Konsep Keselamatan Menurut Pengikut Agama Marapu: Studi

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Konsep Keselamatan Menurut Pengikut Agama Marapu: Studi BAB II KONSEP KESELAMATAN (Sebuah Kajian Teoritik Sosio-teologis) 2.1 Pengantar Sebelum membahas tentang konsep/ajaran tentang keselamatan dari sudut pandang teoritis, terlebih dahulu penulis akan memaparkan sumber yang melahirkan ajaran tersebut. Sumber yang dimaksud adalah agama. Oleh karenanya agama dapat dikatakan sebagai pondasi bagi berdiri/lahirnya berbagai macam ajaran-ajaran yang diyakini dalam sistem kepercayaan tersebut. Dalam pemaparan ini, penulis akan menggunakan pengertian agama dari sudut pandang sosiologis yang akrab dengan pendekatan fungsionalnya. Lewat sudut pandang ini, kiranya dapat mengantarkan penulis dalam melihat agama sebagai sebuah fenomena sosial yang mampu mempengaruhi berbagai aspek kehidupan manusia yang menganutnya. Sudut pandang sosiologis juga memandang masyarakat sebagai suatu lembaga sosial yang membentuk kegiatan manusia berdasarkan norma- norma yang dianut bersama serta dianggap sah dan mengikat peran serta manusia itu sendiri.1 Oleh karenanya (sosiologis), agama tidak lagi dipandang sebagai sesuatu yang berasal dari ‘luar’ tetapi dianggap sebagai sesuatu yang berasal dari manusia itu sendiri yang kemudian terwujud dalam kehidupan bermasyarakat. Berbicara tentang agama dari sudut pandang sosiologis, tampaknya pemikiran Emile Durkheim tidak terlepas dalam konteks ini. Konsep Durkheim tentang agama, juga tidak terlepas dari argumentasinya tentang agama sebagai bagian dari 1 Thomas F. O’Dea, Sosiologi Agama. Pengenalan Awal, (Jakarta: Rajawali, 1987), 3. 16 fakta sosial.2 Pemikiran-pemikiran Durkheim dalam bidang agama banyak dimuat dan dipublikasikan terutama dalam buku The Elementary Form of Religion Life. Durkheim, berbeda dengan peneliti lain yang hidup pada masanya yang lebih disibukan dengan ide konvensional bahwa agama merupakan kepercayaan kepada kekuatan super-natural seperti Tuhan atau dewa-dewi, namun Durkheim lebih melihat agama sebagai ekspresi dari masyarakat yang bersatu. Untuk mengeksplorasi agama, Durkheim memilih agama primitif sebagai subjek penelitiannya. Pilihan itu jatuh pada suku Arunta di Australia. Dalam penelitian ini, Durkheim memusatkan perhatiannya pada totem3 yang mana menurutnya totem merupakan bentuk sederhana dari agama karena masyarakat Arunta tidak bisa ada tanpa adanya totem. Setiap anggota klan/marga terikat satu sama lain bukan karena hubungan darah dan kesamaan tempat tinggal melainkan keterikatan tersebut muncul karena memiliki nama dan lambang totem yang sama.4 Hal ini terlihat dalam hubungan ibu dan anak yang memiliki totem berbeda kemudian mereka harus berpisah dan bersatu dengan klan yang totemnya sama dengan mereka.5 Oleh karena itu, keberadaan totem merupakan simbol atau tanda persatuan/persaudaraan yang pada saat-saat tertentu melampaui persaudaraan karena hubungan darah (hubungan biologis). 2 Dalam pemikiran Durkheim, masyarakat adalah fakta sosial sedangkan agama merupakan ekspresi atau representasi dari masyarakat kolektif. Bernard Raho, Agama dalam Perspektif Sosiologi, (Jakarta: Obor, 2013), 38. 3 Istilah totem berasal kata ototeman yang berarti persaudaraan. Kata tersebut merupakan bahasa dari suku Ojibwa (suku Algonkin dari Amerika Utara) yang kemudian ditulis secara beragam totem, tatam, dodain. Totemisme merupakan fenomena yang menunjuk kepada hubungan organisasioanal khusus antara suatu suku bangsa atau klan dengan spesies tertentu dalam suatu wilayah binatang atau tumbuhan. Djuretna A. Imam Muhni, Moral dan Religi (Menurut Emile Durkheim dan Henri Bergson), (Kanisius: 1994), 50. Bnd. Mariasusai Dhavamony, Fenomenologi Agama, (Yogyakarta: Kanisius, 1995), 74. 4 Emile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (Sejarah Bentuk-bentuk Agama Paling Mendasar), (Jogjakarta:IRCISoD, 2011), 252. 5 Ibid, 368-369. 17 Selanjutnya, pandangan Durkheim terpusat pada klaimnya bahwa agama adalah sesuatu yang benar-benar bersifat sosial. Menurut Durkheim, fungsi sosial agama tersebut ditemukannya melalui observasi terhadap bentuk-bentuk kepercayaan yang paling awal yaitu ”totemisme”. Totem dalam pandangan Durkheim merupakan sumber kehidupan moral sebuah klan/marga. Segala sesuatu yang bernaung di bawah prinsip totemik yang sama, menganggap dirinya terikat satu sama lain secara moral dan berkewajiban untuk saling tolong- menolong satu sama lain dan inilah yang membentuk pertalian darah. Oleh karena-nya, prinsip dasar totemik adalah kekuatan fisikal dan sekaligus kekuatan moral.6 Selain sebagai sumber kehidupan moral, keberadaan totem juga merupakan tanda atau simbol dari tuhan dan kelompok (masyarakat7). Oleh karena-nya, tuhan dalam konteks masyarakat totemisme adalah masyarakat itu sendiri.8 Dalam kepercayaan totemik terdapat ide-ide sosial dan keagamaan hanya hidup dalam kesadaran individu dan ide-ide tersebut perlu ditegaskan kembali melalui berbagai ritual agama agar kehidupan sosial terus berlanjut. Peristiwa- peristiwa ritual yang dicermati oleh Durkheim, bukan sebagai peristiwa yang melahirkan ide-ide tentang ‘yang sakral’, tetapi sebagai suatu cara untuk mengukuhkan kembali fakta sosial dan khususnya ide-ide tentang klan yang telah ada sebelumnya serta semua simbol-simbol yang menyertainya. Keberadaan totemisme dalam masyarakat Australia mengantarkan Durkheim pada sebuah pandangan bahwa agama secara khas merupakan persoalan kolektif dari 6 Ibid, 283 dan 305. 7 Masyarakat menurut Durkheim sebagai sebagai fakta sosial yang merupakan istilah dari aliran fungsional-struktural. Lih, dalam catatan kaki, Ibid, 305 8 Ibid. 18 masyarakat yang mempunyai keprihatian yang sama dan keprihatinan itu tertuju pada totem yang merupakan simbol kesatuan dengan klan mereka. Penelitian Durkheim pada totemisme bermuara pada pandangannya tentang agama bahwa: “Agama merupakan kesatuan sistem kepercayaan dan praktek- praktek yang berkaitan dengan sesuatu yang sakral, yaitu hal-hal yang dipisahkan dan terlarang; kepercayaan dan praktek-praktek itu disatukan dalam komunitas moral tunggal yang disebut Gereja.”9 Ada dua hal yang penulis anggap sebagai hal yang menarik untuk dilihat terkait dengan pengertian yang dikemukakan Durkheim yaitu pertama; kepercayaan dan praktek-praktek sakral. Kepercayaan dan praktek-praktek merupakan unsur-unsur yang terkandung dalam setiap agama primitif. Kedua hal tersebut merupakan kenyataan yang terdapat dalam agama dan tidak dapat dipisahkan satu sama lain, dalam arti bahwa ketika ada kepercayaan terhadap sesuatu yang dianggap ilahi maka pada saat yang bersamaan pula terdapat praktek-praktek keagamaan untuk mengakui yang ilahi itu. Kemudian yang kedua adalah komunitas moral yang disebut Gereja. Hal ini mengisyaratkan bahwa agama tidak dapat terpisah dari kehidupan kemasyarakatan. Agama juga membangkitkan perasaan satu komunitas dalam satu kelompok. Dengan kata lain agama adalah sarana untuk memperkuat kesadaran kolektif seperti yang terwujud dalam ritus-ritus keagamaan. Kesadaran kolektif tersebut tidak selamanya selalu solid namun lambat laun juga semakin lemah. Oleh kerena itu masyarakat beragama selalu mengadakan ritus-ritus tersebut secara berkesinambungan secara periodik sehingga rasa kesatuan dan kebersamaan itu selalu ada dalam kehidupan 9 Ibid, 80. Bnd. Emile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, (Oxford University Press, 2001), 62. 19 bermasyarakat.10 Oleh karenanya, Durkheim menganggap bahwa ritus merupakan sarana yang mana kelompok masyarakat secara periodik mengukuhkan kembali dirinya.11 Dari pandangan Durkheim ini, dapat diketahui bahwa ritual-ritual keagamaan tidak lain adalah merupakan cara yang paling mendasar untuk mengekspresikan dan menguatkan kembali sentimen (rasa) dan solidaritas kelompok. Jadi seluruh pandangan Durkheim tentang agama terpusat pada klaimnya bahwa agama adalah sesuatu yang amat bersifat sosial, dalam arti bahwa dalam setiap kebudayaan, agama adalah bagian yang paling berharga dari seluruh kehidupan sosial. Ia melayani masyarakat dengan menyediakan ide, ritual dan perasaan-perasaan yang akan menuntun seseorang dalam kehidupan bermasyarakat. Selain penjelasan tentang agama di atas, dari segi lahir atau munculnya, agama dapat dibedakan menjadi dua jenis agama yaitu agama antroposentrik dan agama theosentrik12. Agama antroposentrik maupun agama theosentrik mempunyai perhatian yang utama yaitu perhatian yang bersifat kosmologis dan seteriologis13. Perhatian yang bersifat kosmologis akan mempunyai perhatian yang besar terhadap dunia dan hal-hal lain dari kosmos. Perhatian kosmologis memberikan penekanan pada aspek keyakinan religiusnya dan mencoba memahami karakter fundamental alam semesta yang diresapi lewat ritus-ritus. Kemudian, perhatian agama yang bersifat seteriologis menggambarkan manusia yang berada dalam situasi yang berbahaya dan terkutuk dalam kehancuran yang 10 Bernard Raho, Agama..., 38 11 Durkheim, dalam Thomas F. O’Dea, Sosiologi Agama..., 23. 12 Suhardi. Ritual Pencarian Jalan Keselamatan Tataran Agama Dan Masyarakat Perspektif Antropologi, (Pidato Pengukuhan Jabatan Guru Besar Antropologi Pada Fakultas Ilmu Budaya Universitas Gajah Mada, 2009), 6-11. 13 Mariasusai Dhavamony, Fenomenologi..., 293-294. 20 membutuhkan keselamatan dalam arti pembebasan dari kejahatan maupun keselamatan dalam arti kebahagian yang sempurna. Dalam pembahasan selanjutnya, penulis akan menggambarkan ke-dua jenis agama tersebut yaitu agama antroposentrik dan agama theosentrik. 2.1.1 Agama Antroposentrik Agama secara antroposentris banyak diformulasikan oleh ahli-ahli antropologi pada awal abab XIX. Bahan-bahan yang digunakan untuk menyusun teori-teori ini bersumber dari benda-benda artefak manusia
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