PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
D3.2 PANACEA Roadmap
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PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
Deliverable Title: D3.2: PANACEA Roadmap
Deliverable Lead: Imperial College London (ICL)
Related Work package: WP3
Author(s): Calliope Panoutsou (ICL), Efthymia Alexopoulou (CRES)
Contributor(s): Association de Coordination Technique Agricole,ARKEMA FRANCE; University of Bologna, CREA, LIETUVOS AGRARINIU IR MISKU MOKSLUCENTRAS; Michal Krzyzaniak; FCT-UNL; ACTA, INTIA, Spanish Co-ops; Wageningen University
Communication level: PU Public
Grant Agreement Number: 773501
Programme: Horizon 2020
Start date of Project: November 2017
Duration: 40 months
Project coordinator: CRES
2 PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
Contents 1. PANACEA Roadmap ...... 6 1.1 Aim ...... 6 1.2 Approach ...... 6 Participatory approach ...... 6 Modelling approach ...... 7 2. Enabling factors ...... 9 2.1 The crops and their opportunities for non-food markets ...... 9 Lignocellulosic crops ...... 10 Carbohydrate crops ...... 10 Oil crops ...... 11 Specialty crops ...... 11 2.2 Enabling policy drivers ...... 12 3. The crops selected in PANACEA: Roadmap actions, investment required and job opportunities...... 15 3.1 Lignocellulosic crops ...... 15 Farmers’ needs and interests ...... 18 Barriers to their production and harvesting...... 19 Roadmap actions ...... 21 Investment requirements and job opportunities ...... 22 Facts for lignocellulosic crops ...... 23 3.2 Carbohydrate crops ...... 24 Farmers’ needs and interests ...... 25 Barriers to their production and harvesting...... 26 Roadmap actions ...... 28 Investment requirements and job opportunities ...... 29 Facts for carbohydrate crops in Europe ...... 30 3.3 Oil crops ...... 31 Farmers’ needs and interests ...... 33 Barriers to their production and harvesting ...... 34 Investment requirements and job opportunities ...... 37 Facts for oil crops in Europe ...... 38 3.4 Specialty crops ...... 39 Farmers’ needs and interests ...... 40 Barriers to their production and harvesting...... 41 Roadmap actions ...... 43 Investment requirements and job opportunities ...... 44 Facts for specialty crops in Europe ...... 45 4. Annex: PANACEA country Roadmaps ...... 48
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New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
List of Tables
Table 1 Stakeholders’ ranking on lignocellulosic crop performance for production, harvesting and end use ...... 20 Table 2 Stakeholders’ ranking on carbohydrate crop performance for production, harvesting and end use ...... 27 Table 3 Stakeholders’ ranking on oil crop performance for production, harvesting and end use ...... 35 Table 4 Stakeholders’ ranking on specialty crop performance for production, harvesting and end use ...... 42
List of Figures
Figure 1 Approach of the PANACEA Roadmap ...... 6 Figure 2 Selected crops and markets analysed in PANACEA: Lignocellulosic (top left), coil (top right), carbohydrate (bottom left) and specialty (bottom right) ...... 9 Figure 3 Markets, drivers and barriers for the lignocellulosic crops examined in PANACEA 19 Figure 4 Roadmap actions to overcome the barriers for the uptake of lignocellulosic crops as raw material for bioeconomy ...... 21 Figure 5 Estimated investment requirements for 1,000 ha per crop and value chain stage .. 22 Figure 6 Estimated jobs for crop production and harvesting in 1,000 ha scale...... 22 Figure 7 Markets, drivers and barriers for the carbohydrate crops examined in PANACEA . 26 Figure 8 Roadmap actions to overcome the barriers for the uptake of carbohydrate crops as raw material for bioeconomy ...... 28 Figure 9 Estimated investment requirements for 1,000 ha per crop and value chain stage .. 29 Figure 10 Estimated jobs for crop production and harvesting in 1,000 ha scale...... 29 Figure 11 Markets, drivers and barriers for the oil crops examined in PANACEA ...... 34 Figure 12 Roadmap actions to overcome the barriers for the uptake of oil crops as raw material for bioeconomy ...... 36 Figure 13 Estimated investment requirements for 1,000 ha per crop and value chain stage 37 Figure 14 Estimated jobs for crop production and harvesting in 1,000 ha scale...... 37 Figure 15 Markets, drivers and barriers for the lignocellulosic crops examined in PANACEA ...... 41 Figure 16 Roadmap actions to overcome the barriers for the uptake of specialty crops as raw material for bioeconomy ...... 43 Figure 17 Estimated investment requirements, for 1,000 ha per crop and value chain stage ...... 44 Figure 18 Estimated jobs for crop production and harvesting in 1,000 ha scale...... 44
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PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
1 PANACEA Roadmap
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PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
1. PANACEA Roadmap
1.1 Aim
The aim of the Roadmap is to: • provide an overview of the enabling factors i.e., the crops selected by the PANACEA team and their non- food market opportunities and the enabling policy drivers, • outline the barriers to their production, harvesting and use, • analyse how the crop performance can meet farmer needs and interest for issues related to crop productivity, soil, water, ecosystem services, emissions from agriculture and profitability and • recommend future Roadmap action that can facilitate their market uptake as raw materials for bioeconomy.
Following, the actions included in the Roadmap are quantified in terms of investment required and potential for green job creation in rural areas across EU.
1.2 Approach
The work combined participatory approach with modelling to deliver a set of recommendations that are tailored to the needs of the understudy crops and their end use markets.
Figure 1 Approach of the PANACEA Roadmap
Participatory approach
The project team together with experts and local stakeholders from the PANACEA Multi Actor Forum1 selected promising crops with non-food use opportunities for bioeconomy, identified barriers for their market uptake (for production, harvesting and end use), assessed the crop performance and co-designed a set of actions that are tailored to crop needs and farmers’ interests.
1 D3.1 Mapping capacities and establishment of the PANACEA ‘Multi-actor forum’. D3.1-Mapping-capacities-and- establishment-of-the-PANACEA-M4-n.pdf (panacea-h2020.eu)
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PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
Modelling approach2
Modelling has been used to quantify the scale of investments required to implement the Roadmap actions recommended by stakeholders in each group category (lignocellulosic, carbohydrate, oil, specialty). The investment rates are linked to the crop performance (Tables 1-4) and are calculated as 10% (high crop performance thus less investment required) 20% (medium crop performance thus moderate investment required) and 30% (low crop performance thus higher level of investment required) increase in the respective production costs for this value chain stage.
An econometric model has been used to calculate crop production costs and jobs across the value chain stages1. The approach is an input output (IO) analysis that describes, through symmetrical tables, the interdependencies between activities within the relevant stages of the value chain2. The tables include cost data drawn from statistics, literature and expert opinion, for relevant activities, labour, materials and equipment at national, regional, and local (i.e. implementation) levels and describe flows in monetary terms across the value chain.
The model follows the principles of Activity Based Costing, it is applicable at implementation level and has well-defined system boundaries in terms of geographic scope, crop type and conversion multipliers. It can evaluate each step of the value chain separately, account for regional specificities and crop variables (e.g., cultivation practices, land rent, labour, etc.) and integrate both expert values and statistics.
The tailored module for the estimation of jobs uses a traditional Keynesian Income Multiplier approach 3 4 5. The technique 6 makes predictions about the employment and profit effects arising from cultivation of the crop and installation of a conversion plant. It is intended for use in ex-ante impact assessments to provide forecasts of the associated costs and benefits of any proposed biobased value chain, with analysis divided between the feedstock and conversion systems.
2 Adapted from Panoutsou, C.; Alexopoulou, E. Costs and Profitability of Crops for Bioeconomy in the EU. Energies 2020, 13, 1222. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13051222
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PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
2 Enabling factors
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PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
2. Enabling factors
This section presents the enabling factors for the uptake of the crops selected in PANACEA as feedstocks for bioeconomy in terms of their relevance for biobased markets and existing policies with relevant aims that can drive the crops’ future market uptake.
2.1 The crops and their opportunities for non-food markets
PANACEA focused on a set of crops from the lignocellulosic, carbohydrate (starch and sugar), oil and specialty categories and analysed their Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) for the non-food markets3 4.
Figure 2 outlines the crop categories and the markets analysed in the PANACEA project.
Figure 2 Selected crops and markets analysed in PANACEA: lignocellulosic (top left), coil (top right), carbohydrate (bottom left) and specialty (bottom right)
• Lignocellulosic: switchgrass, miscanthus; giant reed; reed canary grass; cardoon; willow; poplar, eucalyptus; black locust; kenaf; hemp. • Starch & Sugar (carbohydrate): sweet sorghum; sugarbeet; triticale; lupin. • Oil: castor; camelina; Ethiopian mustard (carinata); rapeseed HEAR; crambe; cardoon; safflower; lupin
3 PANACEA D1.3 Strength and opportunities of nearto-practice non-food crops (NFCs) D1.3-Strengths-opportunities-of- NFCs-FINAL-.pdf (panacea-h2020.eu) 4 PANACEA D2.3 New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe D2.3-Role-of-NFC-in- renaissance-of-rural-areas.pdf (panacea-h2020.eu) 9
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
• Specialty: peppermint, calendula; lavender; guayule; rosemary.
Lignocellulosic crops
Hemp is a multi-purpose crop that can be grown to supply a diversified market (TRL>7) for fibre and hemp by- products (short fibre, shives, seeds, and bioactive components). The valorisation of the whole plant (seeds, flowers and biomass) can increase the overall crop profitability. Currently, hemp is grown in more than 46,700 ha.
Miscanthus for bioenergy is still in development in many European countries (TRL>7). With a growing area 29,500 ha. Miscanthus based paper products and packaging materials are marketed and produced at small scale. Bio-composites (PLA filled with miscanthus fibre) and building materials (light weight mineral matrix fibre composites) from miscanthus have also been demonstrated (TRL5-6) and are explored for commercialization.
Linseed straw for textiles is not available in EU. Local (large or small scale) pre-processing options for linseed straw separation technologies have been explored.
Switchgrass is explored (mainly in USA and Canada) for bioenergy (chips, pellets and/or briquettes for combustion, torrefaction), advanced biofuels and biodegradable plastics. Although, its conversion stage has reached TRL between 5 and 7, the crop cultivation is still limited to demo fields.
Giant reed is a common weed in the Mediterranean, which is known to be invasive and out-compete other crops. The woody tubelike stems of giant reed have been used in the manufacturing of flutes and organ pipes and are the source of reeds for woodwind instruments. The straplike leaves are used to make mats in some places5. It has also been examined as feedstock for biogas and biofuel production (TRL5).
Poplar wood is used in paper pulp, packaging, and panel industries. Poplar is a good choice, due to its non- splintering nature, for rough uses including the bottoms of carts and wagons. It is commonly used for flooring, cabinetry, painted furniture, framing, mouldings, millwork, drawers, toys, boxes, crates, pallets, veneers and plywood6. Other uses of poplar include bioenergy, advanced biofuels and ‘green’ chemicals (TRL5-6).
Willow is commonly used for particle board, wood pulp, sawnwood, fuel wood and wood chips. Willow bark can be an effective analgesic if the salicylate content is adequate7.
Eucalypt production is known to be effective for reforestation. It can have significantly positive effects on landscape, soil nutrient exhaustion, water availability and biodiversity. It is found (E. globulus) in Iberian Peninsula (mainly in Portugal) and the 80% of its area it is used for paper and pulp production. Eucalypt foliage is a common ingredient in herbal cold and flu remedies as well as several cosmetic products8.
Carbohydrate crops
Triticale can be used both in food and non-food markets (it is being explored as raw material for biomethane and for bioethanol). These new markets are not very demanding in terms of grain quality, which broadens the market opportunities for the crop.
Sugarbeet is a well-known crop produced in rotation schemes on arable land at large scale in Europe. It is mainly grown for food purposes. The crop however can also be a very suitable feedstock for decentralized biorefineries like producing bioethanol and leaf protein extracts.
Sweet sorghum is explored as raw material for bioethanol and biogas. The biomass sorghum whole crop use for advanced biofuels production was evaluated as most suitable for temperate climates. Recently sorghum is also being grown on demo fields in Germany for biogas production due to its higher resistance to water scarcity compared to corn.
5 https://www.britannica.com/plant/giant-reed 6 https://www.somersetwood.com/lumber- products/poplar#:~:text=Common%20Uses%20Poplar%20is%20a%20good%20choice%2C%20due,drawers%2C%20to ys%2C%20boxes%2C%20crates%2C%20pallets%2C%20veneers%20and%20plywood. 7 https://www.drugs.com/npp/willow-bark.html 8 https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/ornamental/trees/eucalyptus/eucalyptus-leaf-uses.htm 10
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
Lupin is an old new crop that used to be grown for animal feeding, while currently gained attention as feedstock for high value bio-products (see LIBBIO project).
Oil crops
Camelina is regarded as an opportunity by aviation sector to produce biojet fuel. The main driving forces are: its short growing period that allows the double cropping (catch crop) and its ability to be grown in a wide range of climatic (throughout Europe) and soil conditions (even on dry marginal lands in Spain).
Rapeseed is used to produce biodiesel. There is interest from the chemical industry for the use of rapeseed HEAR9 to produce ‘green’ chemicals. The value chain can reach high TRL levels when the availability of propagation materials has improved.
Cardoon extracts from dried flowers have long been used in the production of cheese. There is interest (TRL5) in cardoon seeds for oil, protein flour, and bioactive compounds. The use of cardoon biomass is also investigated for solid biofuels, paper and pulp and green chemicals. Cardoon seed oil can be used to produce biodiesel and bioplastics.
Sunflower is a well-established oilseed crop for food, feed, lubricants, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics in South Europe. The value chain is well organised, and farmers are familiar with this crop.
Crambe is a non-edible crop with high erucic acid oil seeds. Crambe oil is used in small “green and organic” beauty industry directly or as a cosmetic ingredient. Other uses include lubricants and biofuels.
Castor oil has several medicinal, industrial and pharmaceutical uses. It is commonly used as an additive in foods, medications and skin care products, as well as an industrial lubricant and biodiesel fuel component.
Specialty crops
Peppermint is traditionally used in herbal teas, as food additive and for medicinal purposes.
Calendula’s main commercial value lies in the flowers used in medicinal and cosmetic preparations. Farmers feed the flowers to laying hens to deepen the colour of the egg yolk. The potential of the seed oil for industrial applications has also been explored and development of the crop for this purpose is close to commercialization.
Guayule is considered a promising source for rubber and other biobased applications. Rubber is contained in the stems and in the tap root.
Lavender is already grown in many EU countries (France, UK, Spain, etc.) in small-scale farms and have small niche market.
Rosemary is traditionally used in herbal teas, as food additive and for medicinal purposes.
9 https://www.perdueagribusiness.com/specialty-crops/hear/ 11
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
2.2 Enabling policy drivers
Raw material diversification is critical to ensure year- round, appropriate quality feedstocks to meet the needs of the growing biobased economy, minimise environmental impacts whilst at the same offer economically attractive opportunities for farmers, growers, and industry.
Crops with traits that can be suitable to non-food uses are included in many policies both at European and national level. These regulate the sustainability of land use, cultivation practices, the potential impacts to biodiversity and ecosystem services as well as GHG and carbon related issues from their production and use. The policies10 cover both the upstream (land use, crop cultivation, cropping practices, harvesting) and the downstream (conversion, distribution, end use) parts of the crop biobased value chains.
Key policies relevant to the upstream stages include Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) 2021-20277, and the new EU Biodiversity Strategy for 20308. On the downstream stages, relevant sectors include energy, transport, and biobased industries, with respective policy frameworks like the Renewable Energy Directive (RED II), Fuel Quality Directive (FQD) (2009/30/EC)9, and EU REACH (1907/2006)10. Crop biobased value chains are also addressed by policies from cross cutting areas like climate change, environment, research and innovation. The European Green Deal 11, new Circular Economy Action Plan 202012, Effort Sharing Decision (ESD)13, and Roadmap to Resource Efficient Europe14 are a few of those which cut across multiple value chain stages.
Enabling policy drivers for sustainable biomass production11,with crops that can serve non-food biobased sectors are related to the following policies:
• Common Agricultural Policy Objective 5: Foster sustainable development and efficient management of natural resources such as water, soil and air15: Support sustainable land management for both agriculture and forest lands, and soil quality and health through greening measures and cross compliance with Good Agricultural and Environmental Conditions (GAEC)16 • European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD) 17: support investments to acquire land for biomass production. • European Agricultural Guarantee Fund (EAGF): support income-generating activities and market measures, which can foster novel biomass production on existing land uses. • Cohesion Fund18 and European Regional Development Fund (ERDF)19: reduce soil contamination and rehabilitate contaminated soils. • EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020 (COM/2011/244) 20 , Habitat Directive 94/43/EEC 21 , and Bird Directive 2009/147/EC22: regulate the conservation of biodiversity and natural habitat to minimise the ecological costs of land-based biomass production and maintain the productivity of ecosystem services. • Soil Thematic Strategy (COM 2012)46 final23, Soil Framework Directive COM (2006)23224, Integrated pollution prevention and control (IPPC) (96/61/EC) Directive, Standards for soil improvers (CEN- TC223)25, Nitrate Directive 91/676/EEC 26, EU Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC 27, Clean Air Programme for Europe COM/2013/0918 28 , and Directive for sustainable use of pesticides 2009/128/EC29: enforce quality standards for chemical inputs to safeguard the quality of land, air and water. • EU Fertilising Products Regulation EU 2019/100930 : promote the use of bio- or waste-based fertilisers and recycled materials while reducing dependency on imported Fertilisers.
Enabling policy drivers for resource efficient conversion of crops that can provide raw materials for non-food biobased sectors, distribution and end use are related to the following policies: • Innovation Fund31: aims to support the transition of innovative pilot scale projects to large scale by facilitating their access to markets under low-risk conditions by mobilising public-private funds, an effort mirrored by the Just Transition Mechanisms 32,33 under the framework of the Sustainable Europe Investment Plan34 and the European Green Deal Investment Plan35. • Sustainable Consumption and Production Action Plan (SCP-AP)36: aims to improve products through incentives and public procurement, labelling and eco-design of energy- and energy-related products.
10 Details for relevant policies are adapted from: Singh, A., Christensen, T. and C. Panoutsou. Policy review for biomass value chains in the European bioeconomy. Global Transitions, Volume 3, 2021, Pages 13-42, ISSN 2589-7918, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.glt.2020.11.003 11 The policy drivers for biomass production include land use biomass production and harvesting. 12
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
• Directive on deployment of Alternative Fuels Infrastructure 2014/94/EU37: supports the development of alternative fuels (including advanced biofuels) infrastructure at national level. • Clean Vehicles Directive 2009/33/EC38: aims to enforce mandatory public procurement for each member state to support the early stage deployment of vehicles and reduce emissions and pollutants. • Green Public Procurement COM (2008/400)39 developed the EU GPP criteria40 which member states can adopt at their own discretion to support sustainable technologies, renewables and biobased products, including a focus on socio-economic impacts. • Energy Labelling (Directive 2010/30/EU and Regulation 2017/1369)41: aims to regulate labelling for energy-related products and helps consumers make informed decisions • EcoLabel42: is developed to communicate the benefits of bio-based products and improves their market integration. • Renewable Energy Directive (REDII) - emphasises the role of biofuels, bioliquids and biomass fuels but at the same time takes a more targeted approach to ensure Indirect Land Use Change (ILUC) impacts associated with conventional pathways are reduced. The Directive also introduces another concept, aimed to contribute to the 14% target: the Low-ILUC risk biofuels, bioliquids and biomass fuels that, however, need to be certified as low ILUC risk. This states that low ILUC risk biofuels, bioliquids and biomass fuels are those: i) ‘that are produced under circumstances that avoid ILUC effects, by virtue of having been cultivated on unused, abandoned or severely degraded land or (the perennial non-food crops; miscanthus, switchgrass, giant reed, willow, poplar) and ii) emanating from crops which benefited from improved agricultural practices (the annual non-food crops like crambe, rapeseed, castor bean, carinata, etc.)
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PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
3 The crops selected in PANACEA: Roadmap actions, investment required and job opportunities
14 PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
3. The crops selected in PANACEA: Roadmap actions, investment required and job opportunities.
This section presents the crops selected in PANACEA for biobased markets, the suggested Roadmap actions, investment required and job opportunities.
3.1 Lignocellulosic crops
Lignocellulosic crops have been cultivated for more than two decades throughout Europe for their high yields, specific traits for end-use and the ability to grow in low quality land which does not compete for food/feed crops. They are annual and perennial species which can provide raw material for construction materials, composites and bioenergy.
PANACEA examined eleven- species comprising of five perennial herbaceous (switchgrass, miscanthus; giant reed, reed canary grass, cardoon), four woody species (willow, poplar, eucalyptus, black locust) and two fibre crops (kenaf; hemp).
Switchgrass and miscanthus are typical C412 warm season perennial grasses, with a wide range of climatic adaptability and best fitted to central and southern Europe. However, extremely dry summer periods are a fundamental problem for these crops. Switchgrass species (upland and lowland cytotypes) have a much wider range of adaptation than miscanthus x giganteus (to our knowledge the only one self-sterile triploid genotype currently available in Europe) 13,14.
Giant reed, a C315 crop, is well adapted to the Mediterranean climates of southern Europe and can produce high biomass yields (event 35 dry matter yields/ha). Its yields can be significantly decreased in dry areas of Mediterranean region (~8-10 t/ha) It is interesting to note, however, that even though the C3 photosynthetic pathway of giant reed, its reported water use efficiency was higher than that of miscanthus, a C4 plant.
Reed canary grass is a sod- forming, productive, vigorous, perennial (up to 7 years rotation). The crop is well suited to wet soils that are poorly drained or subject to flooding and survives well in drought, it also has excellent frost tolerance. It could be used as solid biofuels fresh biomass for biogas production. Regrowth after grazing and/ or mowing is very rapid on fertile sites and good on poor sites.
Cardoon is native to the western and central Mediterranean region and it is cultivated in lots of countries in Europe. It is native in Italy, France, Spain, Croatia, Portugal and other countries. There are two main cultivar groups of Cynara, the first one is C. cardunculus var. altilis DC which is selected for its edible leaf stems and the C. cardunculus var. scolymus selected for its large edible flower buds. Cardoon can be used as composites of natural fibres (Fiore et al., 2011)16; for fibreboards (Mancera et al., 2008)17; as nimal fodder from leaves and seed cake (Curt et al., 2001)18; for phytoremediation of soils contaminated with arsenic and cadmium (Llugany
12 C4 plant: A plant in which the CO2 is first fixed into a compound containing four carbon atoms before entering the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis. A C4 plant is better adapted than a C3 plant in an environment with high daytime temperatures, intense sunlight, drought, or nitrogen or CO2 limitation. https://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/C4_plant 13 Heaton EA, Clifton-Brown J, Voigt TB, Jones MB and Long SP, Miscanthus for renewable energy generation: European union experience and projections for Illinois. Mitigation Adaptation Strategies Global Change 9:433–451 (2004). 14 Lewandowski I, Clifton-Brown JC, Scurlock JMO and Huisman W, Miscanthus: European experience with a novel energy crop. Biomass Bioenerg 19:209–227 (2000). 15 C3 plant: A plant in which the CO2 is first fixed into a compound containing three carbon atoms before entering the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis. C3 plants must however be in areas where CO2 concentration is high, temperature and light intensity are moderate, and ground water is abundant. https://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/C3_plant 16 Fiore, V., Valenza, A., & Di Bella, G. (2011). Artichoke (L.) fibres as potential reinforcement of composite structures. 17 Mancera, C., Ferrando, F., & Salvado, J. (2008). Cynara cardunculus as raw material for the production of binderless fiberboards: Optimization of pretreatment and pressing conditions. Journal of wood chemistry and technology, 28(3), 207-226. 18 Curt, M. D., Sánchez, G., & Fernández, J. (2002). The potential of Cynara cardunculus L. for seed oil production in a perennial cultivation system. Biomass and bioenergy, 23(1), 33-46. 15
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
et al, 2012)19; as dietary and medicinal supplements because of its diuretic, choleretic and hepatoprotective properties (De Falco et al., 2015)20.
Willow21: Within EU only small areas are planted for biomass production (e.g. 20.000 ha in Germany, 40.000 ha in Sweden, 8.000 ha Poland, 10.000 ha Spain)18). Biomass yield on dry mass basis ranges from about 4 t/ha when permanently under water22, up to 30 t/ha/year for productive soils23. In the Netherlands24 willow production has a long tradition for uses in civil engineering and wickerwork. Currently small experimental plots for energy crop production were established.
Poplar is s a widely adaptable and fast-growing species, normally propagated by cuttings. Plants can grow up to 50 m tall. For non-food purposes it is often grown as short-rotation coppice for two to five years and can achieve very high yield of lignocellulosic biomass.
Eucalypt25: There are several eucalypt species cultivated in Europe. Tasmanian blue gum, Eucalyptus globulus Labill., is mainly cultivated in the Iberian Peninsula for paper pulp production, managed as short rotation coppice stands. It is appreciated for its adaptation and fast-growing aptitude. The red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.) is better adapted for timber than pulp production, and is also employed for shelterbelts and as an ornamental. The shining gum tree (Eucalyptus nitens (Deane & Maiden) Maiden) is grown for plywood. Eucalyptus gunnii Hook. f. is usually used for ornamental purposes and windbreaks, has encountered recent interest as a source of wood fuel, even if it shows slower growth rates and poorer pulping quality in comparison with E. globulus and E. nitens. Eucalyptus viminalis Labill. is planted for shelterbelts or as an ornamental.
Back locust26 is a fast-growing, pest-resistant tree with attractive flowers, it was planted for both ornamental and commercial forestry purposes. It is currently planted across most of Europe, excluding the north and some Mediterranean islands. In Central Europe, it is most widespread in Hungary, where it makes up 24% of all forests, followed by Slovenia and Poland, where it represents 4.7% and 3.4%, respectively, of forests. The species produces valuable water- and rot-resistant timber and firewood and provides nectar for making high-quality honey.
Hemp27 is used to make a variety of commercial and industrial products, including rope, textiles, clothing, shoes, food, paper, bioplastics, insulation, and biofuel.[4] The bast fibres can be used to make textiles that are 100% hemp, but they are commonly blended with other fibres, such as flax, cotton or silk, as well as virgin and recycled polyester, to make woven fabrics for apparel and furnishings. European hemp cultivation has been on a major upswing for the last several years, as producers and consumers become more excited about new usage opportunities28. Hemp cultivation in Europe is well established with a tradition dating back hundreds of years. Currently, it is estimated that Europe cultivates up to 25% of the world’s hemp. France alone accounted for 40% of the European production, with at least 20 other countries contributing to the European Union’s total.
19 Llugany, M., Miralles, R., Corrales, I., Barceló, J., & Poschenrieder, C. (2012). Cynara cardunculus a potentially useful plant for remediation of soils polluted with cadmium or arsenic. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 123, 122-127. 20 de Falco, B., Incerti, G., Amato, M., & Lanzotti, V. (2015). Artichoke: botanical, agronomical, phytochemical, and pharmacological overview. Phytochemistry reviews, 14(6), 993-1018. 21 PANACEA D2.3 New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe D2.3-Role-of-NFC-in- renaissance-of-rural-areas.pdf (panacea-h2020.eu) 22 https://www.veenweiden.nl/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Brochure-Natte-teelten-6-6-2019.pdf#page=20 (in Dutch) 23 https://www.agriculturejournals.cz/publicFiles/594_2018-PSE.pdf 24 Boosten, M. & J. Oldenburger. 2011. Kansen voor de aanleg van wilgenplantages in Nederland. Wageningen, Stichting Probos. 25 https://forest.jrc.ec.europa.eu/media/atlas/Eucalyptus_globulus.pdf ; Accessed *** 26 https://ec.europa.eu/environment/integration/research/newsalert/pdf/invasive_black_locust_tree_can_have_sustainable_ future_despite_biodiversity_impacts_489na4_en.pdf, Accessed *** 27 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemp Accessed **** 28 https://newfrontierdata.com/cannabis-insights/developed-global-markets-hemp-acreage-comparison/
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New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
Kenaf29 is an annual fibre crop of great interest for both the production of industrial raw materials (such as composites for the automotive industry30) and as biofuel under the pedoclimatic conditions of south Europe. Kenaf stems produce two types of fibre, a coarser fibre in the outer layer (bast fibre), and a finer fibre in the core.
29 http://www.cres.gr/biokenaf/files/fs_inferior01_h_files/pdf/articles/Kenaf.Bologna.pdf; Accessed **** 30 http://www.insightsociety.org/ojaseit/index.php/ijaseit/article/viewFile/1180/pdf_345; Accessed ****
17 PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
Farmers’ needs and interests
This section presents the performance of lignocellulosic crops to support farmers’ needs & interests for issues related to crop productivity, soil, water, ecosystem services, emissions from agriculture and profitability. Farmers’ Criterion Crop performance CAP Objective needs & interests Productivity Lignocellulosic crops have shown potential of high crop yield even in marginal soil and climatic conditions. Technological TRL level of lignocellulosic crop is TRL>7, which Readiness means the crops are already produced at industrial Level (TRL) scale and available for commercial purposes. TRL level with respect to the availability of propagation materials and mechanization of cultivation and harvesting some lignocellulosic crops like miscanthus, poplar, willow TRL>7. However, for giant reed, reed canary grass, black locust TRL is 5- 7. Soil health Soil carbon Lignocellulosic crops can increase soil carbon because of low tillage (in some crop varieties), deep and extensive rhizome rooting system, high amount of litter from and stems, and increased microbial biomass. Soil erosion Lignocellulosic crops help reduce soil erosion due to the large canopy and the extensive root system that can bind soil, increase soil fertility and remediate land from toxic chemicals. Thus lignocellulosic perennial crops have the potential to stop the degradation of land in areas prone to soil erosion due to steep slopes, abandoned agricultural land, saline soils. The continuous presence of underground biomass in the soil helps intercepts the rainfall and provides surface cover. Water use Water Water use efficiency for lignocellulosic crops abstraction (switchgrass, miscanthus, poplar, willow) is considered high and usually varies depending on the soil and climatic conditions. C4 crops like miscanthus and switchgrass have higher water use efficiency (double) when compared with C3 crops like willow and poplar and maize. Water quality Lignocellulosic crops have good nutrient recycling ability Ecosystem Lignocellulosic perennial crops can provide shelter for services the fauna thus contribute to conservation and promote the biodiversity. Reduced GHGs When grown under sustainable agricultural practices emissions lignocellulosic crops can reduce GHG emissions in agriculture Profitability Farm income The market for lignocellulosic crops is not well developed so there is very little clarity on the income
prospect and long-term contractual arrangements with farmers.
Rural Lignocellulosic perennial crops can offer long term employment employment to rural areas since they have high yields and require labor intensive practices for their harvesting, densification, transportation and storage.
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PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
Barriers to their production and harvesting.
Key barriers for the production, harvesting and use of the lignocellulosic crops examined in PANACEA include:
Production • Those established by rhizomes, plants and/or stem cuttings having higher establishment costs compared to those established by seeds. • Low level of knowledge among farmers. • Risks for monoculture when the crops are planted at large scale to cover supply demand for biorefineries. • Low experience of growing in marginal land.
Harvesting • Harvesting requires specialised machinery. • High harvest, logistic and drying cost make lignocellulosic crops less competitive.
Use • Low experience of use in large scale, commercial production.
Figure 3 Markets, drivers and barriers for the lignocellulosic crops examined in PANACEA
Figure 3 illustrates the markets, the drivers PANACEA defined as critical for the crops to be considered as ‘near to practice’ and respective barriers. Table 1 shows the stakeholders’ ranking on lignocellulosic crops’ performance for production, harvesting and end use31. When the crop performance is high ( ) the modelling analysis estimates that the investment required to implement the PANACEA Roadmap recommended actions (Figure 4) is in the range of 10% increase in the crop production costs (targeted to the relevant value chain stage, where possible). The respective cost increases to implement the suggested roadmap actions are 20% in the medium ( ) and 30% in the low ( ) ranked cases.
31 PANACEA D1.2. Inventory of near-to practice NFC. http://www.panacea-h2020.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/D1.2- Inventory-of-near-to-practice-NFC.pdf 19
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
Table 1 Stakeholders’ ranking on lignocellulosic crop performance for production, harvesting and end use
Switchgrass Miscanthus Giant reed/ Reed Willow/ Poplar Eucalypt Black locust Kenaf Hemp Cardoon Criteria Indicators canary grass Geoclimatic conditions Availability of Propagation Productivity and ability to be materials grow at large scale (production & Availability of mechanisation/ harvesting) harvesting Crop Yield Ability to produce feedstock for Recognised interest for multiple multiple markets (end use) end-uses
Figure 4 Roadmap actions to overcome the barriers for the uptake of lignocellulosic crops as raw material for bioeconomypresents actions to overcome the barriers for the uptake of lignocellulosic feedstocks as raw material for bioeconomy.
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PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
Roadmap actions
Figure 4 Roadmap actions to overcome the barriers for the uptake of lignocellulosic crops as raw material for bioeconomy
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PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
Investment requirements and job opportunities
This section presents the investment requirements and the job creation potential (in Full Time Equivalent- FTE) for the suggested Roadmap actions to overcome the barriers for the uptake of lignocellulosic crops as feedstocks for bioeconomy.
Figure 5 presents the investment requirements per crop and value chain stage (production, harvesting, end use) for the implementation of the Roadmap actions in the cultivation of 1,000 ha and Figure 6 presents the potential job creation in FTEs (both direct and indirect) from the cultivation of 1,000 ha (direct and indirect jobs).
Figure 5 Estimated investment requirements for 1,000 ha per crop and value chain stage
Figure 6 Estimated jobs for crop production and harvesting in 1,000 ha scale.
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PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
Facts for lignocellulosic crops
Lignocellulosic crops have been cultivated for more than two decades throughout Europe. They exhibit high yields, have specific traits for end-use and can grow in degraded land which does not compete for food/feed crops.
Perennial lignocellulosic crops might be grown on less productive land, providing benefits in terms of soil structure and stability (e.g., reduced soil loss, erosion, and runoff), soil quality (e.g., increase in soil fertility, organic matter, and nutrient retention), and biodiversity (e.g., cover for native wildlife).
Lignocellulosic crops like miscanthus, poplar, cardoon, hemp can produce high value- added products (like biopharmaceuticals, biopolymers), composites for fibers, raw materials for paper and pulp industry and bioenergy.
Farmers are really interested in growing perennial lignocellulosic crops on remote fields marginal, degraded land.
Lignocellulosic crops offer alternative feedstock opportunities for the energy, paper and pulp, textiles, construction materials and composites industries.
The use of woody and grassy lignocellulosic crops like miscanthus, poplar and switchgrass for advanced biofuels or ‘green’ chemicals is being investigated.
Lignocellulosic crops can increase soil carbon because since they can be cultivated with low tillage and have deep and extensive rhizome rooting system which increases the microbial biomass and soil bacteria.
Lignocellulosic crops offer the opportunity to diversify the feedstock options for bioenergy and advanced biofuels. Perennial grasses such as switchgrass and miscanthus as well as woody crops such as willow and poplar are seen as promising feedstock and there are opportunities for optimisation of their traits and yields through further research in breeding, agronomy, postharvest logistics, and biomass conversion.
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PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
3.2 Carbohydrate crops
Carbohydrate crops include cereals, sugar, root crops. PANACEA examined sugarbeet, triticale, sorghum and lupin as carbohydrate crops.
Sugarbeet is an established crop produced in rotation schemes on arable land at large scale in NW Europe, mainly grown for food purposes. Sugarbeet can be a very suitable feedstock for decentralized biorefineries like producing bioethanol and leave protein extracts, if dedicated advantages regarding end-uses can be developed, i.e. local or regional conversion into final products.
Triticale is a well-established disease resistant winter crop in Europe with suitable varieties available for different climatic conditions which adapt to low-input cultivation strategies. Harvesting and processing technologies are like for other cereals. It is cultivated for food purposes mainly. Triticale can be grown as a winter crop (at least in France) in the period October – end of April, and thus can be ‘double cropped’ with e.g.corn which grows in the period May – October. An issue may be water availability. Triticale can be stored whole year round if moisture content is controlled.
Sweet sorghum is an annual spring crop which can be processed with existing machinery and stored by ensilage. Sweet sorghum is a drought resistant but low temperature sensitive crop, which can be grown with low-input strategies on marginal lands. There is a large genetic variability in Sorghum for production of grain, sugar or for silage.
Lupin is an established though small crop in EU, which does not require nitrogen fertilizer. Lupin is currently used for food and feed, with minimal processing. Alternative routes for crop processing are of interest to produce protein and bioactive compounds.
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PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
Farmers’ needs and interests
This section presents the performance of carbohydrate crops to support farmers’ needs & interests for issues related to crop productivity, soil, water, ecosystem services, emissions from agriculture and profitability. Farmers’ Criterion Crop performance CAP Objective needs & interests Productivity Carbohydrate crops yield is comparable among crops like sweet sorghum, sugar beet and triticale in a range of 47- 59 t/ha. However, the sugar/starch yield is higher in the case of sugar beet and triticale i.e. 6-9.5 t/ha and slightly less for sweet sorghum i.e. 3-4 t/ha Technologi TRL of carbohydrate crops like sugar beet and cal sorghum based on its production level, availability of Readiness propagation materials and mechanization systems Level (TRL) TRL is >7. Similarly based on the production level TRL for triticale is 5-6 but in terms of availability of propagation materials and mechanization systems TRL is >7. Soil health Soil carbon Carbohydrate crops have a deeprooting system which creates good soil structure, adds organic matter to topsoil and increases the biodiversity of both flora and fauna. Soil erosion Some carbohydrate crops like triticale have potential to be cover crops during winter runoff periods. Carbohydrate crops also have good rooting system making them adaptable to drought and no-tilling practices. Thus, they reduce soil erosion by water. Water use Water Water use efficiency is high for carbohydrate C4 crops abstraction like sweet sorghum and sugar beet are C3 carbohydrate crops which are considered drought tolerant. Triticale is also known to have high drought resistance compared to barley, wheat and oats. Water Carbohydrate crops like sweet sorghum and triticale quality are nutrient efficient crops and reduce nitrogen intake while some crops like sugar beet are nutrient demanding crops. Ecosystem Carbohydrate crops like sorghum have proved good services for phytoremediation applications in marginal soils with moderately heavy metal contamination of nickel (Ni), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn). Reduced GHGs Carbohydrate crops like sweet sorghum which have emissions high carbon sequestration potential, increase soil organic carbon, high nutrient use efficiency- has the potential to reduce the GHG emission during the cultivation stage. Similarly, Triticale has low nitrogen requirement which leads to considerable GHGs savings. Sugar beet has the potential to reduce energy requirements not only at cultivation stage of the value chain but over the entire production chain. Profitability Profitability of carbohydrate crops is good across all Europe mainly because they have secure markets and good selling prices. Their profitability however for new biobased markets is not yet proven due to low market development stage. Rural Carbohydrate crops can serve multiple markets from employment food, feed, pharmaceuticals and polymers. As such they can offer high employment rates through biorefinery development.
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PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
Barriers to their production and harvesting.
Key barriers for the production, harvesting and use of the carbohydrate crops examined in PANACEA include:
Production • Short processing period to avoid sugar losses for sugarbeet and sweet sorghum • Limited storage - seasonal production for sugarbeet and sweet sorghum
Harvesting • Harvesting requires specialized equipment
Use • Lack of infrastructure for small scale use of sugarbeets • Costs of small-scale processing are high • Limited options for the use of process residues • Social acceptance of sugarbeet & triticale as crops with non-food potential
Figure 7 Markets, drivers and barriers for the carbohydrate crops examined in PANACEA
Figure 3 Figure 7 Markets, drivers and barriers for the carbohydrate crops examined in PANACEA illustrates the markets, the drivers PANACEA defined as critical for the crops to be considered as ‘near to practice’ and respective barriers. Table 2 shows the stakeholders’ ranking on carbohydrate crops’ performance for production, harvesting and end use32. When the crop performance is high ( ) the modelling analysis estimates that the investment required to implement the PANACEA Roadmap recommended actions (Figure 8) is in the range of 10% increase in the crop production costs (targeted to the relevant value chain stage, where possible). The respective cost increases to implement the suggested roadmap actions are 20% in the medium ( ) and 30% in the low ( ) ranked cases.
32 PANACEA D1.2. Inventory of near-to practice NFC. http://www.panacea-h2020.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/D1.2- Inventory-of-near-to-practice-NFC.pdf 26
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
Table 2 Stakeholders’ ranking on carbohydrate crop performance for production, harvesting and end use
Criteria Indicators Sugarbeet Triticale Sweet sorghum Lupin Geoclimatic conditions 5 3 5 5 Availability of Propagation 5 5 3 1 Productivity and ability to be materials grow at large scale (production & Availability of mechanisation/ 5 5 3 1 harvesting) harvesting Crop Yield 5 3 5 5 Ability to produce feedstock for Recognised interest for multiple 3 3 3 3 multiple markets (end use) end-uses
Figure 8 presents actions to overcome the barriers for the uptake of carbohydrate crops as raw material for bioeconomy.
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PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
Roadmap actions
Figure 8 Roadmap actions to overcome the barriers for the uptake of carbohydrate crops as raw material for bioeconomy
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PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
Investment requirements and job opportunities
This section presents the investment requirements and the job creation potential (in Full Time Equivalent- FTE) for the suggested road map actions to overcome the barriers for the uptake of carbohydrate crops as feedstocks for bioeconomy.
Figure 9
Figure 5 presents the investment requirements per crop and value chain stage (production, harvesting, end use) for the implementation of the Roadmap actions in the cultivation of 1,000 ha and Figure 10
Figure 6 presents the potential job creation in FTEs (both direct and indirect) from the cultivation of 1,000 ha (direct and indirect jobs).
Figure 9 Estimated investment requirements for 1,000 ha per crop and value chain stage
Figure 10 Estimated jobs for crop production and harvesting in 1,000 ha scale.
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PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
Facts for carbohydrate crops in Europe33
Carbohydrate crops can be used for biofuels, bioenergy, pharmaceuticals and polymers for bioplastics.
Carbohydrate crops are well adapted in Europe; farmers are familiar with their cultivation and they exhibit high yields.
Carbohydrate crops have a deep-rooting system which creates good soil structure, adds organic matter to topsoil and increases the biodiversity of both flora and fauna.
Sugarbeet can be a very suitable feedstock for decentralized biorefineries like producing bioethanol and leave protein extracts, if dedicated advantages regarding end-uses can be developed, i.e. local or regional conversion into final products. In order to avoid reduction in sugar content, sugarbeet need to be processed shortly after harvest in autumn. Optimal utilisation of equipment for biorefinery and conversion into (semi)products may benefit if the same equipment can be used for processing of other crops which become available at other season in the year.
Triticale, except its’ food use, is promoted for biomethane production on farm (FR) and for the production of bioethanol, both of which are not very demanding in terms of grain quality.
Sorghum can be used for fermentation to bioethanol (grain, sweet sorghum) or in (small scale) biogas installations. The sugars can also be used for ‘green’ chemical production.
33 PANACEA D2.3 New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe D2.3-Role-of-NFC-in- renaissance-of-rural-areas.pdf (panacea-h2020.eu) 30
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
3.3 Oil crops
Crops involved in industrial oil production, whose fruits or seeds contain a high proportion of oil. The seeds containing oil (such as rape and sunflower) are also rich in protein. Accordingly, especially in Europe, they are widely used as animal feed, too.
PANACEA examined castor; camelina; Ethiopian mustard (carinata); rapeseed HEAR; crambe; cardoon, safflower and lupin.
Castor grows spontaneously in the whole Mediterranean region. Castor plant can grow up to 2 m tall, but the selection of shorter plants has been recently carried out for mechanical harvesting. It’s a spring crop very exigent in temperature, but able to grow under low water availability. Castor seeds contain up to 50% oil, which is mostly (about 90%) constituted by ricinoleic acid, which is a hydroxy fatty acid with outstanding applications in the bio-based industry. It can grow on marginal sites due to high tolerance for growth in harsh environmental conditions such as drought, heat and saline soil conditions34.It is considered appropriate for dry farming. It is not yet cultivated in Europe even though it is suitable for the Mediterranean region. Castor is high oil-yielding crop with seed yields 3 to 5 t/ha. It has good future potential to be an industrial oilseed crop because of its high seed oil content (more than 480 g kg–1), unique fatty acid composition (900 g kg–1 of ricinoleic acid), potentially high oil yields (1250–2500 L per ha35. The importance of castor oil arises from its richness (85%) in ricinoleic acid (12-hydroxy 9-octadecenoic acid). Castor oil has numerous chemical and medicinal applications36 and has more than 700 uses. It is mainly used for lubricants, but also for polymers such as polyurethanes.
Camelina is very fast growing and it has short crop cycle. It can grow successfully in whole Europe; in central and north as spring crop and in south Europe as winter and spring crop. Camelina has high oil content of 35- 38% or higher, desirable lipid composition, novel traits from genetic engineering, and ability to grow in low- input farming systems. Camelina has an oil profile of n-6:n-3 ratio which makes its very healthy oil. Considering these factors camelina could have a strong future as a genetically engineered crop (GE) producing high-value compounds (e.g. omega-3- fatty acids) or as a part of sustainable crop production systems, as winter cover crop37 or even as biofuels.
Ethiopian mustard (carinata) is grown in South Europe as an alternative oilseed crop to Brassica napus due to its high seed yields, its ability to adapt in arid and semi-arid conditions and its tolerance to abiotic and biotic stress. It is not resistant to cold therefore in central and north of Europe it is grown as spring crop. It is an alternative crop to Brassica napus better suited to dry areas of the South Europe. Ethiopian mustard is cultivated for its oil that is rich in erucic and linoleic acids and well-indicated for biofuels. Most of the literature on the energy uses of Ethiopian mustard focuses on the production of biodiesel and bioethanol. When grown in rotation with grain and cereal crops like wheat it can reduce the diseases and pathogens and increase yields.
Rapeseed HEAR is grown in most European countries and is one of the major source of biodiesel in European region38. Rapeseed is widely used in Europe as a feedstock for biodiesel. The low erucic acid (less than 2%) oil is known as canola oil which is used as food. However, the high-erucic-acid rapeseed are the alternative genotypes which are very good source of long chain, unsaturated fatty acid and erucic acid. The derivates of this fatty acid has potential application in biochemical industry. Rapeseed straw is also a potential source of biomass.
Crambe is grown in central and north of Europe as spring crop while in South Europe as winter crop and can tolerate mild winters. Crambe considered important oilseed crop due to high percentage in erucic acid (higher than rapeseed) which has significant implications for industrial uses, specifically the plastics industry and
34 Laureti, D., Fedeli, A. M., Scarpa, G. M., & Marras, G. F. (1998). Performance of castor (Ricinus communis L.) cultivars in Italy. Industrial Crops and Products, 7(2-3), 91-93. 35 Severino, L. S., Auld, D. L., Baldanzi, M., Cândido, M. J., Chen, G., Crosby, W., ... & Machado, O. L. (2012). A review on the challenges for increased production of castor. Agronomy journal, 104(4), 853-880. 36 Zanetti F, Monti A, Berti MTJIC, Products. Challenges and opportunities for new industrial oilseed crops in EU-27: A review. 2013;50:580-95. 37 Rizzitello, R. C. (2016). Ecological Risks and Benefits from the Novel Crop Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz (Camelina). 38 Bureau, J. C., Disdier, A. C., Gauroy, C., & Tréguer, D. (2010). A quantitative assessment of the determinants of the net energy value of biofuels. Energy Policy, 38(5), 2282-2290. 31
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
biofuel industry. Crambe oil withstands high temperatures and remains liquid at low temperatures make it a quality lubricant and transfer oil. Because it is a very effective lubricant and much more biodegradable than mineral oils, this oil may be used alone or as additives for the textile, steel and shipping industries.
Cardoon is native to the western and central Mediterranean region and it is cultivated in lots of countries in Europe. It is native in Italy, France, Spain, Croatia, Portugal and other countries. There are two main cultivar groups of Cynara, the first one is C. cardunculus var. altilis DC which is selected for its edible leaf stems and the C. cardunculus var. scolymus selected for its large edible flower buds. Cardoon can be used as composites of natural fibres (Fiore et al., 2011)39; for binderless fibreboards (Mancera et al., 2008)40; as nimal fodder from leaves and seed cake (Curt et al., 2001)41; for phytoremediation of soils contaminated with arsenic and cadmium (Llugany et al,m 2012)42; as dietary and medicinal supplements because of its diuretic, choleretic and hepatoprotective properties (De Falco et al., 2015)43.
Safflower is adapted to semiarid regions. It grows best in deep, fertile, well-drained soils that have a high water-holding capacity. It can be grown successfully on coarse-textured soils with low water-holding capacity when adequate rainfall or moisture distribution is available. The crop has a deep taproot that can penetrate to soil depth 2-3 m and thus can draw moisture and nutrients from a considerable depth and thus the crop can be grown on areas with low available moisture on the top soil. In Europe fits better in south Europe, where it can be grown as both winter and spring annual crop.44 Traditionally, safflower was cultivated for its seeds and used to flavour foods, colour textiles and medicines.45 There two groups of varieties; the high oleic and the high linoleic.46, 47 Recently, there is an increasing demand for high-oleic varieties48 as sources for several high- added value applications. The seeds meal that due to the high protein content (24%) it could be used as animal feed.
Lupin is native to South America but now it can be grown in Europe in moderately cool areas. Andes Lupin can be grown in north-central Europe in summer and in Mediterranean Europe in winter. Lupin mutabilis is known to grow well in marginal lands due to their ability to fix nitrogen, mobilise soil phosphate and they require minimum inputs. Some varieties of Lupin seeds has high (20%) oil content, protein (40%) and carbohydrates (oligosaccharides) therefore based on pre-industrial processing available lupin properties can be optimized to produce different high added value products for consumers e.g. high nutrient content foods, anti-aging cosmetics, new biomaterials.
39 Fiore, V., Valenza, A., & Di Bella, G. (2011). Artichoke (L.) fibres as potential reinforcement of composite structures. 40 Mancera, C., Ferrando, F., & Salvado, J. (2008). Cynara cardunculus as raw material for the production of binderless fiberboards: Optimization of pretreatment and pressing conditions. Journal of wood chemistry and technology, 28(3), 207-226. 41 Curt, M. D., Sánchez, G., & Fernández, J. (2002). The potential of Cynara cardunculus L. for seed oil production in a perennial cultivation system. Biomass and bioenergy, 23(1), 33-46. 42 Llugany, M., Miralles, R., Corrales, I., Barceló, J., & Poschenrieder, C. (2012). Cynara cardunculus a potentially useful plant for remediation of soils polluted with cadmium or arsenic. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 123, 122-127. 43 de Falco, B., Incerti, G., Amato, M., & Lanzotti, V. (2015). Artichoke: botanical, agronomical, phytochemical, and pharmacological overview. Phytochemistry reviews, 14(6), 993-1018. 1. Europe+Med Database, http://ww2.bgbm.org/EuroPlusMed) 2. Oelke E.A., Oplinger E.S., Teynor T.M., Putnam D.H., Doll J.D., Kelling K.A., Durgan B.R., Noetzel D.M. 1992. Safflower. In: Alternative Field Crops Manual. (NewCROP, the New Crop Resource Online Program) Eds. Pardue University. 3. Knowles, P.F. 1989. Safflower. Pp. 363-374 in Oil Crops of the World (G. Röbbelen, R.K. Downey and A. Ashri, eds.). McGraw-Hill, New York. 4. Mündel, H.-H., R.J. Morrison, R.E. Blackshaw and B. Roth (eds). 1992. Safflower Production on the Canadian Prairies. Agric. Canada Res. Station, Lethbridge/Alberta Safflower Growers Association with funding by Farming for the Future Project No. 87-0016, Alberta Agric. Research Institute. 35 p. 5. Eurobioref project, www.eurobioref.org
32 PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
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Farmers’ needs and interests
This section presents the performance of oil crops to support farmers needs & interests for issues related to crop productivity, soil, water, ecosystem services, emissions from agriculture and profitability. Farmers’ Criterion Crop performance CAP Objective needs & interests Productivity Oil crops have lower crop productivity compared to the lignocellulosic and carbohydrate crop categories. They are can grow at varying scale (small- large) and have high adaptability to varying soil and climate conditions. Technological Based on production level, availability of Readiness propagation materials and mechanization systems Level (TRL) TRL for rapeseed (high erucic acid rapeseed) is >7. However, for other oil crops like Ethiopian mustard, cardoon, crambe TRL is between 5-7 based on the production level and between 3-5 based on the availability of propagation materials. Soil health Soil carbon Some of the oil crops (hemp, rapeseed, flax) can enter into rotational cropping systems thus enhancing the symbiotic microbial activity. They can ameliorate the soil by reducing the occurrence of pests and diseases and increasing the soil organic content. Soil erosion Some of the oil crops like camelina can be grown without any tillage and can reduce erosion. Water use Water Oil crops like rapeseed, sunflower, camelina, abstraction crambe are drought resistant crops therefore suitable for water stress conditions. However, sunflower water use efficiency (WUE) when compared with rapeseed and crambe, has been reported as higher. Water quality Oil crops like rapeseed are high nutrient demanding crops compared to other oil crops like sunflower, hemp and camelina. Camelina is found to have higher nitrogen use efficiency when compared with rapeseed. Ecosystem Oil crops can be appropriate for phytoremediation as services well since they act as good cover crops for fauna. Camelina shows good potential to be a forage (nectar and pollen) resource for insects because it can produce large amounts of nectar sugar for insects. Reduced GHGs Select oil crops have potential to reduce GHG emissions emissions under sustainable agronomic practices. Profitability Profitability of oil crops is good across all Europe mainly because they have secure markets and good selling prices. Their profitability however for new biobased markets is not yet proven due to low market development stage. Rural Oil crops can serve multiple markets from food, feed, development pharmaceuticals, polymers and lubricants. As such they can offer high employment rates through biorefinery development.
33
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
Barriers to their production and harvesting
Key barriers for the production, harvesting and use of the oil crops examined in PANACEA include:
Production • Breeding is required for new species, i.e. camelina, castor, crambe, Lack of knowledge on the use of seed cake • Lack of knowledge for non-food varieties in crop rotation, cover crops, etc.
Harvesting • Combined harvesting must be adapted to the different seed crops
Use • Low acceptance of food related crops • Price is driven by political support
Figure 11 Markets, drivers and barriers for the oil crops examined in PANACEA
Figure 3 illustrates the markets, the drivers PANACEA defined as critical for the crops to be considered as ‘near to practice’ and respective barriers. Table 3 shows the stakeholders’ ranking on oil crops’ performance for production, harvesting and end use49. When the crop performance is high ( ) the modelling analysis estimates that the investment required to implement the PANACEA Roadmap recommended actions (Figure 12) is in the range of 10% increase in the crop production costs (targeted to the relevant value chain stage, where possible). The respective cost increases to implement the suggested roadmap actions are 20% in the medium ( ) and 30% in the low ( ) ranked cases.
49 PANACEA D1.2. Inventory of near-to practice NFC. http://www.panacea-h2020.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/D1.2- Inventory-of-near-to-practice-NFC.pdf 34
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
Table 3 Stakeholders’ ranking on oil crop performance for production, harvesting and end use
Ethiopian mustard Criteria Indicators Rapeseed HEAR Castor Camelina (carinata) Crambe Cardoon Safflower Geoclimatic conditions Availability of Propagation Productivity and ability to be materials grow at large scale (production & Availability of mechanisation/ harvesting) harvesting Crop Yield Ability to produce feedstock for Recognised interest for multiple multiple markets (end use) end-uses
Figure 12 presents actions to overcome the barriers for the uptake of oil crops as raw material for bioeconomy
35
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
Roadmap actions
Figure 12 Roadmap actions to overcome the barriers for the uptake of oil crops as raw material for bioeconomy
36
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
Investment requirements and job opportunities
This section presents the investment requirements and the job creation potential (in Full Time Equivalent- FTE) for the suggested road map actions to overcome the barriers for the uptake of oil crops as feedstocks for bioeconomy.
Figure 13presents the investment requirements per crop and value chain stage (production, harvesting, end use) for the implementation of the Roadmap actions in the cultivation of 1,000 ha and Figure 14 presents the potential job creation in FTEs (both direct and indirect) from the cultivation of 1,000 ha (direct and indirect jobs).
Figure 13 Estimated investment requirements for 1,000 ha per crop and value chain stage
Figure 14 Estimated jobs for crop production and harvesting in 1,000 ha scale.
37
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Facts for oil crops in Europe50
Some of the oil crops (hemp, rapeseed, flax) can be included in crop rotation systems thus enhancing the symbiotic microbial activity. They can ameliorate the soil by reducing the occurrence of pests and diseases and increasing the soil organic matter.
Oil crops have short growing cycles and can be grown in crop rotation and intercropping systems. They have high oil content and substantial biomass so they can be used for bio lubricants, biochemicals, biodiesel, etc. thus addressing the European Bioeconomy objective of reducing the dependence on non-renewable and petroleum-based products.
Oil crops like rapeseed, crambe, lupin, have multiple industrial end-uses like lubricants, cosmetics, biochemicals, and bioenergy.
Hemp may be truly called a multi-purpose crop, delivering oil, next to fibres, shives and CBD. Hemp oil may be applied in coatings and paints, where it would compete with linseed oil. Especially the demand for the pharmaceutically active CBD extract is high. Higher production of CBD will result in higher supply of hemp biomass, including seeds.
Linseed oil is widely used in food, but also in non-food applications like flooring (linoleum), varnishes and paints.
Camelina oil production and processing is currently limited, but double cropping yield per ha may be promising for (jet) biofuel production. Oil characteristics are also in demand by oleochemical industry: paints and varnishes, linoleum, epoxidized oil (PVC plasticizers).
Rapeseed is an established crop in Europe for biodiesel production and may be substituted by High Erucic Acid Rapeseed (HEAR) for biochemical applications.
Lupin is currently used for food and feed, with minimal processing. Alternative routes for crop processing are of interest to produce protein and bioactive compounds.
Non-food applications of sunflower oil are being evaluated.
Crambe oil is used in small “green and organic” beauty industry directly or as a cosmetic ingredient. This scale may fit for small and organic farmers. At large scale, the non-edible Crambe oil with high erucic acid content for industrial purposes like lubricants or biofuel may compete with HEAR.
50 PANACEA D2.3 New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe D2.3-Role-of-NFC-in- renaissance-of-rural-areas.pdf (panacea-h2020.eu) 38
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3.4 Specialty crops
The speciality sector covers a wide range of crops and applications, including: pharmaceutical/medicinal extracts and preparations; nutraceuticals; essential oils; dyes; flavours; fragrances and cosmetics. Some of these markets are high value, low volume. Supplying these requires production to precise specifications - which can be high risk. But the income generated from a small area of land can be high.
As the pharmaceutical and cosmetics markets can be sensitive, global supplies are regulated to prevent over- supply and market saturation. This means there's limited potential for production for the global market. However, there are significant opportunities for on-farm or co-operative extraction, process and manufacture of medium-value products like essential oils and herbal extracts. These can be marketed and sold locally at farmers' markets or through speciality retailers.
Peppermint has a high menthol content, and is often used as tea and for flavouring ice cream, confectionery, chewing gum, and toothpaste. The oil also contains menthone and menthyl esters, particularly menthyl acetate.[12] Dried peppermint typically has 0.3-0.4% of volatile oil containing menthol (29- 48%),menthone (20-31%), menthyl acetate (3-10%), menthofuran (1-7%) and many trace constituents including limonene, pulegone, eucalyptol, and pinene.[13] It is the oldest and most popular flavour of mint- flavoured confectionery. Peppermint can also be found in some shampoos and soaps, which give the hair a minty scent and produce a cooling sensation on the skin.
Calendula51 has not been a major medicinal herb but it was used in historic times for headaches, red eye, fever and toothaches. The most common use in historic times was culinary, and the plant was used for both its color and its flavor. The petals are edible and can be used fresh in salads or dried and used to color cheese or as a substitute for saffron. Other uses include dyes, chemical additives and pharmaceuticals.
Lavender is a small, non-hardy perennial evergreen shrub native to the Mediterranean, with a typical productive life of about 10 years. It can grow on coarse, rocky soils, and coastal climates. Commercially, the plant is grown mainly to produce essential oils. This has antiseptic and anti-inflammatory properties and can be used as a natural mosquito repellent. Lavender oil is also widely used in the cosmetic industry.
Guayule is a perennial woody shrub from which natural rubber52, ethanol, non-toxic adhesives and other specialty chemicals can be extracted53. The crop has also been tested as raw material for biofuels.
Rosemary a woody, perennial shrub with fragrant, evergreen, needle-like leaves native to the Mediterranean region. It’s reasonably hardy in cool climates. It can withstand droughts, surviving a severe lack of water for lengthy periods. Forms range from upright to trailing; the upright forms can reach 1.5 m tall. Apart from the traditional use as herb, nowadays the essential oil of rosemary is used as food preservative.
51 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendula 52 https://www.bridgestone.com/technology_innovation/natural_rubber/guayule/ 53 Guayule. The University of Arizona College of Agriculture & Life Sciences 39
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
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Farmers’ needs and interests
This section presents the performance of specialty crops to support farmers’ needs & interests for issues related to crop productivity, soil, water, ecosystem services, emissions from agriculture and profitability.
Farmers’ Criterion Crop performance CAP Objective needs & interests Productivity Specialty crops productivity/crop yield varies widely, and they are usually grown in small scale by farmers. Technological TRL of rosemary, peppermint, lavender is 5-7 based Readiness on production level, availability of propagation Level (TRL) materials and mechanization systems. There are also specialty crops like Guayule, Russian dandelion for which TRL is 3-5 as their productions are still done at research level. Soil health Soil carbon Specialty crops when grown in rotation with other crops can increase organic matter, soil porosity, soil microbial activity, soil aggregation, carbon sequestration, phytoremediation. Soil erosion
Water use Water Some crops (marigold) are tolerant to drought and abstraction some (peppermint) has increased crop yield in moderate water stress conditions. Water quality Moderate amount of inputs (fertilizers and pesticides) required depending on the choice of specialty crops and water quality is dependent on input requirement and its use efficiency. Ecosystem Specialty crops like calendula when intercropped services with other vegetable crops have shown to control pests thus reduce the use of pesticides. Specialty crops are can improve soil fertility/structure and various ecosystem services like weed control and pollinator attraction, reduction in the occurrence of pests and diseases which are much harder to quantify. Reduced GHGs Some specialty crops have the potential to reduce emissions the occurrence of pests and diseases. They also have environmental benefits from crop rotations. Profitability Specialty crops target niche markets with high selling prices but their profitability for the farmer depends strongly on the farm scale.
Rural Specialty crops are often cultivated in small farms development and as such they are a good option to increase employment
40
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Barriers to their production and harvesting.
Key barriers for the production, harvesting and use of the specialty crops examined in PANACEA include:
Production • Low yields per ha; High yielding varieties must be developed. • High cultivation costs in small scale farms. • Competition with established rotation (food) crops which generate a higher income.
Harvesting • Existing harvesting machineries can be used for peppermint, lavender but not for guayule.
Use • Low experience for use in large scale for guayule. • Limited knowledge for the new biobased market opportunities for these crops.
Figure 15 Markets, drivers and barriers for the specialty crops examined in PANACEA
Figure 15 illustrates the markets, the drivers PANACEA defined as critical for the crops to be considered as ‘near to practice’ and respective barriers. Table 4 shows the stakeholders’ ranking on specialty crops’ performance for production, harvesting and end use54. When the crop performance is high ( ) the modelling analysis estimates that the investment required to implement the PANACEA Roadmap recommended actions (Figure 16) is in the range of 10% increase in the crop production costs (targeted to the relevant value chain stage, where possible). The respective cost increases to implement the suggested roadmap actions are 20% in the medium ( ) and 30% in the low ( ) ranked cases.
54 PANACEA D1.2. Inventory of near-to practice NFC. http://www.panacea-h2020.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/D1.2- Inventory-of-near-to-practice-NFC.pdf 41
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Table 4 Stakeholders’ ranking on specialty crop performance for production, harvesting and end use
Criteria Indicators peppermint calendula lavender guayule rosemary Geoclimatic conditions Availability of Propagation Productivity and ability to be materials grow at large scale (production & Availability of mechanisation/ harvesting) harvesting Crop Yield Ability to produce feedstock for Recognised interest for multiple multiple markets (end use) end-uses
Figure 16 presents actions to overcome the barriers for the uptake of specialty crops as raw material for bioeconomy .
42
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
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Roadmap actions
Figure 16 Roadmap actions to overcome the barriers for the uptake of specialty crops as raw material for bioeconomy
43
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
Investment requirements and job opportunities
This section presents the investment requirements and the job creation potential (in Full Time Equivalent- FTE) for the suggested road map actions to overcome the barriers for the uptake of specialty crops as feedstocks for bioeconomy.
Figure 17 presents the investment requirements per crop and value chain stage (production, harvesting, end use) for the implementation of the Roadmap actions in the cultivation of 1,000 ha and Figure 18 presents the potential job creation in FTEs (both direct and indirect) from the cultivation of 1,000 ha (direct and indirect jobs).
Figure 17 Estimated investment requirements, for 1,000 ha per crop and value chain stage
Figure 18 Estimated jobs for crop production and harvesting in 1,000 ha scale.
44
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Facts for specialty crops in Europe55
Extracts from dried flowers (artisinal) of cardoon are used in the production of cheese. Cardoon seeds are investigated for oil, protein flour, and bioactive compounds production.
Russian Dandelion is used to produce rubber and inulin. Rubber is used in e.g. anti-allergenic medical gloves, preservatives, tyres, conveyer belts etc. The by- product inulin could add value as low calorific sweetener.
Current applications of Lavender, Chamomilla and Rosemary include use in cosmetics, food (herbs, tea), and pharmacological/medicinal herbs.
Cultivation of such aromatic herbs fit in crop rotation schemes for enhanced ecological
55 PANACEA D2.3 New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe D2.3-Role-of-NFC-in- renaissance-of-rural-areas.pdf (panacea-h2020.eu) 45
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46
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
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47
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
4. Annex: PANACEA country Roadmaps
48
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
FRANCE
49
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
50
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
51
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
52
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
53
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
54
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
GREECE
55
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
56
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
57
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
58
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
59
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
60
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
ITALY
61
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
62
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
63
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
64
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
65
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
66
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
LITHUANIA
67
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
68
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
69 PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
70
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
71
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
72
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
73
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
NETHERLANDS
74
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
75
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
76
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
77
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
78
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
79
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
POLAND
80
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
81
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
82
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
83
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
84
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
85
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
PORTUGAL
86
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
87
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
88
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
89
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
90
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
91
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
SPAIN
92
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
93
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
94
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
95
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
96
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
97
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
UNITED KINGDOM
98
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
99
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
100
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
101
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
102
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
103
PANACEA. Non Food Crops For a EU Bioeconomy
New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
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16 Panagos, P., Jones, A., Aguglia, L., Legowski, M., Doorslaer, B.V., Masson, J., and Laureau, D. CAP Specific Objectives: Objective 5 Efficient Soil Management, European Commission https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/food-farming-fisheries/key_policies/documents/cap-specific- objectives-brief-5-soil_en.pdf 17 European Commission (2018e).Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of The Council establishing rules on support for strategic plans to be drawn up by Member States under the Common agricultural policy (CAP Strategic Plans) and financed by the European Agricultural Guarantee Fund (EAGF) and by the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD) and repealing Regulation (EU) No 1305/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council and Regulation (EU) No 1307/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council. COM/2018/392 final - 2018/0216 (COD). Retrieved from the Official Journal of the European Union website: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal- content/EN/TXT/?uri=COM:2018:392:FIN 18 European Commission (2013a). Regulation (EU) No 1300/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 December 2013 on the Cohesion Fund and repealing Council Regulation (EC) No 1084/2006. Retrieved from the Official Journal of the European Union website: http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2013/1300/oj 19 European Regional Development Fund. https://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/en/funding/erdf/ 20 European Commission (2011c). Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, The Council, The European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. Our life insurance, our natural capital: an EU biodiversity strategy to 2020 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal- content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52011DC0244&from=EN
21 European Commission (1992). Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora. http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/1992/43/oj 22 European Commission (2009b). DIRECTIVE 2009/147/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 30 November 2009 on the conservation of wild birds. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal- content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32009L0147 23 European Commission (2012c). Report from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European economic and social committee and the committee of the regions the implementation of the soil thematic strategy and ongoing activities. COM/2012/046 final. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal- content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52012DC0046 24 European Commission (2004a). Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a framework for the protection of soil and amending Directive 2004/35/EC. COM/2006/0232 final . https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52006PC0232 25 S2biom catalogue of instruments and measures that foster the development of regional bioeconomies. https://s2biom.vito.be 26 European Commission Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for community action in the field of water policy. Official Journal, L 327 (2000). Retrieved from: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32000L0060:en:NOT 27 European Commission. Directive 91/676/EEC of 12 December 1991 concerning the protection of waters against pollution caused by nitrates from agricultural sources. Official Journal, L 375 (1991). https://www.legislation.gov.uk/eudr/1991/676 28 European Commission (2013b). Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, The Council, The European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. A Clean Air Programme for Europe. COM/2013/0918 final. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal- content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52013DC0918 29 European Commission (2009c). Directive 2009/128/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 October 2009 establishing a framework for Community action to achieve the sustainable use of pesticides. Retrieved from the Official Journal of the European Union website: http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2009/128/oj 30 European Commission (2019c) Regulation (EU) 2019/1009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 June 2019 laying down rules on the making available on the market of EU fertilising products and amending Regulations (EC) No 1069/2009 and (EC) No 1107/2009 and repealing Regulation (EC) No 2003/2003. Retrieved from the Official Journal of the European Union website: https://eur- lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32019R1009&from=EN
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New strategies for the development and promotion of NFC in Europe
31 European Commission (2003b). Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2019/856 of 26 February 2019 supplementing Directive 2003/87/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council with regard to the operation of the Innovation Fund. COM /2019/1492. Retrieved from the Official Journal of the European Union website: http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg_del/2019/856/oj
32 Central Europe Energy Partners (2020). The Just Transition Mechanism Explained. Retrieved from : https://www.ceep.be/the-just-transition-mechanism-explained/ 33 European Commission (2020c). Proposal for a REGULATION OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL establishing the Just Transition Fund. COM(2020) 22 final, 2020/0006 (COD). https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep/1/2020/EN/COM-2020-22-F1-EN-MAIN-PART-1.PDF 34 European Commission (2019d). COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE EUROPEAN COUNCIL, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS The European Green Deal COM/2019/640 final. Retrieved from the Official Journal of the European Union website: https://eur- lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cellar:b828d165-1c22-11ea-8c1f- 01aa75ed71a1.0002.02/DOC_1&format=PDF 35 ibid 36 European Commission (2008c). Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on the Sustainable Consumption and Production and Sustainable Industrial Policy Action Plan. COM/2008/0397 final. Retrieved from: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal- content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52008DC0397&from=EN 37 European Commission (2014). Directive 2014/94/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 October 2014 on the deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure. Retrieved from the Official Journal of the European Union website: http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2014/94/oj 38 European Commission (2009e). Directive 2009/33/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of clean and energy-efficient road transport vehicles. Retrieved from the Official Journal of the European Union website: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal- content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32009L0033&from=EN 39 European Commission (2008d). Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions Public procurement for a better environment. COM/2008/0400 final. Retrieved from the Official Journal of the European Union website: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52008DC0400 40 European Commission (2008e). Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions Public procurement for a better environment. COM/2008/0400 final. Retrieved from: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal- content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52008DC0400&from=EN 41 European Commission (2017). Regulation (EU) 2017/1369 of the European Parliament and of the council of 4 July 2017 setting a framework for energy labelling and repealing Directive 2010/30/EU. Retrieved from the Official Journal of the European Union website: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal- content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32017R1369 42 European Commission (2010c). Regulation (EC) No 66/2010 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2009 on the EU Ecolabel. Retrieved from the Official Journal of the European Union website: http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2010/66/oj
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