Social Education 84(6) , pp. 335–341 ©2020 National Council for the Social Studies Research & Practice

“Research & Practice” features educational research that is directly relevant to the work of classroom teachers. Here, I invited LaGarrett J. King to share his research on teaching Black histories. He dismantles the notion of “Black history as American history” and offers instead a conceptualization of teaching Black histories through Black historical consciousness principles.

—Patricia G. Avery, “Research & Practice” Editor, University of Minnesota Black History is Not American History: Toward a Framework of Black Historical Consciousness

LaGarrett J. King

“Black history is American history,” is a popular phrase used by a multitude of people is a non-controversial, palatable, and seeking to legitimate Black history to the general population.1 Notable personalities whitewashed discourse that maintains such as award-winning journalist and creator of the New York Times’ 1619 project the status quo and interferes with truly Nicole Hannah Jones, civil rights activist and poet Maya Angelou, actor Morgan improving Black history education. It is Freeman, and the “Father of Black history,” Carter G. Woodson, have communicated a feel-good phrase because it celebrates versions of this slogan to emphasize that Black people’s histories are deeply rooted and identifies the country’s diversity within the America story. and supposed inclusive mission as a democratic nation. Most problematic The motto is usually a two-fold on history is far-reaching and is is that the phrase insinuates a sort of response to concerns about the disregard deeply etched in the social fab- shared historical legacy between white of Black history. First, “Black history ric of America. We cannot talk and Black people, which is not entirely is American history” is used to criti- about American history without accurate. cize (and in some cases educate) Black talking about African American In general, I have argued elsewhere History Month’s utility. The slogan is history. These two stories are that what is historically significant to used as a reminder that Black history intrinsically intertwined. African white people may not be historically education should be a yearly project, not Americans have made significant significant to Black people.3 For exam- a novelty taught only during February. contributions to every field of ple, July 4, 1776, is insignificant to the Second, the phrase is used to discour- the human endeavor, including majority of Black Americans who are age plans for separate K-12 Black his- science, technology, engineer- descendants of enslaved people. Yet July tory courses in schools. If segregated, a ing, mathematics, theology, arts, 4th is considered U.S. Independence Black history course may be perceived as literature, athletics, politics, Day despite the reality that around less important than the required history and especially to the American 20 percent of the population was still classes. Plus, many believe that the only economy. In every facet of the enslaved. The official social studies way Black history should be taught is to American experience lies the curriculum rarely explores historically seamlessly infuse Black history within story of African Americans.2 important Black independence days the general American history narrative. such as Juneteenth, National Freedom Dr. Herron Keon Gaston captures the While the sentiment, “Black his- Day, and the many Emancipation days essence of the phrase when he states: tory is American history,” is factual, celebrated throughout the Americas.4 we cannot tell America’s story with- The exclusion of these histories The fact of the matter is—Black out the story of Black America; in (whether innocuous or not) leaves history is American history. practice, the axiom can be problem- the idea that Black history, and more The African American impact atic. While well intended, the saying specifically Black independence and

November/December 2020 335 Thirty-one people gather at a Juneteenth Celebration in Emancipation Park in Houston's Fourth Ward in 1880.

(Houston Public Library Digital Archives/Wikimedia Commons)

traditions, are insignificant to the and Black students had to integrate with American history” promotes a singular American story and not worthy of white students who attended superior historical consciousness, which centers studying. schools.6 white people as the main protagonists When we say Black history is Research, however, has shown that and Black people and other non-Blacks American history, we ignore a multitude predominantly Black schools were not as outliers of the American narrative. of historical experiences and perspec- academically inferior to white schools.7 How we have taught Black history is tives. History education continues to be In fact, oral histories reveal that many through European contact or white peo- largely Eurocentric, where diversifying African Americans believed their ple’s importance. In other words, we have the subject has been cosmetic and based schools were equal to or even superior mostly only taught about Black history on quantitative measurement. Vasquez, to the integrated schools they then had and not through Black history. Teaching Brown, and Brown have called this to attend. While the NAACP’s legal about Black history and people means phenomenon an “illusion of inclusion,” strategies proved effective, many Black that our knowledge of Black history in which Black historical actors and community members disagreed with comes from the perspectives of white events might be present in the narra- the organization’s tactics, as they simply people, not Black people. Teaching tive but, qualitatively, their voices and wanted equitably funded schools, not about Black history sends a message experiences are ignored. For example, integration. Additionally, integration that Black histories are defined through the narratives about Brown v. Board of was one-sided—where Black students oppression and liberation. Education celebrate aspects of integra- were inconvenienced and bused to white The oppression and liberation para- tion yet fail to explore Black counter- schools. Most importantly, Black teach- digm is represented through the three narratives.5 ers and administrators lost their jobs or major topics that have traditionally The curriculum teaches us that the were demoted, an issue that continues to defined Black history: first, enslavement; U.S. Supreme Court case was important plague us today.8 secondly, the trials and tribulations of because it helped force integration and Independence Day observances and the post-Civil War and Reconstruction end segregation, which was immoral Brown v. Board are just two examples periods; and finally, the 1960s civil rights and unequal. We learn of the complic- of ways the history curriculum presents movement. Through these narratives, we ity of “all deliberate speed” and how Black histories only if the narratives learn three aspects about Black history. many states and school districts moved closely align, or can be manufactured First, we “learn” that Black people as a slowly to comply with the federal law. to align, with the attitudes, dispositions, whole, beginning with their kidnappers Yet the Brown narratives imply that pre- and characteristics of white-centered in West and Central Africa, were essen- dominantly Black schools were deficient, historical narratives. “Black history is tially passive, powerless, and ultimately

336 accepted their oppression. Second, we historical consciousness is to alter our traditional official history curriculum learn that only certain Black people (or ideology and redefine Black history. It is because our Black history derives from what some scholars termed “Black mes- to seek alternative principles that effec- a Black epistemic knowledge. siahs”) are acceptable Black people to tively explore Black people’s humanity learn about and study. Third, we learn and dismantle the white epistemic histor- Black Historical Consciousness little about Black agency or how Black ical logic that has long dominated much Principles people fought for their liberation, but of K-12 official social studies policy. How do we teach and come to concep- when we do, Black agency is contingent White epistemic logic is the rationaliza- tualize a Black historical consciousness on a certain way to fight for liberation tion of Black historical experiences and within Black histories in classroom and typically includes behaviors that ways of knowing/doing through tradi- spaces? A Black historical consciousness favor non-violence.9 These themes are tional Western European perspectives. approach to Black history is to develop largely predicated on how white people The concept allows Black agency in his- and learn Black history as its own genre wish to see or imagine Black people to tory to be partnered with whiteness or of historical thought that is indepen- be through history education. They rep- narratives that highlight Black historical dent of Western knowledge. Redefining resent an effort to sanitize the ugliness, actors who appease whiteness.11 Black history is to explore Black identity diminish achievements and contribution, White epistemic logic situates history through complex and nuanced narratives ignore the diversity of Blackness, and as just that: history, and not the multiple that attempt to get at the full humanity pigeonhole Black people as monolithic histories that help develop a historical of Black people. I suggest that we incor- in an effort to continue to empower, not consciousness. Therefore, Black histo- porate these six principles into our cur- to offend, or assuage white people about ries are our goal instead of Black history. riculum and pedagogies: systemic power, America’s legacy. The “ies” denotes that multiple histories oppression, and racism; agency, resis- While curricular change has been are present within the subject. The singu- tance, and perseverance; Africa and the incremental, Black history continues to lar “y” indicates one historical narrative African Diaspora; Black joy and love; be applied in this manner because of which is, therefore, a more hegemonic Black identities; and Black historical a systematic refusal to accept diversity, history based on curriculum developers’ contention. The first three themes— equity, and multiple voices in K-12 his- tendency to focus on the history of the power, oppression, and racism; agency, tory education. Additionally, the lack of powerful. When Black history is viewed resistance, and perseverance; and Africa quality K-12 Black history education; through white epistemic lenses, we truly and the Diaspora—are common themes limited opportunities in teacher edu- do not understand the Black experience found in all Diaspora Black history pro- cation and professional development; because it is the white experience and grams. The last three themes—joy/love; inadequate K-12 Black history policies perspectives that are defining Blackness. Black identities; and Black historical at both the state and federal levels; and To be clear, this does not mean that white contention—are not as widely adopted a lack of accountability/enforcement of people cannot be included in some nar- and might be perceived as controversial Black history mandates have hindered ratives if historically pertinent; what it in many educational spaces. true improvement of how we learn and means is that whiteness does not drive teach about Black people.10 This white- the Black history narratives. Power, Oppression, and Racism washed approach to history education, In dismantling white epistemic logic, Power, oppression, and racism are leaves students with a limited and over- we should ask the question: are we devel- important concepts for understand- simplified Black history knowledge— oping Black history through the oppres- ing how systems and institutions have one that favors a certain type of Black sor’s historical lens, or do our histories victimized Black people throughout history and ignores the many Black his- represent and center Black perspectives history. Central to the theme of power torical perspectives that make up what and voices? To be clear, I am not argu- and oppression is understanding how I call a Black historical consciousness. ing for an essentialization of Blackness; values surrounding justice, freedom, Blackness and Black people are complex equality, and equity have been inten- What is Black Historical and multifaceted; but I am interested in tionally ignored throughout Black his- Consciousness? throwing away the Eurocentric ways tory. An essential component of these Black historical consciousness is an we think about Black people through- missing ideas is to focus on the role race effort to understand, develop, and teach out history. Black history constructed and racism, white supremacy, and anti- Black histories that recognize Black peo- in such a way is essentially foreign to Blackness have played in Black lives. ple’s humanity. It emphasizes pedagogi- Black people’s existence. Through a The social construction of race helped cal practices that seek to reimagine the Black historical consciousness approach, classify human beings and developed as legitimacy, selection, and interpretation a true Black history program is naturally enslavement’s economy began to spread of historical sources. To describe Black contentious to what we know to be the throughout the Americas. These ideas

November/December 2020 337 helped set the country’s social, economic, against oppressive structures. This con- the continent. Black history as African and political foundations and were the cept recognizes that Black people have history highlights histories that help official policy for centuries. These ideas a spirit of freedom and revolt as each students see Africa, in many cases, as of power, oppression, and racism have to generation has fought against oppres- the originator of global histories and be understood as systemic and institu- sion. Without Black agency to balance an example of the interconnection of tional, not individual or cosmetic. oppression, Black history falls into the the world. Connecting Africa and its Without examining power, we miss trap of victimhood, accompanied by a Diaspora is about teaching the similari- the ways that institutions and structures Black suffering narrative. ties and differences of Black histories have dictated life decisions. Without A Black suffering narrative has three and cultures worldwide. It is about inter- examining power, we tend to be criti- parts. First, Blackness is defined through rogating the history of Blackness and cal of groups who struggle. We tend to its pain and may imply that suffering is how its meaning shifts based on geogra- make value and moral judgments and the very fabric of Black life histories. phy. Topics may include the African ori- believe that individual and group deci- Black suffering becomes normalized gins of humanity, civilization, kingdoms sions are independent of society. In turn, and infers a certain passive acceptance and dynasties; African explorers and we begin to believe that Black people are of these conditions. Black suffering also pre-colonial/enslavement presence; the naturally deficient compared to white constructs a sympathetic lens. Black anti-colonial movement in Africa; the people because we do not understand history is not about developing sympa- African presence in New Spain, France, the systemic oppression that has limited thetic figures; instead, it exposes how and English colonies; the significance and, in some cases, controlled Black life their humanity shaped and constructed and impact of the Haitian Revolution; histories. Black history curriculum needs world ideologies and practices. Black and slavery in Africa vs. other forms of to contextualize race, racism, white people can be filtered through a pater- enslavement. supremacy, and anti-Blackness to follow nalistic lens seeking to fix and correct how power and oppression are created Black pathology instead of seeking from Black Joy and sustained throughout society. A few Black people solutions for U.S. democ- Black joy is an extension of agency, resis- curricular topics connected to power and racy that uphold egalitarian ideas. Black tance, and perseverance. Its purpose is oppression are the enslavement period suffering also implies that white people to counter the acts of white oppression (European slave trade, the middle pas- are naturally dominant over black bod- and power. Black joy is a liberation and sage, the development and sustainability ies. Black agency, resistance, and per- radical project that defied oppressive of race-based enslavement); the emer- severance topics may include: African structures of the time. Black joy as Black gence of Jim Crow segregation and politi- resistance to slavery (Stono Rebellion, history encompasses narratives that offer cal disfranchisement; the nadir of race Gabriel Prosser, Denmark Vesey, and knowledge about Black culture that are relations (lynching, race riots, and the Nat Turner); the abolitionist move- not focused on hardship but sustain defamation of African American culture ment; experiences of free Black people; Black people’s spirits. While joy can infer and humanity); red lining; the impact of Black military experiences; the maroon happiness, Black joy is more than that. Reaganomics and the War on drugs; and experience; Black reconstruction; the It is Black people’s resolve in the face mass incarceration. development of social institutions; two of oppression that grief need not be the great migrations; the long civil rights dominant attitude or disposition. Black Black Agency, Resistance movement; Supreme Court cases (Dred joy is the love, collegiality, and collec- and Perseverance Scott to Brown); NAACP and the courts; tiveness that Black people have exhibited Black agency, resistance, and perse- the Black power movement; and Black throughout history. Black joy resists the verance are concepts that differentiate inventions. notion that Black people are unworthy between Black victimization and Black and sub-human. It is what makes Black victimhood. It is important to under- Africa and the African Diaspora culture, Black culture. stand that Black people have been vic- Africa and the African Diaspora are Black joy through Black history is tims or victimized by oppressive struc- important to Black history because they defiant. Without Black joy, we cannot tures, but have never been solely victims remind people that Black history did not define Black humanity. The challenge (i.e., helpless, defeated, and begging for begin with enslavement. They establish for teachers and policymakers, how- charity, especially from white people). the concept that Black histories should ever, is how to represent joy without Black agency, resistance, and persever- not begin with European contact but trivialization? Topics covered through ance help us understand that, throughout with ancient African civilizations. This Black joy and love may include African history, Black people could act indepen- is an approach that allows students to and African American family dynam- dently, made their own decisions based understand Africa, its people, and the ics; Black music, dance, and expres- on their interests, and fought back many cultures and countries that inhabit sion; African American cuisine; the arts,

Social Education 338 Table 1: Black Historical Consciousness Principles* Themes Definition Possible Compelling Questions How did enslavement undermine democratic principles? Power and oppression as Black histories are narratives that highlight the lack of justice, How did racism divide the country? 1. Power and freedom, equality, and equity of Black people experienced throughout history. Central to these How did slave owners use the government to their advantage? Oppression narratives is how Black people have been victims to racism, white Supremacy, and anti-Black Why did the United States abandon Reconstruction? societal structures as well as individual actions. How did the “nadir of race relations” rival the horrors of enslavement? How do the Los Angeles riots of 1992 compare to Ferguson in 2014?

Slavery in North and South America; the development and sustainability of racialized and chattel slavery; emergences of Jim Crow; the nadir of race relations (lynching, race Possible topics riots, and the defamation of African American culture and humanity); impact of Reaganomics; the war on drugs; mass incarceration How do African Americans make social change? How do you adapt to change? Black agency, resistance, and perseverance are Black histories that explain that although Black 2. Black Agency, people have been victimized, they were not helpless victims. These narratives highlight that What makes movements successful? Resistance, and Black people have had the capacity to act independently, have made their own decisions based Perseverance Was the civil rights movement successful? on their interest, and have fought back against oppressive structures. Should Black people be considered founders of the United States of America? What was Great about the Great Migration? African resistance to slavery (Stono, Gabriel Prosser, Denmark Vessey, and Nat Turner); the abolitionist movement and the emergence of Black abolitionists; the experiences of Possible Topics free Black people; Black military experiences; the maroon experience and early freedom movements; the development of Black social institutions; two great migrations; the long civil rights movement; NAACP and the courts; the Black Power movement What are the legacies of Black Diaspora freedom movements? Are we all Africans? Africa and the African Diaspora as Black histories stress that narratives of Black people should 3. Africa and the African How did trans-Saharan trade lead to West African wealth and success? be contextualized within the African Diaspora. A course in Black history should begin with Diaspora ancient African history and connect the various Black histories around the globe. How did the Haitian Revolution influence American enslavement? How have African Americans/Black people drawn from their African heritage in civil rights struggles?

African origins of humanity; African civilization, kingdoms and dynasties; African explorers and pre-colonial/enslavement presence; the anticolonial movement in Africa; the Possible Topics significance and impact of the Haitian Revolution; slavery in Africa vs. race-based slavery

Were the 1920s a time of cultural change? How do you adapt to change? Black joy narratives are narratives of Black histories that focus on Black people’s resolve during How does African American cultural expression define society? 4. Black Joy oppressive history. These histories focus on times of happiness, togetherness, and the fight for freedom for generations both past and present. What is the lasting legacy of African Americans in sports? Is Black joy agency and resistance? How did sports provide a source of pride?

African and African American family dynamics; Black music, dance, and other cultural expressions; African American cuisine; the Black Arts Movement; the Harlem Renaissance; Possible Topics African Americans in sports; the making of African and African American holidays and tradition; the Black Arts Movement

Who is Black? How does intersectionality change how individuals were treated within Understanding Black identities as Black histories promotes a more inclusive history that seeks groups seeking equality? 5. Black Identities to uncover the multiple identities of Black people through Black history. History should not Why do we ignore Black women in Black history? only be about Black men who are middle class, Christian, and heterosexual, and able-bodied. Who wins and loses through Black liberation movements? How did the Stonewall riots influence the Black LGBTQ+ community?

Black and Tribal experiences; Black conservativism; Black identities around the Diaspora; Black HERstories; Black LGBTQ+ history; Black class conflict; Black political thought; Possible Topics Black feminists; the anti-apartheid movement; the Caribbean Black Power movement; Black Lives Matter; Afro-Latin cultural movements in South America and the Caribbean; Black nationalism; Combahee River Collective

Are Africans to blame for the transatlantic slave trade? Black historical contention is the recognition that all Black histories are not positive. Black How did African Indigenous populations fight against 1800s U.S./Canadian 6. Black Historical histories are complex and histories that are difficult should not be ignored. Additionally, the colonization efforts? Contention principles highlight the differences in Black history. Black people were not a monolithic group; Do Black ethnic groups in the U.S. deserve reparations? they had various ideas of how to solve issues. How does sexism diminish the way we remember women’s leadership roles during the civil rights movement?

Colonizing Africa; Black socio-political-cultural Global Movements (Pan-Africanist Movements, the Garvey Movement (UNIA), Black Marxism, Black separatism, the Reparations Possible Topics movement, Rastafarianism, Black Consciousness movement)

* See endnote 1. Some of the compelling questions are used in the Jefferson County Schools (KY) African American Studies Curriculum. Some of the topics for each principle are used in the Fort Worth Independent school district’s African and African-American history and culture curriculum.

November/December 2020 339 literature, and popular culture; carni- continent by Black people from the U.S. struct and reimagine how to teach Black val; the Harlem Renaissance; African and Canada. These recolonizing efforts history. That means that we will have to Americans in sports, and the Black Arts (aided by the British government and reconcile that Black history has its own Movement of the 1960s. American Colonization Society) brought historical entry points, its own historical enslavement practices to the indigenous timelines, historical perspectives, and Black Identities groups, which have continued to influ- historical people. Primary sources with Black identities seek to provide a more ence the socio-political-economic reali- race-neutral guiding questions are not complete, diverse, and equitable Black ties of today. The point here is not to enough.13 Revised assessments where history. Black histories consist of mul- proclaim a “see, you do it too” attitude, rote memorization is the goal are not tiple identities that inform Blackness but to recognize that Black people have sufficient. Project- and problem-based and look at each positionality as impor- complex and human dimensions. assessments, media development, com- tant in gaining a total understanding of munity engagement, and action research Black history. Black histories in schools Conclusion might be more appropriate goals. are largely geared towards Black males There is so much to learn about how Efforts to improve K-12 Black history who are middle class, heterosexual, we should build a Black history pro- have been an enduring concern since the Christian, and able bodied. We need gram. Improving Black history in K-12 late 1800s. Yet as a profession, we have to expand those narratives. We need schools will need a concerted effort from refused to listen to and implement poli- to include history narratives of Black policymakers and K-12 educators. For cies (and give them a chance to be fully women, the Black LGBTQA communi- policymakers, we need to alter the way developed) suggested by Black history ties, the Black poor and working-class, we desire to construct the history cur- educational reformers. We continue to Black radicals and conservatism, and the riculum. That means we need to move hold onto the idea that Black history is various Black ethnic groups worldwide. away from policies that promote his- American history when we know that it is To be clear, it is not enough that we sim- torical uniformity (all histories are the simply not true. Yes, the desired destina- ply include these groups; their voices same) and historical integration (add tion is for Black history to be American need to be heard. This approach is vital Black people into history without taking history, but that ideology reminds us that because Black people are not monolithic. serious consideration of their voices and society simply does not take Black his- Exploring Black identities is important perspectives) to more historical conten- tory or people seriously. Society ignores because it helps us explore Black his- tiousness (a history that is comfortable Black people’s ideas, perspectives, pain, tory fully. with competing perspectives about the joy, and culture, all for assimilation. The ethos of America). For school adminis- process will take much time as we have Black Historical Contention trators, a detailed professional develop- been miseducated about Black people Black historical contention warns ment plan is needed. This plan should for centuries. Yet if K-12 educators truly instructors that Black people are not consist of curriculum audits and ongoing teach through Black history, history will a monolithic group. They disagree on professional learning plans for staff and be totally transformed. Hopefully, our many issues pertinent within Black histo- the community that include sessions on society will transform along with it. ries. Additionally, Black histories are not Black history content and pedagogical pristinely filled with perfect messiahs content knowledge as well as teacher’s who always demonstrated appropriate dispositions and identity. Notes actions. Black histories have been prob- For teachers, learning about Black 1. Black history and African American history are not used interchangeably. Black history is defined as lematic and susceptible to the evils of history and how to implement it is the histories of Black people who are descendants sexism, capitalism, and Black ethnic sub- important. Some great foundational texts from Africa and located throughout the African Diaspora. Black history is a global term and not jugation. To represent Black humanity, for content and instruction are From situated in any geographical region. African Black historical contention stresses that Slavery to Freedom (9th edition) by American history is the history of Black persons located in America. American history encompasses we should not merely teach and present John Hope Franklin; A Black Women’s all the histories of the Americas (North, Central positive Black histories and images. We History of the United States by Daina and South America, and the Caribbean). I pur- posely use “United States history” for the United need to introduce a complete history that Berry and Kali Gross; The Civil Rights States; it is not interchangeable with American his- addresses humanity that includes Black Movement, edited by Hasan Jeffries; tory. people’s deficiencies and vulnerabilities. and Engaging the African Diaspora in 2. Herron K. Gaston, “Black History is American History,” www.huffpost.com/entry/black-history-is- We need to be mindful that many of our K-12 Education, edited by Kia Caldwell american-history_b_6618602. 2015. civil rights activists may have been sexist, and Emily Chávez.12 I also warn teach- 3. LaGarrett J. King, “The Status of Black History in classist, and homophobic, and acknowl- ers that a K-12 Black history course is U.S. Schools and Society,” Social Education 81, no. 1 (2017): 14–18. edge that the 1800s brought about not simply a traditional history course 4. Mitch Kachun, Festivals of Freedom: Meaning recolonizing projects on the African in “Black face.” Teachers have to decon- and Memory in African American Emancipation

Social Education 340 Celebrations, 1808–1915 (University of Standards,” Journal of Social Studies Research 32, Americans, 9th edition (New York: 2010); Daina Massachusetts Press, 2006). no. 1 (2008); Ashley N. Woodson, “We’re Just Berry and Kali Gross, A Black Women’s History of 5. Julian Vasquez Heilig, Keffrelyn Brown, and Ordinary People: Messianic Master Narratives and the United States (Boston, Massachusetts: Beacon Anthony Brown, “The Illusion of Inclusion: A Black Youths’ Civic Agency,” Theory & Research Press, 2020); Hasan Jeffries, Editor, The Civil Critical Race Theory Textual Analysis of Race and in Social Education 44, no. 2 (2016): 184–211. Rights Movement (Madison, Wisconsin: University Standards,” Harvard Educational Review 82, no. 3 10. Collette Chapman-Hilliard and Valerie Adams- of Wisconsin Press, 2019); Kia Caldwell and Emily (2012): 403–424. Bass, “A Conceptual Framework for Utilizing Black Chávez, Editors, Engaging the African Diaspora 6. Diana E. Hess, “Moving Beyond Celebration: History Knowledge as a Path to Psychological in K-12 Education (New York: Peter Lang Liberation for Black Youth,” Journal of Black Challenging Curricular Orthodoxy in the Teaching Publishing, 2020). of Brown and Its Legacies,” Teachers College Record Psychology 42, no. 6 (2016): 479–507; LaGarrett 107, no. 9 (2005): 2046–2067. Jarriel King, “Learning Other People’s History: Pre- 13. A good resource for Black history primary source documents is the Black encyclopedia site run by Dr. 7. Vanessa Siddle Walker, Their Highest Potential: An service Teachers’ Developing African American African American School Community in the Historical Knowledge,” Teaching Education 25, no. Quintard Taylor of the University of Washington- Segregated South (University of North Carolina 4 (2014): 427–456; King, “Teaching Black History Seattle, www.Blackpast.org. Press, 1996); Walker, “Valued Segregated Schools as a Racial Literacy Project,” Race Ethnicity and for African American Children in the South, 1935– Education 19, no. 6 (2016): 1303–1318; LaGarrett 1969: A Review of Common Themes and J. King and Crystal Simmons, “Narratives of Black Characteristics,” Review of Educational Research history in Textbooks: Canada and the United States,” 70, no. 3 (2000): 253–285; Walker, “African The Wiley International Handbook of History American Teaching in the South: 1940–1960,” Teaching and Learning (2018): 93–116; Phia S. LaGarrett J. King is the Isabelle Wade American Educational Research Journal 38, no. 4 Salter and Glenn Adams, “On the Intentionality of Lyda and Paul C. Lyda Professor and Found- (2001): 751–779. Cultural Products: Representations of Black ing Director of the Carter Center for K-12 Black History as Psychological Affordances,” Frontiers History Education at the University of Missouri. 8. Gloria Ladson-Billings, “Landing on the Wrong in Psychology 7 (2016): 1166; Theodore E. Note: The Price We Paid for Brown,” Educational Thornhill, “Resistance and Assent: How Racial His research focuses on the teaching and learn- Researcher 33, no. 7 (2004): 3–13. Socialization Shapes Black Students’ Experience ing of Black history in schools and society. His 9. Derrick P. Alridge, “The Limits of Master Narratives Learning African American History in High School,” edited book, Perspectives on Black Histories in in History Textbooks: An Analysis of Urban Education 51, no. 9 (2016): 1126–1151. Schools, is part of the Reseach in Social Educa- Representations of Martin Luther King, Jr,” 11. King, “What is Black Historical Consciousness?” tion series and is published through Information Teachers College Record 108, no. 4 (2006): 662; Contemplating Historical Consciousness: Notes Age Publishing. The Black Historical Conscious- Christopher L. Busey and Irenea Walker, “A Dream from the Field 36 (2018): 163; King, “Interpreting ness Framework has been adopted by Jefferson and a Bus: Black Critical Patriotism in Elementary Black History: Toward a Black History Framework Social Studies Standards,” Theory & Research in County Public Schools in Kentucky, Francis for Teacher Education,” Urban Education 54, no. Howell Public Schools in Missouri, and Mus- Social Education 45, no. 4 (2017): 456–488; 3 (2019): 368–396. Wayne Journell, “When Oppression and Liberation kegon Heights Public Schools Academy System Are the Only Choices: The Representation of 12. John Hope Franklin and Evelyn Higginbotham, in Michigan. African Americans within State Social Studies From Slavery to Freedom: A History of African

The Korean War and Its Legacy: Teaching about Korea through Inquiry Korean War Legacy Foundation. 231 pages. 2019 News headlines regularly remind us of the importance of the Korean Peninsula and the challenges facing U.S. policy on North Korea. The tensions in Korea are part of the legacy of the Korean War, which culminated in an armistice in 1953, but has never been concluded by a peace treaty. Often described as the “Forgotten War,” it had significant consequences for the United States and the world. Even though more than a million U.S. soldiers fought in the Korean War, and 28,000 U.S. forces are still stationed in South Korea, it only receives limited coverage in history textbooks. This book fills an important gap by presenting rich primary resources in the form of oral histories, photos, and official documents of the Korean War that enable teachers and students to explore the war through the eyes of those who experienced its intensity and hardships. The contributors to the book also offer important background information about contemporary Korea and the challenges facing United States diplomacy in the Korean Peninsula. Member price: $19.95 / List price: $29.95 Item 190900, ISBN 978-0-87986-115-5

Purchase 10 or more copies and save 20% off the non-member price. Order online at www.socialstudies.org/store. To order by phone, call 1-800-683-0812. To order by purchase order, please email as attachments to [email protected]; fax to 301-779-8596, or mail to NCSS Publications, 3570 Bladensburg Rd., Brentwood, MD 20722. Any order including a check as payment should be sent to: NCSS, P.O. Box 79078, Baltimore, MD 21279-0078.

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