov E.N noted that the African vector is gaining an increasingly important place in Russia's foreign policy strategy. The most excellent activity of Russian-African relations is observed in the political and diplomatic field102. Relatively high rates of growth in trade exchanges and the expansion of foreign trade are noted. The lion's share of investments goes to developing African deposits of solid mineral and hydrocarbon resources. Branches of Russian banks (VEB, VTB, Badr-Forte Bank, etc.) began to operate in Africa. Projects in mobile communications are being implemented using the Russian capabilities to launch communication satellites, the use of Russian software products, assembly plants' organization, and the creation of power plants based on solar panels, and co. In May 2017, the President of the Russian Federation made a decree "On the Strategy for the Development of the Information Society in the Russian Federation for 2017 - 2030,"103 aimed at providing favorable conditions for the formation of a knowledge society in the Russian Federation, where he indicated his decision to approve the strategy. It was followed up in October 2017 to approve a list of indicators targeted on implementing the strategy. We ascertained that, among other things, create room for new opportunities in Russian-African Partnership.
101 Андреева Л. А. Христианская религиозность в Африке в начале ХХ века в цивилизационном контексте // Цивилизационные альтернативы Африки. Т. I. Ч. 2. М.: Институт Африки РАН, 2016. 102 Корендясов Е.Н. Россия возвращается в Африку? // Азия и Африка сегодня. 2015. № 5. 103 Указ Президента РФ от 9 мая 2017 г. N 203 "О Стратегии развития информационного общества в Российской Федерации на 2017 - 2030 годы" . Москва, Кремль, 2017. URL: https://dokipedia.ru/document/5339673 37
Inter-parliamentary ties between Russia and Africa are also developing, evident in the recent Russia–Africa parliamentary conference held in July 2019104. It is a good step as it will provide a platform for the ratification of several bilateral agreements between Russia and most African countries. These align with Russia’s goals and efforts to build fruitful and active cooperation with Africa's countries in a multilateral format or approach. It means that Russia has first strengthened interactions with the African Union (AU) and other regional integration associations on the African continent, such as ECOWAS in West Africa. Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation Sergey Lavrov announced in June 2018 during his visit to Rwanda that Russia and the African Union are working on laying a political framework document to lay down the fundamentals or conceptual foundations of cooperation between them in the future. A major fundamental block is the deepening of trade and economic cooperation between African Union countries and the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU). It is worthy to note that the Russian Federation President extended an invitation to the Eurasian Economic Commission to participate in the Russia–Africa Summit in Sochi in October (2019). An imperative is to strengthen cooperation with Africa at the United Nations as African countries make up a significant and influential part of the UN. Russia could garner support from these countries on various issues of the international agenda. 105 Even though South Africa is the only African country in the BRICS, several African countries are regularly invited to the BRICS summits as either guests or observers. There is the possibility of including other African countries in the BRICS shortly.
104 Steve Hawt. Inter-Pailiamentary Relations between Nigeria and Russia // African Foreign Policy and African Drivers Space. April 28, 2019.
105Iibid 38
The October 2019 inaugural Russia–Africa Summit in Sochi will play an essential role in strengthening multilateral cooperation between Russia and African countries. Leaders of all African countries and the heads of significant sub-regional associations and organizations have been invited to the event. Russia and the African Union countries are expected to sign a political declaration on Russia–Africa cooperation after the Summit.106 In terms of Russia’s foreign policy, 2019 could be called the Year of Africa. In October, Sochi hosted the first Russia–Africa Summit alongside a business forum and initiatives to step up civil society, youth, and university cooperation. If all these plans materialize, this will signal Russia’s return to Africa107. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia significantly scaled back its involvement in development assistance programs for Africa, and it is high time to catch up. According to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, an essential Press release was carried out on the Foreign Ministry's briefing. It was on the preparations for the Russia-Africa Summit and Economic Forum, which marked108a turning point in Russia’s new strategy to return to Africa. Also, to promote vital initiatives to facilitate development on this continent. It is important to note that through its African strategy, Russia does not seek to compete against other outside forces, focusing instead on bringing added value to Africa in the form of projects it has to offer. Together with the African countries, Russia can carry out this strategy alongside other cooperation initiatives converging with other development
106 Borisov Dmitry. Keeping Peace in Africa in the 21st Century. 2019. 107 Vasily Aksyonov. Russia must aim to take central stage in the battle for Africa – in the sense of not imperialism, but rather humanism or even idealism // Valdai Discussion Club Report, October, 2019. 108 Press release on the briefing at the Foreign Ministry on preparations for the Russia-Africa Summit and Economic Forum / The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, October 2019. 39 assistance projects109. The level of political trust among BRICS states makes this convergence especially important and achievable between Africa’s main non- Western partners. This summit in Sochi between Russia and African countries will be monitored by Western experts. They believe a new battle for Africa is currently unfolding. The leading players are China, the United States, and the European Union, both as a bloc of states and individual countries. Secondary players in this battle include Turkey, Brazil, Iran, South Korea, India, and the Persian Gulf states. Africa’s partners in the west are worried about the increased interaction between countries of the continents and Russia. However, Russia is far behind almost all countries mentioned above in trade and economic cooperation with Africa. Moreover, Russia does not have the same financial and economic competencies and capabilities as China, such as implementing its policies on the African continent. A critical look at the situation between Russia’s involvement in Africa should not call for “battle” but rather a strategic partnership between all the players to help the continent develop. A negotiation between the partners is imperative. Some of the critical issues that should be considered, according to Dmitry Borisov, are that: — Most African countries try to pursue a multi-vector foreign policy, one that allows them to be flexible in their interactions with those external players (such as the West, China, and Russia), which provide the most attractive conditions for cooperation. — Russia has the same right as other international actors to develop relations with African partners. Unfortunately, most people or countries far from everyone outside of Russia agree.
109 Barabanov Oleg, Balytnikov Vadim, Yemelyanov Andrei. Russia’s Return to Africa: Strategy and Prospects // World Economic Forum. October 27, 2019. 40
— African countries have the sovereign right to offer cooperation with Russia, regardless of whether other foreign economic partners think otherwise. Regarding Russia’s military and technical cooperation in Africa, it should be elaborated that Russia has signed agreements on technical and military cooperation, security cooperation, and fighting terrorism in some African countries. Sergey Lavrov, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation at a recent Russia– Africa Economic Forum in June 2019, noted that “Russia, both through bilateral channels and as part of the UN Security Council, continues to support its African friends in the fight against terrorism, crime and other cross-border threats. New contracts for the supply of Russian weapons and agreements on the military, technical and security cooperation are often signed. Russia signed military cooperation agreements with Burundi, Burkina Faso, and Botswana at the ARMY 2018 Forum. It should be noted that Russia provides humanitarian assistance to African countries that have been affected by military conflicts or during natural disasters or pandemics like Ebola. African personnel undergoes training at Russian educational institutions under the Ministry of Defence's umbrella, the law enforcement agencies and the security services, and peacekeeping missions. The training programs are fully covered and paid for by the Russian budget. Russia has in the past played a vital role in the arms market of Africa. It has increased in recent times, evident in the increase in arms shipment from Russia to Africa despite fierce competition from other external players and western sanctions. This is due mainly to the successes of the Russian Aerospace Forces’ operations in Syria. The numerous joint military exercises and Moscow’s large expositions at international military forums unveil its
41 new products. Russia’s African partners are also interested in new models of Russian military equipment and weapons.110 Dmitry Shugaev, Director of the Federal Service for Military and Technical Cooperation, noted in September 2018 that Russia cooperates in the military and technical sphere with more than 40 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. This shows Africa is a priority for Russia in this area, as the Soviet Union delivered a significant number of weapons and military equipment to the continent from the 1960s to the 1980s, much of which remains to this day. Many specialists trained during the Soviet Union era and Russia are still serving in African countries' armies. Due to this, many African countries are interested in renovating and upgrading existing Russian-and Soviet-made military equipment. Russia provides all kinds of assistance in this area and helps with personnel training to operate the equipment. According to Rosoboronexport, Russia is the leading arms supplier of sub-Saharan countries (30 percent of all arms supplies in 2011–2015). Rosoboronexport announced in early 2019 that Russian enterprises involved in military and technical cooperation had planned many essential projects with African countries for a year in advance and had dubbed the year “the year of Africa.”111 Rosoboronexport took part in the Shield Africa International Security and Defence exhibition in Cote d’Ivoire in January 2019. The company introduced a wide range of weapons and military equipment for counterterrorism and police special operations. Russia's weapons are mainly missile and artillery weapons, automotive equipment, and small arms to African countries. The most in-demand military equipment in sub- Saharan Africa includes Sukhoi, Mi helicopters, and MiG planes; and Pantsir-C1, Kornet-E, and Tor-M2E missile defense systems; tanks, as well as armored
110 Kortunov Andrey. “Seven Capital Vices” of China in Africa: How Capital Are They Really? Moscow, Russia 2019 111 Lora Chkoniya. What Russia Can Offer Africa. August 26, 2019. 42 personnel carriers and small arms. Surveillance and monitoring equipment, including crewless aerial vehicles and radar locators used primarily to protect borders and critical facilities, are offered by Russia to its African partners. The new formats include: • Increasing participation of Russian companies in Africa’s security services market as follows – protection of high-ranking officials, training local security forces, and cybersecurity services. • Political technology sphere with Russians being employed to organize election campaigns and develop strategies for some African politicians. • Proactive contacts of several Muslim regions in Russia with Africa’s Muslim communities, including the spheres of peacebuilding and conflict settlement. • Cooperation in the religious sphere112. Accordingly, Russia and Russians have gained a comprehensive and multi-faceted footprint in Africa, strengthening Russia's trust among the African elite and the public. All this opens new opportunities for Russia’s economic cooperation with Africa, including large corporations and small and medium enterprises (SMEs). Promising sectors include: • minerals extraction and technologies; • energy (including hydroelectric and nuclear power generating); • military-technical cooperation and maintenance of military assets; • agricultural sector; • aquaculture and fisheries production and technologies; • medical technologies and equipment; • cybersecurity and e-services;
112 Ogunnola Racheal. The Russia-Africa Dream / Institute for African Studies of the Nigerian Academy of Sciences. Abuja, October 29, 2019. 43
• new education technologies113. However, there are some challenges and objectives for Russia’s African strategy. 1) Ensuring that Russian companies engaged in economic projects in Africa, primarily in raw materials extraction, act in the spirit of corporate social responsibility. It includes training local staff and offering career opportunities and upward social mobility. It could be advisable for companies to open corporate training centers in Africa similar to Russian vocational schools and Russian train faculty and recruit local teaching staff. Otherwise, Russia will inevitably face accusations of acting as a neo-colonialist power with the sole objective of controlling mineral resources114. 2) Combining implementation of purely commercial projects with development assistance programs in African countries (both on state and business levels). In this sphere, Russia’s position looks much weaker – at least, from the public relations point of view – than that of the West, or the Gulf States, or China, or India. Development assistance makes up the central part of many African countries’ economies. It is assistance projects of this kind that will form local public opinion on whether Russia has contributed a valuable thing to Africa115. 3) Countering Western anti-Russia clichés that are spreading in Africa and shaping a narrative whereby only dictators and outcasts partner with the Russians. Therefore, efforts to improve Russia’s image must target the continent’s elite and a broader public opinion. It would be advisable to create and develop appropriate media tools to this effect.
113 A Global Platform for Geostrategic Collaboration //World Economic Forum. URL: https://www.weforum.org/focus/a-global-platform-for-geostrategic-collaboration. Accessed December 2, 2019. 114 8 key challenges to the future of Russian–African relations // World Economic Forum. October 27, 2019. URL: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/10/8-key-challenges-for-the-future-of- russian-african-relations/ 115 Ibid 44
4) Being receptive to the left-leaning liberation discourse common among Africa’s elites and public opinion at large. China’s success in Africa is attributable to the fact that the Communist Party of China's ideology relies on the same discourse. This means that the Chinese and Africans are guided by the same notions. However, it has to be considered that a left-leaning discourse is far from prevalent in Russia’s domestic policy. 5) Displaying an attentive and caring attitude towards the African diaspora in Russia, including helping the victims of human trafficking who find themselves in Russia and disrupting human trafficking flows. Another objective is to overcome racist stereotypes that persist in marginal segments of Russian society116. 6) Intensifying scholarship and grant programs aimed at African students in Russia both at public and private levels to provide an adequate standard of living in Russia during their stay. 7) Expanding the range of bachelor’s and master’s programs for African students in English, French, and Arabic, which should become an overall objective in education policy. Removing the language barrier would help African students learn better, making Russia a more attractive education destination. 8) Promoting Russia’s new African strategy within the country to shape a favorable public opinion and overcome fears that Russia will simply ‘feed Africa’ the way it does for Eurasia. Considering the fallout from the Central African Republic tragedy, it affected Africa-related topics in Russia’s domestic political struggle117. Analyzing the economic factors, we believe that African markets offer attractive conditions. It includes the price for Russian industrial goods, equipment,
116 Peter Denison. Challenges of Russian–African relations. Political Department of University of Ibadan, Nigeria. October 30, 2019. 117 8 key challenges to the future of Russian–African relations // World Economic Forum. October 27, 2019. URL: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/10/8-key-challenges-for-the-future-of- russian-african-relations/ 45 and defense products, as well as innovative, research, technical, education, healthcare, and other services, which can boost Russia’s reindustrialization and modernization policy. Simultaneously, closer trade and economic cooperation with Africa could become a source of relatively cost-effective raw materials for the Russian industry. These materials are in short supply in Russia but abound in Africa. Russia could join nuclear power projects designed to ensure Africa’s energy security. Russia has considerable experience in constructing nuclear power plants and modern nuclear technology with post-Fukushima safety enhancements. To ensure their countries’ sustainable economic growth and help it fully explore their potential, African governments must supply reliable and affordable energy to industry and the people and gain access to modern power generating technology. Russia is a significant energy power with solid positions in several spheres, especially oil, gas, coal, and nuclear power engineering. Russia’s multifaceted energy strategy, which stipulates transitioning from fossil fuel to new power generating programs, can produce a powerful economic result. Now that oil is no longer the only source of energy and the world is taking a closer look at renewable energy sources, Russia and Africa could coordinate a new form of cooperation based on long-term strategies. Russia’s return to Africa is not proceeding in a geopolitical or economic vacuum. Many countries are implementing large-scale comprehensive projects in Africa, including Western countries (primarily the US and France), the Arab states in the Persian Gulf, India, and Turkey. China has become a key external actor in Africa. In other words, Russia has severe external rivals, many of whom take precedence over Russia in investment, aid, and technology118. Russia’s African
118 Kashin Vasily. Russia’s Return to Africa. Centre for Comprehensive European and International Studies (CCEIS), Higher School of Economics. October 2019. ( Accessed November 11, 2019). 46 strategy must consider and focus primarily on those economic and political spheres where Russia has competitive (including price) advantages. To succeed, Russia’s new strategy of involvement in Africa must offer an added political, economic, and cultural value to the existing African programs. To ascertain the Nigerian-Russia bilateral relationship, it is crucial to know how Russia has conducted its bilateral relations with another African giant, South Africa. Before proceeding with this, it is essential to highlight the similarities and differences between these two countries. In 2014, the Nigerian economy was reported to have replaced South Africa as Africa’s most prominent. However, most of Nigeria’s population still lived below the poverty line compared to South Africa. Nigeria’s population, currently about 200 million, exceeds that of South Africa, currently around 59 million people by more than 200%. At a recent conference by the International Peace Institute, Dr. Adebajo, a widely known African commentator with an Oxford doctorate, elaborated some similarities and differences between Nigeria and South Africa. He recognized Nigeria as one of the most ethnically and indigenously diverse countries globally while identifying South Africa as the most racially diverse and most Westernized African continent. Referring to both countries' cultures, he said that the black majority in South Africa “struggles to emerge from the legacy of Bantu education.” At the same time, “Nigeria has the largest black intelligentsia of anywhere in the world.” On higher education, he said, “While South Africa has several well-funded quality universities, Nigeria’s ivory towers are crumbling monuments to years of neglect and government closures.” He further remarked on gender inequality in both countries. He identified the lack of opportunities for women as a problem that needs to be resolved in the short run. He further contrasted the two countries' status as continental powers. He said that “While Nigeria’s legitimacy as an African power is unchallenged; South Africa’s black government
47 continues to struggle with its legitimacy as an African leader because of the continued dominance of the ten percent white minority of the economy, of the university and NGO sectors.” He acknowledged the Johannesburg stock exchange as highly capitalized, 15 times larger than that of the Lagos stock exchange, on both countries' investments. He further identified some similarities between Nigeria and South Africa: - They were both born out of British amalgamations - They have both trained regional elites at universities for a decade - They are both heavily reliant on mineral resources - They both have companies that conduct business in different countries within their sub-regional economies - They both have a tremendous cultural impact on the continent - They are both prone to violence and vigilantism - They both have a very high youth unemployment rate A significant similarity between the two states is that they all have bilateral relations with Russia. To identify and analyze the similarities or differences between the Nigeria- Russia bilateral relationship and South Africa –Russia requires a detailed yet concise look at the latter. It requires the identification of the primary mechanism of bilateral relations that exists between South Africa and Russia. At the beginning of the 1990s, both South Africa and Russia were undergoing radical changes. Among some key events is the release of Nelson Mandela in 1990, after 27 years in prison. Multi-part talks were held in 1991 for the first time. President De Klerk also repealed all the apartheid laws that were remaining and had its international sanctions lifted. There was also a significant fight between the Zulu Inkatha movement and the ANC and an interim constitution agreement in 1993. On the other hand, Russia was going
48 through a massive change due to the USSR's breakup or internal disintegration in 1991. 119 These events had a strong influence on the prior relations that existed between both countries. To mend these relations, the two states swiftly took steps with official visits. At that time, Russian foreign minister, Andrei Kozyrev, signed a joint statement in February 1992 to establish diplomatic relations. In June of the same year, president Frederik Willem de Klerk also visited Russia for further talks. These were followed by signing several bilateral agreements ranging from Social and Labor Co-operation, protocols on consultations, arts and culture, scientific and technological cooperation, crime combating, military and technical cooperation. The government changes in South Africa led to a new stage of bilateral relations with deputy president Thabo Mbeki and President Mandela in 1998 and 1999. During President Mandela's visit to Russia in 1999, he signed the Declaration on Principles of Friendly Relations and Partnership between Russia and South Africa. The text of the treaty was, however, initiated in the year 2000. However, this treaty was not signed until after six years following President Putin's first visit to South Africa in September 2006, which was also the first time a sitting Russian president had visited Africa south of the Sahara. During his visit, other intergovernmental agreements and agreements between large companies of both states were signed.120 Looking carefully into the foreign policy of the Nigerian Presidents, one could spot that one of the priorities in the principle of ‘economic diplomacy,’ aimed at deriving maximum benefit from the government and Russia's foreign policy direction, was in the limelight to help in achieving this. It could be noted that only a
119 South Africa profile – Timeline, 4 April, 2018, BBC. UTL: https://www.bbc.com/news/world- africa-14094918. 120 Russia–South Africa Relations: Beyond Revival/ SAIIA. 17 Ocjber, 2013. URL: https://saiia.org.za/research/russia-south-africa-relations-beyond-revival/ 49 well-stabilized political, economic, and security would support and contribute to Nigeria's well strong position in Africa and the international arena. According to the former Ministers of Foreign Affairs and Minister of Security, Nigeria’s current foreign policy is directed to political, economic, and security cooperation with other nations. This can be elaborated by noting that this perception was why President Goodluck Jonathan directed the presidential advisory council on international relations (PACIR) to coordinate the reforming of Nigeria's foreign policy to be investment-oriented121. President Buhari administration’s administration majorly focused on the transformation agenda, which was designed to accommodate seven significant Nigerian citizens: security, energy, education, wealth creation, land reform, transportation, and Niger Delta. One can speculate that this probably might be why Nigeria-Russia relations' slow growth is advancing to a higher level. Regarding Russia's relations in Africa, it is essential to note that Russia’s cooperation with African countries requires a pragmatic approach, interest, and goodwill on both parties' sides. It is worthy of note that Africa's needs in terms of human development, infrastructural and industrial development, which all lead to job creation, require the collaborative partnership of all external parties interested in Africa. In the Speech of President Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin’s to the President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria Muhammadu Buhari, during the Sochi Russia- Africa Summit on October 23, 2019122, he emphasized the importance of their bilateral relations. He made a reminder that both governments signed the entire document for interstate cooperation, and the Declaration on Principles of Friendly
121BomaLysa D. A, Terfa TA, Tsegyu S. Nigerian Foreign Policy and Global Image: A Critical Assessment of Goodluck Jonathan’s Administration, 2015. URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/21657912.1000279 122 Meeting with President of Nigeria Muhammadu Buhari // President of Russia site. October 23, 2019. URL: http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/61888 50
Relations and Partnership, in Moscow in 2001. He also drew attention to that Russia’s and Nigeria’s approaches to many current international agenda issues are very close. It is crucial to rely on continuing this cooperation in the future, prioritizing the joint search for opportunities to broaden trade, economic, and investment cooperation. Even though it is a small volume in absolute terms and falls short of its potential, it is still growing considerably, because as of 2018, the growth was 93 percent. He noted that the critical role here belongs to the Intergovernmental Commission for Economic Cooperation and the Russia – Nigeria, and Nigeria – Russia Business councils set up in 2006–2007. Furthermore, in one of President Muhammadu Buhari’s Speech to President Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin during the same phase of October 2019, he stated that the level of economic and trade relations between the Russian Federation and Africa could be significantly increased. He hopes that the summit will be the anchor to kick start what has been a very cordial and mutually beneficial relationship in past years. In his words, Nigeria is the most populous country and the largest economy in Africa. We have the people, the resources, and the market to be successful. We also have the capacity, capability, and capacity to use such resources to bring peace and prosperity to our citizens and our region as a whole. He proceeds to make it known that a sizable amount of Nigeria’s budget has been allocated to infrastructure development and education to meet the current needs while keeping an eye on the future. As it is forecasted, Nigeria is on track to be the third most populous nation in the world by 2050. The country’s modest gains must be sustained and expended for this larger population, and in order to achieve this, there is a need for superpower partners such as Russia. There are many similarities between Russia under President Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin's leadership and Nigeria’s aspirations for the future. Nigeria can learn a lot from the experience of Russia’s ongoing reforms, of
51 transitioning from an oil-dependent economy to a modern, diversified and inclusive economy. Through these reforms, Russia successfully privatized several state- owned entities, which have now become global household names. It is especially so in the energy, manufacturing, defense, and metallurgical sectors, an excellent emulation for Nigeria.
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CHAPTER TWO: BILATERAL RELATIONS OD NIGERIA AND RUSSIA IN POLITICAL AND MILITARY SPHERES
2.1. Political Relations between Nigeria and Russia after the Establishment of Democratic Government in 1999 1999 was a very significant phase in the Nigeria-Russia relations. The event was termed to be the beginning of a new dawn for Nigeria and Russia relations. It marked President Olusegun Obasanjo's inauguration as a democratically elected president of Nigeria. Also, it marked the coming to power of Russian President Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin as the second democratically elected president of the Russian Federation. This event prompted the re-establishment of a new phase in the diplomatic relations between Russia and Nigeria123. The last day of 1999 was of importance in Russian history. It signaled the end of an era in Russian politics, as President Boris Yeltsin unexpectedly gave his resignation on December 31, which was six months ahead of a scheduled presidential election. The then Prime Minister in Vladimir Putin, who had always been Yeltsin’s choice to have as a successor, became the acting head of state pending when the presidential elections would be rescheduled was redacted from June 2000 to March 2000124. Analyzing the rebirth of democracy in Nigeria, it was significantly welcomed by the Nigerian citizens and Nigeria's friends. This is so because the new chapter in Nigeria's history provided the country with an opportunity to repair its almost damaged image and for Nigeria to be placed on a new path of socio-economic
123 Agubamah E. Nigeria-Russia Relations: After and now // European Scientific Journal. 2014. Pp.193–201. 124 Osero Evigho. Russia Presidential Election 2002 // Daily Times. Lagos, Nigeria. March 2002.Pp. 34-45 53 development and global acceptance and recognition125. It was envisaged that Nigerians' expectations on democracy and its positive impacts and influence on Nigeria’s foreign relations were based mainly on the fact that liberal ideals were in the post-Cold War international system. As the successor to the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia proceeded to form bilateral relations with Nigeria. Notably, in 2001, the Nigerian President, Olusegun Obasanjo, made a first official visitation to Moscow. Both the Nigerian and Russian governments agreed to sign a declaration centered on the principle of bilateral relations. Over the years, Nigeria and Russia have taken ultimate steps to deepen their diplomatic and economic, and military relations. In one of the official visits, the Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov and the Nigerian Foreign Minister, Geoffrey Onyeama, held some diplomatic sections. These were on issues that concerned continuity in developing the two countries' bilateral relations in diplomatic, economic trade, military areas. It is also essential to note that there was also a significant concentration on the prospects of bilateral cooperation in the nuclear industry's sphere in several infrastructure projects. Nigeria Policy Towards Russia Under President Olusegun Obasanjo’s Administration 1999-2007 After long years of military rule, Nigeria returned to democratic government on May 29, 1999. President Olusegun Obasanjo kick-started Nigeria's fourth republic, which drew the curtain off the thirty-five years of military dictatorship and that of autocratic rule. It will not be out of place to state that the civilian government that assumed power in 1999 recognized the utmost necessity in redirecting Nigeria’s foreign policy. To achieve this, the first step was to aggressively search for political friends, especially among nations responsible for global affairs influence and those known
125 Eze Kwanuro. Return of Democratic Rule in Nigeria 1999 // Students Journal University of Ibadan. October 1999. 54 for the shaping of international economic diplomacy. Nigeria soon realized that its primary influence solely lay in the West African sub-region. It had been seen as the dominant actor and the rest of the African region, alongside South Africa, where it had become one of the major players. However, it is significant to note that Nigeria also recognized that its ability to play both regional and continental roles mainly depended on its relations with the global powers such as United States, United Kingdom, and Russia. Many major trends are discernable in Nigeria’s foreign policy since the return of democratic rule. Perhaps, we can ascertain that the most vital part of these is the ultimate desire to establish and maintain friendships with nations like Russia, which has been historically shaped by global diplomacy. Trying to cultivate a depth that has also sought to align with its diplomacy and domestic developments, mostly when matters such as these are related to the consolidation of its new democracy, not leaving out the provision of necessary infrastructure. For the most part, these trends reflect the country’s overall objectives that were envisioned in its Vision 2020 document126. Given Nigeria's horrible situation before President Olusegun Obasanjo, his first term of four years as president of Nigeria, he emphasized that Nigeria must consolidate its numerous advantages as a regional leader to project its image abroad and work closely with Russia. Moreover, in response to this, the regime’s first tenure was ultimately characterized by a profound reform and resolution to restructure Nigeria’s strategic and comparative advantages into practical rewards in order for it to benefits Africa and the international arena.127 It should be noted that Olusegun
126 Vision 2020 // Nigeria, Federal Ministry of Information & Communications. Abuja, 2010. 127Ajetunmobi, R.O., Osunkoya, O.A. & T.F. Omotere, T.F. Impact of President Olusegun Obasanjo’s personality on Nigerian foreign policy, 1999-2007 // Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences. 2011. No.8. Pp.308-315. 55
Obasanjo, to an extent, did quite a great job as he was able to implement some positive changes in Nigeria’s foreign directions, which brought positive recognition to Nigeria.128 Obasanjo’s policy agenda in the new phase of a democratic era focused on several ways to restore Nigeria to its past appraisal. During the military rule, Nigeria’s image was butchered abroad due to a series of human rights abuses and the ultimate lack of commitment to international issues and concerns. Olusegun Obasanjo’s globe attempts during this era were dedicated to attracting as many investors as possible to Nigeria to have a new opening of doors to save Nigeria’s economic mismanagement, carried out by the previous military regimes. Another reason for his pursuit is to make sure that Nigeria could sustain its position as Africa’s regional power and its self-proclaimed ‘Giant of Africa.’ There is a need for reinforcement. When President O. Obasanjo made an official visit to Moscow in 2001, both countries signed a Declaration on the Principles of Friendly Relations and Partnership, a comprehensive interaction program in bilateral and international formats129. The intention to enter another full-scale Friendship and Partnership Treaty is recorded. During this phase, an active political dialogue is maintained between Russia and Nigeria. The practice of exchanging messages at a high level is established. The ministerial consultations are held regularly, the last round held in Abuja in June 2005. Working contacts were being carried out during the sessions of the UNGA and in other international organizations.130 In June 2003, the Russian Federation V.V Putin president met with O. Obasanjo at the G8 summit in Evian. In
128 Ibid 129 Oladipupo Ojoroko. Nigeria-Russia relations, retrospect and prospects // Nova science publishers, Inc, 2002. 4(6). Pp.45-67. 130 World Bank Operational Policies. Countries ranked by Per Capita Income // The World Bank Operational Manual. Washington, D.C. July 24, 2003. 56
September 2003131, the Nigerian state head passed through Moscow, where he had a conversation at the Vnukovo airport with the Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia, AP Losyukov. In September 2005, in the framework of the “Summit - 2005” in New York132, on the initiative of O. Obasanjo, a brief meeting was held with Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin. During one of the presidents’ encounters, the Russian President Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin and Nigerian President Olusegun Obasanjo initially negotiated off-camera and were subsequently joined by their respective national delegations. The Russian President made it clear that he will improve the bilateral trade turnover between the two countries to $500 million a year133. Afterward, there was a joint news conference that involved both leaders. In President Putin’s statement to the press, he said the United Nations must strive to preserve its status as a leading international organization responsible for maintaining global peace and security. The UN activity must be in line with the present-day geopolitical realities. Besides, President Putin noted that Russia was interested in jointly developing and producing mineral and energy resources. He confirmed Moscow’s wiliness to help complete the Nigerian metallurgical integrated works. However, our research ascertained that still during that period, the volume of Russian-Nigerian trade relations was quite at a low level (Russia's share in Nigeria’s foreign trade is 0.5%). Although, a few years later, there was some growth. In 2006, according to the data of the Federal Customs Service of Russia, the Russian-Nigerian trade turnover amounted to 145.6 million USD134. The main export products are
131 The Comet Newspaper. December 17, 2003. Abuja, Nigeria. 132 Oladipupo Ojoroko. Nigeria-Russia relations, retrospect and prospects //Nova science publishers, Inc, 2002. 4(6). Pp.45-67. 133 Bode Lawrence. Top-level Russian-Nigerian talks were held in the Kremlin. Moscow, March 6, 2001. 134 Nigerian foreign minister due in Moscow for energy talks // Sputnik News. URL: http:sputniknews.com/ retrieved 26th, November, 2015. 57 ferrous metals, petroleum products, fertilizers, paper, building materials, automotive equipment, imports, and cocoa beans. In February 2006, the Russian Aluminum company acquired a 75 percent stake worth about 250 million US dollars in Nigeria's largest aluminum manufacturing enterprise, Alcon. At the beginning of June 2006, the delegation of the company RUSAL, headed by its deputy director A.Ya. Livshits visited Nigeria and was received by the President of Nigeria, O. Obasanjo. That same year, it was planned to launch the “ALSCON” plant at its design capacity - about 200 thousand tons of aluminum135. The arrival of RUSAL in Nigeria allowed the Russian company to create a closed cycle of aluminum production on the African continent (raw materials from Guinea are processed in Nigeria). Additional investments of RUSAL in completing the plant's construction and modernization amounted to 150 million US dollarsin the subsequent year. Contacts between the chambers of commerce and industry of the two countries were maintained regularly. It is important to note that in 1998, the Nigerian-Russian Chamber of Commerce was created, which united about 160 Nigerian companies. An agreement was signed to establish the Intergovernmental Russian- Nigerian Mixed Commission on Economic, Scientific, and Technical Cooperation136. However, it was not ratified for 15 years. The chairman of the Russian part of the commission in July 2004 approved the Federal Energy Agency S.А. Oganesyan. In Abuja, same year and month, he met with the Nigerian part of the commission, the State Minister for Foreign Affairs of Nigeria, A. Tanko. In March 2006, the Russian-Nigerian Business Council's Russian part was formed, headed by businessman A. Abraman. The official inauguration of the Nigerian part
135 Ezekwe Odekwei. Nigeria and Russia in Democratic Rule // Journal of International, 2007. Issue 5 (7). Pp. 34. 136 Kapila.S. Russia-Indian Strategic Partnership in Contemporary Geo Political Context // South Asia Analysis Group. Mumbai, India, 2010. 58 of the RNDS, headed by the famous businessman Goody Ibra, took place on January 11th of 2007. On February 20, 2007137, the Agreement on the Establishment of the Russian-Nigerian Business Council, as well as the Agreement between the Russia- Nigeria Business Council and the Nigeria-Russia Business Council on the establishment of the Nigeria-Russian Trade Cooperation Center, was officially signed in Moscow industry, agriculture, health, technical development, and information technology. The training of citizens of Nigeria in Russian universities remains the main direction of bilateral relations in the field of culture and education. Over ten thousand Nigerian specialists were trained in Russia. In the 2006/2007 academic year, 32 citizens of Nigeria were admitted to Russian universities, including 30 for the entire course of study and 2 for postgraduate studies. At the Nigerian government's request, there was an increment in the number of state scholarships granted to Nigerians, from 45 to 60 units in the 2006/2007 academic year138. There was also developmental communication in sport, as many Nigerian football players played in Russian football clubs. During Obasanjo’s presidency, Nigeria entered into several bilateral agreements with Russia and many nations to advance its economy to fast-track development in critical sectors; one such bilateral agreement is the Nigeria-Russia Joint Commission established in 2001. Agreements reached and signed in the area of cultural and educational co-operation139. Also, there was the signing of some agreements centered on bilateral trade, investment promotion and protection, and technological cooperation. Another milestone achieved in President Olusegun Obasanjo's administration was in peaceful resolution of conflicts regime. Obasanjo
137 Panapress L.M. Nigerian paper criticizes Obasanjo's foreign trips. Pana Press, 2002. URL: www.panapress.com/Nigerian-paper-criticizes-Obasanjo-s-foreign-trips--13-462440-17-lang1- index.html 138 Grant.M. Contemporary Strategic Analysis. Oxford Blackwell Publishing . 2008. 139 Nigeria-Russia Joint Commission // Nigerian Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA), 2007. 59 worked effortlessly to restore confidence and credibility by pursuing a “Peace Philosophy” in Africa, and he urged Russian Federation to assist wherever possible, which was agreed upon.140 The purpose of all of these was to ensure that Nigeria would be one of the 20- largest economies in the world come 2020. It would thereby consolidate Nigeria's leadership role in Africa and make Nigeria establish itself as an essential player in the global economy, recognizing the significant role in the relations with Russian Federation. Nigeria Policy Towards Russia Under President Musa YarAdua’ Administration 2007 – 2010 The election of President Umaru Musa Yar'Adua and his assumption to the office on May 29, 2007, was indeed one of its kind in the political history of Nigeria. The reason can be attributed to the fact that it was the first time of power transition from one democratically elected government to another. President Umaru Yar'Adua’s foreign policy141 was centered on focusing away from the traditional Afrocentric position and diving into a much more practical emphasis on the Nigerian indigenes and Nigerians forefront of diplomatic ties with international powers. This form of foreign policy can be regarded as what is referred to as ‘Citizen Diplomacy,' which is the type of foreign policy that requires the Federal government of Nigeria to become more intentional in its dealings when there is a rise in the topic of human rights, as well as socio-economic welfare of the Nigerian people in the effort to make conduction of both bilateral and multilateral relations with other countries, of which
140Obasanjo, O. Who is Obasanjo – 1999. Retrieved from http://olusegunobasanjo.org/hiscareer.php 141 Yar’Adua.U.M. Inauguration Speech of President, 29 May 2007. Nigeria, Federal Ministry of Information & Communications // Vision 2020. 60
Russia was on the list as a superpower that will help to take Nigeria to the next level142. Russian-Nigerian discussion took place in Abuja, June 2009. After the conversation between Dmitry Medvedev and the President of Nigeria, Umaru Yar’Adua, negotiations continued with delegations of the two countries. Following the Russian-Nigerian talks, Dmitry Medvedev and Umaru Yar’Adua adopted a Joint Communiqué143. A package of bilateral documents was signed in the presence of the presidents. In particular, agreements were signed on cooperation in the peaceful use of atomic energy and the promotion and mutual protection of investments. A memorandum of understanding was signed on cooperation in research and outer space for peaceful purposes. Gazprom and the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation signed constituent documents on the creation of a joint venture. At the end of the meeting, Dmitry Medvedev and Umaru Yar’Adua made statements for the press and answered journalists ’questions. The official visit of Dmitry Medvedev to Nigeria was the first in the history of bilateral relations visit of the head of the Russian state to this African country. During the joint press conference of Russian President Dmitry Medvedev with Nigerian President Umar Yar'Adua on the results of the Russian-Nigerian Talks144, the following conversation took place: In Yar’Adua words: Today, for the first time in many years of relations between Nigeria and the Russian Federation, the Russian state's head visited our country. For Nigeria and all the people, this is an event that we have been looking forward to.
142Pogoson, A.I. New dimensions in Nigeria’s foreign policy, 1999–2009 // Journal of African Culture and Civilization. 2009. No. 3. Volume 2. Pp.5 8-73. 143 Permanent Mission of the Russian Federation to International Organizations in Vienna. Remission, 2009 URL: http://rusmission.org/4/1/1701 144 The President Official Visit to Nigeria. Kremlin Event. July 24, 2004. URL: http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/4617 61
Today we held one-on-one talks and extended negotiations, discussed various issues relating to bilateral cooperation, and cooperation on the African continent and in the world at large145. We have signed six agreements that open up new opportunities for cooperation between our states. Besides, we assume that the opportunity for interaction is bilateral and in a multilateral format. We believe that we have succeeded in establishing true partnerships in the past, and we plan to promote and develop these relations in the future. In Dmitry Medvedev’s words: First of all, I would like to thank the President of Nigeria, Mr. Yar’Adua, for his hospitality, for the warm welcome. We are thrilled to have the opportunity to meet with Nigerian friends and discuss our cooperation prospects. This is the first visit of the President of Russia, and I hope that as a result of our joint work today, the signing of many documents, relations between our countries will reach a new level, which will mean a higher degree of cooperation and a genuine partnership in the economic and humanitarian spheres. Nigeria is our key partner, and we would like to develop our business contacts. In recent years, there has been a general strengthening of trade and economic relations146. The relations rose to a reasonably significant amount. Nonetheless, we today, in the course of negotiations in a narrow composition, and then as a part of delegations, concluded that the potential of cooperation has not yet reached its peak. We see earnest projects that allow us to establish cooperation in the energy sector, primarily in trade and export and the creation of new capacities for gas and oil. We talked about the development of electric power projects, talked about nuclear energy. It was not just a conversation. Most importantly, our meeting today ended with signing several documents related to applied areas of cooperation. This guarantees that as a result of this visit, business relations between our countries
145 Ibid 146 Ibid 62 will be strengthened. We talked about the development of security cooperation. The result of this kind of cooperation was the signing of documents relating to the transfer of prisoners sentenced to imprisonment and some other documents. We believe that this is also a critical area of legal cooperation. We talked about the development of cooperation in the field of training for Nigeria. We have a good experience since Soviet times, and now Nigerian specialists are trained in our country. I believe that this is a sphere of cooperation that should be expanded if we want to be friends if we want to fill our relations with a variety of specific mutually beneficial projects. Our countries are firm supporters of the creation of a modern international security system. We have close positions on the main modern issues of ensuring this security, positions relating to forming a new security architecture. We talked with Mr. President about economic issues and issues of peacekeeping, peacemaking in general. Furthermore, this is also a crucial area, especially on the African continent. It is also necessary to develop cooperation in the field of creating systems globally. One of the vital questions that were asked by the press was that Russia and Nigeria are among the ten largest oil producers, Gazprom has signed documents on the creation of a joint venture, and there had been discussion on the prospects of such projects, how much investment can Russia make in this area in Nigeria? What are the prospects for the development of cooperation between the two countries in oil and gas? President Dmitry Medvedev responded by stating the following: If we talk about prospects, I think that after today's visit and the signing of relevant documents, these prospects are excellent147. If we work together if we implement the plans that are
147 Permanent Mission of the Russian Federation to International Organizations in Vienna. Remission, 2009. URL: http://rusmission.org/4/1/1701
63 laid out in these documents, including the creation of a joint venture, the volume of Russian investments in the Nigerian energy sector, and the volume of this cooperation will be measured in billions of dollars because we are talking about extensive projects. You correctly said that Russia and Nigeria are the leading oil and gas countries, and in this sense, we need cooperation. The Nigerian economy is developing. We are talking about creating new systems, new processing facilities, and new pipeline systems. We are ready to provide all the help, all the support to our Nigerian partners. Moreover, today, it seems to me, the foundation has been laid for such work for the years ahead, so we are looking very optimistically at these prospects. President Musa Yar’Adua’s response is as follows: We have already said that there are ample opportunities for cooperation in the field of energy and gas here, directly in Nigeria. That is why signing a memorandum between the Nigeria Oil Corporation and Gazprom is an important project to which we give priority attention. Also, there is an opportunity to work within Nigeria and the region as a whole. This also applies to the West African pipeline and the main pipeline that will pass through the Sahara and link the African continent with Europe. In all these areas, we have the opportunity to work to improve the investment climate of Nigeria. We have adopted the necessary legislative framework that provides both foreign companies an opportunity to participate in Nigeria's oil and gas sector actively. In this situation, we have all the possibilities for cooperation and development of our relations. After the conversation between Dmitry Medvedev and the President of Nigeria, Umaru Yar’Adua, negotiations continued with the participation of delegations of the two countries. Following the Russian-Nigerian talks, Dmitry
64
Medvedev and Umaru Yar’Adua adopted a Joint Communiqué. A package of bilateral documents was signed in the presence of the presidents148. • Joint Communique on the Official Visit of the President of the Russian Federation to the Federal Republic of Nigeria. • Treaty between the Russian Federation and the Federal Republic of Nigeria on the transfer of persons sentenced to imprisonment to serve the sentence. • Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria on the Promotion and Mutual Protection of Investments. • Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria on cooperation in the peaceful uses of atomic energy. • Agreement on cooperation between the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation and the Ministry of Justice of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. • Memorandum of Understanding between the Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos) and the National Space Research Agency of Nigeria on cooperation in the field of research and peaceful uses of outer space. • Constituent documents on the establishment of a joint venture between Gazprom and the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation It is important to note that the official visit of Dmitry Medvedev to Nigeria was the first in the history of bilateral relations visit of the head of the Russian state to this African country. Our research believes that it is of importance to develop cooperation in the field of creating global energy security systems. Of course, we are aware of the fact that the two countries have taken a number of essential steps in
148 The President Official Visit to Nigeria. Kremlin Event, July 24, 2004. URL: http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/4617
65 this direction. It is a good news to note that agreements have been concluded on cooperation in the peaceful use of atomic energy and on the promotion and mutual protection of investments, a memorandum of understanding on cooperation in the field of research, and the use of outer space for peaceful purposes. Gazprom and the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation had also signed constituent documents on the creation of a joint venture. All of these need to be ratified accordingly. Nigeria’s Policy Under president Goodluck Jonathan Administration (2010-2015) Upon the untimely death of President Yar'Adua in 2010, Vice-President Goodluck Jonathan assumed office as the President. Subsequently, at the first-term expiration, President Jonathan contested and won the Presidential election in 2011. He presided over Nigeria till 2015149. President Jonathan, being convinced that many changes had taken place during the 50 years of existence of Nigeria’s foreign policy thrust, made an order of a review of the Nigeria Foreign Policy document in line with his administration's domestic policy thrust, which was popularly referred to as 'The Transformation Agenda.' Jonathan Goodluck's administration's foreign policy position was overview perceived as the continuation of his predecessor's foreign policy. Nonetheless, the administration's foreign policy various endeavors were closely embedded in the attainment of the administration's Transformation Agenda. This Transformation Agenda, according to Ituma, was targeted or aimed at addressing the following issues150: economic direction and macroeconomics framework; governance; creation of jobs; health sector; information and communication technology; management of public expenditure; Niger Delta; justice
149 Odubajo, T. Domestic environmental variables and foreign policy articulation of the Buhari administration in Nigeria‟s Fourth Republiс.// Austral: Brazilian Journal of Strategy & International Relations. 2017. 6(11), P. 73-96. 150 Ituma, O. S. The dynamics of Nigerian foreign policy and President Jonathan‟s transformation agenda. // Multi-Disciplinary Journal of Research & Development Perspectives. 2012. Pp. 44-51.
66 and judicially; legislature; education; labor and productivity; power sector; transportation; foreign policy and economic diplomacy. Another significant aspect of the foreign policy is the opening up of Nigeria to the global business community in order to become Africa's number one destination for foreign investors. In the first six months of 2014, there was a total of US$9.70 billion or ₦1.51 trillion that flowed into Nigeria's national economy as FD. Under Jonathan's presidency, Nigeria was able to rebase its GDP for the first time in over ten years to become the largest economy in Africa, which mean it overtook South Africa and Egypt in the process. By the end of 2013, the proceeds from Nigeria's non-oil export rose to US$2.97billion, from US$2.3million in 2010. A significant value of it was with the economic ties with Russian Federation, amidst other countries such as China, United Kingdom. Furthermore, under Jonathan's administration, Nigeria became the first ever country in West Africa region to host the World Economic Forum (WEF) in 2014. According to estimates, it was also the most successful WEF for Africa (WEFA) in West Africa's history, thus boasting a global reach of 2.1 billion people. Besides, a series of strong positions were taken concerning issues that concerned the region and the continent at large151. On the downside, though, the government's inability to crush the Boko Haram insurgents negatively impacted the Jonathan administration's domestic and foreign policy agenda. Nigeria’s Policy Under President Muhammadu Buhari Administration (2015 – 2019) Muhammadu Buhari assumed office as democratic President in 2015. Based on the campaign promises, the administration's foreign policy agenda was structured to
151 Boma-Lysa D. A., Terfa T. A., and Tsegyu S. Nigerian foreign policy and global image: A critical assessment of Goodluck Jonathan's administration // Mass Communication & Journalism Journal. 2015. 5(10). Pp. 1- 10. 67 positively assist in the struggle and fight against Boko Haram, make the domestic economy attractive for several foreign direct investments, and the court global cooperation in the fight against corruption152 . As noted by many people, Buhari has a reputation for honesty regarding matters among the most corrupt political class. It has been generally believed and accepted that with his military background and his utmost zero tolerance for corruption, there is a positive vibe that he is prepared to wage a successful war against insurgency and terrorism and provide the much- needed security that the country craved for153. Also, one could say that with the security threat posed by the Boko Haram insurgency, the Buhari's administration decided to embark upon militaristic and diplomatic strides in the effort to cage or bury the sect. Buhari's apparent attempt at co-opting the member-states of the Lake Chad Basin Commission, who were also Nigeria's north-east neighbors, was certainly in line with the aggressive posture which aims to defeat terrorism154. The contacts made with several governments have culminated in forming the Multinational Joint Task Force (MNJTF), which is dedicated to curbing the Boko Haram insurgency in the Lake Chad region. However, it can be purported that the Multinational Joint Task Force was indeed not entirely convincing. However, we can say that it did try to curtail Boko Haram's activities as members’ nations, which contributed to the war against Boko Haram in the Federal Republic of Nigeria. The Buhari's administration, just like its predecessors, also adopted economic diplomacy as a tool of foreign policy. One of Buhari's agenda's cornerstones is
152 Bello I., Dutse A., and Othman F. Comparative analysis of Nigeria foreign policy under Muhammadu Buhari administration 1983-1985 and 2015-2017 // Asia Pacific Journal of Education, Arts and Sciences. 4(4). Pp.43-52. 153 Agbu, O. Leadership and Buhari‟s foreign policy // The Guardian Newspaper. June 10, 2015. URL: https://guardian.ng/opinion/leadership-and-buharis-foreign-policy-1/ 154 Uduma D. O., Nwosu C. O. Nigeria‟s external affairs relations: A historical discourse // Journal of Communication and Culturee. 2015. No. 6(2). Pp.17-25. 68
Economic revival, which was even carried out during the electioneering campaign. To elaborate on it was why, in respect to the search for FDI, Buhari made several bilateral and multilateral visits to the United States, China, Germany, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, France, and other countries, although Russia was omitted. It should be purported that in line with the countries' economic foreign policy, Buhari's administration should be applauded because he got several invitations to G7 and G20 Summits. Consequently, Buhari's economic team has been actively engaged in selling the government economic plan to international investors155[Adekaiyaoja, 2017]. Making an effort to launder the battered perception and position of Nigeria in the international arena has been quite difficult, hence the need for further and close cooperation with a superpower such as Russia. This is why in the last decade, the elected democratic presidents of Nigeria endeavor to ensure that the position of Nigeria is being rejuvenated. The foreign policy postures of Presidents Goodluck Jonathan’s and Muhmmadu Buhari’s regimes have been mainly concerned and tasked with various reforms in bilateral trades, investment, security, and anti- corruption oriented domestic and foreign policies with Russian Federation and other countries. Although it is important to note that both administrations have been heavily criticized, the former administration (Jonathan’s) was perceived as lacking the utmost political will to save Nigeria, while the current administration (Buhari’s) is being criticized for the misdirection of political will and resources. These criticisms have led to various arguments about the appropriateness of the administration's foreign policy strategies, the length of their successes, and the sustainability of their actions in promoting and improving Nigeria's image.
155 Adekaiyaoja, A. Foreign policy under president Buhari // Stears Business Forum - June, 2017. URL: https://www.stearsng.com/article/foreign-policy-under-president-buhari/ 69
Nigeria: President Muhammadu Buhari's 2019 Russian Trip to Sochi to Correct Sixteen Years of PDP's Misrule Nigeria's President Muhammadu Buhari and Russia's President Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin during the official welcoming ceremony by Russian President Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin for the heads of state and government of states participating in the 2019 Russia-Africa Summit in Sochi, Russia, 23 October 2019156. A former governorship aspirant and member of the All Progressives Congress (APC) Campaign Council in Rivers State, Tonye Princewill ascertained that the Russian trip was a diplomatic masterpiece. He noted that President Muhammadu Buhari is the Chief Sales Officer of Nigeria. No sales associate stays in the comfort of his company and expects to make more outstanding sales. Also, he is the Chief Public Relations Officer and Reputation Manager of the country. Indeed, no Public Relations Officer would stay back and expects any good relationships with other nations. With the damage to Nigeria’s reputation from prolonged corruption, crime, and the self-afflicted chaos of the People Democratic Party’s 16 years of misrule, it would not have been expected of the President to stay in one place assimilate those things will improve. Consequently, the results of President Muhammadu Buhari's diplomatic forays include the following: Railways, Mambilla Dam and better Airports built by China, and Siemens power interventions from Germany. From Saudi Arabia and the Middle East, Nigeria has the Sukuk bond. The list goes on157.
156 Omeiza Ajayi. Nigeria: Buhari's Russian Trip to Correct 16 Years of PDP's Misrule // Vanguard News. 24 October 2019. 157 Tonye Princewill. The Way Forward with the Russian Trip by Buhari // Daily Times News. 24 October, 2019. 70
The Russian trip can be described as "Christmas comes early for Nigerians," giving into account the volume of expected Russian investment in Nigeria and its attendant creation of hundreds of thousands of jobs for Nigerians, as Nigeria is one of the preferred investment destinations. Analyzing the thirteen areas of agreement reached by Russia and Nigeria, and compared to the reports with some other countries that were also invited to Sochi, it became clear that Egypt that had a full 40 percent of all Russian investment to date, was about to share the same space of prominence with Nigeria as it was apparent that there was a pivot to Nigeria by Russia. Adding that to the Chinese investment's present preferred destination status, the Nigerian future is getting brighter. This opportunity is indeed a direct product of a government that has now instilled a newfound confidence in international investment. Scrolling through the thirteen various agreements that were reached by Russia and Nigeria, we could not help but feel a somewhat deep sense of pride at the amount of effort and teamwork that preceded the visit and the several areas of the country and the economy impacted by them. The 2019 Russian trip is foreseen to provide millions of jobs for Nigerians. However, as with so many agreements, summits, and presidential visits, follow-up is the utmost key. The numerous agreements include but are not limited to rehabilitating the country's refineries, completing the Ajaokuta Steel Company, strengthening Nigeria's defense capability, and many others158. President Muhammadu Buhari and Russian President Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin have reached an agreement to make a quick, closer move on the Nigeria-Russia relations and pursue all previously abandoned projects initiated by both countries. They also agreed to embark on new infrastructure projects and expand their trade and investment, security, and military cooperation.
158 Ashalaye Mopelola. The long awaited visit to Russia // Daily Times. 24 October, 2019. 71
In conclusion, analyzing the various administrations in Nigeria and their policy differences and similarities, it is ascertained that a significant drive of all the presidents mentioned above is centered mainly on fixing Nigeria’s economic crisis by reinforcing its leadership role in Africa continent to ensure it re-establish itself as a major actor in the regional and global economic sphere. The emphasis of the policies’ goal towards Russia was making sure to lift Nigeria’s economy to become one of the 20 largest economies in the world by the year 2020, and this goal was indeed a clear indication of the priority of domestic interest in order to sharpen the country’s foreign policy, which was posited to have been comprehensively articulated in order to ensure that the realization of the Vision 20:2020 comes to reality. Also, all Nigerian presidents after the return of democratic rule have quite active cooperation with Russia in oil trade and cooperation in the framework of the relevant international structures that deal with these issues, and this has resulted in both countries participating in the creation of a forum of gas exporting countries and are aiming to further develop cooperation on this site. However, on the whole, with the current administration, there is a need to intensify the various projects, especially since they both can become earnest partners in the field of trade, energy, and security.
72
2.2. Military Cooperation between Nigeria and Russia As earlier noted, since 2000 and the coming to power of Vladimir Putin, Russia has taken concrete steps to develop ties with African states to advance its geopolitical goals and economic interests159. Recent news reports claim that Moscow is establishing an airbase in Burundi and has signed numerous new military cooperation agreements with several African countries. It will not be wrong to note that Russia's main interests in its military relations with African nations are arms exports, imports of natural resources, and power projection. Since 2015, Russia has signed over 20 bilateral military cooperation agreements with African states160. However, we ascertain that there has been much speculation about whether these agreements deal with the possibility of establishing a permanent Russian military base. According to the Stockholm International Peace Institute, by 2012-2016, Russia had become the largest supplier of arms to Africa, accounting for 35 percent of arms exports to the region, followed by China (17 percent), the United States (9.6 percent), and France (6.9 percent). Currently, exports of Russian-made weapons and military equipment to Africa amount to 4.6 billion USD annually, with a contract portfolio worth over 50 billion USD161 Arms export is a lucrative area for Russian economic growth, especially in the context of continued Western sanctions and a stagnant economy caused by falling global oil prices. Nigeria and other African states such as Algeria, Egypt, Angola, Uganda, Mali, Mozambique, Sudan, and Rwanda are
159 Poliakov A. The two Giants (Nigeria and Russia) in the Face of Global Economic Meltdown: Exploring Options for Mutually Beneficial Cooperation. Faculty of Arts. Russian Day, 2009. 160 Jakob H. Russia is Stepping Up its Military Cooperation in Africa // FOI Swedish Defence Research Agency. 2018. Pp.1-4 161 Reuters, Jeune Afrique, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, 2018 73 importers of Russian arms. Lately, Tanzania and Somalia have also made requests for Russian military equipment. Nigeria has well noted the success of Russia's ruthless repression of pirates off the Somali coast, where there was a threat increment in shipping and off-shore oil operations by pirates. It is worthy to emphasize the dire security situation in the Gulf of Guinea. Russian was requested to combat stongs, piracy, kidnappings, and illegal dumping. We could say that the most dangerous water for shipping purposes is no longer off the Somali coast. Instead, they are in the Gulf of Guinea. Citing figures from the International Maritime Bureau (IMB) indicated that violent attacks in the Gulf had doubled in 2018162, while the pirates started to operate in speed boats as far as 100 nautical miles from shore. Nigeria has undoubtedly had some military interactions with Russia in the recent past. There was a time when Nigeria attempted to buy US Cobra attack helicopters. However, Washington's attempt was rebuffed in 2014, so Nigeria had to turn to Russia, which had no problem selling Nigeria 21 Mi-35 attack helicopters and 11 Mi-17 utility helicopters. Subsequently, Nigeria made an order for 12 Russian Mi-35M attacks in September 2016 (Sputnik News, 2017). There was a report by the Russian media that there had been plans to sell Nigeria ten Sukhoi Su-30 multirole jet fighters in mid-2017. However, the sales did not seem to have gone through. Has earlier noted, Nigeria has been facing the insurgency of Boko Haram since 2009. The group staged several bloody terror attacks, including the 2011 bombing of a UN office in Abuja’s capital that killed 21 people163. In April 2014, Boko Haram abducted 276 female students from a government secondary school in the eastern Nigerian town of Chibok.
162 Ibid 163 Diamond L. Conflict and anxiety in the second Nigeria // Journal of modern African studies. 2010. Vol. 20(4). P. 629-668. 74
Along with Nigeria, Niger, Cameroon, and Chad are also currently engaged in military operations to fight Boko Haram. Additionally, the militants have kidnapped thousands of people throughout the insurgency years to fund their efforts to introduce a Sharia law in the region. In May 2017, Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov met with his Nigerian counterpart Geoffrey Onyeama and ascertained that Russia would further support the Nigerian struggle against the Boko Haram insurgency. In both military technology and equipment and training, Russia provides an alternative source for African countries. In 2014, Nigeria turned to Russia for counter-terrorism training for its special forces and bought military hardware for security purposes. It is essential to note that Nigeria has achieved quite significant progress in fighting insurgency within its borders. In addition to their military cooperation, two hundred Nigerian personnel from armed forces, the police, and the Department of States Services were picked and sent to Russia for advanced anti- insurgency training in 2014. As reported, the training was meant to be secret. The program was only acknowledged when the security personnel's last contingent was photographed departing Nigeria for Russia at Nnamdi Azikiwe Airport. As indicated by the Nigerians Army's chief-of-staff, Lieutenant General Tukur Buratai, Nigeria would in due time receive a shipment of advanced military hardware from an unnamed country. However, we ascertain that as the purchase has the inclusion of technical training and maintenance support, Russia would most likely be the point of origin for this shipment. Nigeria’s military forces use warships, helicopter gunships, troop transports, and crewless drone intelligence planes primarily sold to the Nigerian government by Russian companies. Russian instructors also provide specialized training to Nigerian navy and air force sailors and pilots to operate the ships and helicopters. Dating back to September 2003, Russia was involved in launching a
75 military satellite targeted at boosting surveillance of Nigeria’s military and crude oil facilities. Nigeria Sat-1 was built by Nigeria’s National Space Agency and Russia’s Row Brow Export at the cost of $13 million. Purportedly, it was a low-earth orbit microsatellite designed to monitor disasters. NigeriaSat-1 has three spectral bands: green: 0.52–0.62 µm, red: 0.63 0.69 µm, and near-infrared: 0.76–0.9 µm. The Russian government has approved a draft military agreement with Nigeria. Russian Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev signed an order approving the draft agreement on military cooperation between the Russian Federation and the Federal Republic of Nigeria. On July 4, 2017, the order was published on the official portal of legal information164, stated in the order signed by the Chairman of the Russian Federation's Government. The order contains an instruction to the Russian Ministry of Defense to conduct negotiations with the Nigerian government and, on their results, to sign an agreement on behalf of the Russian government. Cooperation with the Federal Republic of Nigeria is planned to be implemented in several areas, including the preparation and training of Nigerian troops, the Nigerian Air Force's flight personnel, military education programs, and medical training. In 2017, Nigeria sought cooperation with Russia to fight against Boko Haram. Nigeria had always wanted to cooperate with Russia in fighting against the Boko Haram terror group, which pledged allegiance to the Islamic State jihadists (IS, also ISIL). Mansur Muhammad Dan Ali - a retired Nigerian Army Brigadier General and currently the Minister of Defense of Nigeria met with Russian Defense Minister Sergei Shoigu (Andrew McGregor) on the sidelines of the Army-2017 international forum which was held in Moscow. Their discussion was based on counterterrorism
164 Russian government approved draft military agreement with Nigeria. 4 July, 2017. URL: https://news.rambler.ru/world/37317695/?utm_content=rnews&utm_medium=read_more&utm_ source=copylink 76 cooperation in which Dan Ali highlighted the role Russia has been playing across the African continent and the globe at large. August 22, 2017, In the course of work at the international military-technical forum, the Minister of Defense of Russia, Army General, signed some bilateral agreements in the field of military cooperation with African states. An agreement concluded with the Minister of Defense of Nigeria, Mansur Dan-Ali. The parties agree on cooperation in the field of cooperation and the fight against terrorism and piracy, joint operations under the aegis of the UN, and the supply of weapons and dual-use products165. To note that the events were held earlier, in particular, in 2014, a team of 1,200 representatives of the Nigerian special services was seconded to the Russian Federation to conduct training in counterterrorism operations together with Russian instructors166 Since 2014, under contracts for military-technical cooperation, the Nigerian government has been steadily purchasing Russian-made air technology; the last major deal dates from August 2016. The main article is Mi-35m transport and combat helicopters, which Nigeria mines to fight "With the attack of oil fields by terrorists"167. It is worth noting that Nigeria regularly supports speaking out against terrorism on a global scale. In June 2017, Nigeria joined the Global Initiative to Combat Terrorism, where Russia is the co-chair168. Nigeria also supported the Russian Federation's initiative to combat acts of chemical and biological terrorism,
165 Соглашение между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Федеративной Республики Нигерии о военном сотрудничестве. URL: http://www.mid.ru/foreign_policy/international_contracts/2_contract/-/storage- viewer/bilateral/page-9/52542 (дата обращения 08.04.2018) 166 Agande, B. Terrorism: 1,200 Nigerian security personnel leave for Russia // Vanguard News, September 27, 2014. URL: https://www.vanguardngr.com/2014/09/terrorism-1200-nigerian- security-personnel-leave-russia 167 Pipeline attacks: FG imports Russian War helicopters, UAVs from Dubai. August 21, 2016. URL: http://punchng.com/pipeline-attacks-fg-imports-russian-war-helicopters-uavs-dubai/ 168 Пленарное заседание, 2017 г. Совместное заявление сопредседателей - 20.06.17 . URL: http://www.mid.ru/web/guest/adernoe-nerasprostranenie/-/asset_publisher /content/id/2790715 77 which was presented at the Disarmament Committee meetings in 2018, the initiative which was approved Nigeria. The units also take measures for the early warning of terrorist acts and work with the media. In July 2017, a meeting was held at the Russian Embassy in Nigeria with the Deputy Chairman of the Nigerian Editors Guild, Suleiman Uba-Gaia. During the meeting, the deputy head of the embassy, Valery Shaposhnikov, presented to Nigerian colleagues a code of conduct for the media in the context of terrorist activities or a counter-terrorist operation. This document was adopted in the Russian Federation in 2003 and received a considerable role in the media's work in shaping relations between the population and terrorism169. To provide more space for discussion of counter-terrorism issues, not only inside the country but also abroad. Also, the security services should not excessively use the valuable information in the media, reducing the level of cooperation with the special services. It also means that it is necessary to increase the information polarity, as well as reduce the interest in the actions of terrorists, cause a decrease in interest in their motivation on the part of the population. The documents of Nigerian publishers have a higher degree of protection against terrorist acts. They inform the people of Nigeria and ensure effective interaction with security forces. However, it should be noted that none of the most active groups in Nigeria contributes to a single federal list of organizations in which foreign and international organizations are recognized and recognized following the Russian Federation's legislation on terrorist acts. This will create additional
169 Agbo, J. Couter-Terrorism: Russia Partrners Nigerian Media // Leadership Nigeria Newspaper. July 10, 2017. URL: https://leadership.ng/2017/07/10/counter-terrorism-russia-partners-nigerian- media 78 problems if representatives of the organization organize a terrorist act on the Russian Federation's territory, which theoretically should not be excluded170.
2.3. Relations between Nigeria and Russia in the fight against terrorism in Nigeria For several years now, Nigeria has been one of the countries at the top of the list of states with the highest level of terrorism. According to researchers from the Institute of Economics and Peace in Sydney, in October 2017, Nigeria ranks third with an index of 9.31. Iraq and Afghanistan ranked first and second places, with indices of 9.96 and 9.44, respectively171. It is also worth mentioning that according to the statistics of the global database of terrorism, in the territory of the Federal Republic of Nigeria in 2016172, more than a hundred terrorist acts were committed. Several terrorist organizations operate in the country, each of which has its history of origin, goals, and methods for their achievement and sources of funding. The extremist form of Afrocentrism has become the actions of terrorist factions “Boko Haram.” The ideological basis of this group is active anti-Western protest173. Since 2009, Boko Haram, a radical Islamic sect from northeastern Nigeria, has been responsible for numerous bomb attacks directed at the Nigerian government, security officials, churches, mosques, civilians, and the U.N. headquarters Abuja. With Boko haram attacks getting more deadly and more sophisticated each year, there are growing concerns, nationally and internationally, not only about the fast deteriorating security situation in Nigeria but also the potential implications for
170 Premium Times. Nigeria Military Support // Premium. May 2, 2016. No. 32(33). 171 Global Terrorism Index. Information about the study and its results. URL: http://gtmarket.ru/ratings/global-terrorism-index/info (accessed 05/10/2017) 172 Global Terrorism Database. URL: http://www.start.umd.edu (accessed 05.10.2017) 173 Мосейко А.Н., Харитонова Е.В. // Африка: устойчивое развитие и дипломатия диалога : Ежегодник – 2017 = Africa: Sustainable Development and the Diplomacy of Dialogue : Yearbook – 2017. C..269-300. 79
Nigeria. Hence, there is a need for a superpower such as Russia to come into the picture and join forces with Nigeria to counter the Boko haram insurgency. Our research ascertained that since 2000 and the coming to power of Vladimir Putin, Russia has taken steps to develop ties with African states. Although in August 2017, Nigeria and Russia signed an agreement on Cooperation on military training, peace- keeping, and efforts to counterterrorism and anti-piracy, however, it is of relevance to note that the main interests of Russia in its military relations with Nigeria and Africa at large are arms exports, imports of natural resources, and projection of power. Boko Haram is an ISIS-aligned jihadist group whose significant base is in Northeastern Nigeria and active in neighboring countries such as Cameroon, Chad, and Niger. Boko Haram's founder is Mohammed Yusuf, a trained Salafist and an adherent follower of Ibn Taymiyya174. This Salafist-jihadist core mission is to establish a caliphate or Islamic state in Nigeria. The dreadful group needed to and had successfully carried out several large-scale attacks on Nigerian soil to achieve this goal. The Boko Haram terrorist group positions itself as religious, but most of their demands relate to the political sphere. Militant Attacks cause not only severe material damage; they entail human loss—various humanitarian organizations, including Red Cross175. However, activities in such circumstances high risk, in particular kidnapping employees of the organization. Successful operations Nigerian government to counter terrorist groups, a decrease in support of militants from the
174Counter Extremism Project “Boko Haram”, 2017. URL: https://www.counterextremism.com/threat/boko-haram ( accessed on 16 May 2017 ) 175 Авдалян М.Р., Глазкова Х.Ю., Лобашова Е.В. От становления до раскола: историко- политологическое исследование деятельности «Боко харам» с обзором ликвидации ее последствий // Африка: интеграция и социальное развитие : Ежегодник – 2019 = Africa: Integration and Social Development: Yearbook – 2019. C.88-95. 80 population, and Boko Haram's split into separate groups weakened the terrorist organization, and its attacks became relatively less effective176. Nevertheless, the root causes of Boko Haram's appearance in Nigeria still exist, in connection with which we can talk about the final victory over terrorism without eliminating these circumstances is impossible, even if the militants themselves eliminated. Suppose the terrorists succeed in continuing their activities. In that case, Nigeria's political and economic situation will be even more destabilized, which, in turn, may entail a new wave of separatism, gaining autonomy and the creation of “their state formations” by the Islamic groups. According to Pashkovskaya E.O, the potential for radicalization of women and their participation in terrorist organizations is relatively underestimated due to the prevailing misconceptions that terrorism has a “male face”177. The mistaken view of women only as passive participants conflicts or their victims only reinforces gender stereotypes. A significant proportion of terrorist acts are carried out by women, and the female audience is increasingly becoming the “target” of propaganda campaigns by extremist groups. Given the increased risk of women engaging in terrorist activities, gender-sensitive methods are essential for identifying the causes of this phenomenon. The spread of female terrorism is due to many factors: political, socioeconomic, legal, cultural, and religious. Although many group members were representatives of the lower strata of society, the ideological views of Boko haram also attracted the political and economic elite178. One of Yusuf
176 International Crisis Group, Africa Report N°216 «Curbing Violence in Nigeria (II): The Boko Haram Insurgency». 3 April 2014. P. 26-30. 177 Pashkovskaya E.O. A gender approach to analyzing the activities of the Boko Haram terrorist organization in Nigeria // Africa: integration and social development: Yearbook - 2019 = Africa: Integration and Social Development: Yearbook – 2019. C. 111-122. 178 Заноскина Е.Н. Борьба с финансированием «Боко харам» // Африка: интеграция и социальное развитие : Ежегодник – 2019 = Africa: Integration and Social Development: Yearbook – 2019. C. 99-110 81
Baba Fugu Mohammed's associates was an influential person who provided land for mosques and helped finance group operations. The impunity that accompanied acts of violence and petty crimes of members of the organization speaks of patronage in higher echelons of power179. Many claimed that the Governor of Borno State, Ali Modu Sheriff, and Alhaji Buji Foy, Commissioner for Religious Affairs of the State of Borno, were sponsors of Boko Haram. As ascertained by the U.N. Security Council, Boko Haram has maintained close ties with al-Qaeda. Various Boko Haram members are being trained alongside this group in Mali before their return to Nigeria. In March 2015, Boko Haram leader Abubakar Shekau pledged allegiance to ISIS on behalf of the Nigerian insurgent group180. Following some months of mounting tension between ISIS leadership and Shekau, In August 2016, ISIS unilaterally announced a replacement for Shekau and authorized Abu Musab al-Barnawi to be the leader181, although Shekau bluntly refused to cede authority to the new leader and that in return bridged a gap between Boko Haram militants as they were subsequently divided between being loyal to Shekau and being loyal to Barnawi182. Furthermore, as expected, both factions occasionally engaged in clashes, which have resulted in the death of several of Shekau's associates. In recent years, military equipment became part of Russia. Thus, since 2014, under contracts for military-technical cooperation, the Nigerian government has been steadily purchasing Russian-made air technology. The last major deal dates
179 Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History. – URL: http://africanhistory.oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/97801902777 108 34.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-119. Accessed 26.11.18 180 Abubakar A. Communicating violence: The media strategies of Boko Haram // Africa's Media Image in the 21st Century. 2016. Vol.8(6). Pp.35-100. 181 Alexis A. Boko Haram wing tied to IS marks resurgence by kidnapping oil workers // Reuters, August 2, 2017. 182 Jacob Z. Leadership analysis of Boko Haram and Ansaru in Nigeria // Combatting Terrorism Centre Sentinel. 2014. No.7(2). 82 from August 2016. The main article is Mi-35m transport and combat helicopters, which Nigeria mines to fight "With the attack of oil fields by terrorists"183. It is worth noting that Nigeria regularly supports speaking out against terrorism on a global scale. In June 2017, Nigeria joined the Global Initiative to Combat Terrorism, where Russia is the co-chair184. Nigeria also supported the Russian Federation's initiative to combat acts of chemical and biological terrorism, which was presented at the Disarmament Committee meetings in 2018. It is worth noting that the initiative was approved by members of Nigeria. The units also take measures for the early warning of terrorist acts and work with the media. In July 2017, a meeting was held at the Russian Embassy in Nigeria with the Deputy Chairman of the Nigerian Editors Guild, Suleiman Uba-Gaia. During the meeting, the deputy head of the embassy, Valery Shaposhnikov, presented to Nigerian colleagues a code of conduct for the media in the context of terrorist activities or a counter-terrorist operation. This document was adopted in the Russian Federation in 2003 and received a massive role in the media's work in shaping relations between the population and terrorism185. To provide more space for discussion of counter-terrorism issues, not only inside the country but also abroad. It is also noted that security services should not excessively use the valuable information in the media, reducing the level of cooperation with the special services. It also means that it is necessary to increase the information polarity and reduce the interest in the actions of terrorists, cause a decrease in interest in their motivation on
183 Pipeline attacks: FG imports Russian War helicopters, UAVs from Dubai. August 21, 2016. URL: http://punchng.com/pipeline-attacks-fg-imports-russian-war-helicopters-uavs-dubai/ 184 Пленарное заседание 2017 г. Совместное заявление сопредседателей - 20.06.17. URL:http://www.mid.ru/web/guest/adernoe-nerasprostranenie/- /asset_publisher/JrcRGi5UdnBO/content/id/2790715 185 Agbo, J. Couter-Terrorism: Russia Partrners Nigerian Media // Leadership Nigeria Newspaper. July 10, 2017. URL: https://leadership.ng/2017/07/10/counter-terrorism-russia-partners-nigerian- media 83 the part of the population. The documents of Nigerian publishers have a higher degree of protection against terrorist acts. They inform the people of Nigeria and ensure effective interaction with security forces. In December 2015, Nigerian President Muhammadu Buhari made a premature declaration of victory against Boko Haram even though the announcement was followed by successive suicide bombings perpetrated by the northeast country. Boko haram has been designated as a terrorist organization by the United States, the United Nations, and the European Union. Examining the national security and public perception of the subject in Nigeria first as a measure for the anticipation of Nigeria's military cooperation with Russia, it will be realized that Boko Haram has indeed shaken the Nigerian citizens for over a decade thousands of lives have been killed and wasted brutally. Thousands have been displaced, while hundreds are in captivity and sexual slavery. Hundreds of Nigerian troops have lost their lives in this brutal battle. Several aspects of havoc prowled in the Abuja Kaduna highway, the sudden flares in Sokoto, the volatile situation in Zamfara, the death that strikes in Anambra, Benue, and Delta states, all of this spread of evil act has turned day into night in the lives of Nigerians, sweeping everyone off guard in order to inflict the most vicious and terrible marks on men, women and even children. These happenings are not something Nigerians wish to live another day with, so if it means Russia is coming into the picture to proffer a solution, it is for the best. Since 2010, the activity of Boko Haram has sharply increased, in connection with which a state of emergency is being imposed on the territory of some regions in the country. Terrorist activity in Nigeria is a rather complex phenomenon with its characteristic features. When analyzing the actions, one should take into account the historical and socio-cultural context, as well as the peculiarities of the economic development of specific geopolitical zones, be it the northwestern, in which Boko
84
Haram operates, the north-central, in which Fulani militants or southern zones covered by the struggle for oil and financial resources by several fractions. The estimated number of personnel that Boko Haram has at its disposal differs so much between different sources. In 2014, Cameroon's Ministry of Defense claimed that Boko Haram had 15 000 to 20 000 members while some other analysts estimated 9 000. Also, a close observer in Abuja gave an estimation of 6 000 in May 2017186. The fight against Boko Haram Insurgency continues with the support of international cooperation to the present. The displacement of citizens leads to migration to Europe. It is essential to note that one of the African continent's problems is the migration problem at this junction. Even though the African Union is actively collaborating with the United Nations and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, it is making significant efforts to ratify African normative acts relating to refugee issues187. In West Africa, Nigeria is a massive part, more or less is dominated by labor migration, temporary or circular, long or short duration. The instability observed on most of the continent is a severe obstacle to refugees' safety and internally displaced persons. Moreover, despite the numerous efforts of regional organizations, this problem remains. Nigeria's bilateral relations with Russia could be much less complicated than its relations with the United States and the United Kingdom, the former colonial power. Research shows that the United States' interest in Nigeria has waned in recent years. It is collected that Nigeria oil imports declined steeply as the US developed its energy resources. In contrast, Russia and China are increasingly spotted in Abuja, which is quite appealing and no query. It is all about providing affordable provision
186 Ibid 187 Коммегни Джоаддан Фонганг Приска, Юртаев В.И. «Конфликтная миграция» в Западной Африке: вызовы и пути решения /\ Африка: интеграция и социальное развитие : Ежегодник – 2019 = Africa: Integration and Social Development: Yearbook – 2019. C.152-162.
85 of effective, long-lasting solutions to Nigeria's security and development issues. As noted by Jeremy Hunt. UK Foreign Secretary indicated that although British military support would be available to Nigeria, as Nigeria is a sovereign state, it has to show more desire to want the UK military support Nigeria seeking Russian help to war against Boko Haram is full of exciting meanings amidst a season when the United States is not satisfied over the expansion of Chinese influence in Nigeria and Africa as a whole. It is important to note that Nigeria is seeking Russian assistance on the Boko Haram insurgency. Nigeria also wants Russia to render help with maritime security on the Gulf of Guinea. This shows that Nigeria looks forward to the Russian Navy becoming its security consultant on all issues relating to Nigeria's 800km maritime boundary. Nigerian military sources illuminate that Nigeria's decision to endorse Russian military arms supplies and military training was an interim measure because Nigeria's traditional allies, the United States and the United Kingdom, showed somewhat insufficient support and interest in assisting Nigeria counter Boko Haram. However, since no much has changed in the USA and UK's attitude towards the issue on the ground, Nigeria is now in a situation to request more Russian assistance against the Boko Haram Insurgency and pirates. In accordance to the Federal Law No. 35-ФЗ “On Countering Terrorism, Russia stands for the fight against Nigeria and terrorist threats while supporting efforts aimed at fighting them, strengthening the role in early coordinated actions, both by the Africans themselves and the entire world community. The estimated number of personnel that Boko Haram has at its disposal differs so much between different sources. It has been agreed by some that the overall goal of President Vladimir Putin’s assertive and autonomous foreign policy is that Russia should be recognized as a Great Power. Others noted that the reason for its engagement in Africa is probably diplomatic. Like many countries, Russia seeks to build good
86 relations with African states – notably through military ties and arms sales – to strengthen its position in the United Nations, get votes from African countries, and achieve support for particular Russian interests. Further strengthening of Russia- Nigeria military cooperation will go a long way to counter Boko haram, not only in Nigeria but also in West Africa. To sum up this paragraph, we ascertain that given the increase of terrorist activity in the last decade in Nigeria, the issues relating to an effective confrontation with various fractions in the country at different levels are exacerbated. The heterogeneous nature of the groupings and the cruelty they carry out acts of aggression against the country's civilian population. It is important to note that in both military technology and equipment and training, Russia provides an alternative source for African countries, including Nigeria.
87
CHAPTER THREE: ECONOMIC COOPERATION AND EDUCATIONAL AND CULTURAL TIES
3.1. Nigerian-Russian Trade and Economic Relations The bilateral treaties signed between both sovereign states in Nigeria and Russia have always had economic gain or the prosperity of those countries. Nigeria’s financial sector, which is one of the major backbones of its economy, has benefited from Russia's relationship in recent times. Renaissance Capital, a Russian-based financial investment consultancy group, begun its operation in sub-Sahara Africa by making Lagos, Nigeria, its operational office in 2006188. This facilitated the establishment of the Nigerian-Russian Business Council, intending to promote trade between the two states. This paved the way for the first visit of the Nigerian foreign minister, Ojo Maduekwe, to visit Moscow in 2009 for the bilateral discussions, which led to the treaties' birth, mentioned earlier on. According to Obasekola 2011189, several Russian companies are preparing to enter the Nigerian market with significant investment projects such as in the metallurgical and extraction industry such as hydrocarbon extraction, energy, metals, and farm mechanization. An assessment of the impact of the global economic downtown of 2008 revealed an increase in the volume of trade between Nigeria and Russia. According to Nigeria's central bank, the aggregated volume of trade in 2008 was about 300 million US Dollars, with other indirect investments bringing the figure to about 1.5 billion US Dollars between Nigeria and Russia.
188 NigeriaHC. Seven Point Agenda. Nigeria High Commission, London, 2015. URL: http://www.nigeriahc.org.uk/pdf/seven_point_agenda.pdf 189 Obasekola A.F. An assessment of the impact of the global economic downtown of 2008// Premium Times. November 24, 2008. 88
The deal between Russia’s Gazprom and Nigeria’s NNPC signed in 2009 for about 2.5 billion US Dollars for the extraction and transport of gas from fields in Nigeria has impacted both countries' economies, especially during the global economic downturn. 190 Nigeria and Russia share an in-depth view of regional and international issues, such as countering terrorism and extremism, helping in Africa's crises, primarily in the Sahara and the Sahel191. There is a Nigeria-Russia plan in stepping up in the fight against international terrorism that threatens both nations' national security and, objectively, the security of all. The image of Nigeria in attracting investors from around the world was recently tarnished through the operations of Boko-Haram, a terrorist group. In dealing with this group, the Nigerian government was refused support by the United States of America, an ally, when it needed to purchase weapons. Nigeria then pitched a tent with Russia to fight the groups together. Currently, Nigeria ranks as the second most important trading partner of Russia in sub-Saharan Africa, while Russia is Nigeria’s tenth-largest trade partner. Russia is an economic powerhouse and a perfect strategic trading partner, and as such, Nigeria should not waste time in forging a robust partnership with Russia192. There is a need for the Nigerian government to ratify the agreement on promoting investment to take the bilateral trade relations it has with Russia to the next level. Accordingly, reports show that the bilateral trade volume between the two countries is on the low. The trade volume between them presently is at 400 million dollars,
190 Gladius Commodities of Lagos, Nigeria: Market Report: Nigeria, Russia discuss partnership with NNPC. 2nd November, 2018 URL: https://africaoilandpower.com/2018/11/02/market-report- nigeria-russia-discuss-upstream-midstream-and-downstream-partnership-with-nnpc/ 191 Grant.M. Contemporary Strategic Analysis. Oxford Blackwell Publishing, 2008. 192 Ogiri Veronce. Nigeria: A Russian Trade Leading Partner // Vanguard News. 2009. March 23, 696). Pp. 67-89. 89 which the authorities of both countries agree is low and it ought to be many times on the increase, given the size of the markets of both countries. A strategic approach is required to achieve these goals. The strategic partnership between nations can be referred to as a formal alliance between them and is usually formalized in a bilateral agreement to advance the parties' interests. Although Nigeria and Russia already describe their relationship as a strategic partnership, which was demonstrated in November 2010, during the visit of the Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov to Nigeria in respect to marking the 50th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations, which has been between the two countries, in which the two countries concurred to give new impetus to their ties through a strategic partnership which is based on the historic agreements which were signed in 2009193. During the creation of the Nigerian-Russian Chamber of Commerce in 1999, which was created to unite about 160 Nigerian companies, an agreement was signed to establish the Intergovernmental Russian-Nigerian Mixed Commission on Economic, Scientific, and Technical Cooperation194. The trade turnover for 2002 amounted to $ 67.1 million, including exports - $ 64.9 million, imports - $ 2.2 million. The basis of Russian exports to Nigeria is metal-roll, building materials, buses, trucks, fertilizers, paper, electrical household appliances. Imports from Nigeria consist mainly of products from tropical agriculture (cocoa and cocoa products). Promising economic cooperation areas include cooperation in the water supply to cities, the oil and gas industry, energy, geology, and geological prospecting of solid minerals, civil and road-transport construction. There were three companies
193 Kapilary.S. Russia Strategic Partnership in Contemporary Geo-Political Context. 2010. Pp.67- 103. 194 Harmond.E.A. Scientific and Technical Cooperation. Uni Press United Kingdom, January, 2002. Pp .34-56. 90 with Russian participation operate in Nigeria. On May 14, 1999, the Nigerian- Russian Chamber of Commerce (NCPC) was established, uniting about 160 companies and local people in the business. Her delegation visited Moscow in the first half of October 1999195. Over the past two years, the NTPP has signed cooperation agreements with the TTP of Moscow196, the Republic of Tatarstan, the Moscow and Omsk regions, and the Ural region. In Moscow's Russian-Nigerian summit in 2001, the parties' mutual readiness was expressed to stimulate trade actively. In 2002, agreements and contracts were signed to deliver Kamaz, Sadko trucks, Gazel minibusses, Volga GAZ-3110 cars to Nigeria, and the possibilities of expanding purchases of rolled steel and mineral fertilizers Russia were discussed. In July 2004, the head of the Federal Energy Agency, SA Oganesyan, was approved as the chairman of the commission's Russian part. The first meeting of the IPC was held in Moscow on December 7-8, 2004. Furthermore, in March 2006, the Russian part of the Russian-Nigerian Business Council was formed, headed by businessman A. Abramyan On February 20, 2007197, the Agreement on the Establishment of the Russian-Nigerian Business Council, as well as the Agreement between the Russia-Nigeria Business Council and the Nigeria-Russia Business Council on the establishment of the Nigeria-Russian Trade Cooperation Center, were officially signed in Moscow industry, agriculture, health, technical development, and information technology. The changing in dynamics of global politics have once upon a time made Russia a superpower, and today a member of a 'medium power' group known as BRICS
195 Ibid 196 Poliakov Alexandr. The two Giants -Nigeria and Russia in the Face of Global Economic Meltdown: Exploring Options for Mutually Beneficial Cooperation. URL: .https://www.jstor.org/stable/j26664025? seq= 197 Kapilary.S. Russia Strategic Partnership in Contemporary Geo-Political Context. 2010. Pp.67- 103. 91
(Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa), Nigeria on the other hand, belongs to the D8 (Iran, Indonesia, Egypt, Nigeria, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Turkey, and Pakistan)198, the two countries tend to fetch for avenues in order to promote their interests in an obvious increasingly complex of the international arena, especially with China and India emerging as new global economic powers. Nigeria-Russia's search for economic advancement and global relevance should create a pathway for them to work hand in hand. For a fact, Russia has a lot in offering Nigeria in terms of technological aid already in their bilateral agreements199. In return, Nigeria can help Russia as a big market where Russian investors can flourish. There are other reasons why Russia and Nigeria should undoubtedly actualize their economic and trade relations. One of the two nations exhibits obvious commonalities that would add to their bilateral relations' strength—not forgetting that both countries practice federalism. They are both regarded and recognized as regional leaders. These countries are well gifted in human and material resources, which involve both hydrocarbon and agricultural land. Of course and clearly, Russia is the most advanced nation, so Nigeria obviously can benefit from Russia's excellent industrial capabilities and return the favor to Russia and encourage a solid framework to their economic cooperation. Notably, Russia is an economic powerhouse and a dependable strategic trading partner. Hence there was a reason for the Nigerian government to ratify the agreement, which was on the promotion of investment with an opportunity to take the bilateral trade ties it has with Russia to an advanced level200.
198 Aluko O. Essays on Nigerian Foreign Policy. London: George Allen & Unwin, 2001. 199 Ibid 200 Poliakov Alexandr. The two Giants -Nigeria and Russia in the Face of Global Economic Meltdown: Exploring Options for Mutually Beneficial Cooperation. URL: .https://www.jstor.org/stable/j26664025? seq= 92
For some, wealth is a blessing, but for others, it is a curse. In some countries, revenues from oil exports help develop the economy, while they destroy it in others. Nigerians were not lucky: of all the variety of possibilities, they have only three main activities: oil pipe guard; stealing oil from an oil pipe;201 attempts to blow up the oil pipe. Those who are more innovative are doing just that. Everyone else either serves them or is engaged in agriculture, that is, left to themselves and trying to get their forage in a rapidly deteriorating environmental situation. They were confidently moved in the same direction, industrial production is falling in most industries, and the experience of growing potatoes on six hundred parts already exists in our country for almost everyone who passed through the 90s at a conscious age. Due to extreme technological backwardness, Nigeria cannot extract its oil. Instead of it, large international oil companies are engaged in the development of fields, all equipment is imported, and all qualified specialists are foreigners. As Nigerian, we are in one step from this, although the “patriots” do not like to talk about it. Our beauty and pride, the world's largest oil platform, Berkut, was built by a consortium of ExxonMobil (30%), SODECO (30%), ONGC (20%), and Rosneft (also 20%)202. It was built by Samsung Heavy Industries under the project of the company Worley Parsons (Australia) at the shipyard in Okpo (Republic of Korea). The “our” share was left only with the platform's concrete base, built on the Russian port Vostochny near Nakhodka in the Far East by the company, Aker Solutions (Norway) rather, by its Aker Contracting Russia AS division. During construction, Aker Solutions was reorganized, and Aker Contracting Russia AS was renamed Kvaerner.
201 Gladius Commodities of Lagos, Nigeria: Market Report: Nigeria, Russia discuss partnership with NNPC. 2nd November, 2018. URL: https://africaoilandpower.com/2018/11/02/market- report-nigeria-russia-discuss-upstream-midstream-and-downstream-partnership-with-nnpc/ 202 World Bank Operational Policies. Countries ranked by Per Capita Income // The World Bank Operational Manual. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, July 24, 2003. 93
Nigeria and Russia are certainly one of the leading nations in oil and gas. Regarding energy security, both of them have been participating in the oil and gas sector and have organized a few gas experts203. They agreed to continue to cooperate for betterment. Although one could say that Nigeria is more of a gas nation than an oil nation because it has over 184 trillion cubic tones of gas, with the signing of the MOU with Russia, there will be a provision of great opportunity for exploitation of the gas resources. In February 2006, the Russian Aluminum company acquired a 75 percent stake worth about 250 million US dollars in Nigeria's largest aluminum manufacturing enterprise, Alskon. At the beginning of June 2006, the delegation of the company RUSAL, headed by its deputy director A.Ya. Livshits visited Nigeria and was received by the President of Nigeria Obasanjo. In 2007, there was a plan to launch the “Alskon” plant at its design capacity - about 200 thousand tons of aluminum. The arrival of RUSAL in Nigeria will allow the Russian company to create a closed cycle of aluminum production on the African continent (raw materials from Guinea are processed in Nigeria)204. One could also say Russia had always been interested in projects related to the development of Nigeria’s infrastructure; electric power generation, including nuclear energy; the ferrous and nonferrous metals industry; and the extraction of hydrocarbon and other raw minerals. On the other end, Nigeria has always been interested chiefly in all spectrums of bilateral economic cooperation, including the electricity sector. It is pleasant to know that Russia exports metals, fertilizers, and oil consumables to Nigeria, while Nigeria, on the other hand, exports agricultural products to Russian Federations205. However, Russia
203 Owambe Adele. Nigeria-Russia Energy Security // Let’s Talk Show, Lagos April 4, 2005. 204 Obonge L.L. RUSAL Arrival to Nigeria, 2010 // All Purpose Forum, August 2, 2010. 205Becky Olanle. Low trade volume with Nigeria worries Russia // Nigerian World Newspaper. 13 June, 2011. URL: http://www.nigeriannewspapersworld.com/plus/view.php?aid=3954.
94 appeared increasingly discontent with playing second fiddle to other nations such as China and India. The Russian Ambassador to Nigeria, Alexandra Polyakov, attributed the low trade volume in 2010 to the absence of a formal or legal framework to support the 2009 Investment Promotion Agreement signed by the two countries206. Furthermore, another big project of interest was to the Russians. It was the Trans-Saharan Gas pipeline, a project aimed at sending Nigerian gas to Europe, which is being supported by the EU to diversify energy resources. This indeed is of considerable interest to Gazprom due to its sole belief that it is far behind with the other foreign competitors in Africa, especially when it is being compared with companies such as Chevron, Royal Dutch Shell, and Exxon Mobil. However, by 2010 both Russia and Nigeria had also begun to explore discussions on space technology, nuclear energy, and partnerships in other technical fields. Notably, the two countries have signed a nuclear agreement. Trade and economic relations between Russia and Nigeria are characterized by solid growth. The largest trade partner of Russia among the countries of Africa is Nigeria. The issues of development of cooperation of the two countries were considered in the CCI at the meeting of the Business Council "Russia – Nigeria" with the participation of the delegation of the CCI of Nigeria's capital – Abuja207. As noted in the welcome speech of the Vice-President of the Federal Chamber Vladimir Padalko, positive trends in Russian-Nigerian relations must be developed. Furthermore, this should give domestic business correct information about Nigeria, show that it is possible to do business safely and profitably.
206 Ibid 207 Expanding Presence in the Heart of Africa of the Russian Business // The Main Task of the Business Council "Russia – Nigeria", According to Cci (Accessed May, 2016) 95
Moreover, it is based on facts. For the first nine months of this year, trade with Nigeria reached nearly $ 600 million208. However, not realized the full potential of trade-economic cooperation between our countries. Promising areas are the exploration and production of hydrocarbons and solid minerals, the supply of machinery and chemical products, aviation technology, nuclear cooperation, energy, and others. Chairman of the Business Council "Russia – Nigeria" Dmitry Osipov – General Director of PJSC Uralkali (the company is one of the world's largest manufacturers of potash fertilizers)209 stressed that the Council considers Africa in General and Nigeria in particular as a promising market. In this case, the interests of Russian business and the Nigerian leadership, who have chosen agriculture as one of the reference points of growth of the economy, coincide. Now in the business of the Council includes representatives from thirty-four Russian companies. Moreover, almost every one of them has their business interests in Nigeria. The largest Russian investor in the African country stands RUSAL. Investments of LUKOIL in Nigeria now exceed $ 450 million, and the company plans to increase to 6 billion210 [This Day, 2008: 3]. Working in this market and other well-known companies, including the most prominent Russian producer of agricultural machinery, "Rostselmash". However, their range can be extended. And here the role of the Russian-Nigerian Business Council. His head among the most essential tasks of the Union's work called the analysis of existing problems and elaboration of a consolidated position of Russian business on the most critical directions in trade-economic cooperation of two countries, organization of
208 Ibid. 209 Osipov Dmitry. Russia-Nigeria Business Investment // Business Council, 2016. 210 Nigeria-Russia Bilateral Agreements // This Day Online. Nigeria, 6 September, 2008. 96 interaction of business circles with representatives of power structures of Nigeria, the establishment and expansion of business contacts with Nigerian entrepreneurs211. In principle, the same problems are solved and CCI Abuja. Its President Antetokounmpo Kayode stressed that the history of Russian-Nigerian trade relations has more than a dozen years, recalled the "the Zhiguli" and "Volga" driving under the African sun. Now, of course, much has changed, but these traditions should not be forgotten. The government does a lot to establish in Nigeria, the business climate is favorable, including for Russian investors. Moreover, this work has been done in cooperation with the chamber of Commerce. The Nigerian economy with its markets keeps growing at a rapid pace. It is currently one of the largest markets on the continent. Economic development contributes to the high (up to 4.5 million people per year)212 population growth. Therefore, the presence in the heart of Africa of the Russian business would be welcome. Speaking at a joint meeting of the Minister-Counsellor of the Embassy of Nigeria in Russia Mercy Harun, Chairman of the Russian branch of the organization "Nigerians in Diaspora" (NIDO) Rex Assenova, the representative of the Institute of African studies Kirill Aleshin, the representative of RUSAL in Nigeria Oleg Svistunov and others noted the importance of the development of trade-economic relations between Russia and Nigeria and has made specific proposals on work of the Business Council213. At the meeting, it was signed the agreement on cooperation between the Business Council "Russia – Nigeria" and Abuja's CCI. The Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria hereinafter referred to as the Parties; Reaffirming the
211 Ibid. 212 Oscar Pete. Nigerian trade and Investment unit // Nigerian Economic Growth Forum. January 11, 2011. 213 Lola Ajayi, A. Russia-Nigeria Business Council// Continuity in Policy Programme. Nigerian Embassy, Moscow, June 15, 2001.
97 importance of dialogue between the Parties on a wide range of issues; Highly appreciating the relations between the Parties in the sphere of defense and security, and confirming the readiness of the Parties to strengthen them further; Recognizing the fact that existing relations between the Parties make a significant contribution to enhancing mutual trust214, understanding, peace and security in the African Region, Striving to expand further and deepen mutually beneficial cooperation in the field of defense between the Parties based on respect for sovereignty, mutual benefit, equality and non-interference in each other’s internal affairs; Agreed on the following (Annexure 4 for comprehensive details): Purpose of Cooperation: The purpose of this Agreement is to develop military cooperation between the Parties. Directions of cooperation: The Parties shall cooperate in the following main areas. Exchange of views and information on defense issues, strengthening confidence and international security, and strengthening the fight against terrorism. Agreement in the following forms: official visits of delegations of the Parties at various levels; participation at the invitation of the Parties in military exercises or attend them as observers; working meetings of military experts; participation in theoretical and practical training courses, seminars, conferences at the invitation of the Parties; military education and training; warship calls and military aviation visits; specialists for the implementation of joint activities in the military field. Protection of Intellectual Property215: The Parties acknowledge that in the course of the implementation of this Agreement, the results of intellectual activity and intellectual property belonging to the States of the Parties and their individuals and their legal entities can be created, used, and transferred.
214 Oscar Pete. Nigerian trade and Investment unit // Nigerian Economic Growth Forum. January 11, 2011. 215 Poliakov Alexandr. The two Giants -Nigeria and Russia in the Face of Global Economic Meltdown: Exploring Options for Mutually Beneficial Cooperation. URL: .https://www.jstor.org/stable/j26664025? seq= 98
Under the legislation, the States of each Party and international treaties to which the States of the Parties are parties, the Parties shall take the necessary measures to ensure legal protection of the results of intellectual activity and protection of intellectual property, as well as to prevent the unlawful use of such results of intellectual activity and intellectual property: The procedure for allocating rights to the results of intellectual activity created during the implementation of this Agreement216, their legal protection, and use, as well as the procedure for the protection and use of intellectual property obtained, used or transferred during the implementation of this Agreement, are the subject of a separate agreement of the Parties. Dispute Resolution217: Any disputes or disagreements arising between the Parties regarding the interpretation, implementation, or application of this Agreement are resolved by the Parties through consultations and negotiations, which should begin no more than 60 days from the date of receipt of the written notice through diplomatic channels about the need to hold them. The diplomatic relations between Nigeria and Russia have not been without some low moments. There had been some obvious challenges that prevent Nigeria and Russia's bilateral relations from attaining a greater height. One of such low moments was a protest from the Russian government when there was a delay in Nigeria prosecuting some Greek sailors charged for oil bunkering and illegal possession of Nigerian oil, thereby sabotaging the country's economy218. Russia was not pleased with the Nigerian government proponent in the sailor's trial. The situation, with time, put a strain on Russia's diplomatic ties with Nigeria. However, it is essential to note that the sailors were eventually convicted by the Nigerian court,
216Ibid 217 Adeola Feritinda. Dispute Resolution of States // Political Science Journal. University of Owerri, 4 January 2011. 4(6). Pp. 23-48. 218 Johnson F.N. Critical reflections for continuous mutual co-operation // International Journal of African Political Studies. 2009. No.5(1). Pp. 1–31. 99 and each of them was given six months sentence, which was part of a plea bargain. Reportedly, the sailors were later released because they have already spent almost two years in pre-trial custody of the Nigerian Law Enforcement Agency219. June 2007 was another quite bad moment in Nigeria-Russia's bilateral relations when the Niger-Delta Region of Nigeria abducted six Russian employees of the Russian Aluminum Company (RUSALC)220. The Nigerian government's inability to swiftly see to their rescue caused a strain between the two countries. After two months, the Russian employees were safely rescued by a team comprised of the Nigerian Army and Police, after which Russia and Nigeria were able to forge ahead gradually. The National Assembly of Nigeria's inability to ratify the several agreements that were signed with Russia is also a problem. Besides, there had been a slow pace of trade and economic cooperation between the two countries due to the lack of a legal framework for the 2009 Investment Promotion Agreement. Another challenge of Nigeria-Russia bilateral relations is that in terms of exportation between the two countries, Russia exports military hardware, fertilizer, metals, and oil consumables to Nigeria. In contrast, Nigeria exports only agricultural products to Russia221 . There is undoubtedly a need for diversification of the items between the two countries, thereby Nigeria increasing its exports to the Russian Federation. Currently, the volume of Russian-Nigerian trade relations is low (Russia's share in Nigeria's foreign trade is 0.5%). However, in recent years, there has been
219 John Willson. Mutual Cooperation: A reflection // International Journal of African Political Studies, 2009. No.5(3). Pp. 11–50. 220 NTPC looking to revisit proposal for Nigeria venture // The Economic Times. 13 February, 2009. URL: http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2009-02- 13/news/28539623_1_trincomaleeregion-coal-and-gas-based-power 221 Johnson F.N. Critical reflections for continuous mutual co-operation // International Journal of African Political Studies. 2009. No.5 (1). Pp. 1–31. 100 some growth. In 2006, according to the Federal Customs Service of Russia, the Russian-Nigerian trade turnover amounted to 145.6 million dollars. The principal articles of Russian exports are ferrous metals, petroleum products, fertilizers, paper, building materials, automotive equipment, Imports, and cocoa beans222. Furthermore, even though there had been an agreement on technical assistance in the establishment of the first nuclear plant, which includes training of Nigerian engineers on the foundation basics of such plants, in order to achieve it, there is an obvious need for political will at the highest level, especially on the part of Nigeria. As suggested by Professor Dmitri Bondarenko, who is the Deputy Director of the Russian Academy of Sciences Institute of Africa223, it is of essence that Russia on its part tries as much to extend some preferences as regarding terms of tax reduction or exemption on some certain goods coming from Nigeria, this will surely help to boost the trade between the two countries further. There are several new opportunities in Nigeria, and Russia Relations in the eyes of Africa as the scope for Russian-African partnership is significantly growing in recent times as Russia looks to restore full-scale relations and cooperation with African countries with mutual interests as its primary goal. This is evident in the statements of some well-meaning Russian officials who have officially declared that Africa is in the mainstream of Russia's foreign policy224. However, there is nothing to boast about in this relationship between Russia and African countries as they have several challenges. As major traditional partners of Africa continue to slack on their
222 Agubamah E. Nigeria-Russia Relations: After and now // European scientific Journal. 2014. P. 193–201. 223 Edeth Okafor. Prospects and Challenges of Nuclear Plant in Nigeria /\ Science and World, International scientific journal. 2016. № 7 (35), Vol. II. 224 Deji Obaniko. Russia-Africa Foreign Policy Formation Stage. Ibadan, University Press, Nigeria, 2017. 101 guardianship, Russia provides African countries with an opportunity to determine how they want to champion their national interest with other partners. To expand the space for maneuvering and weaken the Euro-Atlantic community's dominance, Africans are determined to make partnerships with rising new power centers in world politics and their associations, like the BRICS, ASEAN, etc. In line with traditions of shut relationship, set down within the times of their struggle for national liberation, and necessary cognitive process that Russia can come back to club of the foremost authoritative actors on the continent and strengthen its vital role in international affairs225, Africans need to examine it as their privileged partner. Russia’s development programs and reliable international forecasts make sure the validity of such expectations. The United States National Intelligence Council recently invited experts to conduct a study on international Trends 2025. Their results showed that Russia could smartly develop and retain its place among the eight most powerful and authoritative stateswithin the next decade. However, the conditions for developing relations can still stay challenging and complex, involving large political and business risks. African countries, particularly within Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), are likely to be the foremost vulnerable region within the world in terms of economic threats, internal conflicts, and political instability. The events of the Arab Spring in 2011 are simply the newest proof of this. However, we must always bear in mind that the continent resembles a ray of sunshine by countries’ indicators. Some countries and regions can build the required potential for political and economic
225 Ajetun, Richard. Impact of the personality on Nigerian foreign policy //Journal of Social Sciences Nigeria. 2017. 8. P. 56-70. 102 breakthroughs, whereas the others can still stagnate, staying afloat chiefly thanks to international aid. 226 According to a forecast by European experts, countries on the continent show stability in their economy and politics, seventeen Sub-Saharan Africa countries, including Ghana, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Rwanda, Tanzania, Sao Tome, and Principe, Ethiopia, Seychelles, and South Africa. This is expected to be more stable by 2050. These countries have been referred to in recent times as African Lions. However, the countries with which one has to establish a stronger relationship depend on their selection criteria that align with their foreign policy. According to Korendyasov and Vasilyev, 2013 there are enough opportunities in Russian-African relations that have the potential of developing Russia's position in world politics and economics. However, they suggest that Russia should engage in the following activities:
• Define clear guidelines and priorities of Russian policy towards Africa;
• Create conditions for the promotion of Russian goods and investments in African markets;
• Set up mechanisms of financial support by the state of export and investment projects, which is a compulsory condition for successful Russian business activity on the African continent;
• Creating a mechanism (or an Agency) to promote international development227;
226 Korendyasov Evgeny & Vasilyev Aleksey. Russian-African relations in ten years: a new start. June 21, 2013. URL: https://russiancouncil.ru/en/analytics-and-comments/analytics/russian- african-relations-in-ten-years-a-new-start/ 227 Ibid 103
• Supporting and encouraging Russian investment in the mining sector of Africa; offering Russian companies incentives to acquire assets in the mining industry, including cooperation with large companies from third countries;
• Introducing tariff preferences for trade with African partners;
• Increased rendering of educational services and technical assistance in training;
• Setting up mechanisms to establish and maintain close contacts with the Southern African Development Community, Economic Community of the West African States and other regional organizations;
• Creating a platform for Russia - Africa collective dialogue. Some achievements in these directions have already been chalked. Both parties need each other228. Africa needs Russia. Russia needs Africa. This is necessary, especially now when both parties are facing economic and political challenges. According to Chkoniya 2019, Russia re-establishing its relationship with African countries is a fait accompli. It suggests that Russia has much to offer developing countries on the continent with a diplomatic tie and political cooperation. Russia has been providing and will continue to provide security and peacekeeping assistance to nations in Africa. Russia is also likely to benefit from the growing middle class on the African continent, translating into increased demand for goods and consumption229. This could be explored by Russia and the minerals and natural resources that abound on the continent, of which most countries on the continent lack the expertise to mine them. Russia focuses its diplomacy on the entire continent but develops a strong partnership with some, usually bilateral230.
228 Torendo Eva. Russian-African relations in view // Equilibrium Focus Stats. July 11, 2013. URL: https://russiancouncil.ru/en/analytics-and-comments/analytics/russian-african-relations 229 Chkoniya Lora. What Russia Can Offer Africa. August 26, 2019. 230 Boral Lerent. Opportunities for Russia and Africa// Premium News. 2017. August 21. 104
In terms of trade and investments, Russia’s trade with African nations has revealed positive dynamics in recent years. According to Russia's Federal Customs Service, trade between Russia and Africa totaled $17.4 billion in 2017 and $20.4 billion in 2018. Russia’s trade and economic relations in Africa are more highly developed with North Africa countries; however, trade with countries south of the Sahara has also been growing in recent years. Russia’s leading trade partners in Africa are Egypt, Algeria, Morocco, and South Africa231. In recent times, there have been positive trade dynamics with at least half of the countries in Africa, particularly Ethiopia, Cameroon, Angola, Sudan, and Zimbabwe. Namibia, Nigeria, Angola, Mozambique, Rwanda, and Guinea are also becoming essential partners to Russia. A wide range of food and goods, including oil products, chemicals, fertilizers, engineering products, and machine tools, is imported from Russia by these countries. Russia supplies large volumes of wheat to South Africa, Morocco, Kenya, Libya, Sudan, Nigeria, and Egypt232. Some African countries such as Nigeria, Egypt, Cote d’Ivoire, Benin, Guinea-Bissau, the Central African Republic, Guinea, Burkina Faso, and Mali have recently increased the volume of vegetables and fruit exports to Russia. Africa remains and is becoming a stable future market for Russian grains and agricultural equipment. This is an area of future mutual benefit as most countries in Africa aims to eradicate hunger and poverty by initiating programs to increase their food production on the vast land available to most of them. Business Opportunities in Real-Estate Development: Nigerian-Russian relations can strengthen their ties in real estate and housing schemes. Housing remains on a top priority list in Nigeria. Observation has shown that Russia has better
231 Aliyah, K. Africa's Policy and Image Crisis // Adextion Publishing House, Lagos, Nigeria 2015, 16(2). Pp.50-63. 232 Edeth Edward. Africa-Russia Trade and Business Investment // Resteron Publishing House, Ghana, 2018. 8(4). Pp. 78-90. 105 urban planning and real estate development master plan. The aesthetics of their building and town planning is superb. In Nigeria, there is a low supply and strong demand for urgent housing units. However, it appears like a hardly realizable dream for developers' inadequate supply and weak inefficient demands by buyers or patronizers233. Nigeria is currently facing terrifying housing statistics. According to a conservative estimate of the housing deficit in the country, the challenge is put at 17 million units. The country’s total housing stock is about 13 million units for about 200 million populations, as Chuka Uroko reported on the 21st of May, 2019, in business day Nigeria dailies. Of the 13 million, 95 percent have no formal mortgage234. Besides a low homeownership level, which is a little above 10 percent as against Singapore’s 65 percent, UK’s 74 percent, and over 80 percent in the US, a compiled report by the piston housing company says 80 percent of the Nigerian population lives in the rented accommodation and thereby spending 50 percent of their income on housing rent. The low standard housing situation was made worse in the country between 2016 and 2017 during the economic recession, which hit the sector harder than ever before. Real estate remained in a recession long after the economy exited from the 235 recession in Q2 of 2017 . All housing problems in Nigeria revolve around finance. Another interesting recent report by Reuters noted that ‘housing finance remains in its infancy in Nigeria’ because this accounts for the low mortgage and GDP ratio of 0.6 percent that compares unfavorably with South African’s 31 percent. However, the government has compiled claims for its limited budgetary funds expert expect
233 Oworiyeh A. Nigeria Business Opportunities in Real-Estate Development //Bussiness Today Journal. October 4, 2018. 234 Chuka Uroko. Nigeria Housing Mortgage /\ International Relations Journal. Portharcourt, Nigeria. 2015. 7(8). Pp. 45-68. 235 Richard H. Nigeria Housing Impact on the Economic //Journal of Social Sciences Nigeria. 2014, 8. Pp. 56-79. 106 that, given its social and developmental roles, the government should be filling that vacuum within the housing industry or creating the enabling environment for private sector partnerships or operators. This housing scenario creates another opportunity for the Russia-Nigeria partnership236. Russia stands to benefit more if it can build a strong partnership with Nigerian counterparts in estate development. Considering the colossal market niche and population density of the Nigerian urban areas with fewer housing units, their cooperation would be a long sustainable investment Substantial Mineral resources development and investment opportunities in Nigeria: It is no longer news that the Nigerian economy is ranked the largest in Africa and probably the 30th globally with a gross domestic product of approximately 400 billion US dollars in 2018237. This is possible because Nigeria is richly endowed with mineral resources, particularly liquid fuels (petroleum) and solid energy minerals such as bitumen and coal. The bitumen resources are the 2nd largest globally. Simultaneously, non-metallic (industrial) minerals and rocks such as barite, halite (salt) gemstones, limestone, gold, copper, uranium, steel, marble, and granite also occur abundantly in many parts of the country. These natural resources are being harnessed as raw materials for industrial and infrastructural development and import substitution. Metallic ores of iron, lead zinc, gold tin, and manganese have been found in substantial quantities in some parts of the country, according to Olade 1981 and 2018238. However, Nigeria's stable mineral sector has not been efficiently managed, and therefore, it is underdeveloped. It is a situation where minerals that can be quickly produced and beneficial in the country are imported. Simultaneously,
236 Agbutera, O. Nigeria-Russia Partnership // The Guardian Newspaper. June 10, 2015. URL: https://guardian.ng/opinion/nigeria-and-russia-partnership-discuss-1/ 237 Nigeria Economic Rank in African Continent // Premium News. 2018, February 23. 238 Olade O.T. Nigeria Infrastructural Development // Poltical and Social Science Year Book of University of Ibadan. 2018 March 2. Pp. 78-102. 107 substantial quantities of gold and gemstones worth hundreds of millions of dollars extracted by illegal mining are being smuggled out of the country with attendant loss of revenues. Available records also indicated that in 2017 alone, Nigeria imported more than 45 million US dollars of industrial minerals and 3 billion US dollars’ worth of iron and steel products. At the time, Nigeria loses up to 10,00kg of smuggled gold annually with an estimated worth of over 400 million US dollars239. Nigeria- Russian relations can also seize the opportunity the platform provides. There is a need for joint implementation of transport system projects in Nigeria. We know that the modern transportation system has gone beyond passengers' movement from one point to another; automated machine payment and security inbuilt, among other features, are the trends nowadays. Russia has one of the world’s most efficient and comprehensive transport systems the world240. Public transport, including the famous Moscow Metro, is an extensive network of subways and surface transit. All kinds of modes of transport exist such abuses, trolleybuses and trams and efficient taxi. A bike-share system is also available. The Metro system is dated as far back as 1935 when it had only two lines. Today, the Moscow metro contains twelve lines, mostly underground with 196 stations and modern constructions and designs attractive to every eye. For instance, local transport in Moscow is one of the cheapest compared with other cities worldwide241. The metro is one of the most resonant subway systems globally, measuring up to 84 meters (276 ft.) underground with the longest escalator in Europe. This has shown how far Russia has developed in terms of the transport system.
239 Opeyemi Ayeola. What is the way forward in our solid mineral // A n T Disscuss. February 12, 2019. 240 Ganiyah Andy. Insight on the Nigerian Transportation over Decade // Daily Times. 2017. 5(8) .Pp. 112-134. 241 Getting to Russia: Arriving by Train". //The Moscow Times. Archived from the original on 28 May 2016. Retrieved 3 July 2019. 108
Unlike Russia, Nigeria is facing severe many transportation problems242. The problem can be divided into three, which may include exogenous, operational, and administrative. The inland transport in Nigeria has developed through three stages- namely inland water transport from pre-colonial days to the 1900s. During the last quarter of the 19th century, the introduction of railways followed. According to Deich T.L. on China’s Contribution into Africa’s Transport Infrastructure243, it is essential to note that the first focus was on the continent's transport system. However, due to the slowdown in the Chinese economy, it has made it easy to predict the decline in China's economic cooperation with Africa, even though the Chinese leadership proceeds to pursue the policy of supporting Chinese companies to foreign markets and encouraging investment projects in Africa. Currently, Nigeria is upgrading its railway infrastructure244 through rehabilitation works and supply. Though the federal government has assigned concessions for this upgrading, opportunities still abound for more investors to render their services. This is where Russia comes in. However, it is essential to elaborate that the priority areas for most Russian investors in Africa have been the mining and energy sector. Russia is currently developing the world’s second-largest platinum deposit in Zimbabwe245, which could benefit the Zimbabwean economy, turning it into a giant on the global platinum market. Other areas of investments include manufacturing, transport, and agriculture, as mentioned earlier.
242 Favour Nnabugwu. FG commences privatisation of Nigerian Railway // Vanguard Nigeria. Retrieved 2019-02-01. 243 Дейч Т.Л.. Вклад Китая в транспортную инфраструктуру Африки /\ Африка: устойчивое развитие и дипломатия диалога : Ежегодник – 2017 = Africa: Sustainable Development and the Diplomacy of Dialogue : Yearbook – 2017. C. 137-150. 244 Ibid 245 ZimTrade. The National Trade Development and Promotion Organisation of Zimbabwe// The Voice of Busines., 13 Januray, 2018. URL: https://www.tradezimbabwe.com/priviledged- partners/zimbabwe-national-chamber-commerce1 109
Energy agreements have also been signed in recent times with several African Countries. Russia’s State Atomic Energy Corporation, ROSATOM246, has signed corporation agreements with Morocco, Egypt, Zambia, South Africa, Sudan, and the Republic of the Congo, and others for the development of nuclear energy. Sudan and Senegal have also expressed interest in joint oil and gas projects with Russia247. The president of Senegal, Macky Sall, in 2018 at a meeting with Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin, mentioned the large oil reserves in Senegal and expressed his wish that Russia will help Senegal assess these sites and provide technical training to its citizens in the oil and gas industry to develop these mineral deposits for their development248. However, it is vital that Russia focuses on developing the energy sector in Africa and developing the domestic industries and infrastructure to help create jobs in these African countries. This could be a positive step for the continent, as evident in some Russian businesses who have found niches in some African countries for business. One of such companies is Lisma, a Russian company located in the Republic of Mordovia. They have recently set up a joint venture in Burundi to manufacture lamps and streetlights for the East African market249. A fish processing plant was opened in 2015 in Senegal financed by Russian investors. This project is the largest of its kind in West Africa. The Russian Export Centre has opened a Russian Industrial Zone (RIZ) in Egypt to view that it becomes the largest center for promoting goods and services
246 Aliyu, Abubakar Kabir; Modu, Babangida; Tan, Chee Wei. A review of renewable energy development in Africa: A focus in South Africa, Egypt and Nigeria // Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. January 2018. Vol.8 (12). Pp. 2502–2518. 247 Ibid 248 Argentine Florence. Macky Sall meets Putin: a boost from foreign leaders // TikTak News. 19 January 2018. 249 Edereo H.T. The Revolution Onboard// Wayback Greenpeace. Archived 6 August 2018. Pp. 15-27. 110 from Russia on the African continent. The activities of RIZ also have beneficial impacts on the economies of Egypt and Russia. Russian companies have been executing corporate social responsibilities in some parts of Africa. They have been supporting some development projects on the continent. A typical example is a partnership between Russia and RUSAL in the fight against Ebola in Guinea. The partnership has yielded significant results in the prevention of the spread of Ebola in the country. A medical center was built in Guinea by RUSAL during the peak of the epidemic. The center is one of its kind in West Africa in terms of technology and equipment at its disposal for diagnosis and treatment. The centre has been used as a place for the study of communicable diseases in Guinea and a training centre for epidemiologists. The most important event in respect of the Ebola epidemic was the presentation delivered by Russian scientists at an international conference in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in July 2019 of the latest vaccine against the Ebola virus, which diverges significantly from the alternatives provided by the western scientist thanks to its safety, absence of side effects, ease of storage, transportation, its use and most importantly, it provides effective immunity against Ebola.250 Despite the successes above in trade development and increased investments by Russian companies in the private sector, Russia still lags behind the West and China in terms of economic penetration in Africa. Diligent work and commitment are required to establish stronger partnerships with African countries251. In October 2019, President Buhari, and President Putin reached a new agreement to strengthen Nigeria-Russia Relations. They reached a mutual opinion that it is crucial to put Nigeria-Russia relations on a fast track and pursue the
250 Kortunov Andrey. “Seven Capital Vices” of China in Africa: How Capital Are They Really? 2019 251 Chkoniya Lora. What Russia Can Offer Africa. August 26, 2019. 111 completion of partially completed and abandoned projects initiated by both countries252. The two leaders agreed to start new infrastructure projects and expand trade and investment, security, and military cooperation. In statements made by the two presidents, Nigeria and Russia will work together to improve Nigeria’s oil sector's efficiency, which is the backbone of the country’s economy253. There is an agreement to establish a framework for a joint venture between Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) and Russia-based leading oil company, Lukoil, to work towards prospection of oil deep offshore. The issue of uncompleted and abandoned Ajaokuta Steel Rolling Mill was presented by President Buhari. President Vladimir Putin accepted his request for Russia's return on a government-to-government relationship for completion and commissioning of the plant. Moreover, also, the Russian government agreed to support the development of Nigeria’s rail infrastructure by constructing 1,400 kilometers track from Lagos to the South-South city of Calabar. The two Presidents also addressed partnership in education and agriculture. The Russian leader Vladimir Putin noted that the Russian government is ready to give additional scholarships to Nigerians. On security and military cooperation, one that existed for fifty-nine years of Nigeria’s independence, President Buhari agreed to renew Nigeria-Russia Military Technical Agreement that had lapsed within a short time. This military cooperation agreement is expected to give impetus further cooperation of military hardware on a government-to-government basis at a lower cost and training of military personnel and modernization of armed forces and renewal of infrastructure and equipment that President Putin promised to undertake. According to President Putin, 2,000 ex-ISIS
252 Alfa Shaban, Abdur Rahman. LIST: African presidents, PMs attending Russia - Africa summit //Africanews. Retrieved 27 October 2019. 253 Ezere Aturi. President Buhari Meets President Putin in Sochi // Wall Africa News, October 26. 112 terrorists joined Boko Haram last year. Furthermore, He expressed his further determination to secure Nigeria and the rest of Africa from this terrorist insurgency.
3.2. The Nigeria-Russia Energy Cooperation and Projects: Success and Problems. Energy experts have recently assessed and suggested that African countries are interested in investments, technologies, and cooperation in Russia's energy. According to Giles 2013, the relationship between Russia and Africa, especially sub- Sahara Africa, is developing. However, the leaders of these countries have to ensure the right policies to implement energy projects in Africa. This was illustrated during the signing of the Nigeria-Russian Agreement on cooperation in atomic energy's peaceful uses254. The Russian Export Center has recently been accepted as shareholders of Afreximbank. This Pan-African multilateral trade finance institution was created in 1993 under the African Development Bank's umbrella to expand and diversify African trade. According to Georgy Kalamanov, Deputy Minister of Industry and Trade of the Russian Federation, this partnership was created to increase exports from Russia to Africa and the establishment of joint energy projects between them. He further suggests that Russian energy companies see the African market as an ideal place for their projects, especially in an era where technology in the sector is revolutionized, and Russia has received several economic sanctions. 255 According to the Nigerian Ministry of Finance, an agreement between the government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the government of the Russian
254 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria on cooperation in the peaceful uses of atomic energy. Abuja, Aso Rock on June 24, 2009. URL: http://docs.cntd.ru/document/902243406 255 Giles, Keir. Russian Interests in Sub-Saharan Africa // Army War College Carlisle Barracks Pa Strategic Studies Institute, 2013. 113
Federation on the mutual promotion and protection of capital investments Decree was signed256. The constant growth of the African continent population has also been a major attraction for Russian investments in the energy sector. The population is now about 1.2 billion, making it a huge market for investors. The increase in population also translates to high demand for energy. About half of the continent's population has no electricity making the partnership one with good prospects. Joint workgroups on energy cooperation can help ensure the partnership. Such groups have been in operation in countries such as South Africa and Angola. Insufficient technical equipment across most refineries on the continent, especially in major oil- producing countries such as Nigeria and Angola, is a challenge for refineries that lack a secondary process for their maximum capacity. The cooperation between Russia and Africa should be mutually beneficial. The exploitation of renewable energy sources on the continent concerning solar energy and wind energy could benefit Africa to resolve its energy deficit. At a recent roundtable discussion on energy, all the energy experts agreed that for more Russian operators to implement projects across the continent as part of an African Union Agenda for 2063 requires the expansion and diversification of the Russia-African cooperation.257 The Nigerian Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources ascertained that an Agreement Statement in the Design and Construction of Multi-Purpose Research Reactor Complex in Nigeria258 was signed by both countries. Despite Nigeria being the most populous country in Africa and a major oil-exporting country, the irony is
256 Agreements on the mutual promotion and protection of capital investments Decree. Nigerian Ministry of Finance. April 24, 2010. Abuja, Aso Rock, on June 24, 2009 (accessed at the Embassy of Nigeria, Moscow on the 20 March 2019). 257 Kester Kenn Klomegah. Africa Interested in Energy Cooperation with Russia // OPED, 2013. 258 Agreement Statement in the Design and Construction of Multi-Purpose Research Reactor Complex in Nigeria. Nigerian Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources. Abuja, Aso Rock, June 17, 2016 (accessed at the Embassy of Nigeria, Moscow on the 20 March 2019).
114 that one of the significant oil-producing countries on the continent has suffered a chronic energy crisis for many years. These have been because of perpetual problems associated with the supply of resources and technology. This has led most of its policymakers to express a keen interest in exploring alternative energy sources such as nuclear power, of which Russia is a giant in this field. According to Lowbeer-Lewis 2010, Nigeria has in recent times sped up efforts toward commissioning its first nuclear plant as part of the long-term plan of the Nigerian Atomic Energy Agency, which has called for about 4,000 Mw of nuclear energy by the year 2027. The country is still in the second phase of the International Atomic Energy Agency assessment framework for countries or states adopting nuclear power for the first time and is undertaking the necessary steps to construct a nuclear power plant by 2020. Despite Nigeria's progress, it still has to ratify some international bilateral treaties and technical cooperation agreements with Russia. 259 As given by the Nigerian Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, one of the signed Agreements to this effect is the Agreement on Cooperation on Nuclear Energy for Peaceful Purposes in June 2016260. Also, there was an establishment of the Agreement on the signing of $20 Billion Nuclear Project Development Agreements on the 1st November 2017 261 Presently, new hopes in Moscow and Abuja are news that the two countries’ annual commercial ties have to be increased rapidly to billions of dollars during the next few years262. In response to that, Russia has made plans to render help to Nigeria
259 Lowbeer-Lewis, Nathaniel. Nigeria and nuclear energy: Plans and prospects. 2010. 260 Agreement by the government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the government of the Russian Federation on Cooperation on Nuclear Energy for Peaceful Purposes. Nigerian Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, Abuja, Aso Rock, June 22, 2016. 261 Agreement of the Nigerian government and Russian government on the signing of $20 Billion Nuclear Project Development Agreements. Nigerian Ministry of Energy, Abuja, Aso Rock, 1st November, 2017. 262 Lowbeer-Lewis, Nathaniel. Nigeria and nuclear energy: Plans and prospects.2010. 115 to explore oil and gas and build nuclear power plants, petroleum pipelines, railways, and infrastructures. In November 2010, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation visited Nigeria, Sergey Lavrov. In the meeting with the then President of Nigeria Goodluck Jonathan where they discussed issues of peacekeeping and conflict resolution and the state of Russian-Nigerian relations and prospects for the implementation of large-scale investment projects in the fields of energy, mining hydrocarbon raw materials, metallurgy, and mechanization of agriculture263. Over the past few years, events have been held more than once Nigeria and Russia: Round Table Organized by the Africa Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Embassy of the Federal Republic of Nigeria in the Russian Federation on “Nigerian-Russian Relations: Past, Present and Future” 2013, Russian-Japanese business and investment forum dedicated to the 53rd anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations and the 50th anniversary of the opening of the Nigerian Embassy in Russia in 2013, the World Economic Forum in Davos (2016) and others, which, as expected, should have strengthened the trade and economic relations of the countries264. Also discussed and signed agreements in the field of nuclear energy, intentions on cooperation between the companies "Nigeria LNG" and "Gazprom", on the expansion the cooperation of Lukoil with the Nigerian company NNPC in Nigeria, agreement on the development of projects for the construction and operation of nuclear power plants and the Center with a multi-purpose research reactor on the
263 Africa Interested in Energy Cooperation with Russia / OPED. May 19, 2019. URL: https://www.eurasiareview.com/19052019-africa-interested-in-energy-cooperation-with-russia- oped/ 264 Denisova T.S. Nigeria after 2011 presidential election // God planety [Year of Planet]. Moscow, Ideya-Press Publ. Pp. 429–441.
116 territory of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, “road map "of cooperation in the field of the peaceful use of atomic technology, etc. However, attempts to accelerate economic relations were crowned with success: the trade turnover between the countries is growing slowly. The economic relations between Nigeria and Russia might be said to be not consistent with the long-standing cordial relations that have been between both countries. We posit that this could be attributed to the apparent inadequate knowledge of the many available investment opportunities in both countries. For a fact, Nigeria is indeed a vast market with huge potentials for prospective foreign investors' benefits, and the same applies to Russia. However, it is worth noting that investors from both countries seem to know little about these various opportunities. The utmost problem of a low volume of trade and trade imbalance between Nigeria and Russia can be traced to the apparent inadequate information on the vast investment opportunities available in both countries. However, substantial efforts have been made by the Embassy to increase awareness among Nigerian investors and their Russian counterparts on the many available investment opportunities. Series of meetings have been held with the Russian Chambers of Commerce and Industry, Russia-Nigerian Business Council265 , and several companies and private-owned business establishments here in the Russian Federation to promote economic partnership between them. One such step is the Agreement Statement in the Energy Security Investment between Nigeria and Russia, carried out on the 23rd April 2019.266 The objectives include deepening the existing cordial relations between our two friendly countries;
265 Africa Interested in Energy Cooperation With Russia // OPED. May 19, 2019. URL: https://www.eurasiareview.com/19052019-africa-interested-in-energy-cooperation-with-russia- oped/ 266 Agreement Statement in the Enery Security Investment Complex in Nigeria. Nigerian Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources. Abuja, Aso Rock, April 23, 2019 (accessed at the Embassy of Nigeria, Moscow on the 18 July 20190. 117 to open Nigeria to Russian investors regarding our vast business opportunities, and exposing investment openings in the Russian Federation to Nigerian investors. In order to improve the trade imbalance that is between both countries, the Economic, Trade, and Investment Section of the Embassy has been rigorously involved in educating and informing Nigerian investors of the investment opportunities in Russia, as well as providing necessary assistance they may require to invest in Russia. As stated by the Nigerian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, there was a Report on the Protocol on Inter-Governmental Nigeria-Russia Joint Commission on Economic, Scientific and Technical Cooperation between the two countries on the 15th of July, 2019267. In recent times, reports have it that efforts have been made in the attempt to improve the economic and trade relations between both countries through the means of rigorous sensitization interfaces and negotiations which are carried out by the Embassies of both countries. Since the resumption of Professor Ugbah to office as Nigerian Ambassador to the Russian Federation, he has held several talks with many Russian companies who have demonstrated a keen interest in investing in Nigeria and an interest in resuscitating various abandoned economic projects268. With the current sensitization drive on the economic potentials in both countries, there seems to be an encouragement in upsurging of interest that they have observed recently with an increasing number of interactions between several private businesses in Nigeria and Russia. So, given this development, we ascertain that there will be a tremendous improvement in the economic relations between both countries quickly.
267 Report on the Protocol on Inter-Governmental Nigeria-Russia Joint Commission on Economic, Scientific and Technical Cooperation. Nigerian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Abuja, Aso Rock, November 11,2016 (accessed at the Embassy of Nigeria, Moscow on the 15 July 2019). 268 Shughah I.T. Resuscitating Abandoned Economic Projects // Vanguard Times. May 24, 2019. Lagos, Nigeria. 118
Nigeria and Russia are certainly one of the leading nations in oil and gas. Regarding energy security, both of them have been participating in the oil and gas sector and have organized a few gas experts. They agreed to continue to cooperate for betterment. Although one could say that Nigeria is more of a gas nation than an oil nation because it has over 184 trillion cubic tones of gas, with the signing of the MOU with Russia, there will be a provision of great opportunity for exploitation of the gas resources. In February 2010, the Russian Aluminum company acquired an 80 percent stake worth about 300 million US dollars in Nigeria's largest aluminum manufacturing enterprise, Alskon. At the beginning of June 2010269, the delegation of the company RUSAL, headed by its deputy director A.Ya. There was a plan to launch the “Alskon” plant at its design capacity - about 200 thousand tons of aluminum. The arrival of RUSAL in Nigeria will allow the Russian company to create a closed cycle of aluminum production on the African continent (raw materials from Guinea are processed in Nigeria). Additional RUSAL investments to complete the construction and modernization of the plant will shortly amount to 150 million US dollars. Nigeria and Russia took their partnership to a higher level in 2012270by executing an intergovernmental agreement on cooperation in the sphere of peaceful nuclear technologies usage. In 2011, Russia invested billions in energy projects in Nigeria. The volume of Russian investment in Nigeria's energy sector will be billions of dollars, said Dmitry Medvedev. An Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria on cooperation in the energy
269 Афонцев С. Национальная экономическая безопасность: на пути к теоретическому консенсусу // Мировая экономика и международные отношения. 2010. № 10. C.30-39, 2010. 270 Рогов С.М. Государство и топливно-энергетический комплекс: стратегия развития. //США на рубеже веков. М., Наука, 2012. C.143. 119 sphere was signed271. Russia was ready to support Nigeria in its desire to be represented in the UN Security Council. Russian President Dmitry Medvedev, after talks with the Nigerian President, said that Russian investment in the energy sector in Nigeria would be billions of dollars. “If we work together and realize the plans that are laid down in the documents signed by us, the volume of Russian investments in the Nigerian energy sector will be measured in billions of dollars. We are talking about extensive projects,” RIA Novosti quotes Medvedev. According to Medvedev, cooperation is vital for the parties. “This is about creating new processing facilities, pipeline systems. Moreover, Russia was ready to provide all the help and support to our Nigerian partners,” The President of Nigeria, Buhari, noted that there are outstanding opportunities in the field of oil and gas for cooperation272. He said that Russian companies would be able to participate in developing infrastructure in Nigeria and in the region, including creating the Trans- African pipeline and the pipeline that will connect Nigeria with Europe. Medvedev stressed that Russia is ready to support African countries, including Nigeria, in their desire to be represented in the UN Security Council. “Consultations on this issue should be continued. We will work with Nigerian colleagues in this area,” the Russian president added. In his opinion, the reform of the Security Council is on the whole overdue. "It is clear that the African continent countries should be represented in the Security Council,"273 The Nigeria-Russia diplomatic relations have witnessed the establishment and growth of Russia-Nigeria Business Council (RNBC), which
271 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria on cooperation in the energy sphere. Abuja, Aso Rock on June 24, 2011.URL: http://docs.cntd.ru/document/9022439864 272 Alison, W. T. Nigeria and Russia in Mutual Cooperation // Friedrich Ebert, Stipting Publisher, 2011. 4(7). P.112-134. 273 Ibid 120 oversees the economic activities of these two endowed nations. Notably, Russian investment in Nigeria is distributed to energy, steel, iron, and hydrocarbon. To further strengthen their ties, Nigeria and Russia have signed six agreements and a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU), which cover the following areas: energy, oil and gas production, and metallurgy and space exploration. The aim of the signed agreements and MOU is majorly to boost the strategic partnership between the two countries, and also to include the one which is on the cooperation in the area of Nuclear Energy for peaceful purposes, also not leaving out the MOU of Association on Joint Venture which is between the state- run Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) and Russian gas giant GAZPROM274. There had earlier been signing MOU by NNPC to Gazprom on joint venture projects worth $2.5billion. There was the signing of agreements on a nuclear power plant's construction and operation and a research center that houses a multi-purpose nuclear reactor in Nigeria. For Russia, the signing ceremony was attended by the Director-General, State Atomic Energy Corporation, Rosatom, Mr. Alexey Likhachev, and Nigeria, the Permanent Representative of Nigeria to the international organizations in Vienna, Ms. Vivian Nwunaku Rose Okeke. The agreement aims to ensure that the development of nuclear technologies strengthens Nigeria's position as one of the leading nations on the African continent. These projects are also so enormous in scale and strategic significance as they will determine the Nigeria-Russia bilateral ties in the long term. The UN Security Council should be carried out based on the rules that exist in the Organization. "We must think in order to find such a decision,
274 Memorandum of Understanding between the Government of Nigeria and the Government of Russia on the Association on Joint Venture between NNPC and GAZPROM. Nigerian Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources. Abuja, Aso Rock, April 23, 2011 (accessed at the Embassy of Nigeria, Moscow on the 18 July 2019). 121 which will be made by all states, including those who use the veto," Medvedev said. He stressed the need to address this issue based on consensus. Nigerian President Buhari assured Medvedev that he would take measures to guarantee foreigners' safety in the energy sphere. He noted one such measure would be an amnesty for militants located in the Niger Delta. Irrational energy balance with a predominance of mineral fuels, excess energy consumption in both developed and developing countries leads to an increase in energy imports and reverse flow of petrodollars, which, according to many observers, subsidize extremism dictatorial regimes, corruption, and regional conflicts275. In this regard, it is necessary to understand that the solution to the accumulated problems is possible only with subject to the fullest possible consideration of the interests of all countries involved in this process. Russia ranks first in the world in gas exports, in oil - the second after Saudi. Therefore, our country could take on a particular share of responsibility for international energy security and stability. The consciousness of the greatness of their country, for Russians and confidence in fully meeting consumers' energy needs abroad, those. The grandeur and usefulness of the idea turn this idea into a national priority project. There is a dilemma - world security should be carried out, taking into account its domestic interests. In Russian climatic conditions, fuel supply and electricity are vital factors of the existence of entire regions. In other words, the provision of energy to other countries should not worsen the Russians' situation. Turning the national project's international energy security must be preceded by rethinking existing energy strategy, approved by government decree of the Russian Federation276. Thus, one
275 Афонцев С. Национальная экономическая безопасность: на пути к теоретическому консенсусу // Мировая экономика и международные отношения. 2010. № 10. C.30-39. 276 Кокошин А.А. Международная энергетическая безопасность. М., 2011. 122 needs to create conditions for reliable fuel supply domestic markets at stable prices, rational provision of the military, and Russia's economic security. When dealing with issues of security international energy security, one must first produce transportation diversification energy resources in transit countries, as well as attract investment in the country's fuel and energy complex to solve the problem of assets: in oil production today, more than 60% of equipment is depreciated, in oil refining - 80%, in the gas industry - 70% and the development of new fields (with the abolition of deductions for the reproduction of the mineral resource base, the volumes of geological exploration works in the central oil- producing regions of Russia decreased by 1.5-1.8 times)277 using legislative incentives for this activity. Ignoring the existing negative trends in the development of Russia's fuel and energy complex can increase the number of emergencies at its facilities and the shortage of energy resources as domestic and external consumers278. In the light of the contemporary globalization of international markets, it seems reasonable not to divide countries on the coalition in the struggle to access raw materials and the joint decision by them of common energy problems. Russia, as the most enormous energy power, not only cannot stay away from this process but must also be an active participant in it. In our opinion, to solve such problems in energy security, use of scenario approach. The purpose of scripting is to solve two main problems: - highlighting the critical points of ensuring the country's energy security and development on this basis, qualitatively different development options;
277 Корнеев А.В. Энергетическая стратегия США на пороге 21 века // США-Канада Экономика. 2012. № 7. C.52-56. 278 Рогов С.М. Государство и топливно-энергетический комплекс: стратегия развития. //США на рубеже веков. М., Наука, 2012. C.143.
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The study of its features and possible consequences of its implementation (for Russia itself and other countries) is a comprehensive analysis and evaluation of each received option. This, in particular, will allow bringing together the energy positions of the partner countries' energy security. Russia should pay attention to the already educated and existing Nigerian financial and industrial groups. Many of them began their journey almost in the same way - with importing equipment for trade and food: next step production, construction, infrastructure. Further goals of the FGP are to introduce the oil and gas and energy sectors of the economy. Let us consider the long-term perspective of the export of Russian equipment. This market sector will be developed only when creating the proper infrastructure for its operation (a network of service centers, established channels for the supply of spare parts, etc.). Also, of course, investment in the capital of operating companies is required279, and importantly, to ratify the 2011 Agreement on cooperation in infrastructure construction280. For mutually beneficial cooperation, it is necessary to create a continuously existing exhibition center, which will be shown products Russian producers want to find their niche in Nigeria's market. There are a little more than a dozen joint ventures in fishing, construction, and transport in Nigeria. The most promising areas of cooperation include geological exploration, nuclear energy, and the military- technical sphere. Nigeria is committed to the diversification of feasibility and economic partners trade and economic cooperation. Although Russia's position in the Nigerian economy is still weakly expressed, the mutual interest of countries in
279 Матвиенко В.И. Россия намерена укрепить торгово-экономические и гуманитарные связи с Нигерией. 2011. - URL: http://tass.ru/politika/4652689 280 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria on Construction of Infrastructure Abuja, Aso Rock on August 24, 2011. 124 the development of bilateral relationships can change the situation. One can also expect the stabilization of the political situation in the country. Elected in May 2015, the new president of Nigeria, Mohammad Buhari, promised to take all possible measures to neutralize Boko Haram's activities and stabilize the socio-political situation in the country. The task is arduous and impossible to perform in short deadlines. However, any step to stabilize the country's situation will be a step towards closer Russian-Nigerian cooperation. During the election campaign, regarding foreign policy issues, Buhari emphasized the need to establish unique relations with countries of BRICS, and, in particular, with Russia. Of course, the policy statement is not yet definite, the basis for increased cooperation, but creates the prerequisites. In any case, there is no reason to suggest the possibility of rejection of one or another party from contractual obligations. At the same time, perhaps, broader prospects are opening up to expand cooperation in the military-technical sphere281. The challenges in the relationship between Nigerian and Russian have mainly been the ratification of signed bilateral agreements. These agreements usually require the consideration of the parliaments of both countries before they become operational. Some of the agreements from 2009 in Abuja have been ratified by parliaments of both states. One such is the treaty on Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters, which was agreed in 2009282. This treaty was signed on
281 Kingsley Opurum. Brick Walls of Russia-Nigeria Bilateral Trade Relations // AllAfricaCom, 28th October 2017. URL: https://allafrica.com/stories/201710290021.html 282 Agreement between the Russian Federation and the Federal Republic of Nigeria on Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters, April 18 2009. Nigerian Embassy, Moscow. Retrieved February 21, 2019. 125
26th November 2018 in Moscow. Also, that of the Agreement on the transfer to serving sentences of persons sentenced to deprivation of liberty.283 Agubamah 2014 suggests that both countries do not have adequate knowledge and understanding of the history, language, culture, world-view, and mentality, which could be crucial to advancing the parties' foreign policy and diplomatic relationship. The slow pace and sometimes absence of political will to implement their existing bilateral agreements makes the picture clear that the two parties do not have sufficient knowledge about each other to speed up their agreements. Another obvious challenge, as discussed earlier, is the imbalance of trade between both states. Russia exports find their way quickly to Nigeria while more minor or minimal agricultural produce find their way to Russia. Nigeria is endowed with some tropical agricultural produce and cash crops such as cashew, cocoa, and coffee, which could be promoted to balance the trade deficit. It can be said that the promotion of Nigerian businesses in Russia for partnerships has been non-existent, especially for the promotion of the private sector, which is the backbone of every capitalist economy. The political ideologies of the leaders in Nigeria differ from that of those in Russia. They gravitate more towards the west (EU and Washington), who also have interests in Africa and perceive Russia as a competitor, often threatened by its new presence in the continent. The Nigerian aluminum smelting company, ALSCON, which was handed over to Russian aluminum giant United Company RUSAL PLC as part of some investment programs, closed down in 2014, leading to a massive loss of companies’ jobs’ employees were Nigerians. The company has since not reopened after 5years
283 Agreement between the Russian Federation and the Federal Republic of Nigeria on the transfer to serve sentences of persons sentenced to deprivation of liberty. Abuja June 24, 2009. Retrieved January 28, 2019.URL: http://docs.cntd.ru/document/902210962
126 of shutting down. Efforts to revive the company has been made with criticisms by some well-meaning Nigerians who insist the company should be sold since it makes no economic sense for the Nigerian Senate to set aside about $1billion US Dollars for a venture that has already consumed about $8billion US Dollars without producing a sheet of aluminum. According to the director of ferrous metals at the Federal Ministry of Mines and Steel, the Aluminium Smelter Company of Nigeria (ALSCON) will soon resume operations as issues surrounding its shutdown have been resolved.284 From our discussions and as noted by Agubamah, there is no doubt Russia has a lot to offer Nigeria in terms of technological support. In the past, Russia offered such assistance to countries such as China and India, which are also populous and currently have fast-growing economies backed by their industries. The foundations of China’s economic development laid by Mao were supported by Russia. In their trying times, Russia also stood by India by helping them construct giant industries and contributing to its national security by providing them with military hardware and intelligence to their armed forces285. Nigeria can benefit from Russia’s immense experience managing and protecting its resources concerning crude oil and gas pipelines. This has become a crisis for Nigeria for a long time, especially in the Niger Delta region. According to a Shell report, crude oil theft or the illegal appropriation of refined or crude oil on most of the pipeline networks led to about 11000 barrels a day (bbl/d) been lost in
284Odinaka Anudu. ALSCON set to reopen as NA places Ajaokuta concession on hold. Jul 29, 2019. URL: https://businessday.ng/real-sector/article/alscon-set-to-reopen-as-na-places-ajaokuta- concession-on-hold/ 285 Olutu, Francis. Economic Development Layout // Premium Times Abuja. 26 December. 2016. Pp.34-46. 127
2018. According to the company, this exceeds the previous year, 2017 (9,000 bbl/d), by 2,000 bbl/d.286 This shows an increase in illegal activities on the pipeline networks. This calls for external help on how to secure these assets, and it is evident Russia has the know- how and security that could be useful for Nigeria. Despite being one of the top oil producers globally, Nigeria does not refine its oil, often leading to insufficient petroleum products to serve its economy. Refined oil constitutes one of its major import commodities despite being an oil-producing company. It imported about 22.5387 billion liters of petroleum from foreign refineries. The country has in recent times issued licenses to some private refineries to remedy the situation. However, these refineries have the capacity to refine about 2.3 million barrels per day, which will make Nigeria a net exporter of refined petroleum products. This has its downside as Nigeria will have to import more crude oil to meet these refineries' operations. This is a grey area where the Nigerian-Russian partnership could yield useful results given the expertise of Russian287. Another major challenge is getting all the agreements ratified to ensure it has a legal framework within which both states can operate. Particularly, Nigeria is currently accessing electricity innovation initiated to the African power continent through the American government. However, knowing fully well that Russia has developed an affordable, clean, and reliable electricity supply tremendously to its citizens, seizing the opportunity the energy sector provides is another partnership that could synergize the duo. The market is vast, and
286 Security, Theft, Sabotage and Spills in NIiger Delta, 2018 . URL: https://www.shell.com.ng/media/nigeria-reports-and-publications-briefing-notes/security-theft- and-sabotage.html 287 Stanley Opara. Nigeria: Rising Crude Refining Cost Justifies Need to Harness Nigeria's Local Capacity // The Guardian. 29, August, 2018. URL: https://allafrica.com/stories/201808290102.html 128 private sector financing is open to all invested interest groups and stakeholders. A typical example is the new energizing economies initiative (EEI) by Nigeria’s Rural Electrification Agency (REA), which supports off-grid electricity solutions' rapid deployment. This initiative is targeted to provide electricity access to more than 80,000 retail shops. Empower 340,000 micros, small and medium-sized enterprises, and industrial facilities across Nigeria288. This has not been achieved yet. If Russian- Nigeria relation could tap into this type of initiative, it would fast track their coherent mutual existence because it would proffer solutions to many unemployed youths and lift over 18 million Nigerians out of joblessness with a target of providing 2500 direct job. Power Africa provides technical support to Nigerian’s rural Electrification Agency, and increasing the capacity will further ensure more developmental self-objectives.
3.3. Relations between Nigeria and Russia in the field of Education and Culture The transfer of technology occurs when there is a transfer of knowledge that builds people with technological expertise to solve problems. This also usually comes with facilities to ensure the goals of the process are achieved. Strategies that boost industrial and technological development to the recipient countries are always fundamental. The knowledge gained can be utilized by the human and natural resource endowments of the receiving country for economic growth and improving living standards. This relation has existed between Russia and Nigeria. According to UNESCO, Nigeria has Bilateral Cultural Agreements with about 70 countries289. Through this, she has created the needed legal framework to support
288 Shola Shule. Security Matter Arising Sabotage and Spills // NIiger Delta News. May 11. 289 Bilateral Cultural Cooperation Agreements // UNESCO Diversity of Cultural Expression. Retrieved February 5, 2019. URL: https://en.unesco.org/creativity/policy-monitoring- platform/bilateral-cultural-cooperation 129 most of the artists and professional cultural performers when it comes to mobility. The importance and benefits of these agreements encourage and facilitate the exchange of Nigeria’s cultural workers and the diverse forms of her cultural expressions. Nigeria signed a cultural agreement with Russia in 1970. However, countries such as Great Britain and the United States of America do not have any cultural agreements with Nigeria, making it difficult for Nigeria to enter those markets and properly exhibit its cultural expressions. Nigeria has cultural centers in some other countries within the BRICS, such as Brazil and China, which has helped promote Nigerian culture in these countries. 290 However, Nigeria is yet to establish one of these centers in Moscow. This will create an avenue for the strengthening of the relations between both countries. Degree exchange programs in various disciplines and most especially in sports and entertainment could help build this excellent springboard of action. Russia has done far better than Nigeria in terms of awarding educational scholarships. Russian support for Nigeria's educational system has been consistent since 1979 educational agreement, and the Russian government's gestures have been enormous and commendable. Nigeria, for its part, needs to come forward to reciprocate these gestures. Nigerian-Russian Educational Relations Nigerian students came to the Soviet Union to study various and different disciplines that were perceived as being helpful for the development of the African continent. Our research has it that many Nigerian and African graduates became well-seasoned and qualified specialists in their various fields. Simultaneously, it should be elaborated that the development of African studies in the Soviet Union
290 UNESCO, Bilateral Cultural Cooperation Agreements: Key objectives of the measure, URL: https://en.unesco.org/creativity/policy-monitoring-platform/bilateral-cultural-cooperation
130 seriously relied upon lasting interaction with Nigerian and other African students, which sometimes led to the emergence of new scholarly approaches that are far beyond the ideological conjuncture of the Soviet period. The graduates returned to their countries, where some of them until the state held high profile government positions. Most played an important role in various fields of their countries’ university education and the aspect of sciences and arts. The struggle of African peoples for independence has reached its apogee by 1960, which went down in history as the “Year of Africa.” On the map, 17 new African states appeared in the world. Moreover, since 1959, the conclusion of the USSR intergovernmental agreements with African countries, defining student learning plans. Contracting Parties expressed the intention to exchange experience in the field of higher education, public education by sending students, youths, and other delegations; render mutual assistance in training national specialists for industry, science, and culture both by providing opportunities for studying in higher and secondary educational institutions and through the provision of training internships; exchange students, teachers of higher and secondary schools, as well as other schools. By the end of the 1960s, there were already several thousands of African students on the soil of the Soviet Union. In contrast, Nigerian students arrived in battalions annually at Soviet Union Universities, especially in Moscow State University named after MV Lomonosov and Peoples' Friendship University named after Patrice Lumumba. A big step in educational cooperation between Nigeria and Russia was establishing a Protocol between the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Federal Military Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria equivalence of degrees, diplomas, and certificates issued, awarded educational institutions of both
131 countries291. The Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Federal Military Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, in the attempt to promote the further development of friendly relations between the USSR and Nigeria in the field of science and culture, according to Art. 4 of the Agreement on cultural and scientific cooperation and exchanges between the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Federal Military Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria which was dated April 22, 1970,292 on the recognition of certificates, diplomas and degrees issued and awarded by relevant educational institutions of both countries. Before we dive further, I would like to digress by elaborating on the international students studying in Russia, who they are, and why they come to Russia to study. In 2016, the British company QS presented the following ranking countries with the best higher education system. Among the leaders, as one might guess, - the United States and the United Kingdom. The top 5 also includes Germany, Australia and Canada, France and the Netherlands have slightly conceded to them. Foreign experts placed Russia in 26th place out of 50 (close to the United Arab Emirates, Estonia, and Pakistan)rating. In general, such a result can be called quite good. Partly because of the high quality of education in Russian universities, the number of international students is growing every year. The government pays special attention
291 Протокол между Правительством Союза Советских Социалистических Республик и Федеральным Военным Правительством Федеративной Республики Нигерия об эквивалентности степеней, дипломов и свидетельств, выдаваемых и присуждаемых учебными заведениями обеих стран //Сборник договоров, соглашений и конвенций, заключенных СССР с иностранными государствами", вып.XXIX, М., 1975 URL: http://docs.cntd.ru/document/1901824 292 Protocol between the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Federal Military Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria equivalence of degrees, diplomas and certificates issued and awardededucational institutions of both countries / Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos, May 18, 1973. 132 to this issue because the more students from other countries, the higher the university is rated according to international rankings - QS or Times Higher Education. As for the universities themselves, for them, the enrollment of foreigners is a matter of prestige and an opportunity to receive additional income. By the way, the cost of education for citizens of other countries in Russian universities usually does not differ from tuition fees for Russians (most of the programs are taught in Russian, and English-language ones are more expensive). The situation is quite different in the Old World - students from EU countries pay less than young people from other countries. Nevertheless, in the United States, as in Russia, there is no separation between residents and foreigners, although the cost of training is generally much higher than in Europe. According to the latest rating of the RAEX Agency (“Expert RA”), over the past year in Russian universities, more foreign applicants: their number increased from 7.4% to 8.3%. The top 7 leaders in terms of the number of students from abroad, compiled by the Center for Social Forecasting and Marketing, include the most prominent universities: People’s Friendship University of Russia, St. Petersburg State University, Moscow State University named after MV Lomonosov, St. Petersburg Polytechnic University of Peter the Great, Tomsk Polytechnic University. Also, foreigners study in the universities of Kursk, Novosibirsk, and Kazan293. Nigerians represent one of the numerous groups of all international students studying in Russia's Eastern European countries. African Students/Nigerian Students emerged in the Soviet Union in the 1950s; In 1961: 500 African Students (100 of which were Nigerians); By the end of 1960, there were about 4,000 African students, Nigeria rating the highest in number; During the Soviet Union era, the most popular specialties among Nigerian students were engineering and technical (53%
293 Ibid 133 of students). Humanities and Social sciences attracted 18% of students, medicine and pharmaceuticals - 17%, agriculture - 7%, economy - 5%. According to a 2009 report, more than fifty government scholarships are being awarded annually to Nigerian students in the educational sector, while many sponsored themselves to Russia to study. In Russia's present time, the large percentage of specialty studied by Nigerian students in Russia is Medicine and pharmaceutical, followed by Engineering, the Humanities and Social sciences. Spit sky I.S. of the Education African departments at MFA noted that the collapse of the colonial system on the African continent is posed to the young states of Africa - socio-economic issues that require immediate resolution. In particular, training highly qualified personnel for the economy and social sphere, especially medicine. According to the portal "Russian Education," most often Nigerian students choose natural sciences, medicine, philology, and programs related to culture and art. The most demanded are branch universities, which train specialists in the field of economics and management, finance and management, public services (foreigners study in 179 of them), technical, energy, technological and industrial universities (99), humanitarian and social (112) and classical universities (95), as well as educational institutions in which there is a direction "Culture and Art" (72). Most often, citizens of other countries choose undergraduate programs (59.5 thousand people), then a specialty (43.2 thousand people), and only then a magistracy (10.99 thousand people). The least of all in Russian universities wishing to become doctors of science - only 81 people. The Bilateral Education Agreement (BEA) Division of the Federal Scholarship Board (FSB) is primarily in charge of implementing scholarship awards between the Federal Government of Nigeria and the Russian Government, and other countries that have also signed the Bilateral Education Agreement (BEA) with
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Nigeria294. The Federal ministry of education on the list of BEA scholars as of April 2019 from the Federal scholarship board shows that between 2009 and 2019, 376 scholarships have been awarded by the Nigerian government to Nigerian students to study in Russia295. In July 2013, and per paragraph 1 of Article 11 of the Federal Law "On International Treaties of the Russian Federation" to approve the draft Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria on cooperation in the field of education296 submitted by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation approved by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia and previously worked out with the Nigerian Party. To request the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia to negotiate with the Nigerian Party and, upon reaching an agreement to sign the Agreement on behalf of the Russian Federation's Government, had to introduce specific changes to the draft. In 2017, the Ministry of Education of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the Embassy of the Russian Federation made an open invitation to all qualified Nigerians who were interested in participating in the nomination interviews for the Russian governmental scholarships in the 2017/2018 academic year awards297. The general criteria for eligibility and the list of required documents were made available on the Ministry of Education of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. After application,
294 Bilateral Education Agreement / Federal Scholarship Board. Retrieved 23 December, 2018. http://education.gov.ng/fsb/bilateral-education-agreement/ 295 Document on the List of BEA scholars in Russian Federation/ Federal ministry of education, Federal scholarship board, April 2019. Retrieved 22 August, 2019. http://education.gov.ng/fsb/wp- content/uploads/2019/10/RUSSIA.pdf 296 О подписании Соглашения между Правительством Российской Федерации и Правительством Федеративной Республики Нигерии о сотрудничестве в области образования / Правительство Российской Федерации Распоряжение от 10 июня 2013 года N 936-р. http://docs.cntd.ru/document/499026013 297 Russian governmental scholarships 2017/2018 / Embassy of the Russian Federation in Nigeria, February 1, 2017. https://nigeria.mid.ru/web/en-nigeria/-/russian-governmental-scholarships- 2017-2018 135 aspirants were also interviewed, and the final decision on the list of awardees was conducted by the joint commission. It was composed of various representatives of the Russian Embassy, Federal Ministry of Education of Nigeria, and Association of Nigerian graduates of the Russian universities after individual interviews with applicants were carried out in April 2017. No fewer than 94 Nigerian students have benefited from the 2017/2018 Bilateral Education Agreement Scholarship Program to Russia. The program covers tuition fees, accommodation, and stipend provided by the donor country.298 All applicants of such scholarship can always explore several educational programs in Russian universities at the official website for Russian Governmental Scholarships. They are to register a copy of the application submitted through the Federal Ministry of Education of Nigeria's official site. On numerous occasions, an announcement has been made that the application process does not attract any fee, and the applicant should be aware of fraudsters. The Document on The signing of the Agreement between the Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the Government of the Russian Federation on cooperation in education was carried out in June 2017299. The head of the Federation Council noted the growth of humanitarian relations between countries. In 2018, more than 120 Nigerian students got the opportunity to study at Russian universities through intergovernmental agreements. An important direction of bilateral relations in culture and education is the training of citizens of Nigeria in Russian universities. To date, more than 10,000 Nigerian specialists have been trained in Russia. The number of state scholarships for higher education offered
298 Buchi Obichie 115 Nigerians students get scholarships to Russia, Algeria Read more. URL: https://www.legit.ng/1202758-115-nigerians-students-scholarships-russia-algeria.html 299 Document of The signing of the Agreement between the Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and the Government of the Russian Federation on cooperation in the field of education. Nigerian Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos, June 15, 2017.
136 by Nigeria has been on the increase. Currently, almost 250 Nigerian students study at Russian universities with free scholarships, about the same fee. Russian Federation is one of the most countries that Nigerian students study. RUDN: Russia’s Most International University People’s friendship the university of Russia, being a Higher Education Institution established specially to provide educational services to international students, educated the international students from the developing countries, including African countries of which Nigeria was paramount, alongside Moscow State University, Leningrad State University, Moscow State Automobile and Road Technical University, Moscow Aviation Institute, Moscow Power Engineering Institute, Moscow Institute of Civil Engineering. International cooperation is one of the PFUR key spheres of activities since it is an international educational and scientific institution300. The Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia was established in 1960 as a higher education provider to international students. In an interview with the RUDN Vice-Rector for International Affairs Larisa Efremova in December 2017, it was gathered that RUDN has more than 8,000 international students from 155 countries.301 Three thousand six hundred forty-four applicants were already admitted at the time of the interview. Of those, 1,952 were contract students, while the remaining 1,692 were awarded Russian government scholarships. It was made known that foreigners make up approximately 30 percent of the student body, and there is a plan to increase their share to 40 percent by 2020. Larisa Efremova noted
300 Ponomarenko L.,.Zueva E. PFUR and Africa .Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia, Mocow, 2010. 301 Study in Russia. RUDN: Russia’s Most International University // Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation, December 15, 2017. URL: https://studyinrussia.ru/en/actual/articles/rudn-russia-s-most-international-university/? sphrase_id=163809 137 that 31,766 students were studying at RUDN and its branches as of December 2017. According to her, the top origin countries for international students at RUDN are China, Iran, Vietnam, Afghanistan, South Africa, Namibia, Nigeria, Syria, Mongolia, and Ecuador. As for CIS countries, many students come from Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Azerbaijan, Ukraine, Turkmenistan, and Moldova. It is important to note that the most popular majors international students choose to study in RUDN are: Medicine, Economics, Law, International Relations, Philology, Civil Engineering, and Oil and Gas Field Development302. Every year, an average of 15 thousand students get admitted to study for free at universities in Russia as part of the quota. In 2018, the competition among foreigners was 4.5 people per budget place. The official website of Rossotrudnichestvo is quoted by the deputy head of the department, Dmitry Guzhelyu. According to the OECD study, about 3% of students from the global total of young people who have decided to get higher education abroad study in Russia. The International Department and the Center for Sociological Research report give an exact figure - 156,211 people, 11.9% more than in 2016303. Universities plan to further increase the number of international students by increasing the number of international conferences, programs in English and increasing the recognition of Russian educational organizations abroad. It is of importance to note that among international students in Russia there are many citizens of India and China, there are also students from all over the world who come to Russia to study and they from Canada and the USA, countries of Asia and Europe, Africa and Oceania, Latin and North America. However, most students are from Asia (26.6%) and the CIS (51.9%). Below are the statistics as of May 2018:
302 Iibid 303Rossotrudnichestvo. (2018). Universities in Russia as part of the quota. URL: http://rs.gov.ru/ru
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African countries (except North Africa) 1. Nigeria - 1.6 thousand students 2. Angola - 780 students 3. Ghana - 730 students It is essential to draw attention to the fact that Nigerian students who would like to graduate from a Russian university are faced with some challenges. The main difficulty is the language barrier: in most areas, classes are taught in Russian. For those who are not familiar with it, universities often offer preparatory language courses. Of course, recently there have been more English programs, but so far there are still very few of them. The second difficulty that many foreigners face is the low adaptation of university sites for university applicants from abroad. For example, to find a list of exams for applicants, sometimes one has to visit several pages, navigating through an additional entrance test. Of course, often, the search also has to be carried out in Russian. Another difficulty faced by Nigerians and other foreigners in Russia is visa registration. Oddly enough, many foreigners are experiencing culinary difficulties. As we have noticed, residents of other countries are not very fond of mayonnaise, dill, borscht, caviar, jellied meat, and other traditional Russian products and dishes. Of course, it is unusual for foreigners to eat like many Russians are used to. In October 2016, the Nigerian students in Russia protested and lamented the federal government's ill-treatment. Under the BEA scholarship, the Nigerian government's Russian government pays each student $500 monthly for their living expenses, feeding, medical, and other minor needs304. Unfortunately, the Nigerian
304 Akin Oyewobi; Idris Ibrahim. Nigerian students in Russia protest, lament treatment by federal government // Premium Times. October 19, 2016. URL: https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/213086-nigerian-students-russia-protest- lament-treatment-federal-government.html 139 government failed to pay the students’ stipends for 12 months. It resulted in the students protesting, and at the same time, the students' parents simultaneously protested at the Federal Ministry of Education in Abuja. The protest in Moscow was led by the President of the Association of Nigerian Scholarship Students in Russia, in Faith Tosin. More than and hundreds of the students were featured carrying placards with different notes regarding their ordeal. It prompted the Charge d’affairs of the Nigerian mission in Russia, Gafai Usman, to hold a meeting with the students. He advised them to write a petition via his office to the Federal Ministry of Education in Nigeria. On the other hand, Chinyelu Ikeliani, a teacher, was one of the parents who joined the protest in Abuja. She told Premium Times how disheartening the situation was, mostly that the students cannot work with their student’s visa305. After the petition was directed to and reached the relevant authorities in Nigeria, the issue was resolved. Another challenge the Nigerian students face under the Federal scholarship is a delay in their stipends or allowances between 2018 and 2019. In August 2019, the minister of Education directed the scholarship board to settle the Nigerian scholarship students in Russia. The Minister of Education, Adamu Adamu, made a mandate to the Federal Scholarship Board to immediately effect the payment of scholarship stipends to Nigerian students in Russia306. He made this directive after the Nigerian Ambassador to Russia and Belarus, Steve Ugba, made an official visit to him in Abuja. The meeting aims to make sure that the Nigerian government prioritizes the welfare of Nigerian students in Russia.
305 Ibid 306 Azeezat Adedigba. Minister directs scholarship board to pay Nigerian students in Russia // Premium Times. August 29, 2019. URL: https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top- news/349408-minister-directs-scholarship-board-to-pay-nigerian-students-in-russia.html 140
According to a Premium Times report, the federal government owed over 12 months’ stipend payment to the Nigerian students on a federal government scholarship. It is important to note that these students were sent to study in Russia under the Bilateral Education Agreement of the Federal Scholarship Board (FSB) program307, a parastatal of the federal ministry of education. The scholarship is awarded to various cadres of students, comprised of undergraduate and postgraduate, sent to Russia and other countries with which Nigeria has such bilateral agreement. However, according to the bilateral agreement, the host countries must see to the well-being and take care of the students’ tuition and accommodation. In contrast, the home government (Nigeria) of the students is charged with taking care of the students' monthly allowances, also known as stipends.308 It is important to note that despite all the difficulties Nigerians may face in Russia, they are quick to adapt, get to know the Russians, make friends, go to theatres, museums, and write farewell reviews: “I love Russia! I want to finish university and come to live and work in Moscow! More than 3300 Nigerian students are currently studying in Russia. Following the Bilateral Education Agreement between Nigeria and Russia, through the Federal Ministry of Education, the number of Nigerian students studying in Russia has gradually increased over the past few years. Culture, Education, and Inter-language exchange programs in tertiary institutions: Nigeria- Russia tertiary institution exchange programs can help build their cultural inter-exchange programs. These include sports competitions, education exchange programs that could be per semester, and other national
307 Bilateral Education Agreement // Federal Scholarship Board. Retrieved 23 December, 2018.URL: http://education.gov.ng/fsb/bilateral-education-agreement/ 308 Azeezat Adedigba. Minister directs scholarship board to pay Nigerian students in Russia // Premium Times. August 29, 2019. URL: https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top- news/349408-minister-directs-scholarship-board-to-pay-nigerian-students-in-russia.html 141 activities that may strengthen their ties. Most of us find ourselves thinking about how great it would be to speak several foreign languages. Even though studying a foreign language is a complex task, making available tools can help a successful end. Semester exchange program may allow experiencing total cultural immersion, leading to more significant personal impact and cordial relations in a national cohesion to achieve educational benefits and cross-cultural orientation. It will help prepare the youths or next generations with the intercultural skills that will make them more marketable to future endeavors and keep the union going. This type of program may provide lots of opportunities for an enriching experience. From museums and cultural interchange, theatre, music, and exciting scenes may welcome these ideas fostering youths into a more comfortable and inspiring union. Nigeria-Russia Bilateral Interaction in the Cultural Sphere Presently both Russia’s embassy in Nigeria and Nigeria’s embassy in Moscow has cultural attachés whose primary responsibility is to foster cultural links. There are several aspects of cultural ties that reign between Nigeria and Russia. However, it is important to note both countries' cultures desperately before diving into their cultural relations. Starting with Nigeria, different religious beliefs and cults are common among Nigeria's peoples, and often different beliefs coexist among the same peoples. For example, among the Yoruba can be found adherents of traditional beliefs, Muslims and Christians. In Nigeria, more than in other African countries, existing temples associated with traditional religions have been preserved, a hierarchy of influential priesthood and secret religious societies have been preserved. Nearly half of the population adheres to local traditional beliefs and cults. Elements of tribal cults are still preserved. Yoruba, for example, knows many different gods. From the highest are the deities who personify the main forces of nature, to the lower - all kinds of spirits - patrons of mountains, rivers, and trees. There is also a cult of ancestors. Belief in witchcraft, black and white magic is
142 widespread309. Folk traditions are alive in the modern culture of Nigeria. They appear in Yoruba's wooden sculpture and the masks created by the masters of Ibibio, for Yoruba, Ijo. Traditional elements of culture appear in the works of the talented Nigerian sculptor and painter Ben Enwonwue, in-wall painting, and architecture of Felix Idoubor. He carved wood panels in the Palace of the Nation in Lagos. The creativity of the national theater, dance and music groups, and folk art festivals are permeated with interest in traditional art and its traditions. While the culture of Russia is the culture of the peoples and nationalities of Russia and the states preceding the present-day Russian Federation; a set of formal and informal institutions, phenomena, and factors affecting the preservation, production, transmission, and distribution of spiritual values (ethical, aesthetic, intellectual, and civil) in Russia310. There were implementations of various plans to open a new university specifically for African students, of which Nigeria was a huge part. Several scholarships that were reserved for the students were on the increase. It is important to note that the size of the African contingent in Russia higher education started to mount from about a relatively few numbers of Nigeria and other African students at the initial start of the academic year. However, the number rapidly grew to over, and there were battalions by the end of the decade311. Although, it should be noted that long ago, even during the Soviet era, many educators had predicted that the developing countries with including Sub-Saharan Africa, would sooner or later
309 Культура Нигерии // Best Country. Org. 2018. URL: https://www.best- country.org/africa/nigeria/traditions 310 Основы государственной культурной политики Российской Федерации, утверждённые Указом Президента Российской Федерации В. Путина № 808 от 24 декабря 2017 года. URL: http://www.folkcentr.ru/wp- content/uploads/2017/03/%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B- %D0%93%D0%9A%D0%9F.pdf 311 Garf Farooq. African Students in Russia // Webbink Universities . Harvard University pamphlet, April 1964. P.123. 143 overtake the former socialist bloc as a source of international students. The Africans are ascertained to prove much more difficult in assimilation than most international students from other continents. The Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation in the federal executive body is charged with dealing with all culture and arts issues. Significantly, the Ministry's main task is implementing the Strategy of State Cultural Policy until 2030 approved by order of the Russian Federation Government of 29 February 2016312. The Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation in the field of international cooperation is responsible for promoting abroad cultural and artistic achievements of the Russian Federation's peoples. Also, to contribute to creating conducive conditions for the development of international cultural exchanges and collaboration. These are between Russian organizations and citizens and foreign partners313, which the Federal Republic of Nigeria is part of. The Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation coordinates with the Nigerian governments and other federal and regional governmental bodies' activities. In the bide of cooperation, the Ministry may also help create cultural programs and cultural events within the framework of integrated projects held by other governmental entities of the Russian Federation. The Federal Ministry of Information and Culture of the Federal Republic of Nigeria designates a department of its ministry named the Cultural Industries & Heritage314, which is mandated to initiate and give support to wealth generation and empowerment of the several cultural groups. It is also expected to be involved in the development of heritage activities for economic growth and opportunities. Then, via
312 International cooperation of the Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation/Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation. Accessed 22 October, 2019. URL: https://www.mkrf.ru/en/ 313 Ibid 314 Cultural Industries & Heritage //Federal Ministry of Information and Culture. URL: https://fmic.gov.ng/departments/cultural-industries-heritage/ 144 the Federal Ministry of Culture, the International Cultural Relations manages the Inventory of Nigeria Cultural Resources and other countries' cultural relations, such as Russia. Without a doubt, Russia is a country with a great cultural heritage. The historical and geographical specificities of Russia contributed to the fact that the country has always been regarded in the aspect of developing as a state that entails many coexisting and co-evolving cultures, which of course complement each other315. It is the same particularity that makes Russian culture so attractive to other nationalities, including Nigeria, who have over decades strive to grasp the mysterious "Russian soul." Russian achievements in literature, music, ballet, theater, visual arts are recognized not only by Nigeria but worldwide. The Russian literature does not only reflect the moral and spiritual values of the people, but it is also commendable for the depth of human characters. The works of Alexander Pushkin, Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov, Fyodor Dostoevsky, and Sergey Esenin constitute a substantial part of world literature. Russian classical music is famous worldwide due to the works of such composers as Peter Tchaikovsky, Mikhail Glinka, Sergei Rachmaninov, Igor Stravinsky, Sergei Prokofiev, and Dmitri Shostakovich. Russian fine arts have been glorified by many artists, including Valentin Serov, Viktor Vasnetsov, Mark Shagal, Vasily Surikov, and Alexander Ivanov Kazimir Malevich. Their paintings are remarkable and often displayed at international art exhibitions316. Nigeria recognizes the need to be an intriguing part of the Russian culture, as it could open several doors for it on the International level. Program of cultural and scientific cooperation between the Russian Federation and the Federal Republic of Nigeria for 2001-2003.
315 Popularization of Russian Culture in the World //Rossotrudnichestvo. URL: http://rs.gov.ru/en/activities/2 316 Ibid 145
Per Article 12 of the Agreement on Cultural and Scientific Cooperation and Exchanges between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Federal Republic of Nigeria, signed on April 22, 1970, in Lagos, the following Program of Cultural and Scientific Cooperation for 2001 was implemented between the Russian Federation and the Federal Republic of Nigeria - 2003 years317. The parties aimed to encourage cooperation in this field by agreeing to exchange students and teachers for training and internships in the languages and cultures of both states, and the agreement was ratified. Over the years, in the sphere of Culture and Art, Nigeria and Russia have encouraged the exchange of visits by different music, theater, ballet, folklore, circus groups, and individual performers to participate in tours, festivals, and other cultural events which are organized in the two countries either on a commercial and non- commercial basis. The parties aim to contribute to the development of cooperation in fine art: the exchange of exhibitions, fairs of crafts, delegations of artists, craftsmen, and art historians. They are also willing to exchange experts in music, theater, fine arts, folk art, the protection and restoration of monuments, archival, library, and museum affairs. One of the agreements signed is the Agreement on the program of cultural and scientific cooperation between the Russian Federation and Federal Republican Nigeria318, which was carried out in Moscow on May 23, 2016. Nigerians in The World Festival of Youth and Students 14-22 October 2017 In October 2017, the Nigerian delegation headed by the Minister for Youth and Sport S. Dalong took part in the 19th World Festival of Youth and Students in Sochi. The World Festival of Youth and Students was held in Russia from October 14 to
317 Соглашение на программу культурного и научного сотрудничества между Российской Федерацией и Федеративной Республиканской Нигерией на 2001 - 2003 годы. г.Москвa, 6 марта 2001 года. URL: http://docs.cntd.ru/document/901824865 318 Agreement on the program of cultural and scientific cooperation between the Russian Federation and the Federal Republican Nigeria / Embassy of Nigeria in Moscow, May 23, 2016. 146
October 22, 2017. On the first day in Moscow, an international parade-carnival of students took place, and the main events were held in Sochi Olympic Park from October 15 to 22. More than 20 thousand young people participated in the forum, including representatives of several public organizations, teachers, and politicians. A delegation of young talents from Nigeria actively participated in the World Festival of Youth and Students (WFYS). Young people between the ages of 18 and 35 were actively involved in various activities, discussions, and competitions. Nearly 25,000 guests from 185 countries participated in this year’s festival. The Russian State Atomic Energy Corporation Rosatom also made its contribution by inviting and hosting gifted young Nigeria and other African professionals and students. They were interested in science and innovation. In his words: “We are happy that we were able to provide this exciting opportunity to our future African leaders, to gain knowledge and exchange experience with their peers on a global level,” said Viktor Polikarpov, Rosatom regional Vice-President of Sub- Saharan Africa319. A specialized program included events related to science and education, group discussions, and cultural and sports activities. The discussion program's main agenda encompassed the 17 Sustainable Development Goals, which the United Nations adopted. The festival attracted numerous proactive young people from all over the world, most of whom are already leaders in their respective fields. Numerous young specialists from Nigeria, Kenya, Ghana, Zimbabwe, and South Africa were among the attendees, most of whom were already oriented towards research and new technologies320.
319 Поликарпов В.Всемирный фестиваль молодежи и студентов. 14-22 октября 2017 г. URL: https://rg.ru/festival2017/ 320 Ibid 147
The young talents were actively engaged in several activities, including creative workshops, brainstorming sessions, and round tables to find answers to some of the globes' most burning questions. Issues of ecology, sustainable development, and international cooperation were also in the limelight of the Festival's scientific-focused section. Nigerian-born Chukwudi Ojinnaka, who currently studies nuclear engineering at the National Research Nuclear University in Moscow, noted that the Festival provided exciting opportunities for young professionals to meet different people with different ideas from all over the world. He highlights that these very ideas will help future generations achieve their goals321. In collaboration with other festival participants, this young Nigerian talent worked tirelessly on the ‘aqua-cities’ – self-sustainable cities floating cities that would be engineered to help solve the overpopulation problem in the future. Also, among the thousands of delegates of the 19th World Festival of Youth and Students (WFMS) was one participant to whom considerable attention can be attracted to both the organizers and the media322. This is her unusual name for Russians, which was heard around the world during the event. 22-year-old representative of Nigeria Sochi Ogbonna went to Russia, already knowing that she is the namesake of the world-famous resort on the Black Sea coast, where the festival program's central part will take place. “I want to confess that my parents called me not in honor of the Russian city of Sochi. This is a name common to the tribe I belong to,” Ogbonna told a TASS correspondent.
321 The Nigerian Voice. African delegation takes part in the 19th World Festival of Youth andStudents in Sochi. 2017. 322 Rabat L. World Festival of Youth and Students (WFMS) // TASS Pervin Online, October 9th, 2017. 148
“I am in Russia for the first time. This is my dream, which is becoming a reality,” the girl continued to share her thoughts. ". The young lady did not hide that she expected to meet with a new country with great anticipation. In her words: “I grew up in hot Nigeria and, of course, I know that the climate in Russia is much cooler. Therefore, I take warm clothes for the trip and hope that the Russian weather will meet me warmly,” she says. "I want to find new friends here in Russia, make acquaintances with representatives of different nations. To be honest, I expect to gain popularity and maybe even become famous, since my name is the same as the name of the city of Sochi, where large-scale event "- the interlocutor admits to the TASS correspondent. Ogbonna lives in the Nigerian state of Kaduna and studies in the city of Ibadan. "I am the only one from my city who will go to the festival in Russia. My parents and relatives are very happy for me. I am sure I will have something to tell them after returning," she concludes323. AFROFEST 2018 in Russia, Moscow Another great event that took place regarding Nigeria/Africa cultural relations was the AFROFEST 2018. This is an international festival of African culture, which was held in Russia in Fili Park for the fifth time. "AFROFEST 2018" is Music, Food, Children, Exhibition, Market, Fashion Show, and Master Classes. It is an open, non-commercial project. Open - means that anyone can participate in the project. Non-commercial means that the money earned is spent on developing the festival in particular and on the development of culture and art in general324. The international festival of African culture "AFROFEST" is organized, first of all, to expand the cultural horizons, the destruction of stereotypes and attitudes
323 Ibid 324 Beneth George. AFROFEST – bringing Africa to you // Afrofest. July 4, 2018. 149
that have been formed for many years. Nigerians were a big part of the organization. The purpose of the event is to acquaint Russian citizens with Africa's history, customs, and traditions. Globally, the festival is an opportunity to develop cultural and business relations between Russia and Africa. The result of such relationships: the creation of new business structures, tourist destinations, student exchange, integration. Interracial Marriage between Nigerians and Russians As earlier noted, socio-cultural relations between Nigeria and Russia dates back to the former Soviet Union. Many Nigerians traveled to the former Soviet Union, where they imparted certain aspects of African culture. Many also got married to Soviet citizens, some of whom came from other parts of the Soviet Union, but most were from present-day Russia. Many of these marriages still exist, thus reinforcing contact between Nigeria and Russia. Nigerians marrying Russians are always requested by the Russian authorities to provide document(s) to indicate the legal capacity to contract marriage; thus, the Embassy authenticates bachelorhood/spinsterhood obtained from a high court in Nigeria. Requirements325: i. Affidavit of Bachelohood or spinsterhood from a High Court and legalized at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Nigeria and receipt of legalization fee. ii. Valid passport data pages of the applicant and his fiancee iii. Name written in the Russian Language iv. Duly completed Consular Service form
325 Nigerain Embassy Moscow, Marriage Certifcate. URL: https://www.nigerianembassy.ru/index.php/marriage-certification.html
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Furthermore, concerning Nigeria-Russia cultural ties, the Russian State Duma ratified a treaty with Nigeria to transfer persons sentenced to imprisonment to serve their sentences. The decision was taken at a meeting on Tuesday, 24 July 2018. The treaty proposes establishing provisions for allowing citizens to apply to the competent authorities to serve their sentences on their states' territory. It is indicated that the receiving state ensures that the convicted person continues to serve a sentence under its legislation. It is also noted that the sentence imposed by one country cannot be revised, and it is also impossible to bring a person to justice again for the same crime in the territory of another state. However, it can exercise its right to amnesty or pardon. The plenipotentiary representative of the President of Russia in the State Duma, Harry Minh, presenting the document at the plenary session, stressed the importance of the adopted treaty. The document was signed in Abuja on June 24, 2009,326 to regulate Russian-Nigerian relations on the transfer of persons sentenced to imprisonment. It will help protect the rights and legitimate interests of Russian citizens. The latest interaction of Russia and Nigeria in cultural ties was that of the meeting held in the Nigerian Embassy by both countries' representatives. Agreement on strengthening the cultural and scientific cooperation between the Russian Federation and Federal Republican Nigeria 327. The parties agreed to send researchers and specialists of relevant cultural institutions to exchange experiences and participate in conferences, symposia, seminars, and others held in two countries. Following the laws of their state and international law, they agreed that they would take measures to prevent the illicit trafficking of cultural property and promote
326 РИА НОВОСТИ. РФ и Нигерия подписали 6 документов о сотрудничестве в разных сферах. Июнь 24, 2009. URL: https://ria.ru/20090624/175331329.html 327 Agreement on the strengthening of the cultural and scientific cooperation between the Russian Federation and the Federal Republican Nigeria // Embassy of Nigeria in Moscow, June, 2016. 151 cooperation between the competent authorities of the two states on their return. Also, they are faced with the task of developing bilateral cooperation in the field of film exchange, the provision of production and creative services, the exchange of filmmakers and specialists, participation in international film festivals, and co- production of films. To conclude this, we ascertain that the changing dynamics of global politics and economy have prompted Nigeria and Russia to tend to fetch for avenues in order to promote their interests in an increasingly complex international arena. Nigeria- Russia's search for economic advancement and global relevance should create a pathway for them to work hand in hand. For a fact, Russia has a lot in offering Nigeria in terms of technological aid already in their bilateral agreements. In return, Nigeria can help Russia as a big market where Russian investors can flourish. Nigeria ranks as the second most important trading partner of Russia in sub-Saharan Africa, while Russia is Nigeria’s tenth-largest trade partner. Russia is an economic powerhouse and a perfect strategic trading partner, and as such, Nigeria ought not to waste time in forging a robust partnership with Russia. Finding from this section suggests that Renaissance Capital, a Russian-based financial investment consultancy group, begun its operation in sub-Sahara Africa by making Lagos, Nigeria, its operational office. This facilitated the establishment of the Nigerian-Russian Business Council, intending to promote cooperation and improvement of trade between the two countries. Several Russian companies are preparing to enter the Nigerian market with major investment projects such as in the metallurgical and extraction industry, such as hydrocarbon extraction, energy, metals, and farm mechanization. There is a need for the Nigerian government to ratify the agreement on the promotion of investment to take the bilateral trade relations it has with Russia to the next level. An important direction of bilateral relations in culture and education is
152 the training of citizens of Nigeria in Russian universities. To date, more than 10,000 Nigerian specialists have been trained in Russia. Over 250 Nigerian students study at Russian universities with free scholarships. Rudn-University is one of the most prestigious universities where Nigerian students study. No doubt, Russian Federation is one of the most countries that Nigerian students come to study. Nigerians represent one of the numerous groups of all international students studying in Russia.
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CONCLUSION In conclusion, the thesis examined the evolution, impact, and activities of Nigerian-Russian Relations. It illustrated the historical background of Nigeria and Russia relations that emerged after Nigeria gained independence from its colonial master (Britain) in 1960. Both countries have maintained cordial diplomatic, political, economic, and cultural relations. Before the Nigerian civil war, the Nigeria-Soviet diplomatic contacts were not much. They were far between and limited to exchange missions, whereas there was the frequency in the exchanges of satellites. The civil war and Nigeria's need for Soviet weapons to prosecute the war, and the medium that created the establishment of the Soviets to a firm foothold, all of which can be envisaged to raise high expectations of closer and broader post-war bilateral diplomatic contacts. This was not aimed only to symbolize the ascendancy of the Soviets in the management of Nigeria's affairs but also for its political effect on global diplomacy. Nigeria recognized that its ability to play regional and continental roles mainly depended on its relations with global powers such as Russia. The study suggests several objective reasons why Nigeria and Russia should actualize their strategic partnership in various bilateral treaties. The two countries exhibit commonalities that positively contribute to strengthening their bilateral relations. Both nations practice federalism, they both have almost the same population size, and they are both gifted with immense human and material resources, including hydrocarbon and agricultural land. Although the study recognized that Russia is a more advanced country, Nigeria could benefit from its excellent scientific-technological and industrial capabilities. The study investigates the most critical evidence of the 1991-1999 phase in the Nigeria-Russia relations. This was the fact that the Russian Federation was economically very weak, devastated by the political disruption of a large proportion, with oligarchs and all series of political groups forcefully competing for control of
154 the state. As a result, Russia paid very minimal attention to its relations with African nations. The study further proceeds to note that Nigeria was not left out in difficulty during that period. In addition to Nigeria’s domestic political challenges, it was also faced with severe economic challenges, including lack of industrial capacity, decreased income from oil exports, inadequate investment, unemployment, and poverty. Russia was making an effort to gain its balance following the elimination of the old political order, whereas Nigeria was also in a dilemma under military dictatorship. The study revealed that it was a period of making several attempts and efforts to gain legitimacy and recognition in countries where military governance was very unpopular and unacceptable. The author went further to analyze that it was only after the return of democratic rule to Nigeria that a new door of opportunity was opened to both states to exploit the maximum potential of their relations and cooperation in political, economic, and cultural spheres. This opinion can be backed up referencing Vladimir Putin coming into office in 2000, which slowly and steadily stabilized the Russian society and its economy. During that time of the year, Russia was engaged in the difficult task of mending its relations and ties in the International arena. Especially in re-engaging the African states with so many of its high profile Russian officials who were visiting African countries, and Nigeria was a participant. In the Evaluation of Nigeria and Russia relations 1999 – 2020, the study noted that this is a very significant phase in the Nigeria-Russia relations because 1999 by the event was termed to be the beginning of a new dawn for both countries. It marked the coming to power of the Russian President Vladimir Putin as the second democratically elected president of the Russian Federation and the inauguration of President Olusegun Obasanjo as a democratically elected president of Nigeria. This event prompted the re-establishment of a new phase in the diplomatic relations
155 between Russia and Nigeria. There were series of openings to several opportunities for the two nations. The author posited that Nigerians' expectations on democracy and its positive impacts and influence on Nigeria’s foreign relations were based mainly on the fact that liberal ideas were, in the post-Cold War international system. Moreover, it should be stated that the principal yardsticks are used to measure whether or not a government is very responsible and accountable as it ought to. The study also pointed out the Nigeria Foreign Policy towards Russia under President Olusegun Obasanjo, President MusaYarAdua, and the foreign policy under President Goodluck Jonathan and Muhammadu Buhari's Administrations. The civilian government that assumed power in 1999 recognized the utmost necessity in redirecting Nigeria’s foreign policy. For the most part, these trends reflect the country's overall goals, as outlined in its 2020 Vision document. The study buttresses the issue by noting that to achieve this, the first step was to aggressively search for political friends, especially among nations responsible for global affairs influence and those known for shaping international economic diplomacy, and Russia was a key factor. The study asserted that despite Nigeria being the most populous country in Africa and a major oil-exporting country, the irony is that it has suffered a chronic energy crisis for many years. These have been because of perpetual problems associated with the supply of resources and technology. This has led most of its policymakers to express a keen interest in exploring alternative energy sources such as nuclear power, of which Russia is a giant in this field. The increase in Nigeria’s population translates to high demand for energy. About half of the country’s population has no electricity making the partnership with Russia a good prospect. Joint workgroups on energy cooperation can help ensure the partnership. Such groups have been in operation in countries such as South Africa and Angola. The
156 exploitation of renewable energy sources in Nigeria concerning solar energy and wind energy will benefit the country to resolve its energy deficit. Also, Nigeria’s population is a vast market for Russian investors. Therefore, the cooperation between Nigeria and Russia on energy security and cooperation is mutually beneficial. The study revealed that there are new hopes in Moscow and Abuja as the two countries’ agree to increase their annual commercial ties to billions of dollars in the dearest future. This was illustrated during the signing of the Nigeria-Russian Agreement on cooperation in atomic energy's peaceful uses. In an attempt, Russia has made plans to render help to Nigeria to explore oil and gas and build nuclear power plants, petroleum pipelines, railways, and infrastructures. However, the Nigerian government has to ensure the right policies for Russia to implement energy projects on its soil. The study ascertained that African countries, including Nigeria, are interested in investments, technologies, and trade cooperation with Russia. The Russian Export Center has recently been accepted as shareholders of Afreximbank. This Pan- African multilateral trade finance institution was created under the African Development Bank's umbrella to expand and diversify African trade. The study emphasized that this partnership was created to increase exports from Russia to Africa and vice versa. A major fundamental block is the deepening of trade and economic cooperation between Nigeria and Russia. It is worthy to note that the Russian Federation President extended an invitation to all African presidents to participate in the Russia–Africa Summit in Sochi in October (2019). An imperative is the strengthening of cooperation with Africa. As a result, Russia can also offer Nigeria expertise during nuclear power plant's construction and other infrastructural facilities in the energy and agricultural sectors (light industry facilities, hydroelectric power stations, agricultural raw materials processing factories). Also, in the oil
157 refining and pipeline construction technologies and the space industry's development, which can be seen as an opportunity to launch satellites in Africa. The study revealed that Nigerians represent one of the numerous groups of all international students studying in Russia's Eastern European countries. According to the portal "Russian Education," most often Nigerian students choose natural sciences, medicine, philology, and programs related to culture and art. The study asserted that Nigeria has Bilateral Education and Cultural Agreements with about 70 countries, which had enable her to create the legal framework to support most of the artists and professional cultural performers when it comes to mobility. The top 7 leaders in terms of the number of Nigerian students, compiled by the Center for Social Forecasting and Marketing, include the most prominent universities: People’s Friendship University of Russia, St. Petersburg State University, Moscow State University named after MV Lomonosov, St. Petersburg Polytechnic University of Peter the Great, Tomsk Polytechnic University. Also, foreigners study in the universities of Kursk, Novosibirsk, and Kazan. It is worthy to note that Nigeria signed an education and cultural agreement with Russia way back after gaining independence from the Colonial Maters. The study revealed that Russian support for Nigeria's educational system has been consistent ever since, however, Nigeria is lagging somewhat behind to fulfil its part of the bargain. The study posited that this will create an avenue for the strengthening of the relations between both countries. The study attempted to contribute to Nigeria and Russia's joint effort made in counter-terrorism attempt to understanding and analyzing the evolution, growth, and strategic measures taken in addressing Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria. The study investigated the implication of the insurgency uprising in Nigeria on national and regional security. Regarding several bilateral treaties signed by both countries on energy, Nigeria can benefit from Russia’s immense experience managing and protecting its resources concerning crude oil and gas pipelines. This has become a
158 crisis for Nigeria for a long time, especially in the Niger Delta region. The author revealed that presently, there is a severe security implication for Nigeria. It then analyzed the practical framework carried out by Russia to help tackle the insurgency on Nigeria's soil. It is important to note that Nigeria and Russia have signed an agreement on Cooperation on military training, peace-keeping, and efforts to counterterrorism and anti-piracy. However, it is relevant to note that Russia's main interests in its military relations with Nigeria and Africa are arms exports, imports of natural resources, and power projection. The study made it clear that Nigeria and Russia's relations have not been without some low moments. Some apparent challenges prevent Nigeria and Russia's bilateral relations from attaining a greater height. One of the challenges is that in terms of exportation between the two countries, Russia exports military hardware, fertilizer, metals, and oil consumables to Nigeria. In contrast, Nigeria exports only agricultural products to Russia. There is undoubtedly a need for diversification of the items between the two countries, thereby Nigeria increasing its exports to the Russian Federation. Therefore, the study provided and maintained means of information upon the diplomatic relations between Nigeria and Russia and elaborated on the opening of doors to several opportunities for Nigeria and Russia to develop and strengthen a long-lasting and broad relationship in their political, economic, security, and socio-cultural spheres. Also, there is the issue of most of their agreements not being rectified accordingly. The study gave a strong recommendation on counter-terrorism, Boko Haram's case, to tackle the financial resources, which is one of the most potent tools in counter-terrorism. If the financial resource is effectively being traced and then abolished, then the insurgency will be bankrupt and will not carry out its plans. The study also recommended that due to the utmost fact that Russia is an economic powerhouse and a perfect strategic trading partner and as such, Nigeria should not
159 waste time in forging a robust partnership with Russian Federation. The study advised that the Nigerian government should ratify the agreement on the promotion of investment, intending to take the bilateral trade relations it has with Russia to the next level. Accordingly, reports showed that due to Nigeria and Russian governments' lack of strong political will, their bilateral trade volume has been low. The authorities of both countries agree that it is low. It ought to be many times on the increase.
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