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Ii THESIS the PREHISTORIC UTILIZATION of MOLLUSC SHELL

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THESIS THE PREHISTORIC UTILIZATION OF MOLLUSC SHELL IN THE ARKANSAS AND SOUTH PLATTE RIVER BASINS OF EASTERN COLORADO Submitted By Emily Calhoun Department of Anthropology In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the Degree of Master of Arts Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado Spring 2011 Masters Committee: Advisor: Jason M. LaBelle Lawrence C. Todd Ellen E. Wohl ii ABSTRACT THE PREHISTORIC UTILIZATION OF MOLLUSC SHELL IN THE ARKANSAS AND SOUTH PLATTE RIVER BASINS OF EASTERN COLORADO This comprehensive examination of prehistoric mollusc artifacts from the Arkansas and South Platte River basins of Eastern Colorado explores how material cultural is inherently linked to environmental conditions and cultural influences. These connections are explored via an in-depth investigation of form, function, and use through time of mollusc artifacts, the results of which are used to formulate the basis of two subsequent environmental and cultural investigations. The first uses the biological parameters required to support freshwater mollusc populations, based on the freshwater artifacts within the study assemblage, to argue that environmental conditions in the Eastern Colorado study area were most favorable for molluscs during the Late Holocene. The second examines the origins and mechanisms by which marine artifacts from the study assemblage entered the Arkansas and South Platte Basins and concludes that artifacts were primarily acquired via trade and exchange with peoples of the Southwest. This examination also argues that increasing cultural connectivity and interaction culminating during the Late Prehistoric would have allowed for various exotic marine artifacts to enter Eastern Colorado. The overarching conclusion of this study is that mollusc artifacts are used as items of personal adornment and are predominantly recovered from archaeological sites dating to the Late Prehistoric in Eastern Colorado. Additionally, this temporal affiliation is directly dependent on a variety of environmental ii and cultural influences. The results and arguments formulated within this study provide a baseline for future in-depth examinations of mollusc artifacts in Eastern Colorado. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express profound appreciation and gratitude to all those who made my graduate career meaningful and my thesis research possible. First and foremost, I would like to thank my advisor Jason LaBelle. It was mere weeks into my first semester when Jason handed me two Central Plains Archaeology volumes focused on the molluscs of the Central Plains. These volumes and various discussions with Jason on the subject were the inspiration for this thesis. Jason‘s door was always open for consultation regarding my research and for larger discussions of archaeology and life. He was always there to listen, but never pushed my research. He allowed me to triumph in my successes and learn from my mistakes, for which I am most grateful. Larry Todd and Ellen Wohl, who graciously served as my committee members, both challenged me to examine cultural inquiries in light of their environmental and geologic contexts. They both pushed me to think beyond my comfort zone and I hope the results of this reflection are evident in this thesis. I would also like to acknowledge the support and guidance from my friends and colleagues including Becky Latanich, Heather Horobik, Krystal Langholz, Rachel Brown, Jennifer Richbourg, Maggie Scott, Dana Coleman, Sarah Knizewski, Lance Rom, Lisa Kelley, Kelly Brennan, Kerri Barile, and Michael Carmody. But most notably Jillian Flesh and Brett Dorrance with whom I spent many South Dakota days pondering plains archaeology from the seemingly endless prairie grasslands. iv My thesis was rooted in the study of archaeological collections, archival records, and zoological collections at several institutions across Eastern Colorado. Without the outstanding staff at these repositories my research would not have been possible. I would like to thank Mary Sullivan at the Colorado Office of Historic Preservation (Denver); Bridget Ambler at the Colorado State Historical Society (Denver); Jason LaBelle at Colorado State University‘s Laboratory of Public Archaeology (Fort Collins); Isabel Tovar with the Denver Museum of Nature and Science (Denver); Mark Owens, Tom Baurley, and Terry Moody at the Fort Carson Cultural Resources Program (Colorado Springs); Linda Moore with the Fort Collins Museum (Fort Collins); Loretta Martin at the Louden-Henritze Archaeology Museum (Trinidad); Stephen Lekson and Mariko Kageyama with the University of Colorado Museum of Natural History (Boulder); and Brooke Rohde with the University of Denver Museum of Anthropology (Denver). Additionally, my thesis research was generously supported by the Colorado Archaeological Society‘s Alice Hamilton Scholarship Fund. Most importantly I want to thank my husband Dustin Calhoun and my family, in particular my parents, for their unwavering support during my graduate career. Dustin has been a constant during this process and has been my biggest cheerleader, always encouraging me to follow my dreams regardless of the sacrifices. For that reason I would like to dedicate this work to him and to our future. My parents, Fred and Pam Bank, have provided endless emotional and financial support, for which I am eternally grateful. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT OF THESIS ................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................... vi List of Figures .................................................................................................................. viii List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... x CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH AND METHODS .................................................................. 9 Research Strategy............................................................................................................ 9 Definition of the Study Area ..................................................................................... 10 Research Methods ..................................................................................................... 12 Native Molluscs within the Study Area .................................................................... 14 Marine Shell found Archaeologically within the Study Area ................................... 19 Artifact Classification Definitions ............................................................................ 19 Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 21 CHAPTER 3: THE STUDY ASSEMBLAGE ................................................................. 22 Mollusc Artifacts .......................................................................................................... 22 Artifact Classes and Examples.................................................................................. 25 Trends in Artifact Classes in Eastern Colorado ........................................................ 34 Discussion of Trends in Mollusc Artifacts ............................................................... 37 Reduction Sequence of Mollusc Artifacts and Raw Material Size Classes .............. 39 Mollusc Use Through Time .......................................................................................... 40 Cultural Chronologies ............................................................................................... 41 Trends in Use Through Time .................................................................................... 42 Discussion of Changing Uses of Mollusc Shell ........................................................ 44 Discussions of Trends Observed in the Study Assemblage .......................................... 45 Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 47 CHAPTER 4: PALEOENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS ............................................... 48 Freshwater Molluscs Examined within the Current Study ........................................... 48 Ecology and Biology of Freshwater Bivalves .............................................................. 49 Arkansas and Platte River Basins: Paleoenvironmental Reconstructions .................... 51 Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene Transition ............................................................ 52 Holocene along the Arkansas and South Platte Rivers ............................................. 53 River System Characteristics and Implications for Mollusc Populations ................. 56 River System Characteristics and Changes in Artifact Frequencies ............................. 57 Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 60 Comparison of Eastern Colorado and Eastern Plains Freshwater Mollusc Artifacts ... 61 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 64 CHAPTER 5: MOLLUSC TRADE AND EXCHANGE ................................................
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