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Audio Signal Processors? A Shure Educational Publication Selection and Operation of Audio and Operation Signal Processors Audio Signal Processors By Gino Sigismondi Selection Selection T ABLE OF C ONTENTS INTRODUCTION . 4 What Are Audio Signal Processors? . 4 What Types of Problems Can Benefit from Audio Processing? . 5 Feedback . 5 and Operation CHAPTER 1 of Audio Signal Processors TYPES OF AUDIO PROCESSORS . 6 1.1 Volume (Gain) Control . 6 1.2 Filters and Equalization . 6 1.3 Dynamics Processors . 11 1.4 Delay . 15 1.5 Adaptive Audio Processors . 15 CHAPTER 2 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS FOR AUDIO SIGNAL PROCESSORS . 20 2.1 Maximizing Gain-Before-Feedback . 20 2.2 Improving Speech Intelligibility . 21 2.3 Sound System Gain Structure . 23 2.4 Digital Signal Processing . 25 REFERENCE INFORMATION . 26 Appendix 1: Sound Waves . 27 Appendix 2: Potential Acoustic Gain (PAG) and Needed Acoustic Gain (NAG) . 29 Glossary . 34 References . 34 Acknowledgements . 34 Biography . 34 Additional Shure Educational Publications . 34 3 I NTRODUCTION For any sound system, the primary goal is good sound. What, however, constitutes "good" sound? The three primary INSTRUMENT MICROPHONE AMPLIFIER of Audio Signal Processors measures of good sound are audibility, intelligibility, LOUDSPEAKER and fidelity. Many factors and Operation contribute to the quality of VOCAL MICROPHONE the sound, including the quality of the sound MIXER PROCESSOR BOUNDARY sources, the sound system, MICROPHONE and the room acoustics. The audibility of speech or music at the Figure 1-1: basic sound system furthest listener must be sufficient to achieve the desired effect: usually a comfortable listening level for system design. A basic sound system consists of four speech, and more powerful levels for certain kinds of components: music. These levels should be attainable without • Input devices (microphones, CD players, etc) distortion or feedback. Intelligibility is determined by • Mixers (to combine inputs, control levels, Selection the signal-to-noise ratio and direct-to-reverberant ratio and provide preamplification, if necessary) at the listener’s ear. The "signal" is the desired sound • Amplifiers source (speech, musical instruments, etc.), while the • Output devices (loudspeakers) "noise" is ambient sound in the room as well as electrical noise produced by the sound system. Audio signal processors are typically employed Maximum speech intelligibility requires a speech level within or just after the mixer stage, but before of at least 20 dB above the noise floor at the listener’s amplification. (See Figure 1-1.) A processor can be used ear. The direct-to-reverberant ratio is determined by the at the input stage, but since most processors are directivity of the loudspeakers and the reverberation designed to operate with line level sources this is rare. characteristics of the room. High levels of reverberation Signal processors can be analog or digital, single- or can severely degrade intelligibility by making it difficult multi-function, stand-alone devices or integrated with to distinguish the end of one word and the start of the other components in the sound system. Most signal next. Finally, fidelity of sound is primarily defined by the processors originated as stand alone devices overall frequency response of the sound arriving at the designed for a specific purpose. Over time, integration listener’s ear. The frequency range must be sufficiently of similar processors into one device became popular wide and relatively uniform in order to provide realistic (e.g. compressor/limiters). The development of audio and accurate reinforcement of speech and music. processors that operate in the digital domain allowed Every component in the signal chain contributes to for further integration, leading to multi-function digital this, and a limitation at any point will affect the fidelity signal processors (DSP) that combine seemingly of the entire system. disparate functions into a single unit. Perhaps more Other more subjective terms may be applied to good importantly, DSP devices offer these functions at a cost sound ("warmth", "punch", etc.), but these colloquialisms that is a fraction of the purchase price of several are not measurable in any meaningful way. Additionally, individual processors. if the three primary measures are not satisfied, any subjective terms take on even less importance. Speech What Types of Problems Can Benefit from Audio that is "warm" but unintelligible does the listener little good. Processing? Audio signal processors offer a variety of tools To understand the purpose of audio signal to assist in optimizing a sound system for audibility, processing, it is necessary to examine the problems intelligibility, and fidelity. While not usually essential for encountered in a typical sound system. Note that an a sound system to operate (i.e., provide high- audio processor cannot solve all the potential level sound reinforcement of low-level sources), audio problems in a sound reinforcement system. The most signal processors can be invaluable tools in sound common problems are listed on the next page: 4 Selection I NTRODUCTION Once sound energy is introduced into the acoustic space Problems: Remedies: by the loudspeaker, processing no longer has any effect Feedback Parametric Equalizer/ on the sound. Reverberation can be reduced only by Automatic Mixer/ absorptive acoustic treatment or structural modification; Feedback Reducer electronics cannot remove it. If additional acoustic treat- Poor tone quality (subjective) Graphic equalizer ment is not an option, directional loudspeakers allow the Sound source too loud Compressor/Limiter/AGC sound to be "aimed" toward the listener and away from Sound source too quiet AGC reflective surfaces. Simply raising the level of the sound Varying signal levels Compressor/Limiter/AGC from multiple sound sources system will only aggravate the problem by raising the Unwanted noise Noisegate/Downward expander reverberation level as well. Long reverberation times and Operation Unexpected transients Compressor/Limiter/No overshot severely reduce intelligibility. In audio teleconferencing ("Look-ahead") Peak Limiter systems, this results in a hollow, or "bottom-of-the-barrel" of Audio Signal Processors Comb filtering Automatic Microphone Mixer sound received by the remote site. due to open microphones Frequency response Delay FEEDBACK anomalies due to misaligned loudspeakers Poor intelligibility Parametric Equalizer/ Feedback is characterized by a sustained, Automatic Microphone Mixer ringing tone, which can vary from a low rumble to a Acoustic echoes Acoustic Echo Canceller piercing screech. Echoes and reverberation caused (in teleconferencing systems) by room acoustics, as well as ground buzz and other Distortion Compressor/Limiter extraneous noises, are not the same thing as (due to wide dynamic range) feedback, and cannot be cured in the same manner. Problems that cannot be solved by audio processing: Feedback occurs whenever the sound entering a • Echoes because of poor room acoustics microphone is reproduced by a loudspeaker, picked up • Poor sound due to excess room reverberation times by the microphone, and re-amplified again and again. • Feedback caused by operating beyond the limits of PAG The familiar howl of feedback is an oscillation that is (see Appendix 2) triggered by sound entering the microphone. The • Noise (amplifier hiss, ground buzz, etc.) due to improper system setup easiest way to (intentionally) create feedback is to point • Distortion due to improper gain structure a microphone directly into a loudspeaker. Placing the microphone too close to the loudspeaker, too far from The importance of good room acoustics cannot be the sound source, or simply turning the microphone up underestimated. In any room where sound reinforcement too loud exacerbates feedback problems. Other will be used, excess reverberation times introduce a myriad contributing factors are too many open microphones, of problems that cannot be solved by any audio processors. poor room acoustics, and uneven frequency response Reverberation time is the length of time that a sound in either the microphones or loudspeakers. persists in a room after the sound source has stopped. All The single easiest way to reduce feedback is to attempts should be made to keep unwanted sounds from move the microphone closer to the desired sound entering the microphone in the first place. The level of source. Additionally, using a directional microphone desired sound at the microphone should be at least 30 dB (cardioid, supercardioid, etc.) will slightly increase the above any ambient sound picked up by the microphone. amount of gain-before-feedback. Reducing the number Proper microphone placement (a full discussion of which is of open microphones with an automatic mixer will also beyond the scope of this publication) is also crucial. A good improve the situation. Try to keep microphones and rule of thumb: always keep microphones as close as loudspeakers as far away from each other as possible. possible to the sound source. Lastly, acoustically treat the room to cover hard, reflective surfaces such as glass, marble, and wood. Want to know more about proper microphone usage? Realize, though, that in certain rooms long reverberation Shure offers the following educational guides times may be desirable, such as a house of worship free of charge: used for acoustic music performance. • Microphone Techniques for Studio Recording If the system has been designed with careful • Microphone Techniques for
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