Notes

Preface 1. English translation: Centuries of Childhood (Harmondsworth, 1986). On Aries's theses see particularly Chapter 6 and Conclusion below.

1: Introduction: History of Childhood in Islam 1. F. Rosenthal, 'Child psychology in Islam', Islamic Culture26(I952), p. 2. 2. L. DeMause, 'What is psychohistory?', TheJournal ofPsychohistary 9 (1981), pp. 181, 183. 3. L. DeMause, 'The evolution of childhood' in L. DeMause (ed.), The Histary of Childhood (New York, 1974), p. 3. See also: D. Hunt, Parents and Children in History: The Psychology ofFamily Life in Early Modem France (New York and London, 1970), pp. 15-17 (on Erik Erikson's theory of psycho-social development). 4. DeMause, ibid, p. 2. 5. Ibn Khaldiin, al-Muqaddima (ed. M. Quatremere) (Paris, 1858), pt III, Ch. 39 [English translation by F. Rosenthal (Princeton, 1967) ]. See below, Chapter 5. 6. S. Wilson, 'The myth of motherhood a myth: the historical view of Euro• pean child-rearing', Social History 9(1984), p. 182. 7. See, for instance, above, note I and also H. Motzki, 'Das Kind und seine Sozialisation in der islamischen Familie des Mittelalters', in J. Martin and A. Nitscke ( eds), Zur Socialgeschichte der Kindheit (Munich, 1986), pp. 391-441; id., 'Muslimische Kinderehen in Palastina wahrend des 17. Jahrhunderts: Fatiiwa als Quelien zur Socialgeschichte', Die Welt des !slams 27 ( 1987), pp. 82-90; G. Adamek, Das Kleinkind in Glaube und Sitte der Araberim Mittelalter (PhD thesis submitted to Bonn University, 1968). For an introduction to Family History in Islam see Th. Bianquis, 'La famille en Islam arabe', in A. Burguiere et al. ( eds), Histoire de la Fa mille (Paris, 1986), pp. 557-601. 8. Baghdad, 1979. 9. L. Pollock, Forgotten Children: Parent-Child Relations from 1500 to 1900 (Cambridge, 1985), pp. 22-3, 43-9; L. Demaitre, 'The idea of child• hood and child care in medical writings of the Middle Ages', The Journal of Psychohistary 4(1976), pp. 461-2; M.M. McLaughlin, 'Survivors and surrogates: children and parents from the ninth to the thirteenth centuries', in L. DeMause ( ed.), The Histary of Childhood (New York, 1974), pp. 102, 136; Ph. Aries, Centuries of Childhood, pp. 31-47; R. B. Lyman, 'Barbarism and religion: Late Roman and early medieval childhood', in L. DeMause (ed.), TheHistary ofChildhood, pp. 78-80, 88; M. Goodich, 'Encyclopaedic literature: Child-rearing in the Middle Ages', Histary of Education 12(1983), esp. pp. l-3; Wilson, ibid., p. 191. 10. Sh. Shahar, 'Infants, infant care and attitudes towards infancy in medi• eval Lives of Saints', The Journal of Psychohistary 10(1983), pp. 281, 295; B.A. Hanawalt, 'Child-rearing among the lower classes of late medieval 120 Notes to Chapter 1 121

England', journal of Interdisciplinary History 8 ( 1977), pp. 1-3; E. Le Roy Ladurie, Montaillou (Harmondsworth, 1984), pp. VII-XVII, 204-21; McLaughlin, 'Survivors and surrogates', pp. 101-2, 105-6; Pollock, Forgotten Children, pp. 68-9. 11. E.M. Sartain, jaliil al-Din al-Suyu(i, Vol. 1: 'Biography and Background' (Cambridge, 1975), p. 137. And see, for instance, The Life of Ibn Sinii, edited and translated by W. E. Gohlman (Albany, 1974), pp. 16-32; Abii I;Iamid MuJ:!ammad al-Ghazali, al-Munqidh min al-cf,aliil, French translation by F. Jahre (Beirut, 1959), Introduction, pp. 25-7; Usama b. Munqidh, Kitiib al-i 'tibiir, English translation by P. Hitti under the title An Arab- Syrian Gentleman and Warrior (New York, 1929), Introduction and Table of Contents; R. Erwin, 'Driven by women' (a review article on Amin Maaloufs Leo the African) The Times Literary Supplement 26.8-1.9 1988, p. 928. 12. Sartain, ibid. and see also H.A.R. Gibb, 'Islamic biographical literature', in B. Lewis and P.M. Holt ( eds), Historians of the Middle East (Oxford, 1962), pp. 56-7. 13. Adamek, Das Kleinkind, pp. 18-20. Arabic biographies have been partly utilised for studies of history of Muslim education but mainly 'higher', not 'elementary' education. See, for instance, Munir ud-Din AJ:!mad, Muslim Education and the Scholars' Social Status up to the 5th Century Muslim Era in the Light of Ta'rikh Baghdiid (Zurich, 1968), p. 40: It was not the main concern of the compiler of Ta'-rikh Baghdad (a comprehensive biographical dictionary from the eleventh century including almost eight thousand entries), and this applies to the whole of the biographical literature, to report about the elementry education. See also R.W. Bulliet, The Patricians ofNishpur: A Study ofMedieval Islamic Social History (Harvard, 1972), pp. 47-60, 249-55; id., 'The age structure of medieval Islamic education', Studia Islamica 57(1983), pp. 105-17. 14. J.E. Mandaville, The Ottoman court records of Syria and Jordan', Journal of the American Oriental Society 86( 1966), p. 311. 15. 'Wa~iyyat Ajliitun fi ta' dib al-al},diith' ( ed. L. Cheikho), in L. Ma'liif et al. ( eds) , Maqiiliit falsafiyya qadima li-ba'4 mashiihir faliisifat al-'Arab (Beirut, 1908)' pp. 52-8. 16. M. Plessner, Der Oikonomikoc des Neupythagorees Bryson (Heidelberg, 1928) (Orient und Antike 5). See also below, Chapter 4. 17. AJ:!mad b. MuJ:!ammad Ibn Miskawayh, Tahdhib al-akhliiq wa-tathir al• a'riiq (Cairo, 1329/1911), p. 46: 'Fi ta'dib al-al},diith wa-al-~i!Tyiin khii~at'"'. 18. Abii I;Iamid MuJ:!ammad al-Ghazali, IIJ,yii' 'ulUm al-din (Cairo, 1967), Vol. III, pp. 92-5; 'Bayiin al-tariq fi riyiirjat al-~i!Tyiin fi awwal nushu' ihim wa-wajh ta'dibihim wa-tal},sin akhliiqihim' See below, Chapter 4. 19. Ibn 'Abbas al-Majiisi, Kiimil al-~inii'a al-tibbiyya (Bulaq, 1877), Vol. II, pp. 51-8; 'Ali Ibn Sina al-Qiinun fi al-tibb (Bulaq, 1294/1877), Vol. I, pp. 150-8 [see also E. Khale, Avicenna (Ibn Sinii) uber Kinderkrankheiten im Kinderregimen seines Qiinun (Erlangen, 1979)]; 'Ali Ibn Hubal, Kitiib al• mukhtiiriit fi al-tibb (Haydarabad, 1362/1943), Vol. I, pp. 187-200. See also Motzki, 'Das Kind', p. 426. 122 Notes to Chapter 1 On Hippocratic writings, dealing partly or wholly with embryology and pediatrics, translated into Arabic see, for instance, F. Sezgin, Geschichte des arabischen Schriftums (Leiden, 1967), Vol. III, pp. 28-32 ( al• Fu$ii[), p. 38 (Kitiib al-ajinna), p. 41 (Kitiib al-mawludin li-thamiiniyat ashhur), p. 45 (Kitiib fi nabiit al-asniin), p. 46 (Kitiib al-mawludin li-sab'at ashhur). On the Arabic translation of Galen's treatise dealing with epileptic children, namely, Fi 'iliij $al!iyy yu$ra'u, see ibid., pp. 74, 116. On the special interest of Arab physicians in Galen's writings see M. Ullmann, Islamic Medicine (Edinburgh, 1978), pp. 10, 11; 0. Temkin, Galenism: Rise and Decline of Medical Philosophy (Ithaca and London, 1973)' pp. 68-93. 20. R. Etienne, 'Ancient medical conscience and the life of children', The journal of Psychohistory 4 (1976), pp. 131, 144, 152-3; D. Alexandre• Bidon and M. Closson, L'Enfant a l'ombre des cathedrales (Lyon, 1985), p. 10; Demaitre, 'The idea of childhood', p. 463. On pediatric writings in medieval Europe see also Shahar, 'Infants, infant care', pp. 282-5; McLaughlin, 'Survivors and surrogates', p. 113. 21. Ibn ai:J azzar ai-Qayrawani, Siyiisat al-$ibyiin wa-tadbiruhum, ed. Mui).ammad al-l;labib al-Hila (Tunis, 1968). See also M.W. Dols, Medieval Islamic Medicine: Ibn Ri4wiin 's Treatise 'On The Prevention of Bodily Ills in Egypt' (Berkeley, 1985), pp. 67-9. 22. An even earlier treatise by the well-known physician Abii Bakr Mui).ammad Ibn Zakariya al-Riizi (ninth-tenth centuries) was devoted to specific aspects of pediatrics, namely, questions connected with smallpox and measles. See al-Riizi, A Treatise on the Small-Pox and Measles, translated by W.A. Greenhill (London, 1848). 23. Ibn al:Jazzar, Siyiisat al-$ibyiin, pp. 86-7, 135-8. 24. Ibid., pp. 60-9. 25. Ibid., pp. 86-133. 26. Ibid., p. 77. 27. Ibid., p. 28 (editor's introduction). 28. 'Arib b. Sa'id al-Qurtubi, Kitiib khalq al-janin wa-tadbir al-i),abiilii wa-al• mawludin, eds H.Jahier and N. Abdelqader (Algiers, 1956). 29. Ullmann, Islamic Medicine, pp. 22, 112-14. On Muslim interpretations of the Hippocratic sulHI.ivision of childhood, see below, Chapter 3, note 25. 30. AJ:tmad b. Mui).ammad b. Yai).ya al-Baladi, Kitiib tadbir al-l),abiilii wa-al• aifiil wa-al-$ibyiin wa-l),ift. $ii)i),atihim wa-mudiiwiit al-amrii4 al- 'iiri4a lahum, ed. Mai).miid al-l;lajj Qasim Mui).ammad (Baghdad, 1980). See also R. Dagorn, 'Al-Baladi: un medecin obstetricien et pediatre a l'epoqu~ des premiers Fatimides du Caire', Melanges de l'Institut Dominicain d'Etudes Orientales du Caire9(1967), pp. 73-93; Ullmann, ibid., pp. 38-9. 31. AI-Baladi, Tadbir al-l)abiilii, pp. 77-9. 32. Ibid., pp. 75-6. 33. Ibid., pp. 126-32. 34. Ibid., pp. 16-20 (editor's introduction). 35. Ibid., 'al-Maqala al-thaniya', esp. pp. 182 ff. 36. Ibid., esp. pp. 208-21. 37. Ibid., and see also pp. 24-6 (editor's introduction). Philological Notes to Chapter 1 123

sources also contain references to the stages of development and age groups of children. See, for example, Thabit Ibn Abl Thabit, Kitiib khalq al-insiin (Kuwait, 1965), pp. 1-12, 15-20, 28; Abu al-I;Iasan 'All Ibn S!da, Kitiib al-mukha$$a$ (Bulaq, 1316/1898-9), Vol. I, pp. 30-4. See also Adamek, Das Kleinkind, pp. 16--18. 38. Al-Balad!, ibid .. 39. Ibid., pp. 14, 28 (editor's introduction). 40. Abu al-I;Iasan Sa'id Ibn Hibat Allah, Khalq al-insiin (MS. The Bodleian Library, Oxford), Pococke 66. 41. See below, Chapter 2. Titles of pediatric works which have not survived can be found in Arabic bio-bibliographical literature. Ibn Abi U~aybi'a, for instance, mentions in his 'Uyitn al-anba fi (abaqiit al-a(ibba (Cairo, 1882), Vol. II, pp. 21-2, a treatise by Ibn Mandawayh al-l~fahani titled al-Risiila fi awja al-aifiil. lsma'il Pasha al-Baghdadl mentions in his Hadiyyat al-'iirifin (Istanbul, 1951-5), Vol. I, p. 560, Vol. II, p. 515 Kitiib al-janin by 'Abd al-Ral)im b. 'Ali al-Dakhwar and a work with the same title by Ibn Masawayh. 42. J. La Baume, Taftil iiyiit al-Qy:liin al-f.takim [Le Koran analyse1 (Cairo, 1955), pp. 552-3; R. Roberts, TheSocialLawsofthe Qoliin (London, 1971), pp. 40-52. On Qur'anic attitudes towards children see more in detail in the following chapters, especially 2 and 8. 43. AJ. Wensinck, A Handbook op:arly Muhammadan Tradition (Lei den, 1960), pp. 43-4. 44. See, for instance, Mul)ammad b. lsma'il al-Bukhari, al-Jiimt al-$a/:ti/:t, ed. L. Krehl, Vol. III (Leiden, 1868), pp. 512-14; Ibn Babawayh al-Qummi, Man liiya/:tr!uruhu alfaqih (Najaf, 1378/1958-9), Vol. III, pp. 316--17. 45. See below, Chapter 3. 46. Ibn Babawayh, ibid., Vol. III, pp. 305-9. See also Chapter 2 below. 47. Ibid., pp. 318-19 and see below, Chapter 4. 48. Ibid., pp. 316--18 and see below, Chapter 6. 49. See below, Chapter 6. 50. See below, Chapter 4. 51. Shams al-Din al-Sarakhsi, Kitiib al-mabsitt (Cairo, 1324/1905-6). See, for instance, Vol. 26, pp. 185-8. 52. Ibid., Vol. 15, pp. 118-29. A great variety of themes touching on chil• dren is also included in 'Abdallah b. Al)mad Ibn Qudama's al-Mughni (Beirut, 1972). See, for instance, Vol. I, p. 647 (on child education), Vol. II, p. 314 (on questions connected with the washing of infants and children), pp. 348, 372 (on prayers for deceased children), Vol. II, pp. 90, 195-6, 200-1 (on the religious duties of children), Vol. IX, pp. 299,301 (on the parents' right of custody), p. 313 (on nursing). In the following chapters use is made of other collections of law as well. 53. See Motzki, 'Muslimische Kinderehen in Palastina' esp. pp. 82, 89 (on the importance of Jatiiwii for Family History in Islam). 54. Fatiiwii Qii4i Khiin (Calcutta, 1835), Vol. II, pp. 314-6, Vol. IV, p. 441. See also Chapter 6 below. 55. Abu Zakariya Yal)ya b. Sharaf al-Nawawi, al-Masail al-manthitra-fatiiwii al-Imiim al-Nawawi (Beirut, 1972), p. 88. See Chapters 4 and 6 below. 56. Taqi al-Din Al)mad b. 'Abd al-l;lalim Ibn Taymiyya, Majmit'at Jatiiwii 124 Notes to Chapter 1

(Cairo, 1326/1908-9), Vol. I, pp. 43-4, Vol. II, pp. 241-8, Vol IV, pp. 182; id., al-Akhbiir al-'ilmiyya min al-ikhtiyiiriit al-jiqhiyya min Jatiiwii Ibn Taymiyya (Beirut, n.d.), pp. 283-4, 287-8; id., al-Fatiiwii al-kubrii (Cairo 1965), Vol. I, p. 52. See below, especially Chapter 8. 57. Ibn I;Iajar al-Makki al-Haytami, al-Fatiiwii al-jiqhiyya al-kubrii (Cairo, 1890), Vol. II, pp.19-20. See below, Chapter 6. 58. Mul).ammad b. Mul).ammad al-Qurashi (Ibn al-Ukhuwwa), Ma'iilim al• qurba fi a/.lkiim al-/.lisba, ed. R. Levy (London, 1938), Chapter 46; Mul).ammad b. Al).mad Ibn Bassam al-Mul).tasib, Nihiiyat al-rutba fi talab al-/.lisba, ed. I;Iusiim al-Din al-Samarra'i (Baghdad, 1968), Chapter 75. 59. Mul).ammad Ibn Sal).niin, Kitiib iidiib al-mu'allimin (Tunis, 1972). 60. 'Ali b. Mul).ammad b. Khalaf al-Qabisi, al-Risiila al-muf~#la li-a/.lwiil al• muta'allimin wa-a/.tkiim al-mu'allimin wa-al-muta'allimin, ed. Mul).ammad Fu'ad al-Ahwani (Cairo, 1968). 61. Ibn I;Iajar al-Makki al-Haytami, Ta/.lrir al-maqiil fi iidiib wa-a/.lkiim wa• fawii 'id ya/.ltiiju ilayhii mu' addib al-aifiil (MS. The National and Univer• sity Library, Jerusalem), Yah. Ar. 316. 62. Mu}:lammad b. Abi Bakr Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Tul]fat al-mawdud fi a/.lkiim al-mawlud (Bombay, 1961). For more details on Ibn Qayyim al• Jawziyya and his treatise, see below, Chapter 2. 63. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, ibid., pp. 5-13. 64. See below, Chapter 3. 65. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, ibid., pp. 128-31. 66. Ibid., pp. 133-45. See below, Chapter 2. 67. Ibid., p. 3. 68. Al).mad b. 'Abdallah Muhibb al-Din al-Tabari (?), lfuquq al-awliid wa• ta'dibuhum wa-wiqiiyatuhum al-niir wa-al-ahl (MS. The Library of the University of Leiden), Or. 2427. 69. Al-Baghdadi, Hadiyyat al-'iirifin, Vol. I, pp. 398-9. 70. See: I;Iajji Khalifa, Kashf al-<-unun, ed. G. Fliigel (London, 1835-58), Vol. II, p. 289. See also: C. Brockelmann, GeschichtederarabischenLitteratur (Leiden 1937-49), G II, p. 74; S II, p. 79. 71. (Ms. Der Staatsbibliothek, Berlin), 2660 (Lbg. 187). See: Brockelmann, GAL, G II, p. 13; S II, p. 6. 72. (Medina, 1380/1960). See also Brockelmann GAL, G II, p. 76, S II, p. 82. 73. (Cairo, 1887). For manuscripts see, for instance: (The Library of the University of Leiden), Or. 14.350; (The Bodleian Library, Oxford), Marsh 583; (The British Library), Or. 9765; (The Mingana Collection, Birmingham), Ar. 165(1011). See also: Brockelmann, GAL, G II, p. 76, S II, p. 83. (The references in this book are to the manuscript of the Bodleian Library). 74. (MS. The British Library, London), Or. 7837; (MS. Chester Beatty, Dublin) Ar. 3463; (MS. Chester Beatty) Ar. 5174. See also: Brockelmann, GAL, S II, p. 33. 75. (MS. The Mingana Collection), Ar. 469 (1174 III). Another treatise by al-Suyiiti with a similar title, namely,al-1/.ttifol fi su' iil al-atfol deals with the putting of questions to the recently deceased child by Munkar and Nakir, the angels who examine the dead in their graves. See: Brockelmann, GAL, G II, p. 151. Notes to Chapter 1 125

76. (MS. The Library of the University of Leiden), Or. 474, Or. 14.124; (MS. The Mingana Collection), Ar. 460(772 IV). See also Brockelmann, GAL, G II, p. 148, S II, p. 185. 77. (Ms. The Library of the University of Leiden), Or. 14.124. See also: Brockelmann, GAL S II, p. 190. 78. See: 'Umar b. Al).mad al-Shamma', Fihrist asmii' mu'allafiit al-Suyuti (MS. The Library of Cambridge University), Qq891, fol. 4b. 79. See: I:Iajji Khalifa, Kashf al-?-unun, Vol. II, p. 493. 80. (MS. Chester Beatty), 4132/1. See also: Brockelmann, GAL, G II, p. 305, S 11, p. 416. 81. This title is mentioned by Ibn Abi I:Iajala, Sulwat al-}Jazin, fol. Sa. 82. Al-Sakhawi, lrtiyii}J al-akbiid (MS. The British Library), Or. 7837, fol. 165b. 83. See The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Oxford, 1961), p. 226 (s.v. 'Consolatio'). I wish to thank Dr Menahem Luz for his advice concern• ing the Greco-Roman consolation literature. 84. On the Judeo-Arabic treatise see S. Abramson, Ba-Merkazim uba-tefusoth bi-thequfath ha-gionim (Jerusalem, 1965), Chapter VI. (Although the deceased son referred to in the consolation treatise was probably not an infant or a child, some of its motifs are similar to those of the Islamic treatises). The English compilation, Comfort for parents mourning over their hopeful children that die young, by T. Whitaker, is mentioned by K. Thomas in his Religion and the Decline ofMagic: Studies in Popular Beliefs in Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century England (London, 1971), pp. 81-2. 85. F. Rosenthal, 'Literature' inJ. Schacht and C.E. Bosworth (eds), The Legacy of/slam (Oxford, 1974), pp. 324-5; id., 'Fiction and reality: sources for the role of sex in medieval Muslim society' in A.L. al-Sayyid-Marsot (ed.), Society and the Sexes in Medieval Islam (Malibu, 1979), p. 15. 86. See, for example, al-Raghib al-I~fahani, Mu}Jiitf,ariit al-udabilwa-mu}Jiiwariit al-shu'arii (Beirut, 1961), Vol. II, p. 53; Abu 'Uthman 'Amr b. BaJ:tr al• JaJ:ti~, Kitiib al-}Jayawiin (Cairo, 1938), Vol. II, pp. 84-5; id., Kitiib al-bayiin wa'l-taf7yin (Cairo, 1956), Vol. II, p. 75; 'Abdallah b. Muslim Ibn Qutayba, 'Uyun al-akhbiir (Cairo, 1925), Vol. V, pp. 166-8. 87. Abu al-Faraj al-I~fahani, Kitiib al-aghiini (Haifa, n.d.), Vol. Ill, p. 155, Vol. VII, p. 68, Vol. XIX, pp. 320-l. For references to other poems of this genre, see Ibrahim MuJ:tammad ~ubayJ:t, al-Tufolafi al-shi'r al-'arabi al-}Jadith (Qatar, 1985), pp. 74-8 and below, Chapter 6. 88. Abu 'Ali Isma'il b. al-Qasim al-Qali, Kitiib al-amiili (Cairo, 1324/1906- 7), Vol. II, p. ll7. On the child's image and the attitudes towards children as reflected in classical Arabic poetry in general, see ~ubayJ:t, ibid., Chapter 2. 89. Al-Raghib al-I~fahani, Mu}Jiirf,ariit al-udabii', Vol. I, pp. 320-l. 90. Al:JaJ:ti~. Kitiibal-}Jayawiin, Vol. I, pp. 287,324-7, Vol. Ill, pp. 393-7, Vol. V, pp. 336-7. For more materials on children and childhood in adab literature see, for instance, al-Raghib al-I~fahani, ibid., Vol. I, p. 47 (on child education); al:JaJ:ti~, al-Bayiin wa 'l-taf7yin, Vol. II, pp. 205-6 (on child education); Ibrahim b. MuJ:tammad al-Bayhaqi al-Ma}Jiisin wa-al• masiiwi (Beirut, 1960), pp. 547, 575-80 (on child education); Abu 'Umar Ibn 'Abd Rabbihi, al- 'Jqd alfarid (Cairo,1975), Vol. II, pp. 435- 7 (on child education), pp. 437-40 (on parent-child relations); Shihab 126 Notes to Chapter 2

al-Din al-Abshihi, al-Mustatraf (Cairo, 1952), Vol. II, pp. 10-13 (on the rights of children). 91. Aries, Centuries of Childhood, esp. Chapter 2. On miniatures as a source for History of Childhood in medieval Europe see Alexandre-Bidon and Closson, L'Infant a l'ombre des cathedrales, pp. 8-10. 92. See, for instance, R. Ettinghausen, ArabPainting(Geneva, 1962), p. 116; B. Gray, Persian Painting (Geneva, 1961), pp. 123, 144; A. Sakisian, La miniature persane (Paris, 1929), Plate LXXXIX, Fig. 151; Plate LXXXV, Fig. 152; Th. Arnold, Painting in Islam (Oxford, 1928), p. 100, Plate XXV; B.W. Robinson, A Descriptive Catalogue of the Persian Paintings in the Bodleian Library (Oxford, 1958), p. 180, no. 1221. 93. See for instance, A.C. Inchbold, Under Syria Sun (London, 1906), pp. 412-17 (on the child in Muslim families in Jerusalem); J. Neil. Everyday Life in the Holy Land (London, 1920), pp. 56, 59 (on treating new-born infants). I would like to thank Dr Ilan Pappe for drawing my attention to these sources. 94. E. Friedl, 'Parents and children in a village in Iran', in A. Fathi (ed.), Women and the Family in Iran (Leiden, 1985), pp. 195-211, esp. pp. 195- 8, 201, 202 (I wish to thank Dr Uri M. Kupferschmidt for bringing this article to my attention); H. Ammar,Growing Up in an Egyptian Village: Silwa Province of Aswan (London, 1966), esp. Chapters IV-VI. Examples of other works in this area which should be consulted are H. Granqvist, Birth and Childhood Among the Arabs (Helsinki, 1947); id., Child Problems among the Arabs, (Helsinki and Copenhagen, 1950); E.T. Prothro, Child Rearing in the Lebanon (Harvard, 1961). 95. Friedl, ibid., pp. 207-8, note 4 (see also Ammar, ibid., pp. 144-60) and cf. M.M. Ahsan, Social Life under the Abbasids (London and New York, 1979), pp. 272-4. For comparison between childhood in medieval and contemporary Muslim society we have occasionally made use also of NayraAtiya's Khul-Khaal: FiveE.gyptian Women Tell Their Stories (Syracuse, 1982), which includes illuminating testimonies to the lives of children within the lower social classes in Egypt today. I would like to thank Professor Gad Gilbar for drawing my attention to this book.

2: Tu);lfat al-Mawdiid - an Islamic Childrearing Manual from the Fourteenth Century l. lfaniibila (single lfanbalz) denotes the followers of the school of theol• ogy, law and morality which grew out of the teaching of the prominent traditionist Al).mad Ibn I;Ianbal (d. 855). See EJ2, Vol. III, p. 158 (s.v. 'I;Ianabila') Damascus lfaniibila had been strongly fortified in the thirteenth century by the forced migration of scholars from I;Iarran in Mesopota• mia who, fleeing the Mongols, came to Damascus for their safety. In the first half of the fourteenth century, the city as a whole entered a period of splendour and expansion. Governor Tankiz (1312-40) endowed new schools, mosques, and other institutions. See: M.I. Lapidus, Muslim Cities in the Later Middle Ages (Cambridge, 1984), pp. 22, 112. 2. EP, Vol. III, p. 821 (s.v. 'Ibn }$ayyim al-Djawziyya'). 3. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya himself compiled a collection of }Jadith reports Notes to Chapter 2 127

on health and medicine entitled, like many compilations of this genre, al-Tibb al-nabawi ['Prophetic Medicine']. But he did not refrain from weaving elements of Hellenistic medicine even into a collection of this sort. See: Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, al-Tibb al-nabawi (Mecca, 1958 ?) , esp. pp. 317,318,320,321,322. 4. See: F. Rosenthal, 'The physican in medieval Muslim society', Bulletin of the History of Medicine 52(1978), pp. 480-3; G. Leiser, 'Medical educa• tion in Islamic lands from the seventh to the fourteenth century', Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 38(1983), pp. 50-1; D. Behrens-Abouseif, Fat}J Allah and AbU Zakariyii: Physicians under the Mamluks (Cairo, 1987) (Supplement aux Annales Islamologique, Cahier no. 10), pp. 8-11. 5. Medieval and modern biographers completely ignore Ibn Qayyim al• Jawziyya's interest in medicine. See, for instance, 'Abd al-Ral)man Shihab al-Din Al)mad Ibn Rajab, Kitiib al-dhayl'alii fabaqiit al-lfaniibila (Cairo, 1372/1953), Vol. II, pp. 447-51; Ibn I;Iajar ai-'Asqalani, al-Duraral-kiimina fi a'yiin al- mi'a al-thiimina (Haydarahad, 1928-31), Vol. III, pp. 400-3; Jalal al-Din al-Suyiiti, Kitiib bughyat al-wu'iit (Cairo, 1908), p. 25; Abu al• Fida' Isma'il Ibn Kathir, al-Bidiiya wa-al-nihiiya (Beirut, 1977), Vol. XIV, pp. 234-5. See also: 'Aw<;l Allah Jad I;Iijazi, Ibn al-Qayyim wa-mawqijuhu min al-tajkir al-Isliimi (Cairo, 1972), pp. 11-12, 42-50. 6. See above, Introduction and Chapter 3 below. Even today, Tubfat al• mawdud is recommended to Muslim parents as a useful educational guide. See Mal).mud Mahdi al-Istanbuli, Tubfat al-'arns: al-zawiij al-Isliimi al-sa'id (n.p., n.d.), p. 229. I wish to thank Dr Lawrence Conrad for drawing my attention to this book. 7. B.F. Musallam, Sex and Society in Islam (Cambridge, 1983), p. 55. See also pp. 49-52. 8. 'Fi dhikr fu$iil niijia fi tarbiyat al-aifiil tu}Jmadu 'awiiqibuhii 'inda al-kibar ['Useful sections concerning (methods of) rearing infants whose results will be praised when the child is grown up']. 9. See Introduction, above. 10. See, for example, al-Sarakhsi, al-Mabsuf, Vol. XV, pp. 118-29. 11. D. Campbell, Arabian Medicine and its Influence on the Middle Ages (Am• sterdam, 1974), p. 3. 12. See below, Chapter 4. 13. The medieval Muslim doctor, when dealing with the phenomenon of illness was not trying to discover new knowledge, or to reinterpret the processes which go on in the human body, or to develop new and more adequate thera• pies. For him, the literature of the ancients is both example and authority; he believes that in it a certain natural truth is laid down which he can only think about, develop, and comment on. Ullmann, Islamic Medicine, pp. 23-4. see also: Demaitre, 'The idea of childhood', p. 467. 14. See, for instance, McLaughlin, 'Survivors and surrogates', p. 136; Lyman, 'Barbarism and religion', pp. 76, 90, 95; Shahar, 'Infants, infant care', p. 285. 128 Notes to Chapter 2

15. On al-Baladi see Ibn Abi U~aybi'a, 'Uyitn al-anba, Vol. I, p. 247, on Ibn al:Jazzar al-Qayrawani see above, Introduction. 16. See: Rosenthal, 'The physician in medieval Muslim society', p. 477. 17. AJ. Stewart et al., 'Coding categories for the study of child-rearing from historical sources',]oumal of Interdisciplinary History 4(1975), p. 689. 18. Etienne, 'Ancient medical conscience', p. 131 and see also: Soranus, Gynecology (translated by 0. Temkin) (Baltimore, 1956), pp. 79-80. Etienne (ibid., p. 153) argues, moreover, that 'this side of ancient medical thinking would explain the way of thinking of an entire society, which seems to have been little affected by the loss of children'. How• ever, as we show in Chapter 6 below, adult reactions to infant and child death in medieval Islamic society were in many cases totally different. The genre of consolation treatises for bereaved parents referred to in the Introduction, above, is a clear indication of that. 19. Ibn al:Jazzar, Siyiisat al-~il7yiin, p. 57; ai-Baladi, Tadbir al-}Jabiilii, p. 76; ai• Majiisi, Kiimil al-~inii 'a, Vol. II, p. 51. 20. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Tu/.tfat al-mawditd, pp. 173-5 (Chapter 17). 21. Ibid, p. 137. See also al-Baladi, Tadbir al-/.tabiilii, p. 206; Galen, Hygiene (translated by R.M. Green) (Springfield, 1951), p. 25. 22. AI-Baladi, Tadbiral-/.tabiilii, pp. 182-6. See also: al-Qurtubi, Khalqal-janin, pp. 57-8; Ibn al:Jazzar, Siyiisat al-~il7yiin, p. 77; Ibn Hibat Allah, Khalq al• insiin, fols. 53a-53b. 23. Cf. Soranus, Gynecology, p. 82. 24. AJ. Wensinck, A Handbook of Early Muhammadan Tradition, p. 43; Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Tul,tfat al-mawditd, pp. 174, 176 (Chapter 17). 25. For a detailed sub-division of childhood attributed to Hippocrates see Ibn al:Jazzar, Siyiisat al-~il7yiin, pp. 86-8. Ibn al:Jazzar divides the life of infants and children into four periods: infancy proper from birth to dentition; second infancy from dentition to the age of seven; childhood from the age of seven to fourteen; the age of transition from childhood to puberty starting at the age of fourteen. An even more detailed division is offered by ai-Qurtubi, (Khalq al-janin, pp. 57-60): I. from birth to forty days- a period characterised by drastic changes (see above); II. from forty days to the appearance of molar teeth, at the age of seven months, a stage characterised, inter alia, by the beginning of the de• velopment of the senses as well as the imagination and the intellectual qualifications; III. from dentition to the growth of the child's hair, a stage characterised by further intellectual development as well as by weaning and the beginning of his talking and walking; IV. this stage, which is defined in a similar way to the third one, that is, from dentition to the growth of the hair, is characterised by the increase in the child's energy, development of his intellectual ability and excellent memory. Cf. Demaitre, 'The idea of childhood', pp. 465-6. 26. AI-Ghazali (1/.tyii', Vol. III, p. 92) suggests the appearance of the sense of shame as the criterion to identifY the age of discrimination. See below, Chapter 4. 27. See below, Chapter 4. 28. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Tul.tfat al-mawditd, pp. 180-2. See also, for in• stance, Abii Mul).ammad 'Abdallah ai-Darimi, Sunan (Medina 1966), Notes to Chapter 2 129

'Kitiib al-siyar', bab 26; al-Raghib al-I~fahanl, Mul;tiilf,ariit al-udabii', p. 208, and AJL, Vol. I, p. 993 (s.v. 'Baligh'). 29. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Tul;tfat al-mawdud, p. 176. 30. Al-Baladl, Tadbir al-l;tabiilii, p. 76: 'The care of infants and children from the hygienic as well as the therapeutic point of view should be unique and suitable so that they will benefit from it and be protected against any hurt which can occur due to their weakness and inability ... '. 31. See note 8, above. On the long-term influence of the mother's milk see below. On the long-term influence of moral education of young chil• dren see below, Chapter 4 and Motzki, 'Das Kind', p. 432. 32. See, for instance, Soranus, Gynecology, pp.88-l03, 108-13, 117-19. 33. Soranus (ibid., p. 89) argues that the mother's milk is not suitable for the baby during the first twenty days after birth. The mother should have the opportunity to recover and strengthen, and only then to start suckling. 34. The mother's milk is regarded as the most suitable food for the infant since it was thought to be made of the blood of which the foetus is nourished in the womb. The new-born infant is therefore supposed to be accustomed to it. See: Galen, Hygiene, p.24; Soranus, Gynecology, p. 90; Ibn S!na al-Qiinun, p. 151; Ibn al:Jazzar, Siyiisat al-~ibyiin, p. 62; al-Balad!, Tadbir al-l;tabiilii, pp. 186--7; Ibn Hibat Allah, Khalq al-insiin, fol. 62b. 35. Ibn al:Jazzar, ibid., pp. 70-7; al-Baladl, ibid., pp. 187-94; al-Qurtubi, Kitiib khalq al-janin, pp. 54-7. 36. V. Fildes, Wet Nursing: A History from Antiquity to the Present (Oxford, 1988), pp. 1, 4, 12. 37. See, for instance, al-Raghib al-I~fahanl, Mul;tiirjariit al-udabii,' pp. 207-8. 38. See, for instance, Soranus, Gynecology, pp. 90-101. See also: Etienne, 'Ancient medical conscience', p. 148; Fildes, Wet Nursing, pp. 15-16. In medieval Europe, preachers and doctors recommended maternal suck• ling, and this practice was common among the middle and lower classes. See: Shahar, 'Infants, Infant Care', pp. 283, 284, 289, 295, 296; McLaughlin, 'Survivors and surrogates', pp. 115, 116; Demaitre, 'The Idea of childhood', p. 474; LeRoy Ladurie, Montaillou, p. 208; Hannawalt, 'Childrearing among the lower classes', p. 14. On a similar trend in medieval Mediterranean Jewry, see: S.D. Goitein, A Mediterranean Soci• ety, Vol. III (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 1978), p. 233. 39. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Tul;tfat al-mawdud, p. 137. See also: 'Abd al-Malik Ibn Hisham, Sirat Rasul Alliih (ed. F. Wustenfeld) (Gottingen, 1858), Vol. I, pp. 102-7; MuQ.ammad Ibn Sa'd, Kitiib al-[abaqiit al-kabir (eds E. Sachau eta!.) (Leiden, 1905-40), Vol. I/1, pp. 67-73. 40. Ibn Sina, al-Qiinun, pp. 151-3; Ibn al:Jazzar, Siyiisat al-~ibyiin, pp. 70-2, 75-7; al-Qurtub!, Khalq al-janin, pp. 54-7; Ibn Hibat Allah, Khalq al• insiin, fol. 62b. 41. Shahar, 'Infants, Infant Care', p. 290; Fildes, Wet Nursing, p. 45. So ran us (Gynecology, pp. 110, Ill) advises giving infants milk 'several times but not incessantly' and 'above all ... not always (to) give the child (the) breast because he cries'. 42. Ibn ai:Jazzar, Siyiisat al-~ibyiin, p. 62; ai-Baladi, Tadbir al-l;tabiilii, p. 201. 43. Ibn Qayyim ai:Jawziyya, Tul;tfat al-mawdud, p. 138. See also: Soranus, 130 Notes to Chapter 2

Gynecology, p. Ill. Ibn al:Jazzar (Siyiisat al-$ibyiin, pp. 65, 68) and al• Baladi ( Tadbir al-}Jabiilii, pp. 207, 217) distinguish between a short period of crying period and a continuous one. They warn parents against ignoring the latter. See also: Ibn Hibat Allah, Khalq al-insiin, fols 53a, 65b. 44. Soranus, Gynecology, pp. 92-3. See also: Galen, Hygiene, p. 29. 45. Fildes, Wet Nursing, pp. 6, 8, 38; Shahar, 'Infants, infant care', p. 183; McLaughlin, 'Survivors and surrogates', p. 115. 46. N.E. Himes, Medical History of Contraception (New York, 1970), pp. 71, 73, 74. 47. Fildes, ibid., p. 9. 48. Ibn Sina, al-Qiinun, p. 153; al-Majiisi, Kiimil al-$inii 'a, Vol. II, p. 57; Ibn al:Jazzar, Siyiisat al-$ibyiin, pp. 76-7; al-Baladi, Tadbiral-}Jabiilii, pp. 193- 4; al-Qurtubi, Khalq al-janin, p. 56. This attitude is still prevalent in Muslim societies, as can be learnt from contemporary anthropological research. See, for instance, Friedl, 'Parents and children', p. 203. 49. Wensinck, A Handbook of Early Muhammadan Tradition, p. 112 (s.v. 'In• tercourse'); Musallam, Sex and Society, pp. 15-16. 50. AJ. Wensinck et a!., Concordance et indices de la tradition musulmane (Leiden, 1936-70), Vol. II, p. 447: 'Lii taqtulu awliidakum sin""'. 51. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Tu!J!at al-mawdud, pp. 141-2. 52. Qur'an 2:233, 31:14. 53. Al-Baladi, Tadbir al-}Jabiilii, pp. 206, 210; Ibn Sina, al-Qiinun, p. 153; al• Qurtubi, Khalq al-janin, p. 74. See also: al-Raghib al-I~fahani, Mu}Jiitjariit al-udaba, p. 207. 54. Soranus, Gynecology, p. 118. See also: Fildes, Wet Nursing, pp. 7, 23-4; Etienne, 'Ancient medical conscience', p. 148; McLaughlin, 'Survivors and surrogates', p. 116; Shahar, 'Infants, infant care', p. 298. On the length of the breastfeeding period in medieval Jewish society see: Goitein, Mediterranean Society, Vol. III, p. 233; S. Kottek, 'Childhood in medieval Jewry as depicted in Sefer /fasidim (twelfth to thirteenth century): medical, psychological and educational aspects', Koroth, 8( 1984), p. 380. 55. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Tu}Jfat al-mawdud, p. 137. 56. Ibid, p. 140; al-Baladi, Tadbir al-}Jabiilii, p. 210; Ibn al:Jazzar, Siyiisat al• $ibyiin, p. 66. See also: Etienne, 'Ancient medical conscience', p. 148. On the other hand, Soranus (Gynecology, p. 118) refers to the spring as the appropriate season for weaning. 57. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, ibid.; Ibn Sina al-Qiiniin, p. 153; Ibn al:Jazzar, Siyiisat al-$ibyiin, p. 66; al-Baladi, Tadbir al-}Jabiilii, p. 21 0; Ibn Hibat Allah, Khalq al-insiin, fol. 66a. See also: Soranus, Gynecology, p. 118. 58. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Tu!J!at al-mawdud, p.137. See also: Ibn Sina, al• Qiinun, ibid.; Ibn al:Jazzar, Siyiisat al-#byiin, pp. 66-7; al-Baladi, Tadbiral• }Jabiilii, pp. 210-11; al-Ququbi, Khalq al-janin, p. 7 4; Ibn Hibat Allah, ibid. The diet suggested by So ran us (Gynecology, p. 117) is purely vegetarian. 59. Al-Baladi, Tadbir al-}Jabiilii, p. 211; Ibn al:Jazzar, Siyiisat al-$ibyiin, p. 67. Soranus (Gynecology, p. 117) refers to 'artificial nipples, for out of these it (the infant) draws the fluid little by little as from the breast, without being harmed'. See also: Etienne, 'Ancient medical conscience', Notes to Chapter 2 131

pp. 149-50 and plates 7-10; DeMause, The evolution of childhood', p. 36; McLaughlin, 'Survivors and surrogates', p. 117. 60. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Tul;fat al-mawditd, p. 140. See also: al-Majiisi, Kiimil al-~inii'a, Vol. II, p. 58; al-Baladi, Tadbir al-l;abiilii, p. 211; Ibn al• Jazzar, Siyiisat al-~i!Jyiin, p. 67; Ibn Hibat Allah, Khalq al-insiin, fol. 66a. 61. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, ibid., p. 143, and see below, Chapter 4. 62. Etienne, 'Ancient medical conscience', p. 145. 63. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Tul;fat al-mawditd, p. 138. See also: Soranus, Gynecology, pp. 84-7; Ibn Hi bat Allah, Khalq al-insiin, fol. 51 b. Al-Baladi (Tadbir al-l;abiilii, pp. 202, 215) warns parents against restricting the child's movements. This warning indicates that, in general, the child was not expected to move much. Cf. N. Atiya, Khul-Khaal, p. 152. 64. Cf. DeMause, The evolution of childhood', p. 50. 65. Ibid., pp. 11, 37-8; Shahar, 'Infants, infant care', p. 292. On the other hand, Wilson ('The myth of motherhood', pp. 194, 195) draws atten• tion to the positive aspects of swaddling: In the environment of Early Modern Europe, swaddling kept babies warm and out of harm's way as no other procedure - however mistakenly according to modern pediatric practice - as having an important positive role to pay in supporting the infant's body and making it grow straight. ... See also: Demaitre, 'The idea of childhood', pp. 471, 472; McLaughlin, 'Survivors and surrogates', pp. 113-14. Hanawalt ('Childrearing', p. 14), however, finds no clear evidence that infants in England of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were swaddled at all. 66. Demaitre, ibid., p. 472. 67. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Tu!J!at al-mawditd, p. 138. 68. Ibid., p. 141. See also: Ibn Sin a, al-Qiinitn, pp. 153-4; al-Baladi, Tadbir al• l;abiilii, p. 215; Ibn Hi bat Allah, Khalq al-insiin, fol. 66a, and see: Demaitre, ibid., p. 475. 69. See al-Qur!ubi, Khalq al-janin, p. 74 where the baby-walker is designated also as darriija. See also: Ibn Man~iir, Lisiin al-'Arab, Vol. II, p. 266 (s.v. d.r.j.). Cf. McLaughlin, 'Survivors and surrogates', p. 118. 70. Al-Qurtubi, ibid. 71. Al-Baladi, Tadbir al-l;abiilii, p. 207; Ibn al:Jazzar, Siyiisat al-~i!Jyiin, p. 68; Ibn Sina, al-Qiinitn, pp. 153-4. See also: Soranus, Gynecology, pp. 115-16. 72. Al-Baladi, ibid. 73. See above and cf. Demaitre, 'The idea of childhood', p. 466. 74. Al-Baladi, Tadbir al-l;abiilii, p. 209. 75. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Tul;fat al-mawditd, p. 139. See also: al-Qurtubi, Khalq al-janin, p. 66; Ibn al:Jazzar, Siyiisat al-~i!Jyiin, p. 107; al-Baladi, Tadbir al-l;abiilii, p. 209. 76. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, ibid.; Ibn al:Jazzar, ibid; al-Qur!ubi, ibid.; al• Baladi, ibid., p. 207; Ibn Sina, al-Qiinitn, p. 154. See also: Soranus, Gynecology, pp. 119-20. 77. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, ibid.; p. 137; al-Baladi, ibid.; al-Qur!ubi, ibid., p. 74. 132 Notes to Chapter 3

78. al-Baladi, ibid.; al-Qur!Ubi, ibid. 79. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, ibid., pp. 137-8. 80. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya devotes a whole chapter in Tuljfat al-mawdud (pp. 59-87) to the issue of naming - tasmiya. See below, Chapter 3. 81. Al-Baladi, Tadbir al-l}abiilii, pp. 216-21. 82. Ibn Sina, al-Qiinun, p. 157. 83. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Tul}jat al-mawdud, pp. 138-9. See also: Ibn al• Jazzar, Siyiisat al-$il!yii, pp. 68-9, 100 (on children's nightmares, their causes and treatment); al-Qurtubi, Khalq al-janin, p. 63; Ibn Hibat Allah,Khalq al-insiin,fo!. 65b. Interestingly enough, al-Baladi ( Tadbir al• l}abiilii, p. 208) regards the soothing effect of rocking and songs on the shocked child as an indication of the natural inclination of children in general towards gymnastics and music. See also: AJ;lmad Abu Sa'd Aghiini tarqi$ al-aifiil'inda a!-'Arab (Beirut, 1982), pp. 4 7-9. 84. See below, Chapter 4. 85. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, ibid., pp. 142-3. See also:lbn al:Jazzar, ibid., pp.134-8. Ibn al:Jazzar, in the final chapter of his treatise, discusses the relationships between innate and acquired traits and emphasises the importance of moral education of very young children. See below, Chapter 4 and cf. Friedl, 'Parents and children', p. 202. 86. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, ibid., pp. 143-4. 87. Ibid., p. 144. 88. See below, Chapter 4. 89. Ibid., pp. 144-5. See also: Ibn Sina, 'Kitab al-siyasa' (ed. L. Ma1iif), al• Mashriq 9(1906), pp. 1075, 1076, and cf. Demaitre, 'The idea of child• hood', p. 466. 90. Batei hanhagat gufha-bari by Rabbi Shem Tov Ibn Palqira (died c. 1290) is an example of a popularised medical treatise written in medieval Jewish circles. Ibn Palqira, who wrote his treatise in verse, derived his knowledge on Hellenistic medicine from Maimonides. I wish to thank Professor Ron Barkai for drawing my attention to this treatise. 91. Pollock, Forgotten Children, pp. 43-6; Stewart, 'Coding Categories', p. 688.

3: On Tiil}nik - An Early Islamic Childhood Rite 1. A. van Gennep, The Rites of Passage (London and Henley, 1977), p. 3. 2. Motzki, 'Das Kind', p. 412. For the full list of childhood rites in Islam see, for instance, Abii Na~r al-Tabarsi, Makiirim al-akhliiq (Cairo n.d.), p. 180. 3. lqiima- the form of words chanted by the muballigh- the chanter in the mosque - consisting of the common words of the adhiin with the ad• dition of qad qiimat al-$aliit (the time of prayer has come) repeated twice. E. Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon (London and Edinburgh, 1863- 93), Suppl., p. 2966. 4. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Tul}jat al-mawdud, pp.15-16 (on this treatise see above, Introduction and Chapter 2); Motzki, 'Das Kind', pp. 412-13. 5. Van Gennep, ibid., p. 62. For a detailed discussion of tasmiya see Chapter 8 in Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya's Tul}jat al-mawdud (pp. 59-87). Here the author deals with the proper time for naming male children, with Notes to Chapter 3 133

recommended, ugly and even forbidden names (this discussion reflects the supposedly magical powers related to names), with the exclusive right of the father to choose the child's name (due to the fact that the child is genealogically related to his father) and so on. See also A. Schimmel, Islamic Names (Edinburgh, 1989), pp. 14-24. 6. Van Gennep, ibid., pp. 50, 53--4. The rites of haircut and sacrifice are dealt with in great detail in Chapters 6 and 7 oflbn Qayyim aljawziyya's 1u1J!at al-mawdud (pp. 18-59). Here the religious dialectics of the ce• remonies, known to have been of pagan origin, are discussed and therefore the question of whether these rites are obligatory or even permitted are raised. In addition, Ibn Qayyim aljawziyya deals with the meaning of the term 'aqiqa (see below), with the significance of the rite and its proper time, with the question of 'aqiqa for female infants and with many technical details concerning the sacrifice. 7. Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon, Book I, part 5, p. 2097. 8. Motzki, 'Das Kind', pp. 414-15; Mul;ammad Abii al-Ajtan,' 'Inayat a)• Islam bi-al-tufiila min khilal kitab shar'at al-l slam', al-Ba}Jth al-'ilmi 34(1984), p. 225. Cf. the duty of the Jewish father to redeem the firstborn child if it is a son (pidyon ha-ben). On this rite see: Encyclopaedia Judaica Uerusalem, 1971), Vol. V, p. 426 (s.v. 'Children'). 9. Motzki, ibid., p. 416. 10. Van Gennep, ibid., p. 72. On female circumcision (generally desig• nated khafrJ), see below, note 20 and pp. 40-1. 11. Van Gennep, ibid., p. 71; Ibn Qayyim aljawziyya, 1ul;fat al-mawdud, pp. 106-9. Within the framework of Chapter 9 of his treatise (pp. 87- 125) Ibn Qayyim aljawziyya deals with some other questions connected with circumcision. For instance, the meaning and significance of khitiin, the legal status of the rite (various and sometimes contradictory opin• ions are presented), the proper time for performing circumcision, and female circumcision. 12. See, in addition to 1ul;fat al-mawdud, mentioned above, al-Qurtubi, Khalq al-janin, p. 81; A'FVol. V, p. 20 (s.v. 'Khitan'). 13. In the Qur'an the root l;-n-k appears only once (17:62), in the eighth form, but not in connection with children. 14. For the religious motives and the significance of 'aqiqa and khitiin, see Ibn Qayyim aljawziyya, 1u1J!at al-mawdud, pp. 36, 109-12. Prophetic reports on ta'dhin, namely, recitation the adhiin in the ears of the newborn infant, also include explanation of its religious significance. See ibid., pp. 15-16, esp. p. 16, where sirr al-ta'dhin (the secret, the religious significance of the custom) is explained. 15. AI-Bukhari, !)a}Ji}J, Vol. III, p. 512. 16. Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon, Book I, part 2, p. 659; ai-Bukhari, !)a}Ji}J, Vol. III, p. 512 (the first }Jadith in the first chapter ( biib) of Kitiib al-'aqiqa); ibid., p. 513 (the end of the fourth }Jadith of the same biib) and cf. Muslim, ~a}Ji}J (Cairo, 1331/1912), Vol. VI, p. 175, where the term ta}Jnik is re• placed by mas}J (rubbing in, anointing). 17. For the blessing, see, for instance, Muslim, !)a}Ji}J, Vol. VI, p. 176 (A 'isha narrated that male children used to be brought shortly after birth to the Prophet, and he blessed them and carried out the ta}Jnik); 134 Notes to Chapter 3

AJ:tmad Ibn I;Ianbal, Musnad (Cairo, 1313/1895-6), Vol. III, pp. 181, 288, Vol. VI, pp. 212, 347. Some reports mention the tasmiya as an act taking place immediately before or after the tal;nik. See ibid., Vol. IV, p. 399. 18. See also Ibn I;Ianbal, Musnad. Vol. VI, p. 347. On another occasion, the tal;nik was performed first, then the Prophet chewed a date and put it in the child's mouth. See ibid., Vol. III, p. 181. 19. Muslim, !$al;il;, Vol. VI, p. 174. See also Ibn I;Ianbal, Musnad, Vol. III, p. 106. That l;adith, although describing 'Abdallah b. Abi TalQ.a being taken to the Prophet immediately after his birth for the tal;nik cer• emony, mentions only the transferring of the chewed dates from Mul)ammad's mouth to the child's and ignores the act of rubbing the child's palate. 20. All the traditions dealing with tal;nik mention males- ~abiyy, ghuliim and so on. See, for example, the traditions mentioned in notes 16--19 above, and also Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Tul;fat al-mawdud, pp. 17-18. On the performance of 'aqiqa for males as well as for females, see ibid., pp. 21, 36--8. The difference was quantitative only; one sheep (or goat) was slaughtered for a female, whereas two were slaughtered for a male. Although circumcision was required for males, female circumcision, mentioned in note 10 above, was also known in Islam and recommended by some jurists. At least one of them considered it as obligatory as male circumcision. See ibid., pp. 88, 89, 93, 95, ll2, ll4, ll5; al-Tabarsi, 2 Makiirim al-akhliiq, p. 181, and see also £.1. , Vol. IV, pp. 913 (s.v. 'Khaf<;i'), vol. V, p. 20 (s.v. 'Khitan'). 21. Al-Bukhari, !$al;il;, Vol. III, p. 512. The next l;adith report on the same page, (which is quoted above) ends with the words: 'wa-kiina awwala mawlUtf" wulidafi al-Isliim ['and he was the first child born in the Islamic era'], that is, the firstborn son of the new Muslim community. 22. Ibn al-I;Iajj al-'Abdari, al-Madkhal (Beirut, 1972), Vol. III, pp. 305-ll, on various popular practices and ceremonies peformed on children. 23. Ibid., pp. 298-9. 24. For example, Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Tul;aft al-mawdud, p. 32 (the performance of'aqiqa as the father's duty), p. 79 (on the exclusive right of the father to choose his son's name); al-Tabari, /fuquq al-awliid, fols. 25a-26b (on the ceremonial acts, including ta 'dhin, tal;nik, tasmiya, and khitiin as the father's obligation). 25. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Tul;fat al-mawdud, p. 18: ' ...fa-qiila (AI;mad Ibn /fanbal) li-Umm 'Ali: "irruf,aghi hiidhii al-tamra wa-l;annikihi", faja'alat'. 26. Ibn I;Ianbal, Musnad, Vol. Ill, pp. 105-6: 'fa-l;amalat (Umm Sulaym) bi• 'Abdalliih fa-waladathu layl an wa-karihat an tul;annikahu l;attii yul;annikahu Rasul Alliihi ~al'am .. .', ibid., p. 181: ' .. ja-talid (Umm Sulaym) ghuliim"", qiila: fa-l;ina ~lal;nii qiila li AbU Tall;a: "il;milhu fi khirqaf" l;attii ta' tiya bihi Rasula Alliihi ~al'am wa-il;mil ma'aka tamr"" 'ajwat"" ". Qiila:fa-l;amalathu fi khirqaf" wa-lam yuf;,annak wa-lam yudhaq ta'iiman wa-la shay'an.' 27. Al-Tabarsi, Makiirim al-akhliiq, p. 181:'wa-'an al-!$iidiq ... qiila: "J;,anniku awliidakum bi-al-tamri fa-in lam yakun fa-bi-mii'i aljuriiti fa-in lam yakun fa• bi-mii'i al-samii'i". See also Ibn Babawayhi,Man la ya}J4uruhu aljaqih, Vol. III, p. 315. I would like to thank Dr Vardit Rispler for bringing this reference to my attention. Notes to Chapter 4 135

28. R. Dozy, Supplement aux dictionnaires arabes (Lei den and Paris, 1927), Vol. I, p. 332. Ibn Hibat Allah, in his Khalq al-insiin (fol. 51 a) and Ibn Hubal, in his Kitiib al-mukhtiiriit (Vol. I, p. 189), mention, along with the instruction for the midwife,ta~nik bi-al-'asal (with honey) as one of the first acts to be performed on the newborn child but omit any explana• tion of its medicinal value. See also 'Abdallah 1Jlwan, Tarbiyat al-awliid fi al-/sliim (Beirut, 1978), Vol I, p. 75. It should be mentioned that 'Ulwan's assumption regarding the physical motives for ta~nik is not based on any medieval source. 29. Ibn al:Jazzar, Siyiisat al-$ibyiin; Ibn Sina, al-Qiinitn, Vol. I, pp. 150-4. 30. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, 1uMat al-mawditd, p. 17. 31. Ibid., pp. 29-34, 97-106. 32. Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon, Book I, part 2, p. 659. See also Abu al• Qasim Mal;lmiid al-Zamakhshari, Asiis al-Baliigha (Cairo, 1953), p. 97: 'wa-~anaka al-diibbata ... ]a'ala al-rasana fi fihii'. 33. Ibn I;Ianbal, Musnad, Vol. III, pp. 171, 175, 254, 288. 34. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, TuMat al-mawditd, pp. 20, 21, 24, 39, 40, 45, 57, 93, 94, 120 and see E.J.2, Vol. V, p. 20 (s.v. 'Khitan'). 35. On the Hebrew root ~-n-kh and the possible connection between ~ekh pl. ~inkhim ('palate'), on the one hand, and ~anakh ('to inaugurate and initiate') as well as ~innekh ('to train', 'to educate'), on the other hand, see G. Gesenii, Thesaurus Philogicus Criticus Linguae Hebraeae et Chaldaeae Veteris Testamenti (Leipzig, 1835), Vol. I, p. 498; E. Ben Yehuda, Dictionary and Thesaurus of the Hebrew Language (New York and London, 1960), Vol. III, pp. 1652-4. 36. Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon, Book I, part 2, p.659. 37. Riyiiqat al-nafs is a very common expression in mystical literature. See, for instance, G.C. Anawati and L. Gardet, Mystique musulmane (Paris, 1961), p. 42; P. Nwyia, Exegese coranique et langage mystique (Beirut, 1970), pp. 235, 305. 38. See, for example, the title of the chapter devoted to child education in al-Ghazali's I~yii' 'ulitm al-din, Vol. III, p. 92: Bayiin al-tariq fi riyaqat al• $ibyiin ... See also below, Chapter 4. 39. Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon, Book I, part 3, p. 1187. 40. Ibid., p. 1465. 41. Ibid. 42. This is the meaning of siyiisa in the title of Ibn Sin a's Kitiib al-siyiisa and in Ibn al:Jazzar's Siyiisat al-$ibyiin. 43. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Tu~fat al-mawditd, pp. 37-8. 44. Ibid., pp. 93-8, 110-12. See also EP, Vol. IV, pp. 913-14 (s.v. 'Khafg') and cf. Ammar, Growing Up in an E-gyptian Village, pp. 116-24; 0. Meinardus, 'Mythological, historical and sociological aspects of the practice of female circumcision among the Egyptians', Acta Ethnograph• ica (Budapest) 16(1967), pp. 393-4.

4: Al-Ghaza!i on Child Education 1. W. Jaeger, Paideia: The Ideals of Greek Culture (Oxford, 1965), Vol. I, p.XIII. 2. H.I. Marrou, A History ofEducation in Antiquity (London, 1965), p. XIII. 3. Pollock, Forgotten Children, pp. 43-6. 136 Notes to Chapter 4

4. The Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam, p. 111 (s.v. 'al-Ghazall'). 5. E-'J.2·Vol. II, p. 1038 (s.v. 'al-Ghazali'). 6. On al-Ghazali, his works and his influence, see, for instance, ibid., pp. 1039-41; A. Schimmel, MysticalDimensions ofIslam (Chapel Hill, 1975), pp. 91-7; G. Makdisi, 'The Sunni revival' in D.S. Richards (ed.), Islamic Civilization 950-1150 (Oxford, 1973), pp. 155-68; H. Lazarus-Yafeh, Studies in al-Ghazziili (Jerusalem, 1975), p. 523; D.B. Macdonald, 'The life of al-Ghazzali with special reference to his religious experience and opinions', journal of the American (himtal Society 20(1899), pp. 77-132. 7. Al-Ghazali, Il;yii' 'ulum al-din, Vol. I, pp. 9-11. The Islamic tradition on the subject of the reviver of the religion sent by God at the beginning of each century of the Hijra is based on the }Jadith report that appears in the Sunan of Abu Da'frd al-Sijistanl (Kitiib al-maliil;im, first section): 'Allah, praised be He, will send to this nation at the beginning of each century one who will revive its religion for it.' In al-Munqidh min al-qaliil, eds Jamil ~allba and Kamil 'Iyad (Beirut, 1967), p. 122, al-Ghazali explicitly identifies himself as the reviver of the religion of his age: 'Allah has promised to revive his religion at the beginning of every century and (now) he has facilitated my departure for Nishapur to fulfil this task' (by teaching in al-Madrasa al-Ni:;.iimiyya, following a long pe• riod of retreat). 8. A.Gil'adi, 'Renewal of religion by education: some educational aspects of al-Ghazall's IJ;yii 'ulum al-din', Ha-Mizrah He-Hadash 30(1986), pp. 13-15 (in Hebrew. English summary pp. V-Vl). 9. Al-Ghazal!, I}Jyii, Vol. I, pp. 70-83, esp. pp. 70, 72. See also A. Gil'adi, 'Islamic educational theories in the Middle Ages: some methodological notes with special reference to al-Ghazall', Bulletin of the British Society for Middle Eastern Studies 14( 1988), p. 6. 10. Al-Ghaziili, Il;yii', Vol. III, pp. 92-5. 11. See, for example, Plato, Protagoras, pp. 325-6 [English translation: B. Jowett, The Dialogues of Plato (Oxford, 1924), Vol. I, pp. 146-7] ;Jalinfrs (Galen), Kitiib al-akhliiq (mukhta$ar) in P. Kraus, Diriisiit fi ta'rikh al-tarjama (Cairo, 1939), pp. 29, 31; Plessner, Oikonomikoc, p. 182; Ibn Sinii, Kitiib al-siyiisa, p. 1073; Ibn Miskawayh, Tahdhib al-akhliiq, p. 48. On the dif• ficulty of acquiring good qualities as age increases, see al-Ghazal!, l}Jyii', Vol. IV, p. 519, and and above, Chapter 2. 12. Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions in Islam, pp. 55-7, and see below. 13. Al-Ghaziili, Il;yii', Vol. Ill, pp. 11, 215; Vol. IV, pp. 82, 119, 124, 144. Cf. Marrou, A History of Education in Antiquity, pp. 102, 145, 150, 218-19; S.D.Goitein, A Mediterranean Society, Vol. II (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 1971), p. 174; Rosenthal, 'Child psychology in Islam', p. 1. 14. The question of the original nature of the child, for example, is raised in Kitiib riyiirjat al-nafs in connection with the training of the ~iifi novice[Il;yii', Vol. III, p. 106, see also al-Ghazali, Miziin al-'amal (Cairo, 1973), p. 72] and in Kitiib al-tawba (I}Jyii', Vol. IV, pp. 3, 4, 16, 20) in connection with the question of repentance. A description of the devel• opment of the child is to be found in Kitiib al-tawl;id wa-al-tawakkul (I}Jyii', Vol. IV, pp. 324, 325, 339); brief references to the psychological development of the child, his original nature, children's games and Notes to Chapter 4 137

ways of education are included in Kitiib shari} 'ajii'ib al-qalb (II}yii', Vol. III, pp. 11, 17, 21, 36, 45), Kitiib dhamm al-ghumr (ll}yii ', Vol. III, p. 508), Kitiib al-~abr wa-al-shukr (II}yii', Vol. IV, p. 79), Kitiib aljaqr wa-al-zuhd (ll}yii', Vol. IV, pp. 268, 282), Kitiib al-amr bi-al-ma'mf (II}yii', Vol. II, p. 431), and in Miziin al- 'amal (pp. 31, 49, 72, 121, 156). 15. See, for example, al-Ghazali, Il}yii', Vol. IV, pp. 32, 282; al-Ghazali, Miziin al- 'amal, pp. 15, 16. 16. On children in l}adith and adab literature see Introduction above. 17. Al-Ghazali, ll}yii', Vol. I, pp. 128-9. 18. Al-Ghazali, Il}yii', Vol. II, pp. 275-9. 19. Al-Ghazali is not the only Muslim scholar to denounce this popular tendency to give preference to male children. See below, Chapter 8. 20. Al-Ghazali, Il}yii', Vol. II, pp. 67-70, and see above, Chapter 3. 21. In some branches of the Islamic religious literature, such as l}adith, religious law and ethics, issues of childrearing are frequently raised as part of or in connection with a discussion of marital matters. See, for instance, Ibn Babawayh, Man lii yal}r!uruhu aljaqih, Vol. III, pp. 274-7, 304-19; Ibn Qudama, al-Mughni, Vol. IX, pp. 299-313; al-Tabarsi, Makiirim al-akhliiq, pp. 173-81; Ibn 'An;liin, 'Le traite du mariage et de I' education', translated by P. Paquignon, Revue du Monde Musulman, 15(1911), esp. pp. 47-59. On similar attitudes towards marriage in Judaism and Christianity see D.M. Feldman, Marital Relations, Birth Control and Abortion in jewish Law (New York, 1974), pp. 21-59; Alexandre-Bidon and Closson, L 'Enfant a l'ombre des cathedrales, pp. 16--19. 22. A teleological concept is indicated here: things are created for a par• ticular end, and they must be exploited for the sake of realising this end. See G.F. Hourani, 'Ghazali on the ethics of action', journal of the American Oriental Society 96(1976), pp. 69-87, esp. p. 79. 23. Al-Ghazali, ll}yii', Vol. II, p. 31; M. Farah, Marriage and Sexuality in Islam: A Translation of al-Ghazziili's Book on the Etiquette ofManiage from the Il}yii' (Salt Lake City, 1984), pp. 53-4. See also Motzki, 'Das Kind', pp. 403-4. 24. 'Abd al-Ral)man Badawi, Mu'allafiit al-Ghaziili (Kuwait 1977), p. 279. 25. (MS. I;Iamidiyya Library, Istanbul) 1459, fols 62-6. I wish to thank Professor Joseph Sadan for drawing my attention to this manuscript. 26. (MS. La Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris), Ar. 6882, fol. 160. 27. According to the Aristotelian system of the classification of sciences, which was adopted albeit with some changes by Muslim philosophers and theologians, all sciences are classified into 'Theoretical', 'Practical' and 'Poetical' . The 'Theoretical Sciences' include physics, mathemat• ics and metaphysics, and the 'Practical Sciences' comprise ethics, eco• nomics and politics. For a full description of the system see AQ.mad b. Mul)ammad Ibn Miskawayh, Kitiib al-Sa'iida (Cairo, 1928), pp. 49ff. See also L. Gardet and M. Anawati, Introduction a la theologie musulmane (Paris, 1948), p. 97; H.A. Wolfson, 'The classification of sciences in medieval Jewish philosophy' in Studies in the History of Philosophy and Religion (Harvard, 1973), pp. 395-493. On the assimilation of the Aris• totelian system into Islamic thought see, for instance, D. Gutas, 'Paul 138 Notes to Chapter 4

the Persian on the classification of the parts of Aristotle's philosophy: a milestone between Alexandria and Baghdad,' Der Islam 60 ( 1983), pp. 231-67; A. Gii'adi, 'On the origin of two key-terms in al-Ghazali's Il;yii' 'ulum al-din,' Arabica 36(1989), pp. 81-92. 28. Ibn Miskawayh, Tahdhib al-akhliiq, pp. 46--54: 'Fi ta'dib al-al;diith wa-al• ~ilryiin khii$at'"' ['On the Education of the Young, especially of Chil• dren']. 29. Plessner, Der Oikonomikoc, Arabic text, pp. 182-204. In his treatise Bryson treats four subjects, all in the sphere of domestic management by the householder, namely, one's attitude to one's wife, rearing and educat• ing the children, supervision of the slaves and managing the property. Hardly anything is known about the Neo-Pythagoreans in general or Bryson in particular. See R. Walzer, Greek into Arabic (Oxford, 1962), p. 220. On the interest of the Pythagoreans and the Neo-Pythagoreans in problems of education see F. Rosenthal, 'Some Pythagorean docu• ments transmitted in Arabic,' Orientalia 10(1941), pp. 385, 386. Bryson's book was translated into Arabic under the title Tadbir al-rajul li-manzilihi by a translator whose identity is unknown. On the com• position, its translation into Arabic and its influence on Muslim think• ers, particularly Ibn Sina, Ibn Miskawayh and al-Ghazali, see Plessner, Ibid., pp. 7, 29, 39-52, 131-5, 139; Motzki, 'Das Kind', pp. 430-1. 30. Jaeger, Paideia: The Ideals of Greek Culture, p. XXIV (on the meaning of the Greek paidela); F. Rosenthal, Knowledge Triumphant (Lei den, 1970), p. 284. 31. D.B. Macdonald, 'The moral education of the young among the Mus• lims', International journal of Ethics 15 ( 1905), p. 290. 32. I. Goldziher, 'Hadith and Sunna' in Muslim Studies, Vol. II (London, 1971), pp. 29-31. 33. AI-Ghazali, Il;yii', Vol. III, pp. 64-7. 34. Ibid., pp. 68-71. 35. Ibid., p. 71: the Prophet is presented as the only man who achieved perfect balance of the four forces of the spirit; interpretation of verse 15 ofSiira 49 as expressing the idea of balance; pp. 73, 74: the interpre• tation of Qur'an 3:134, 25:67, 7:31, and 48:29 as expressing the same idea; quotation of the fitra report (see below) with the addition of the term mu'tadil (balanced); p. 82: an interesting interpretation of the expression al-$iriit al-mustaqim ['the way of the uprightness'] ( Qur'an 1 :6) according to which the $iriit is no other than the way of him who pre• serves the balance of the spiritual forces. To protect this balance every Muslim is obliged to request from God seventeen times a day, in his prayer, Ihdinii al-$iriit al-mustaqim ['Lead us on the way of uprightness']. See also al-Ghazali, Il;yii', Vol. III, p.210; Miziin, pp. 54-5. 36. AI-Ghazali, Il;yii', Vol. III, p. 92. On the importance of moral education at a tender age and on the moral and religious responsibility of the father, cf. the sermon of john Chrysostom delivered in Antioch in 388 ('An address on vainglory and the right way of parents to bring up their children') referred to in Lyman, 'Barbarism and religion', p. 87. On the recognition of the central importance of educating children, es• pecially at a very early age, as a stage in the development of the concept Notes to Chapter 4 139

of the child in Europe in the seventeenth century, see Aries, Centuries of Childhood, pp. 111-24. 37. Al-Ghazali: generally appears to suggest that man by his very nature tends to moral perfection, and that this tendency, namely the .fitra, may be achieved in certain conditions but is liable to be frustrated in other conditions. See, for example, al-Ghazali:, IJ:tya', Vol. III, p. 76, Vol. IV, p. 16. The termfitra is mentioned in the Qur'an (30:30) in the sense of the 'creation of God', 'Allah's way of creating'. See AP, Vol. II, pp. 931- 2 (s.v. 'Fi!ra'). The term became especially widespread by virtue of the following l;adith report: Kull mawlud'n yuladu 'alii al-fitra fa-abawiihu yuhawwidiinihi aw yunna~iriinihi aw yumajjisiinihi ['Every infant is born according to the .fitra (Allah's kind or way of creating) then his parents make him a Jew or a Christian or a Magian']. See al-Bukhari, Sal;il;, Vol. I, p. 348. 38. On the significance religion puts on children see al-Ghazali, 1/;yii', Vol. II, p. 31, Vol. IV, p. 130. In contrast, see statements on children as factors deflecting the believer from serving God (with quotation of Qur'an 63:9) and to committing transgressions: al-Ghazali:, 1/;yii', Vol. III, p. 324, Vol. IV, p. 87. A similar motif, namely, children and property as a symbol of life in this world is found in the Qur'an, for instance, 8:28, 18:46, 34:37, 57:20, 64:15. 39. All the instructions in the chapter are directed to the father. Reference to both parents is rare, and the mother alone is mentioned only once in connection with the educational role of the father: she must ensure the child's obedience to his father thus preventing his misconduct (al• Ghazali, Il;yii', Vol. III, p. 93). On the mother as an emotional being who lacks understanding of the real needs of the child (for example, when painful medical treatment is necessary she 'protects' the child from it) as compared with the rational father, see al-Ghazali, Il;yii', Vol. IV, p. 124 (in the context of a simile). But al-Ghazali also cites l;adith reports exalting the loving kindness of the mother: 1/;yii', Vol. II, p. 276. A discussion on the education of daughters is rare in Islamic writings on education in general. See A.S. Tritton, Materials on Muslim Education in the Middle Ages (London, 1957), p. 140; Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. V, pp. 204-5 (s.v. 'Education [Muslim]'). In al-Ghazali:'s chapter the subject is not considered at all. 40. '0 ye who believe! Ward off from yourselves and your families a Fire whereof the fuel is men and stones.. .'. 41. AI-Ghazali:, 1/;yii ',Vol. III, p. 95. See note 37 above. 42. See, for instance, al-Ghazali:, 1/;yii', Vol. III, pp. 77-8. 43. See Chapter 2 above. On the father's having the task of choosing a wet• nurse (in the same way as the overall responsibility for rearing and educating children is the father's) see, for instance, Ibn Qudama, al• Mughni, Vol. IX, p. 312; Abu al-Qasim al-Zamakhshari, al-Kashshiif 'an l;aqii'iq al-tanzil (Calcutta, 1276/1859-60), Vol. I, pp. 157-8 (Commen• tary on Qur'an 2:233). 44. Al-Ghazali, ll;yii', Vol. III, p. 92. Cf. Friedl, 'Parents and children', p. 202. On the basis of her anthropological research in the village BoirI Al].mad in southwest Iran in the years 1965-1975, Friedl states that the 140 Notes to Chapter 4

moral development of an infant is regarded as influenced mainly by the purity of the mother's milk thought to reflect the mother's moral purity. 45. See Chapter 2 above. The Arab-Islamic concept of the link between suckling and character traits of the child is well expressed by Abii al• I;Iasan b. MuJ:tammad al-Mawardi in Na[/i}Jat al-muluk (MS. La Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris), Ar. 2447, fol. 108: 'Fa-inna at-laban huwa alladhi yughadhdhi al-tifl... wa-yufidu al-miziij alladhi yujibu ikhtiliifal-ghara iz wa-al-akhliiq. Wa-qiila al-nabiyyu [/al 'am: "la yunti ' lakum al-}Jamqa fa-inna at-laban yufsidu al-nasab."' 46. AI-Ghazali, I}Jyii', Vol. III, pp. 93, 94. 47. Ibid., p. 94. Cf. 'Amr b. BaJ:tr al:JaJ:ti~, Kitiib al-mu'allimin (ed. I. Kh. Geries) (Tel-Aviv, 1980), p. 86. 48. AI-Ghazali, ibid; id., al-Munqidh, pp. ll 0-11. On tamyiz as the transla• tion of axiomatic knowledge from theory into practice see al-Ghazali, l}Jyii', Vol. I, p. ll8. A lower degree of tamyiz is that of beasts that are also able to make basic distinctions. See IJ:tya', Vol. I, p. 366 and see Lazarus-Yafeh, Studies in al-Ghazziili, pp. 297-8. See also Chapter 2 above. 49. AI-Ghazali, I}Jyii', Vol. III, pp. 22, 92. AI-Ghazali (Miziin al-'amal, p. 31; l}Jyii', Vol. Ill, p. 11) differentiates between three degrees of intellectual development: (a) at birth, the child possesses the potential ability to know (see also l}Jyii', Vol. I, p. 120); (b) at the 'age of discernment' he exhibits the ability to grasp axiomatic facts which brings him closer to knowing in practice; (c) at the stage of 'acquisition' there matures the ability to know by experi• ence, thought, study and occasionally by revelation. Cf. Abii N~r ai• Farabi, Risiilat al-'aql M. Bouyges (ed.) (Beirut, 1938), p. 12. 50. AI-Ghazali, Miziin al-'amal, p. 87. Cf. Ibn Miskawyh, Tahdhib al-akhliiq, p. 47. 51. AI-Ghazali, al-Munqidh, p. llO. Galen, (Kitiib al-akhliiq, p. 29) places the age of shame earlier, at three years. Bryson goes even further in his contention that shame is sometimes a quality present from birth (Plessner, Oikonomikoc, pp. 184, 186). 52. AI-Ghazali, I}Jya, Vol. III, pp. 22, 72, 92; id., al-Munqidh, p. 110; id., Mishkiit al-anwiir, Abu al-'Aia ai-'Afifi (ed.), (Cairo, 1383/1964), pp. 76, 77. On the age of seven as marking the transition from the first to the second period of childhood, see ai-Baladi, Tadbir al-}Jabiilii, pp. 218, 219, and see Motzki, 'Das Kind', pp. 421-3. 53. AI-Ghazali, Miziin al-'amal, p. 92 and cf. A.L. Tibawi, 'Some educational terms in Rasii 'it Ikhwiin al-!!afii',' in Arabic and Islamic Themes (London, 1976), p. 181. 54. AI-Ghazali, l}Jyii', Vol. II, p. 276, Vol. Ill, pp. 92-3. 55. AI-Ghazali, I}Jyii', Vol. III, p. 94; Abii Da'iid, Sunan, Kitiib al-!!aliit, biib 26: 'Mum awliidakum bi-al-[/aliit wa-hum abnii' sab'a sinina wa-atj,ribUhum 'alayhii.' On fasting by children in the 'iishurii' see ai-Bukhari, fia}Ji}J, Kitiib al-[/awm, biib 47. Ibn Qayyim ai:Jawziyya, Tu}Jfat al-mawdud, pp. 178-9. See also Motzki, 'Das Kind', pp. 421-3 and cf. Marou, A History of Education in Antiquity, pp. 102, 142-3; Aries, Centuries of Childhood, Notes to Chapter 4 141 p. 64. On the age of six as that for starting the religious education of children in traditional Muslim society today see, for instance, R. Mottahedeh, The Mantle of the Prophet: Religion and Politics in Iran (Harmondsworth, 1987), pp. 30-l. 56. Abii I;Iamid MuQ.ammad al-Ghazali, al-Musta$fii min 'ilm al-u$itl (Bulaq, 1322/1904-5), p. 84; id., I}Jyii', Vol. IV, p. 82. 57. Abii al-I;Iasan b. MuQ.ammad ai-Mawardi, Adab al-dunyii wa-al-din (Cairo, 1973), p. 57; Yiisuflbn 'Abd al-Barr,jiimt bayiin al-'ilm wa-Jarf,lihi (Cairo, 1346/1927-8), Vol. I, p. 81. 58. AI-Mawardi, ibid. 59. Ibid. 60. AI-Ghazali, Miziin al-'ama~ p. 49. 61. AI-Ghazali, I}Jya, Vol. I, p. 128, Vol. III, p. 94. 62. Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 218 and see also Vol. III, p. 20. 63. Abii I;Iamid MuQ.ammad ai-Ghazali, Iljiim al-'awiimm 'an 'ilm al-kaliim (Cairo, 1351/1932-3), pp. 55-6. 64. }.'[2, Vol. V, pp. 567-70 (s.v. 'Kuttab'). 65. AI-Ghazali, I}Jyii Vol. III, pp. 93, 94. Instructions on child education according to al-Ghazali's guiding principles are given by Abii Zakariya b. Sharafal-Nawawi (d. 1277) in his book al-Majmu' -shari} al-muhadhdhab (Cairo, n.d.), p. 26), albeit attributed to ai-Shafi'i. 66. AI-Ghazali, I}Jya, Vol. I, pp. 128-9. 67. AI-Qabisi, al-Risiila al-mufa$$ila, p. 291. See also ai-Mawardi, Na$i}Jat al• muluk, fol. 108. 68. W.M. Watt, Bell's Introduction to the Q}triin (Edinburgh, 1970), pp. 47- 50. On the religious significance of memorising the Qur'an see W.C. Smith, 'Some similarities and differences between Christianity and Islam: an essay in comparative religion', in]. Kritzeck and R. Bayly Winder ( eds), The World ofIslam: Studies in Honour ofP.K. Hitti (London, 1960), p. 57. 69. Ibn Khaldiin, Muqaddima, part III, pp. 260-4. 70. M. Smith, Al-Ghazali the Mystic (London, 1944), p. 64. 71. Ibn Khaldiin, ibid., p. 263. 72. Ibn Khaldiin, The Muqaddimah (translated by F. Rosenthal), Vol. III, p. 303, note 1184. For an English translation of the passage in Nawiidir al-Jaliisifa presenting the Greek curriculum see F. Rosenthal, The Clas• sical Heritage in Islam (Berkeley, 1975), pp. 72-3. 73. EncyclifJJaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. V, p. 200 (s.v. 'Education [Mus• lim]'. See also al-Baladi, Tadbir al-}Jabiilii, p. 220. 74. AI-Qabisi, al-Risiila al-mufa!f#la, pp. 304-5. AI-Qabisi distinguishes be• tween 'obligatory studies', namely, Qur'an, auxiliary subjects (such as writing and language), and the rules of purity and prayer on the one hand and 'optional studies' such as poetry and arithmetic on the other. See also al-Qurashi, A}Jkiim al-}Jisba, p. 170; al-Mawardi, Na!ji}Jat al-muluk, fols 108-9 (instructions for elementary education of the sons of rulers) and cf. S.D. Goitein,JewishEducation in Muslim Countries based on Records from the Cairo Geniza (Jerusalem, 1962) (Hebrew), pp. 41-4, 57. Note especially the distinction (on p. 42) between 'study of writing as a means of acquiring reading, and the study of writing for its own sake (in 142 Notes to Chapter 4

medieval Jewish elementary education in the Middle East). Every child learned how to write or, rather, how to draw the letters in order to grasp them precisely.... Only at a later age did certain children - those intending to become students of religion, teachers, scribes or mer• chants - learn writing proper.' This distinction probably holds also in respect of teaching writing in elementary Islamic education in the Middle Ages. 75. Al-Ghazali's opinion about the legitimacy of studying arithmetic is expressed in the examples he presents from this sphere of teaching in al-Qustiis al-mustaqim (Cairo, n.d.), pp. 66, 82. 76. Al-Ghazali, IJ;yii, Vol. I, p. 58. 77. Ibid. 78. Al-Ghazali, IJ;yii, Vol. III, p. 72. 79. Ibid., Vol. Ill, p. 93. Cf. Ibn Miskawayh, Tahdhib al-akhliiq, pp. 46--7. 80. Al-Ghazali, ibid. (instructions on inculcating table manners). Cf. Wa.)"iyyat Aflatitn ft ta' dib al-al}diith, p. 55. Some similar instructions on eating habits are found in IJ;yii, Vol. II, pp. 6--8 (within the first biibof Kitiib iidiib al-akl). As a rule, these instructions are detailed and based particularly on the custom of the Prophet whereas in the chapter on child educa• tion al-Ghazali's guidelines are mostly drawn from philosophical litera• ture (see, for example, Ibn Miskawayh, Tahdhib al-akhliiq, pp. 49-50; Plessner, Oikonomikoc, pp. 186--8). A few instructions only are inter• jected in the spirit of Kitiib iidiib al-akl, such as the rule of taking food in the right hand and of reciting bi-ismi Alliih al-ral}miin al-ral}im ['In the name of Allah the Beneficent, the Merciful']. 81. Al-Ghazali, ll}yii', Vol. Ill, pp. 93-4. Cf. Ibn Miskawayh, Tahdhib al-akhliiq, pp. 48-52; Plessner, Oikonomikoc, pp. 188-200. For similar instructions on table manners, sleeping and relationships with others see Wa$iyyat Aflatitn, pp. 56--8. See also Motzki, 'Das Kind,' pp. 427-9, 433-5. 82. Al-Ghazali, ibid., p. 93. 83. Plessner, Oikonomikoc, pp. 188, 194; Ibn Miskawayh, Tahdhib al-akhliiq, p. 51, and see Wa$iyyat Aflatitn, p. 58. 84. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. V, p. 200 (s.v. 'Education [Mus• lim]'); Burhan al-Din at-Zarniiji, Ta'lim al-muta'allim tmiq al-ta'allum: Instruction of the Student, the Method of Learning (translated by G. von Grunebaum and T. Abel) (New York, 1947), p. 16. At the same time, Hellenistic and Persian ideas on physical education were infiltrating into Islamic sources. See above. 85. Ibn Miskawayh, Tahdhib al-akhliiq, p. 52; Plessner, Oikonomikoc, p. 202. 86. Al-Ghazali, IJ;yii, Vol. III, p. 94. 87. Al-Ghazali, Miziin al-'ama~ pp. 88-9. 88. Al-Ghazali, IJ;yii', Vol. III, p. 325. 89. Ibid., Vol. IV, pp. 161-2. 90. Ibid., Vol. I, p. 69, Vol. III, p. 79; al-Ghazali, Miziin al-'amal, pp. 15-16, 160. But in contrast see ll}yii, Vol. IV, p. 100- on the custom of simul• taneously imposing studies upon the child and banning him from playing games. On the important place of games in the daily life of the young child, see Ibn Sina, al-Qiinitn, p. 157. 91. See Rosenthal, 'Child psychology in Islam', p. 3. Notes to Chapter 5 143

92. Al-Ghazali, IJ;yii', Vol. IV, pp. 32, 282; Abu I;Iamid MuJ:tammad al• Ghazali, jawiihir al-Qyiliin (Cairo, n.d.), pp. 49, 50. 93. Al-Ghazali, IJ;ya, Vol. IV, p. 122. 94. Al-Ghazali, IJ;ya, Vol. II, p. 432, Vol. III, pp. 41, 42. On the custom of playing with birds, see Ibn Sa'd, Kitiib al-tabaqiit al-kabir, Vol. III/2, p. 65. 95. See note 93 above. 96. Al-Qurashi, Al;kiim al-l;isba, pp. 32-8, 171. On children's games in the 'Abbasid period according to the adab literature see Ahsan, Social Life under the Abbasids, pp. 272-4.

5: Corporal Punishment in Medieval Islamic Educational Thought 1. De Mause, 'The evolution of childhood', p. 40;J.S. Brubacher, A History of the Problems of Education (New York and London, 1947), pp. 168-70. 2. De Mause, ibid., p. 41. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid., pp. 41-2. 5. Marrou, A History of Education in Antiquity, pp. 158-9. On the use of physical punishment in Byzantine education see I.G. Lecomte, 'L'enseignement primaire ii Byzance et le Kuttab', Arabica 1 ( 1954), pp. 328-9. 6. Marrou, ibid., pp. 102, 146. 7. S.D. Goitein, Jewish Education in Yemen', Megamot2(1951) (Hebrew), pp. 154-5, Cf. H. Ammar, Growing Up in anl<,'gyptian Village, pp. 125, 141. On physical punishment in European education in the Middle Ages see De Mause, 'The Evolution of Childhood', p. 42; McLaughlin, 'Survivors and Surrogates', p. 108. 8. P. Aries, Centuries of Childhood, pp. 250-1. 9. See, for instance, Ammar, ibid., pp. 128, 137. See also Friedl, 'Parents and Children in a Village in Iran' p. 204. 10. See also below, Chapter 6. 11. Al-Qurashi, Ma'iilim al-qurba fi al;kiim al-l;isba, p. 171. On cruel beatings of children by parents and teachers with, among other things, a stick and a whip, see, for instance, Fatiiwii Qiitfi Khan, Vol. II, pp. 315-16. See also al-Ghazali, Il;yii' 'ulitm at-din, Vol. IV, p. 192. On the falaqa, an ap• pliance used for tying together the feet of pupils before beating them, see Lecomte, 'L'enseignement primaire', p. 329; Ef2, Vol. II, pp. 763, 764 (s.v. 'FalaJsa'). 12. EP., Vol. IV, p. 341 (s.v. 'al-I$ibisi'), and see Introduction above. 13. Al-Qabisi, al-Risiila al-mufa!f!jila, p. 345. See also p. 323. 14. Ibid., pp. 342-4. Evidence of corporal punishment in the kuttiib is to be found scattered among much of the medieval Islamic writing, for in• stance, 'Ali b. MuJ:tammad Ibn al-Athir, Usd al-ghiibafi ma'rifat al-!jal;iiba (Cairo, 1280/1863-4), Vol. III, p. 50, Vol. IV, p. 234, Vol. V, p. 553; Ibrahim b. MuJ:tammad al-Bayhaqi, Kitiib al-mal;iisin wa-al-masiiwi, (ed. F. Schwally, (Giessen, 1902), pp. 620, 621; Yiiqiit b. 'Abdallah al-J:Iamawi, Irshiid al-arib fi ma'rifat al-adib, ed. D.S. Margoliouth, (London and Leiden, 1907-13), Vol. I, p. 223. On the corporal punishment of chil• dren that terminated in their death see, for instance, al-Ghazali, Il;yii', Vol. IV, p. 195. 144 Notes to Chapter 5

15. See, for instance, al-Ghazall, 1/;yii', Vol. lV, p. 162, approval of corporal punishment as an educational means. Just as the believer will ultimately thank God for putting him to the test, so will the child, when he gets older, thank his teacher and his father for beating him and educating him because, in his maturity, he will be capable of discerning the fruits of such an education. See also ibid., p. 192 on the whip, the rod and harsh words as educational devices. 16. The child and the beast are both controlled by faculties of the animal soul. See M.A. Sherif, Ghaziili's Theory of Virtue (Albany, 1975), pp. 24-8. 17. AI-Ghazall, 1/;yii', Vol. lV, p. 194. 18. See above, Chapter 4. 19. AI-Ghazali, 1/;yii', Vol. IV, pp. 54,339-40,545. See also al-Qabisi, al-Risiila al-mufa!pjila, p. 313. 20. Al-Ghazall, 1/;yii', Vol. III, p. 94. See also Plessner, Oikonomikoc, p. 200; Ibn Miskawayh, Tahdhib al-akhliiq, p. 52. 21. The authority of the father and the adult in general, which the child must accept out of fear and obedience, is a theme that is emphasised in the chapter on child education in Kitiib riyii4at al-nafs. Cf. Ammar, Growing Up in an E-gyptian Village, p. 133. 22. Cf. John Chrysostom in the sermon he delivered in Antioch in the year 388 ('An Address on Vainglory and the Right Way for Parents to Bring Up Their Children'): 'The child should not be beaten too much with rod or blows, lest he come to disregard or despise them. Rather threats and promises are more effective'. Quoted in Lyman, 'Barbarism and Religion', p. 87. 23. Bryson (see Plessner, Oikonomikoc, p. 186), on the one hand, deals with the child whom it is hard to educate ('shameless') and suggests react• ing to his behaviour by inspiring fear and by threats (and according to one manuscript by beating as well). On the other hand, he suggests responding to the acts of the educable child with words of blame or praise, without the threat of physical punishment. 24. AI-Ghazall, 1/;yii', Vol. III, p. 93; Ibn Miskawayh, Tahdhib al-akhliiq, p. 49. See also al-Qiibisi, al-Risiila al-mufa!i$ila, p. 313. 25. Cf. Wa!iiyyat Aflatunfi ta'dib al-al;diith, pp. 55, 56 (there it is suggested that the undisciplined child be isolated from the other children); Ibn Sina, Kitiib al-siyiisa, pp. 1073-4. Ibn Sina suggests proceeding to physical punishment after exhausting the other educational means such as fear, incentive, praise and censure. The use of bodily chastise• ment should be considerate and balanced: 'It is better for the first blow to be a little painful... for, if the first blow hurts, the child will fear those that are to follow but, if it is light and does not hurt, the child will be unconcerned about what he may expect and will ignore it.' 26. Al-Ghaziili devoted a special section to this matter in his instructions to the teacher and defined the method of reacting to behaviour of the pupil as 'one of the fine points of the teaching profession'. AI-Ghaziili, 1/;ya, Vol. I, p. 81. See also Motzki, 'Das Kind', pp. 437-8. 27. Ibn Khaldiin, The Muqaddima, English translation, Vol. III, p. 305. Cf. Ammar, Growing Up in an Egyptian Village, pp. 138-9. Notes to Chapter 6 145

28. Ibn Khaldiin, ibid. On criticism of corporal punishment in medieval Europe see McLaughlin, 'Survivors and Surrogates', p. 131. 29. De Mause, The History of Childhood, Foreword, p. 10: 'It seems clear that the history of childhood must be of major importance to any study of human society for if, as it is said, the child is father to the man, it should be possible with an understanding of any individual's or any group's past, to form a more intelligent judgment of their performance as adults.' On the connection between the methods of punishment of children in the Egyptian village of Silwa and the qualities of adults who were educated in the same village, Ammar (Growing Up in an Agyptian Village, p. 139) states: 'It does not require any emphasis here to point out that the effects of these techniques of fear as forcing children to resort to lies and deception, are reflected later in the prevailing atmosphere of adult life which is charged with suspicion, secrecy and apprehension ... '. 30. Ibn Khaldiin, ibid., p. 306.

6: Infants, Children and Death in Medieval Muslim Society l. Ullmann, Islamic Medicine, p. 57; Demaitre, 'The idea of childhood', p. 465; McLaughlin, 'Survivors and surrogates', pp. 111, 112, 119; Wilson, 'The myth of motherhood', p. 186; LeRoy Ladurie, Montaillou, pp. 220-1; D.L. Ransel, Mothers of Misery: Child Abandonment in Russia (Princeton, 1988), pp. 266-74; Kottek, 'Childhood in medievaiJewry', pp. 378-9. 2. McLaughlin, ibid., p. 145 (note 37). 3. Analogy in general terms between the situation in developing countries today, where most of the fifteen million infants and children who die each year are born [see: .J.P. Grant, The State of the World's Children 1986, UNICEF (Oxford, 1985), p. 130] and the situation in past societies, for which we have very little demographic data, particularly those concern• ing children, can be illustrative. Thus, it is reasonable to assume that many of the conditions causing child mortality in these areas were much worse in pre-modern times as problems were aggravated by scanty medical knowledge and poor facilities as well as by ignorance and poverty. 4. Grant, ibid., pp. 123-4. 5. Shahar, 'Infants, infant care and attitudes toward infancy', pp. 285-91; Ransel, ibid., pp. 45-6, and see below. 6. Al-Baladi, Tadbir al-}j,abiilii wa-al-aifiil, p. 209. 7. Demaitre, ibid., p. 466. 8. See, for instance, Goitein, A Mediterranean Society, Vol. III, p. 233. 9. Grant, ibid. 10. M. Dols, The Black Death in the Middle East (Princeton, 1977), pp. 178, 181, 186; id., 'Al-Manbiji's "report of the plague": A treatise on the plague of 764-65/1362-64 in the Middle East' in D. Williman (ed.), The Black Death: The Impact of the Fourteenth-Century Plague (New York, 1982), p. 67. 11. Hanawalt, 'Child-rearing among the lower classes', p. 22. 12. Ibid., pp. I4-l5. 146 Notes to Chapter 6

13. D. Hunt, Parents and Children in Histmy, pp. 11-26. 14. Hanawalt, ibid., p. 15. 15. Ibid., p. 16. 16. Ibid., pp. 17-18. 17. Shahar, 'Infants, infant care and attitudes toward infancy', p. 293. 18. DeMause, 'The evolution of childhood', pp. 36, 37, 40, 43; Shahar, ibid., p. 295; McLaughlin, 'Survivors and surrogates', p. 108; Ransel, Mothers of Misery, pp. 266-74. 19. See, for instance, A. Cameron, 'The exposure of children and Greek ethics', The Classicial Review46(1932), pp. 106-7, 108; W.V. Harris,'The theoretical possibility of extensive infanticide in the Graeco-Roman world', Classical Quarterly 32(1982), p. 114; M. Radin, 'The exposure of infants in Roman law and practice', Classicaljoumal20(1925), pp. 341- 3; E. Eyben, 'Family planning in Graeco-Roman antiquity', Ancient Srr ciety 11/12(1980-1), pp. 5-82, esp. 17-19, 22-43, 48-56; McLaughlin, ibid., pp. 121-3; DeMause, ibid., pp. 32-5; Wilson, 'The myth of moth• erhood', pp. 196-7; Ransel, Mothers of Misery, pp. 8, 19, 22, 29-30, 62- 76, 130-75 (on child abandonment and infanticide in early modern Russia). 20. J.E. Boswell, 'Expositio and Oblatio: The abandonment of children and the ancient and medieval family', The American Historical Review 89( 1984), pp. 12, 13, 19, 21. See also: McLaughlin, ibid., p. 121. 21. DeMause, ibid., pp. 34-5; Shahar, ibid., p. 288. 22. Shahar, ibid., pp. 285, 288, 290. 23. For more details see below, Chapter 8. 24. Aries, Centuries of Childhood, p. 37. 25. Wilson, ibid., p. 183; Pollock, Forgotten Children, p. 26; Ransel, ibid., pp. 271-4. 26. Pollock, ibid., p. 1, and see alsop. 24. 27. For a summary of the various arguments raised by historians of child• hood concerning Aries's thesis, see: Pollock, ibid, pp. 1-32. 28. Wilson, 'The myth of motherhood', p. 182; A. Wilson, 'The infancy of the History of Childhood: An appraisal of Philippe Aries', Histmy and Themy 19(1980), pp. 132-53. 29. Wilson, 'The myth of motherhood', pp. 187, 188. See also: Pollock, Forgotten Children, pp. 34-43. 30. Wilson, ibid., pp. 188-9. 31. Ibid., pp. 188, 189, 192, 193. See also: Le Roy Ladurie, Montaillou, pp. 210-13; Pollock, ibid., pp. 51-2. 32. Cameron, 'The exposure of children', pp. 105, 107. 33. Wilson, ibid., p. 196. See also: Boswell, 'Expositioand Oblatio', pp. 12, 13. 34. Wilson, ibid., pp. 187-8. 35. Demaitre, 'The idea of childhood', p. 478. 36. Dols, The Black Death, p. 301. 37. See above, and Grant, The State of the World's Children, p. 140, Table 5: The rate of infant mortality (that is, children under the age of one year old) in Iran in 1983 was 115 per 1000 live births (11.5 per cent). In the same year 17 per cent of Iranian children aged one to four died. The rates of infant mortality in other Middle Eastern countries in 1983 were Notes to Chapter 6 147

as follows: Egypt- 10 per cent; Iraq- 7.5 per cent; Saudi Arabia- 6.5 per cent; Syria- 6 per cent, and Jordan- 5.5 per cent (compared with 1 per cent in the United Kingdom and 0.6 per cent in Japan). Following are the rates of child mortality in the same year: Egypt- 15 per cent; Iraq- 10.5 per cent; Saudi Arabia- 9 per cent; Syria- 8 per cent, and Jordan- 7 per cent (compared with 1.2 per cent in the United King• dom, and 0.9 per cent in Japan). It should be emphasised that these figures reflect the general situation in the countries mentioned without taking into account social and regional differences within each coun• try. See also Friedl, 'Parents and children', pp. 201, 203; Atiya, Khul-Khaal, pp. 1, 3, 5. 38. Ullmann, Islamic Medicine, p. l. 39. Dols, Medieval Islamic Medicine, p. 57. 40. Abii al-Faraj 'Abd al-RaQ.man Ibn al:Jawzl, Kitiib laflat al-kibad fi na~i/Jat al-waladin MuQ.ammad I;Iamid al-Faql (ed.), Min dafii'in al-kunuz (Cairo, 1349/1930-31), p. 78. 41. Jaial al-Dln al-Suyiip, al-Ta/Jadduth bi-nz'mat Allah (ed. E.M. Sartain) (Cambridge, 1975), p. 10. 42. See G. Gharib, Ibn al-Rumi (Beirut, 1968), p. 9; 'Umar Miisa Basha, Ibn Nubiita al-Mi~ri (Cairo, 1963), p. 116 (my thanks are due to my former students Mr 'All Hlbl and Mr Khalid Sindawl for drawing my attention to these references); The Mufatjtjaliyiit: An Anthology of Ancient Arabian Odes (ed. Ch. J. Lyall) (Oxford, 1918-20), Vol. II, p. 355 (on the background against which the famous elegy of Abii Dhu'ayb was writ• ten, namely, the death of his five young sons in one outbreak of plague, apparently in the year 18/638-9). On this elegy seej.A. Bellamy, 'Some observations on the Arabic rithii' in the Jahiliya and Islam', Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 13(1990), p. 56. 43. M. Dols, 'The second plague pandemic and its recurrences in the Middle East 1347-1894', Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 22(1979), pp. 162-89, esp. pp. 168-9. 44. I d., The Black Death, p. 178, and see also pp. 181, 186. 45. Al-Manbijl, Tasliyat ahl al-m~aib, pp. 3-4. See also Dols, 'Al-Manbijl's "report of the plague"', p. 67. 46. See L.I. Conrad, 'Arabic plague chronologies and treatises: social and historical factors in the formation of a literary genre', Studia Islamica 54(1981), pp. 73, 74. 47. Al-Qaysl, Bard al-akbiid, fol. 177a. 48. Ibn Abl I;Iajala, Sulwat al-IJazin, fol. 1Ob. According to Ibn Abl I;Iajala, this tragic event occurred against the background of the plague called al-tii'un al-jiirif in 688-9, eight years after the death of 'Abdallah b.'Amir. It seems therefore that the author was referring to 'Ubaydallah b. Ma'mar, the governor of Ba~ra at the time of the outbreak of plague. See: Conrad, ibid., p. 55. 49. Ibn Abl I;Iajala, ibid., fol. 20a, and Conrad, ibid., p. 82. The figures mentioned by Ibn Abl I;Iajala are not necessarily accurate. It is likely that at least 'forty' is a tapas for 'many'. Eighty-three also may be metaphorical or perhaps it means 'Eighty-three kinsmen'. See L.I. Conrad, 'Abraha and MuQ.ammad: Some observations apropos of chro- 148 Notes to Chapter 6

nology and literary topoi in the early Arabic historical tradition', Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 50 ( 1987) pp. 230-7. 50. Ibn Abi I;Iajala, ibid., fol. 16a. 51. Dols, The Black Death, p. 178. See also Ibn I;Iajar al-Haytami's fatwii, mentioned in the Introduction above, which was issued (in the six• teenth century) against a background of high rates of child mortality caused by the plague. 52. Hanawalt, 'Child-rearing among the lower classes', pp. 10-18. 53. As mentioned above, a systematic survey of fatiiwii and sijilliit can bear fruit in this respect; and anthropological research can also contribute, by way of analogy, to the understanding of historical phenomena. Thus Friedl, in her 'Parents and children in a village in Iran', shows (p. 205) that girls 'more protected and nourished a little better than boys ... are less likely to meet accidents and to fall sick'. 54. Mul].ammad Ibn al-l;lajj al-'Abdari, al-Madkhal (Beirut, 1972), Vol. III, pp. 298--9. 55. Ibid., pp. 304-5. Cf. McLaughlin, 'Survivors and surrogates', pp. 112, 114. 56. Ibn I;Iajar al-Haytami, al-Fatiiwii al-jiqhiyya al-kubrii (Cairo, 1890), Vol. IV, p. 220. 57. Ibn Babawayh, Man lii yaJ.u!,uruhu aljaqih, Vol. IV, p. 119. 58. See, for example, al-Baladi, Tadbir al-l),abiilii wa-al-aifiil, p. 203. 59. See above, Chapter 3. 60. Fatiiwii Qatf,i Khiin, Vol. IV, p. 441. 61. Abu al-I;Iasan 'Ali b. Mul].ammad al-Mada'ini (d. 842), Kitiib al-ta'iizi, (ed. lbtisam Marhun al-~affiir and Badri Mul].ammad Fahd (Najaf, 1971), p. 45; 'Abd al-Ral].man Abu al-Faraj Ibn al:Jawzi, Kitiib al),kiim al• nisii' (Beirut, 1981), p. 388. 62. Fatiiwii Qii4i Khiin, Vol. IV, pp. 441-2. 63. Ibn Abi I;Iajala, Sulwat al-l),azin, fols 12a-12b; al-Mada'ini, Kitiib al-ta'iizi, pp. 44-5. 64. Abu Zakariya Yal].ya b. Sharaf al-Nawawi (d. 1277), Minhiij al-fiilibin (Batavia, 1882-4), Vol. III, pp. 169-70; Fatiiwii Qii4i Khiin, Vol. IV, p. 441. 65. Fatiiwii Qii4i Khiin, ibid.; al-Nawawi, ibid., Vol. III, p. 171. 66. On careless treatment during childbirth, see above. 67. Fatiiwii Qii4i Khiin, Vol. IV, pp. 441-2. 68. Ibn al:Jawzi, AIJ,kiim al-nisa, p. 388. 69. Abu I;Iamid Mul].ammad al-Ghazali, al-Tibr al-masbilk ft nfJ#IJ,at al-mulilk (Cairo, 1317/1899-1900), p. 56; Qac;li Khan, Fatiiwii, Vol. II, pp. 315--16. 70. Abu Ja'far Mul].ammad b. al-I;Iasan Ibn 'Ali, Kitiib al-khiliifft al-jiqh (Te• heran, 1382/1962-3), Vol. II, p. 348; al-Nawawi, Minhiij al-!iililnn, Vol. III, p. 170. 71. Fatiiwii Qii4i Khiin, Vol. IV, p. 441. 72. 'The right to the inheritance of the property left by an emancipated slave' (Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon, Supplement, Vol. VIII, p. 3061). 73. Malik b. Anas, al-Muwatta' (Tunis, 1280/1863), p. 293 [English transla- Notes to Chapter 6 149

tion by 'A'isha 'Abdarl).man al-Tarjumana and Ya'qiib Johnson (Cam• bridge, 1982), p. 344]. 74. Mul).ammad b. Idris al-Shafi 'i, Kitiib al-umm (Bulaq, 1321/1903-4), part VI, p. 263, and cf. Boswell, 'Expositio and Oblatio', p. 27. Jews in medieval Mediterranean society were also familiar with the problem of abandoned children. See, for instance, Moshe b. Mayman (Maimonides), Mishne Tcrrah: Sefer Qedushan (New York and Berlin, 1926), Chapterl5 [English translation by L.I. Rabinowitz and P.Grossman, The Code of Maimonides: The Book of Holiness (New Haven and London, 1965), p. 104]:

If a child is found abandoned in the roadway, and a man comes forth and declares: 'This is my son, and I have abandoned him', he is to be believed; the same applies to the mother. If after the child is gathered up from the street his father and mother come forth and say: 'This is our child', they are not to be believed, since he is already known as a foundling. In years of famine, however, they are to be believed, since they may have abandoned him because of hunger and out of a desire that others should sustain him, and it may be for that reason that they remained silent until he was gathered up.

75. Al-Nawawi, al-Majmit'- shari), al-muhadhdhab (Cairo, 1966), Vol. XIV, p. 536. 76. See above, and below, Chapter 8. 77. Al-Sarakhsi, al-Mabsitt, Vol. II, p. 57. 78. Ibid., and see also: al-Manbiji, Tasliyat ahl al-ma~ii 'ib, p. 115. 79. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Tul),fat al-mawditd, pp. 62-4. 80. Al-Manbiji, ibid., pp. 112-17. 81. Ibid., p. 113. And see also Jalal al-Din al-Suyiip, al-lfiiwi li-alfatiiwii (Cairo, 1959), part II, p. 189. 82. Al-Manbiji, ibid., p. 112. 83. Ibid., p. 113. 84. Ibid., 114. 85. Musallam, Sex and Society in Islam, pp. 57-9. 86. Al-Manbiji, ibid., pp. 114-15. Apparently for that reason al-Ghazali (II),yii' 'ulitm al-din, Vol. II, pp. 68-9) recommends giving an aborted foetus a name. 87. Al-Manbiji, ibid., p. 114. 88. Ibn Taghri Birdi, al-Nujitm al-;iihira (Popper's translation), Vol. XVIII, pp. 71-2 (cited in Dols, The Black Death, pp. 241-2). 89. Miisa b. Mul).ammad Qutb al-Din al-Yiinini, Dhayl miriit al-zamiin (MS. Topkapi Sarayi), AHMET 2907 /E3, fol. 222b. My thanks to Dr 'Amalia Levanoni for drawing my attention to this reference. 90. See Kh. Moaz and S. Ory, Inscriptions arabes de Damas, Les steles funeraires, I. Cimitiere d 'al-Biib al-Sagir (Damascus, 1977) (out of 80 gravestones surveyed three were erected on tombs of youths but none on a child's); A. 'Abd al-Tawwab and S. Ory, Steles Islamiques de la necropole d'Assouan (Cairo, 1977) (out of 400 gravestones surveyed not one is a child's). 150 Notes to Chapter 6

91. Ibn Abi I;Iajala, Sulwat al-l_tazin, fol. 30a, and cf. Ammar, Growing Up in an Egyptian Village, p. 93. 92. See above. 93. ]. Idleman-Smith and Y. Yazbeck-Haddad, The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection (Albany, 1981), p. 168; W.M. Watt, 'Suffering in Sunnite Islam', Studia Islamica 50 (1979), pp. 5-19. On these questions as dealt with in Christian theology, see, for instance, the fascinating literary description by James Joyce in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (London, 1986), p. 213. On a theological discussion of children's death in medieval Jewish sources, see: S. Abramson, Ba-Merkazim uba-tephusoth bi-tekuphath ha• geonim, pp. 62-4. 94. Idleman-Smith and Yazbeck-Haddad, ibid., pp. 179-80. 95. Ibid., pp. 168-71. 96. Al-Manbiji, Tasliyat ahl al-m~aib, p. 106; Idleman-Smith and Yazbeck• Haddad, ibid., p. 169. 97. Al-Manbiji, ibid., p. 107. The verses discussed are 38-42 in Sura 74: 'Every soul is a pledge for its own deeds; save those who will stand on the right hand. In gardens they will ask one another concerning the guilty: "What hath brought you to this burning?"' [English translation: M. Pickthall, The Meaning of the Glorious Koran (New York and Toronto, n.d.) ]. On the child's innocence as 'the symbol and model of perfect piety', especially among Muslim mystics, See: Rosenthal, 'Child psychol• ogy in Islam', p. 16. 98. Al-Manbiji, ibid., p. 106-7, 108-10. See also above, Chapter 4. 99. al-Manbiji, ibid., pp.71, 93. 100. Ibid., p. 111. See also Idleman-Smith and Yazbeck-Haddad, ibid., p. 173. 101. See: al-Suyiip, al-l_tiiwi li-alfatiiwii, part II, pp. 311-16. On the question• ing in the grave by the interrogating angels, sometimes identified as Munkar wa-Nakir, see Idleman-Smith and Yazbeck-Haddad, ibid., pp. 41-2. 102. Mul].ammad b. Abi Bakr Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Kitiib al-rnl_t (Cairo, 1957), p. 88, and see above, Chapter 4. 103. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, ibid.; al-Suyiip, ibid., pp. 312, 313. See also Idleman-Smith and Yazbeck-Haddad, ibid., p. 174. 104. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, ibid., 105. Al-Suyiip, ibid., pp. 313-14; Ibn I;Iajar al-Haytami, al-Fatiiwii al-jiqhiyya al• kubrii, part II, p. 30. Talqin in this context sometimes means to prepare the dying believer by reciting to him the basic articles offaith. Sometimes, however, talqin was practised after the believer had died but before his burial. 106. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, ibid., p. 87. See also: Rosenthal, 'Child psycho- logy in Islam', p. 15. 107. See above, Chapter 4. 108. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, ibid., p. 88. 109. Taqi al-Din Mul].ammad Ibn Taymiyya, Majmii'at fatiiwii (Cairo, 1326/ 1908-9), Vol. II, p. 178. 110. The Zaydiyya, one of the Shi'a's branches, arose from the revolt ofZayd Notes to Chapter 6 151

b. 'Ali, against the Umayyads in 740. The Zaydis 'essentially retained the politically militant but religiously moderate attitude predominant in the early Kiifan Shi'a.' See: W. Made lung, Religious Trends in Early Islamic Iran (Albany, 1988), p. 86. 111. Al-Hadi ila al-I;Iaqq Yal,lya b. ai-I;Iusayn, Majmu' min kutub al-Imiim al• Hiidi ilii al-/faqq (MS. The British Library, London), Or. 3198,-fol. 60a. See also Abii al-l;lasan 'Ali b. Isma'il ai-Ash'ari, Maqiiliit al-Isliimiyyin ( ed. H. Ritter) (Leipzig and Istanbul, 1929-30), pp. 55, 201, 250, 254, and Rosenthal, ibid., pp. 12-14. 112. 'The name of the great theological school which created the specula• tive dogmatics of Islam'. See: Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam, p. 421 (s.v. 'ai-Mu'tazila'). 113. 'The schismatic revolutionary movement arising out of the opposition in 'Ali's Kiifan army to his arbitration agreement with Mu'awiyya after the battle of ~iffin (657)'. See Made lung, ibid., p. 54. 114. Al-Ash'ari, ibid., p. 89; Rosenthal, ibid., p. 11. 115. Al-Ash'ari, ibid., p. 111; Rosenthal, ibid., p. 12. 116. Al-Ghazali, Il;yii' 'ulum al-din, Vol. IV, pp. 38-9. 117. Ibn Taymiyya, ibid. For a similar theological dispute in jewish circles in the tenth century (apparently under Islamic influence) see: Abramson, Ba-merkazim uba-tefusoth, pp. 62-4. 118. See above, Introduction. 119. Abii lsa al-Tirmidhi, Sa!;il; (Bulaq, 1292/1875-6), part II, p. 181 (Kitiib al-tafsir, siira 7); ai-QaySi, Bard al-akbiid, fols. 169b--70a; ai-Suyiip:, al-II;tifii~ fols 5b--6a; al-Manbiji, Tasliyat ahl al-mG,$a'ib, p. 70. 120. Al-Bukhari, Sal;il;, Vol. II, pp. 315-16, 347. See also al-Qaysi, ibid., fol. 167a; ai-Suyiip, Fa4l al-jalad ji faqd al-walad (MS. The Library of the University ofLeiden) Or. 474(30) fol. 249b; id., al-II;tifii~ fols 5a, 5b, 6a; ai-Manbiji, ibid., pp. 67-73. See also versions with four children: ibid., pp. 73-7; Ibn al:Jawzi, Al;kiim al-nisii', p. 385. 121. Ibn al:Jawzi, ibid., p. 380; ai-Suyiip:, al-II;tifii~ fol. 6b. 122. See, for example, Abii al-I;Iasan 'Ali b. 'Abbas b. Jura)j Ibn al-Riimi, Diwiin (Cairo, 1973-9), Vol. I, p. 244, Vol. II, pp. 625, 626;Jamal al-Oin Ibn Nubata, Diwiin (Cairo, 1905), pp. 156,218,347,348, 546; L. Cheikho, Kitiib shu'arii al-na~riiniyya, part 1: 'Fi shu'arii al-jiihiliyya' (Beirut, 1920), pp. 271ff. (al-l;larith b. 'Ubad's elegy on his son Bujayr). This elegy is discussed by J.A. Bellamy in 'Some observations on the Arabic rithii'', p. 48. 123. Al-Manbiji, Tasliyat ahl al-mG,$i1ib, p. 91. 124. See, for instance, Malik b. Anas, al-Muwattii, p. 79; Abii Zakariya YaQ.ya b. Sharaf al-Nawawi, al-Masiiil al-manthura - fatiiwii al-Imiim al-Nawawi (Beirut, 1972), p. 58; Taqi al-Oin Ibn Taymiyya, al-lkhtiyiiriit al-fiqhiyya min fatiiwii Shaykh al-Isliim Ibn Taymiyya (Beirut, n.d.), p. 90; al-Manbiji, ibid., p. 115. Cf. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society, Vol. V (Berkeley, Los An• geles, London, 1988), pp. 173, 174. 125. Al-Suyiip:, Fatjl al-jalad, fol. 248b; ai-Qaysi, Bard al-akbiid, fol. 165b; ai• Manbiji, ibid., p. 87. 126. Al-Qaysi, ibid. 127. Al-Qaysi, ibid., fol. 180b; al-Manbiji, ibid., p. 88. 152 Notes to Chapter 7

128. Al-Qaysi, ibid., fol. 188b. See also al-Bukhari, fial;i/:t, Vol. II, p. 328. 129. Al-Qaysi, ibid., fols 188b-189a. 130. AI-Bukhari, ibid. 131. Al-Bukhari, fia/:ti/:t, Kitiib al-adab, biib 109; Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Tul:t.fat al-mawdud, p. 64. 132. Al-Qaysi, Bard al-akbiid, fol. 182b. 133. Al-Qaysi, ibid., fol. 189a. 134. Al-Qaysi, ibid., fol. 174a. 135. Al-Qaysi, ibid., fol. 184a. 136. Al-Manbiji, Tasliyat ahl al-m~ii 'ib, p. 87. 137. Ullmann, Islamic Medicine, p. 73. 138. DeMause, 'The evolution of childhood', p. 17. 139. Al-Qaysi, Bard al-akbiid, fol. 169a; al-Manbiji, Tasliyat ahl al-ma~ii 'ib, p. 84. 140. Al-Manbiji, ibid., p. 86. 141. Al-Tinnidhi, !$a/:ti/:t, Abwiib al-birr, biib 11. 142. Al-Bukhari, fia/:ti/:t, Kitiib al-adab, biib 18, and see above, Chapter 4. 143. Al-Manbiji, Tasliyat ahl al-m~ii'ib, p. 82. 144. Al-Qaysi, Bard al-akbiid, fol. 171b. 145. See, for instance, Ammar, Growing Up in an Egyptian Village, Chapter IV, esp. p. 105; Friedl, 'Parents and children', p. 201. 146. See, for instance, Granqvist, Child Problems among the Arabs, pp. 90-2. 147. Taha f,lusayn, An Egyptian Childhood (translated by E.H. Paxton) (Lon• don and Washington, DC, 1981), Chapter 18. See also Atiya, Khul-Khaal, pp. 4, 5, 7, 9. 10, 11, 26-7, 152-3. 148. See below, Chapter 7. 149. Al-Manbiji, Tasliyat ahl al-m~ii'ib, p. 90; LeRoy Ladurie, Montaillou, pp. 210-11. 150. Al-Manbiji, ibid., pp. 100-1. 151. Al-Qaysi, Bard al-akbiid, fol. 166a. 152. See above and Chapter 8 below. 153. See above, Introduction. 154. For full details of the manuscript see above, Introduction. 155. Al-Manbiji, Tasliyat ahl al-m~ii'ib, p. 78; al-Suyflp, al-1/:ttifiil, fol. 6a; al- Qaysi, Bard al-akbiid, fol. 168b. 156. Al-Manbiji, ibid., p. 89. 157. Ibid., p. 106. 158. See above notes 120, 121 and also al-Qaysi, Bard al-akbiid, fols. 166b-167b, 169b-170a; al-Manbiji, Tasliyat ahl al-m~ii'ib, pp. 78, 83, 86, 98, 99, 100, 106. 159. Al-Qaysi, ibid., fols 168a, 168b. 160. Al-Bukhari, !$a/:ti/:t, Kitiib aljanii'iz., biib 6. 161. Al-Suyflp, al-1/:ttifiil, fol. 7a. 162. See below, Chapter 8.

7: ~br (Steadfastness) of Bereaved Parents: a Motif in Medieval Islamic Consolation Treatises and its Origins 1. Ibn Abi f,lajala, Sulwat al-/:tazin, fol. 14b; al-Manbiji, Tasliyat ahl al-m~ii' ib, pp. 94-5; al-Qaysi, Bard al-akbiid, fols. 174a-174b. Notes to Chapter 7 153

2. On Abii Tall_la, one of the an$iir, the Madenese assistants of the Prophet, see Mul_lammad Ibn Sa'd, Kitiib al-tabaqiit al-kabir, Vol. III/2 (ed.]. Horovitz) (Leiden, I904), pp. 64-6. On Umm Sulaym see ibid., Vol. VIII (ed. C. Brockelmann) (Leiden, I904), pp. 310-I8. 3. See, for instance, Genesis 4:25: 'And Adam knew his wife again and she bore a son and called his name Seth, for she said "God has appointed me another child instead of Abel, for Cain slew him"'; 2 Samueli2:24: 'Then David comforted his wife Batsheba (on the death of their first son) and lay with her; and she bore a son and called his name Solo• mon.' For the Middle Ages see, for example, LeRoy Ladurie, Montaillou, p. 206: 'My fellow-sponsor, Alazais Munier, says Guillaume Austatz, bayle of Ornolac, was sad; in a short time she had lost all her four sons. Seeing her desolate, I asked her the cause. "How could I be other than unhappy', she asked, "after having lost four fine children in so short a time?" "Don't be upset", I said to her, "you will get them back again". "Yes, in Paradise!" "No, you will get them back again in this world. For you are still young. You will be pregnant again .. .''.' 4. AI-Bukhari, Sal;il;, Kitiib al- 'aqiqa, biib I. 5. Muslim, Sal;il;, Kitiib al-adab, report 23. 6. See above, Chapter 3. 7. Al-Bukhari, Sal;il;, Kitiibal-janii'iz., biib4I; Ibn I;Ianbal, Musnad, Vol. III, p. I05; Ibn Sa'd, Tabaqiit, Vol. VIII, p. 3I6. [Ibn Sa'd 1: ibid, p. 3I5; Ibn Sa'd II: ibid. p. 316; Ibn Sa'd III: ibid., pp. 3I6--I7; Ibn Sa'd IV: ibid., p. 317; Ibn Sa'd V: ibid., p. 3I8]. 8. The English translation is partly based on The Translation of the Meaning of Sal;il; al-Bukhiiri by Mul_lammad Mul_lsin Khan (Beirut, I985), Vol. VII, pp. 273-4. 9. Elsewhere, Abii Tall_la is desribed by Ibn Sa'd as a strict Muslim who used to fast continually for long periods. See Tabaqiit, Vol. 111/2. p. 65. IO. In Ibn Sa'd V, Abii Tall_la's wife, who was previously married to Malik b. al-Na<;lr, and at that time gave birth to Anas b. Malik, is called Umm Anas. II. According to Ibn Sa'd I and II, this question is asked later, after the supper; according to Ibn Sa'd III, the question is not asked at all. I2. In al-Bukhari II and Ibn Sa'd V the supper is not mentioned. I3. The translation of the allegory is based on Ibn I;Ianbal. In the other sources mentioned above, slight differencs of this version can be found. 14. Qur'an, 2:156. I5. According to Ibn Sa'd I, Abii Tall_la left for the Prophet immediately after having been informed of the death of his son, without any delay• 'as he is' -that is to say, without washing himself. 16. According to Ibn I;Ianbal and Ibn Sa'd II, the Prophet blessed Abii Tall_la on meeting him without having been informed of what had happened during the night. According to Ibn Sa'd III, the Prophet was informed but not necessarily by Abii Tall_la. I7. AI-Manbiji, Tasliyat ahl al-ma$ii' ib, p. 95. I8. Ibn Abi I;Iajala, Sulwat al-l;az.in, fols l4a-l4b. I9. Al-Manbiji, Tasliyat ahl al-ma$ii' ib, pp. 94-5. 20. Al-Qaysi, Bard al-akbiid, fol. l74b. 154 Notes to Chapter 8

21. Ibn Abi I:Iajala, Sulwat al-l;azin, fols 14b-15a; al-.Qaysi, Bard al-akbad, fol. 175a. 22. Mentioned by al-Qaysi only. 23. See: H. Lazaru.s-Yafeh, 'judaism and Islam: Some aspects of mutual cultural influences' in Some Religious Aspects of Islam (Leiden, 1981), pp. 72-89. 24. For a more systematic comparison between the relevant Muslim sources and their Jewish parallels, see A. Gii'adi, 'fiabr (steadfastness) of be• reaved parents: A motif in medieval Muslim consolation treatises and some parallels in Jewish writings', Jewish Q;tarterly Review 80(1989), pp. 35-48.

8: Infanticide in Medieval Muslim Society l. M. Dickeman, 'Demographic consequences of infanticide in man', Review ofEcology and Systematics 6 (1975), p. 113; DeMause, 'The evolu• tion of childhood', pp. 25-32. 2. Dickeman, ibid., p. 114 [referring to H. Aptekar, Anjea: Infanticide, Abortion and Contraception in Savage Society (New York, 1931)]. G. Haw• thorn, in The Sociology ofFertility (London, 1970), p. 70, refers to Ryder's survey of the three societal types accompanying the main stages of the demographic transition ['Fertility' in P.M. Hauser and O.D. Duncan (eds) , The Study of Population: an Inventory and Appraisal (Chicago and London, 1959)]. The first is typified by high fertility and mortality, labour-intensive agriculture, and consanguineal familism. In such soci• eties, fertility is controlled by various combinations of infanticide, abor• tion and abstinence. See also Cameron, 'The exposure of children in Greek ethics', pp. 105-14, esp. 107-8; Harris, 'The theoretical possibility of extensive infanticide in the Graeco-Roman world', pp. 114-16; Eyben, 'Family planning in Graeco-Roman antiquity', pp. 14-16; E. Coleman, 'Infanticide in the early Middle Ages', in S.M. Stuard (ed.), Women in Medieval Society (Philadelphia, 1976), pp. 47-70, esp. 57, 59; W.L. Langer, 'Infanticide: A historical survey', History of Childhood Q;tarterly - The Journal of Psychohistory, 1 (1974), pp. 35~5, esp. 353-5. Ransel (Mothers of Misery, p. 11), explains the advantages of infanticide, as a population control measure, from the point of view of people in pre-modem societies living in subsistence economies with high mortality rates:

By exercising control at the end point of the reproductive process, they maintain sufficient fertility to assure population replacement and yet are able to trim the number of infants in response to periodic subsistence crises. As contrasted with abortion, infanticide has the additional advantage of providing greater protection for the mother's life. It also allows families to select the sex of offspring and to remove weak, crippled, or deformed products.

See also pp. 4, 6, and Chapter 2 ('Illegitimacy and infanticide in early modem Russia'). 3. Dickeman, ibid., p. 116. See also: DeMause, ibid., p. 25; M.W. Piers, Infanticide (New York, 1978), pp. 13-43; E. A. Wrigley, Population and History (New York and Toronto, 1969), pp. 42-3. Notes to Chapter 8 155

4. C. Ford, 'A comparative study of human reproduction', Yale Univ. Publ. Anthropol., 3(1945), p. 47 (cited by Dickeman, ibid., p. 115). 5. DeMause, ibid., pp. 26, 28, and see note 2 above. 6. Lyman, 'Barbarism and religion', p. 90 (see alsop. 84); Radin, 'The exposure of infants', p. 339, and see above, Chapter 6. 7. Coleman, ibid., pp. 57, 59-60; Mclaughlin, 'Survivors and surrogates', pp. 120-l. 8. Piers, Infanticide, pp. 44-5. 9. On infanticide in pre-Islamic times and early Islam according to the Qur'an and later sources (for instances, al-Tabari's Ta'rikh, Ibn Hisham's Sira, al-Azraqi' s Ta' rikh Makka), see J. Chelhod, Le sacrifice chez les Arabes (Paris, 1955), pp. 97-100; Motzki, 'Das Kind', pp. 392-8. On the sacrifice of children as part of the religious cults in pre-Islamic Arabia, see, for example,]. Henninger, 'Menschenopfer bei den Arabern', Anthropos, 53(1958), especially 753-7; on the sacrifice of new-born children in the ancient Semitic civilisations, see W.R. Smith, Lectures on the Religion of the Semites (New York, 1969), pp. 688-90. See also R. Levy, An Introduction to the Sociology of Islam (London, 1933), Vol. I, pp. 131-3. 10. W.M. Watt, Bell's Introduction to the Qyriin (Edinburgh, 1970), pp. 206-11. 11. Pickthall, The Meaning of the Glorious Koran, p. 431. 12. Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon, s.v. 'wa'd'. 13. Jamal al-Din Abu al-Fa<;ll Mul).ammad b. Mukarram Ibn Man~ur, Lisiin al- 'arabal-mub-Zt (Beirut, 1970), s.v. 'wa'd': ' ... Wa-minhum man kiina ya'idu al-banina 'inda al-majii'a'. 14. Pickthall, ibid., p. 206. 15. Ibid., p. 120. 16. See Isma'il Abu al-Fida' Ibn Kathir, Ta.fsir al-Qur iin al-'a?-im (Cairo, n.d.), Vol. III, p. 38 (comm~ntary on Qur'an 17:31). 17. I. Lichtenstadter, 'A note on the ghariiniq and related Qur'anic prob• lems', Israel Oriental Studies 5(1975), pp. 58-9. I wish to thank Professor Y. Friedmann for drawing my attention to this article. 18. See also Qur'an 17:32, 33. 19. Pickthall, ibid., p. 397. 20. Ibid., pp. 198-9. See also Qur'an, 43:17, and see W.R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (London, 1903), pp. 291-5. 21. Pickthall, ibid., p. 118. 22. See also: Motzki, ibid. 23. See, for instance, Al).mad Ibn J:lanbal, Musnad, Vol. IV, p. 246: 'Qiila Rasitl Alliih $al'am: "Inna Alliih kariha lakum thaliith"n: Qjla wa-qiila wa-kathrata al-su' iil wa-iqii 'ata al-miil. Wa-~arrama 'alaykum Rasitl Alliih $al 'am wa' da al-baniit wa-'uqitqa al-ummahiit... "'. See also ibid., pp. 251, 254, 255, Vol. V, pp. 313, 314, 320; Muslim, SaM~, Kitiib al-aqt/iya, biib 12, 14; Abu Mul).ammad 'Abdallah al-Darimi, Sunan (Medina, 1966), Kitiib al-riqiiq, biib 38; al-Bukhari, Sa~i~, Kitiib al-istiqriit/, biib 19, Kitiib al-adab, biib 6. For ~adith reports in praise of saving the life of female infants see, for instance, Ibn J:lanbal, Musnad, Vol. IV, p. 147: 'Qiila (Rasitl Allii $at' am): "Man satara mu' min"n kiina ka-man a~yii maw' itdat"n min qabrihii"'. And see also ibid., pp. 153, 158. 24. See, for instance, Ibn J:Ianbal, Musnad, Vol. V, p. 58; al-Manbiji, Tasliyat ahl al-ma$ii'ib., p. 107. 156 Notes to Chapter 8

25. See, for instance, Abii Da'iid, Sunan, Kitiib al-sunna, biib 17: ' ... al-waida wa-al-maw' itda fi al-niii. 26. Mul).ammad b. ldris al-Shafi'i:, Kitiib al-umm (Bulaq, 1321/1903-4), part VI, pp. 2-3. 27. Abii 'Abdallah Mul).ammad b. al-I;Iasan al-Shaybani:, Kitiib al-a~l (Haydarabad, 1393/1973), Vol. IV, part II, p. 464; Ibn Babawayh, Man lii ya}J4uruhu alfaqih, Vol. IV, p. 89; Abuja'far Mul).ammad b. al-I;Iasan Ibn 'All, Kitiib al-khiliiffii al:fiqh (Tehran, 1382/1962-3), Vol. II, p. 343; al-Sarakhsi:, Kitiib al-mabsit!, Vol.XXVll, p. 84. 28. See, for instance, Ibn Qudama, al-Mughni, Vol IX, pp. 359-61, 373-4; Ibrahim b. 'Ali: b. Yiisuf al-Fayriizabadi: al-Shi:razi:, al-Muhadhdhab fi jiqh madhhab al-lmiim al-Shiijii (Cairo n.d.), Vol. II, p. 17 4. 29. Musallam, Sex and Society in Islam, pp. 18, 19. 30. See below. 31. Abii Ja'far Mul).ammad b. Jarir al-Tabari, Jiimi' al-bayiin fi tafsir al-Qyriin (Cairo, 1320/1902-3), Vol. VIII, p. 30 (commentary on Qur'an 6:137), p. 35 (commentary on Qur'an 6:140), Vol. XV, p. 54 (commentary on Qur'an 17:31); Abii al-Qasim Mal).miid al-Zamakhshari, al-Kashshiif 'an l;ulqaiq al-tanzil (Beirut, 1966), part II, p. 72 (commentary on Qur'an 6:140); 'Abdallah b. 'Umar al-Bay<;{awi:, Anwiir al-tanzil wa-asriir al-ta'wil (ed. H.O. Fleischer) (Leipzig, 1846), Vol. I, p. 311 (commentary on the same verse), Vol. II, p. 329 (commentary on Qur'an 60:12); Abii 'Ali: al• FaQ.l b. al-I;Iasan al-Tabarsi, Majma' al-bayiin fi tafsir al-Qyriin (Cairo, 1379/1959-60), Vol. VI, p. 413 (commentary on Qur'an 17:31). Inter• estingly enough, in some /;uldith reports cited by the exegetes to support their commentary, qatl al-awliid is explained as wa'd al-awliid (in gen• eral!). See: al-Tabari, ibid., Vol. VIII, p. 30, Vol. XV, p. 54. 32. See note 36 below (al-Qurtubi's commentary on Qur'an 6:151). 33. Such was the tendency also in the Greco-Roman world, in medieval Europe, and in pre-modern Russia. See Langer, 'Infanticide: A histori• cal Survey', p. 353; Harris, 'The theoretical possibility of extensive infanticide', p. 114; McLaughlin, 'Survivors and surrogates', p. 120; Ransel, Mothers of Misery, pp. 19, 130. 34. AI-Tabari, jiimt 'al-bayan, Vol. VIII, p. 56 (commentary on Qur'an 6:151, where infanticide in times of famine is presented as an act of mercy); Ma'mar b. al-Muthanna Abii 'Ubayda, Majaz al-Qyran (Cairo, 1954), Vol. I, p. 208 (commentary on the same verse); al-BayQ.awi:, Anwar al-tanzil, Vol. I, p. 538 (commentary on Qur'an 17:31); Ibn Kathir, Tafsir al-Qyran al-'~im, Vol. IV, p. 354 (commentary on Qur'an 60:12). 35. See, for instance, al-Zamakhshari, al-Kashshiif 'an /;ulqii'iq al-tanzi~ part II, pp. 69, 70 (commentary on Qur'an 6:138): 'Wa-kanii al-rajulfi al• jahiliyya yal)lifu la-in wulida lahu ghuliim.. la-yan/;ulranna ai)adahum. . .'; Abii 'Abdallah Mul).ammad b. Al).mad al-An~ri al-Qurtubi, al-Jiimi ' li-ai)kiim al-Qyran (Cairo, 1381/1962), Vol. VII, p. 91 (commentary on the same verse). 36. AI-Qurtubi, ibid., Vol. VII, p. 132 (commentary on Qur'an 6:151): 'Qawluhu ta'iilii "wa-lii taqtulit awliidakum min imliiq•" ... wa-qad kana minhum man yafalu dhalika bi-al-inath wa-al-dhukitr khashyata alfaqr kamii huwa ;iihiru al-aya; Ibn Kathir, Tafsir al-Qyran al-G+im, Vol. II, p. 188 Notes to Chapter 8 157 (commentary on the same verse): 'Wa-rubbamii qatalu ba'r! al-dhukur khashyata al-iftiqiir.. .'. See also: Ibn Man~ur, Lisiin al-'arab, s.v. 'wa'd': 'Wa-minhum man kiina ya'idu al-banina 'inda al-majii 'a wa-kiinat Kinda ta' idu al-baniit'. 37. See note 34 above. 38. Wensinck, Concordance et indices, s.v. 'wa'd'; Ibn Man~ur, Lisiin al-'arab, s.v. 'wa'd'. See also: Musallam, Sex and Society in Islam, p. 19. 39. See, for instance, Qur'an, 18:46; 34:35-7, 64:14-15. 40. Musallam, ibid., p. 37. 41. Ibn I;Ianbal, Musnad, Vol. III, p. 478; Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, Vol. IV, p. 477 (commentary on Qur'an 81:8-9). See below, Ibn Taymiyya's fatwii on a mother who killed her ailing son. Cases of murder of male infants initiated by women who were rival wives of the infants' mothers in contemporary Egypt are described in Atiya's Khul-Khaal, pp. 129-32. 42. Al-Tabari,Jiimz' al-bayiin, Vol. XXX, p. 40. See also: Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, Vol. IV, p.478; al-Raghib al-I~fahani, Mul;iirjariit al-udabii' (Cairo, 1287 I 1870..71), p. 205. 43. Al-Qurtubi, aljiimi' li-al;kiim al-Quriin, Vol. XIX, pp. 232-3 (commen• tary on Qur'an 81:8-9). See also: al-Bayc;l.awi, Anwar al-tanzil, Vol. I, p. 3ll (commentary on Qur'an 6:140), where a different reading is suggested: 'qattalu' instead of' qatalu' to emphasise the vast number of the victims. The figures mentioned in these narrations are not necessarily accurate. However, they might be taken as an indication that in times of economic pressure infanticide was widely practised, although generally the regulation of population was affected by high mortality rates, par• ticularly of infants and children. See Hawthorn, The Sociology ofFertility. p. 47. 44. Al-Tabari,Jiimi'al-bayiin, Vol. VIII, p. 35 (commentary on Qur'an 6:141). 45. Al-Raghib al-I~fahani, Mul;iirjariit al-udaba, p. 205. 46. Al-Zamakhshari, al-Kashshiif, part II, p. 708. See also al-Tabarsi, Majma' al-bayiin, Vol. VI, p. 367, Vol. X, p. 444; al-Qurtubi, aljiimz' li-al;kiim al• Quriin, Vol. VII, p. 91, Vol. XIX, pp. 232-3. And see Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, pp. 291-5. 47. Al-Zamakhshari, ibid.; Smith, ibid. 48. Ibn I;Iajar al-Haytami al-Makki, al-Fatiiwii al:ftqhiyya al-kubrii (Cairo, 1358/ 1939-40), Vol. IV, p. 220. 49. Al-Tabari,Jiimi'al-bayiin, Vol. VIII, p. 56 (commentary on Qur'an 6:151). On another dramatic measure taken by Arabs in pre-Islamic times and apparently even later in periods of want, namely, i'tifiid, starving oneself to death, 'the final resort of those proud tribal people frustrated and despairing, but unflinching in their resolve to die rather than beg', see R. B. Serjeant, 'Famine death without loss of honour in ancient Arabia and Yemeni Arl;ab', Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 50(19H7), pp. 527-8. 50. See above, and also al-Qurtubi, aljiimi' li-al;kiim al-Quriin, Vol. VII, p. 132 (commentary on Qur'an 6:151). See also Muslim, Sal;il;, Kitiib al• nikiil;, biib 141; Abu 'Abdallah Mui).ammad b. Yazid Ibn Miija, ,)'unan (Cairo, n.d.), Kitiib al-nikiil;, biib 61; Ibn I;Ianbal, Musnad, Vol. VI, pp. 361, 434. 51. Ibn I;Ianbal, ibid., Vol. III, pp. 33, 51. 158 Notes to Chapter 8

52. Musallam, Sex and Society in Islam, Ch. 1. 53. Ibid., pp. 57-71. On the use of various abortifacient methods by Muslim women, see, for instance, Ibn Taymiyya, Majmii'at Jatiiwii, Vol. IV, pp. 182; 'Ali b. Al).mad b. Sa'id Ibn I;Iazm, al-Mul)allii (Beirut, n.d.), Vol. XI, pp. 29-31; Ibn Babawayh, Man la yal]4urnhu aljaqih, Vol. IV, p. 109; Mulpmmad Rami! b. Mu~taffi al-I;Ianafi al-Tarabulusi, al-Fatiiwii al• kiimiliyyaji al-IJ,awiidith al-Tariibulusiyya (n.p., 1313/1895-6), p. 249. On the penalty for abortion and for causing abortion, see, for instance, Ibn Taymiyya, ibid., p. 188; Ibn al:Jawzi, AIJ,kiim al-nisa, pp. 37&-7. I would like to thank Professor R. B. Serjeant for drawing my attention to a Yemeni manuscript (an acephalous MS oflbn Zinba') from c. 500/1105 whose contents represent a Jahili tradition of tribal law. The manu• script deals, inter alia, with the penalty of 'women who do something to themselves of a nature to cause the abortion of a boy from their womb, by drinking a potion or something else, or massage which causes the boy to be aborted'. 54. Al-Ghazali, Il},ya 'ulilm al-din, Vol. II, p. 65. The English translation is based on Farah, Marriage and Sexuality in Islam, pp. 109-10. see also Musallam, ibid., pp. 17-18, 22-3. 55. Ibn al:Jawzi, Al},kiim al-nisa, p. 374: 'Fa-idhii ta'ammadat isqiita mii jihi al• riil}, kiina ka-qatli mu'min wa-qad qiila ta'iilii: "Wa-idhii al-ma'wiidatu su'ilat bi-ayyi dhanli" qutilat"'. 56. Ibn Kathir, Tajsir, Vol. IV, p. 354; al-Tabarsi, Majma' al-bayiin, Vol. IX, p. 275: '"Wa-lii yaznina wa-lii yaqtulna awliidahunna" 'alii wajh;" min al• wujith, iii bi-al-wa' d wa-lii bi-al-isqiit'. 57. Musallam, Sex and Society in Islam, p. 118, and see alsop. 19. 58. See Langer (n. 2 above), Radin (n. 6 above), and McLaughlin, 'Survi• vors and Surrogates', p. 121. 59. Ibn al:Jawzi, Al},kiim al-nisa, pp. 374-5. 60. 'Wa-idhii kiinaAlliih qad IJ,armmanii qatla al-awliid ma'a al-IJ,iija wa-khashyati aljaqr, Ja-la-an yul)arrima qatlahu bi-ditni dhiilika awlii wa-al},rii. Ibn Taymiyya, Majmit'at Jatiiwii, Vol. IV, p. 182. 61. Al-Bay<;Iawi, Anwiir al-tanzil, Vol. I, p. 518. According to an interpreta• tion presented by al-Qur1ubi, dassa (to trample .. .into the dust) means not to bury the female infant alive but only to hide her out of shame (' ikhfauhii 'an al-niis l},attii lii tu'raja'). Al-Qur!ubi, al-Jiimi' li-al},kiim al• Qyriin, Vol. X, p. 117. 62. Al-Qur!ubi, ibid. See also al-Tabarsi, Majma' al-bayiin, Vol. Vl, p. 367. 63. Al-Qur!ubi, ibid., Vol. XIX, pp. 232-3 (commentary on Qur'an 81:8-9); al-Tabarsi, ibid., Vol. IV, p. 371 (commentary on Qur'an 6:137). 64. Ibn Kathir, Tajsir, Vol. IV, p. 477 (commentary on Qur'an 81:8-9). 65. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Tul)jat al-mawditd, pp. 10-13: 'Fi kariihati tasakhkhut al-baniit'; al-Qaysi, Bard al-akbiid, fol. 166a, where Da'iid b. Abi Hind is accused of desiring the death of his daughter (' kunta tatamannii mawtahii'). On names expressing disappointment, given to new-born females by Muslim parents see Schimmel, Islamic Names, p. 42. 66. B. D. Miller, The Endangered Sex (Ithaca, New York and London, 1981), p. 42 (see also pp. 43-4) ;Wrigley, Population and History, p. 43. Notes to Chapter 8 159 67. Al-Zamakhshari, al-Kashshiif, Vol. II, pp. 69, 70. See also al-Qurtubi, al• Jiimi' li-al]kiim al-Qyriin, Vol. VII, p. 91; al-Bay<;lawi, Anwar al-tanzil, Vol. I, p. 310, and nn. 9, 35 above. 68. The same pagan parents who sacrifice their children to gods are de• scribed in the Bible by the prophet Ezekiel as loving parents: 'For when they had slain their children to their idols, then they came the same day into My sanctuary to Profane it' (Ezekiel 23:39); 'And you son of man, shall it not be in the day when I take from them their stronghold, the joy of their glory, the desire of their eyes, and the yearning of their soul, their sons and their daughters ... ' (ibid., 24:25). 69. Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Tu/Jfat al-mawdud, p. 75. 70. Ibn al:Jawzi, Al]kiim al-nisa, p. 380, and see also p. 373. 71. Al-Qaysi, Bard al-akbiid, fols 171 b-172a. See also al-Suyii!i, al-II]tifiil bi-mawt al-aifiil, fol. 9a; al-Raghib al-I~fahani, Mu}jjitf,ariit al-udabit, p. 305: 'Tamanni mawt al-awliirf. 72. Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam, p. 36. 73. Al-Mada' ini, Kitiib al-ta'iizi, p. 17: 'Al-l]amdu li-Alliih ... niilu al-Jawz wa-l]iimu al-dhimiira'; p. 18: a similar narration about a father who lost two of his sons as martyrs on two different occasions and yet praised God each time the bad news was brought to him. 'Al-l]amdu li-Alliih alladhi ja'ala min !fulbi man U!fiba shahid"" '. 74. Ibid., p. 20. 75. Ibid., p. 23, and see also p. 43. For similar reports see Ibn Abi I:I

jihiid, biib 111; al-Darimi, Sunan, Kitiib al-siyar, biib 25. In some of these }Jadith reports, however, the Prophet is said to have allowed the killing of the enemy's families before he took the unequivocal decision to forbid this. The criterion used to distinguish between a child and an adult is given in Sunan al-Diirimi, Kitiib al-siyar, biib 26: 'Fa-man anbata al• sha'ra qutila wa-man lam yunbit turika'. 83. Taqi al-Din Ibn Taymiyya, Majmu' fatiiwii (Riyad, 1382/1962-3), Vol. XVI, p. 80. 84. See Cameron, 'The exposure of children and Greek ethics', p. 105; Wrigley, Population and History, p. 126. 85. See note 68 above. 86. Pollock, Forgotten Children, pp. 49-50. 87. See above, Chapter 6.

9: Conclusion 1. Aries, Centuries of Childhood, p. 125. 2. E-'[2, Vol. III, pp. 16-19 (s.v. 'l;lac;iana'). 3. EJ2, Vol. I, p. 993 (s.v. 'Baligh'). 4. Ibn Sida, Kitiib al-mukha~~a~, part I, p. 34. 5. Aries, Centuries of Childhood, pp. 316-17. 6. Ibn Sida, ibid., part I, pp. 30-4. 7. Motzki, 'Das Kind', pp. 408-11,417-22. 8. Ibid., p. 439. Bibliography

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'Abdallah b. Abi Talha, 37, 97 childhood: rites, 8, 9, 14, 19, 35-41, 48; 'Abdallah b. 'Ami~, 147 n.48 subdivision of, 6, 7, 22-3, 29, 122 'Abdallah b. Shudhab, 112 n.29, 128 n.25, 140 n.52 al-'Abdari, Mul).ammad (Ibn al-I;Iajj), 38, childrearing, 3, 19-34, 138 n.29 77 children: abandonment of, 71, 73, 78-9, abortion, 73, 101, 109, 110, 155 n.2; see 80, 146 n.19; fate in the Hereafter, 8, also birth control 9, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 106; Abu Bakr, 88 original nature of, 6, 39, 40, 51, 62, Abu Dhu'ayb, 147 n.42 83, 84, 85, 118, 136 n.l4, 150 n.97 (see Abu Talha, 94-9, 153 nn.15, 16 also fitra); physical and psychological accid~n~, 9, 70-1, 76--8, 148 n.53 development of, 7, 8, 10, 19, 22-3, 26, adab, 12, 13, 49; see also ta dib 27, 28, 30, 33, 47, 59, 62, 69, 70, 117, adolescence, 23, 36, 52, 54, 55 118, 123 n.37, 128 n.25, 136 n.14, 140 adult-child relationships, 14, 48, 72-3, nn.44, 49; sacrifice of, 104, 107, 108, 78, 87, 90, 98, 114, 115, 119, 125 n.90, 111, 114-15, 119; see also infants 144 n.21 circumcision: male, 9, 36, 37, 38, 40-1, Ammar, H., 14 77, 133 n.11, 14, 134 nn.20, 24; Anas b. Malik, 37, 76, 95, 153 n.IO female, 41, 77, 133 nn.10, 11 'aqiqa, 8, 35, 37, 38, 40, 133 n.6, 14, 134 coitus interruptus, 107, I 09, 11 0; see also nn.20, 24 birth control Aries, Ph., ix, 11, 13, 62, 72, 80, 116, consolation treatises for bereaved 146 n.27 parents, 11-12, 75, 80, 82, 90, 91, Aristotle, 27, 50, 137 n.21 94-100, 119 art, 13 cots, 77 'Awwad, K., 2 cradles, 6, 77 Ayyiib b. Sulaymiin, 89 cry, 6, 22, 25, 130 n.43 baby-walker, 28, 29, 131 n.69; see also al-Daqiqi, Sulayman b. Banin, 11 first steps darriija, see baby-walker al-Baladi, Al).mad b. Mul).ammad, 7, 8, Da'ud b. Abi Hind, 158 n.65 22, 26, 29, 30, 70, 130 n.43, 131 n.63, DeMause, L., 1 132 n.83 al-Dimyati, 'Abd al-Mu'min b. Khalaf, II al-Bay<;lawi, 'Abdallah b. 'U mar, 111 dreams, 23 Bernard of Gordon, 70 dress, 7, 9, 33, 58 birth, 6, 7, 21-2, 33, 35, 69, 77, 94, 95, 104, 108, 113, 129 n.33, 140 n.51 education, 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 19, 20, birth control, 101, 106, 107, 109, 110; see 30-2, 33, 34, 40, 45-6C, 61, 63, 71, also abortion; coitus interruptus; 116, 117, 121 n.13, 123 n.52, 125 infanticide n.90, 137 n.14, 138 n.29, 36, 144 n.15; Black Death, see plague epidemics elementary, 9, 10,54-7, 116, 142 breast feeding, 24-6, 31, 38, 69, 129 n.74; higher, 46; moral, 4, 5, 10, 20, nn.31, 33, 34, 38, 41; see also feeding 27, 30, 31, 32, 49, 57-8, 60, 61, 78, Bryson, 4, 32, 49, 50, 52, 58, 64, 138 129 n.31, 132 n.85, 138 n.36 (see also n.29, 140 n.51 ta'dib); physical, 142 n.84; religious, al-Bukhari, Mul).ammad b. Isma'il, 36, 30, 53, 54, 55, 57, 84, 141 n.55 81, 95, 96, 97, 98 embryology, 6, 7, 8, 10, 122 n.19 burial, forms of, 73, 80, 82 Erikson, E., 70, 120 n.3

173 174 Index ethics, 4, 7, 45, 48, 49, 50, 60, 117, 137 Ibn Abi I;Iajala, Shihab al-Oin, 11, 12, nn.21, 27 75, 78, 97-8, 147 nn.48, 49 Ibn 'Ali, Abu Ja'far, 78 Jalaqa, 143 n.ll Ibn Babawayh al-Qummi, 77 Jatiiwii, 9, 77, 78, 79, 85, 105, 106, 108, Ibn 'Arabi, Abu Bakr, 56 109, 110, 119, 148 nn.51, 53 Ibn I;Iajar, see al-Haytami fathers, 2, 35, 36, 38, 48, 49, 51, 52, 54, Ibn Hanbal, Ahmad, 95, 96, 97, 98 55, 58,63,64, 78,87, 89,90,92,98, Ibn ~azm, 'Ali ·b. Ai).mad, 106 104, 107, 111, 112, 113, 132 n.5, 133 Ibn Hi bat Allah, Abu al-Hasan, 8 n.8, 134 n.24, 138 n.36, 139 nn.39, 43, Ibn Hubal, 'Ali, 5 · 144 nn.l5, 21, 149 n.74, 159 n.73; Ibn al:Jawzi, 'Abd al-Rai).man, 74, 78, see also mothers; parents 110 feeding, 6, 7, 9, 24-7, 118, 130 nn.58, 59 Ibn al:Jazzar, see al-Qayrawani first steps, 7, 28-9 Ibn Kathir, Isma'il, Ill first words, 30 Ibn Khaldun, 'Abd al-Rahman, 2, 55-7, .fitra, 51, 83, 85, 138 n.35; 139 n.37; see 65-6 also children, original nature of Ibn Miskawayh, Ai).mad b. Mui).ammad, foetuses, 6, 7, 81, 92, 129 n.34, 149 n.86 4, 49, 50, 52, 58,60, 64 Friedl, E., 14, 148 n.53 Ibn Nubata,Jamal al-Oin, 74 FuQ.ayl b. 'IyaQ., 112 Ibn Palqira, Shem Tov, 132 n.90 Ibn Qayyim al:Jawziyya, Mui).ammad b. Galen, 5, 6, 20, 24, 26, 122 n.I9, 140 Abi Bakr, 10, 19-34, 80, 84, 106, 117, n.51 126 n.3, 127 n.5 games, 13, 14, 58-60, 136 n.l4, 143 n.90 Ibn RiQ.wan, 'Ali, 74 al-Ghazall, Mui).ammad, ix, 4, 20, 45-60, Ibn al-Rumi, 'Ali, 74 64, 78,85, 106,109,117,118,119, Ibn Sa'd, Mui).ammad, 95, 96, 97, 98 128 n.26, 149 n.86 Ibn Sahnun, Muhammad, 10 Goitein, S.D., 62 Ibn Sida, 'Ali, ll6, 117 grandparents, 106, 107 Ibn Sina, 'Ali, 5, 26, 31, 38, 144 n.25 gynaecology, 6, 7, 8, 20, 21, 22 Ibn Taghri Birdi, 81 Ibn Taymiyya, Taqi al-Oin Ai).mad, 9, 19, al-Hadi ila al-I;Iaqq, Yai).ya b. al-I;Iusayn, 85, 110, 114 84 Ibrahim (the Prophet's son), 80, 81, 88 ~adith, 8, 19, 25, 37, 38, 47, 48, 50, 51, Ibrahim al-I;Iasbi, I 12 60, 75, 79, 80, 81,85, 86, 87, 88, 89, ihtisiib, 92 90,91, 92,94-7,102,105,106,107, illegitimacy, 101, 110 108, 109, 110, 113, 117, 134 nn.l9, infant and child mortality, 8, 9, 14, 49, 20, 21, 136 n.7, 137 n.21, 139 nn. 37, 69-93; adults' reactions to, 11-12, 13, 39, 156 n.31 73, 76, 79-93, 94-100, 123 n.52, 124 hair-cut, 35, 133 n.6; see also 'aqiqa n.75, 128 n.l8; causes of, 9, 29, 69-71, ~~ see baby-walker 73-6, 78-9, 86, 145 n.3, 148 n.53; Hanawalt, B.A., 70 rates of, 69, 70, 72, 73-6, 94, 146--7 al-Hiirithi, Muhammad, 12 n.37, 147 n.42, 148 n.51 al-Haytami, lb.;_ I;Iajar, 9, 10, 77, 108, infants, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 19, 148 n.51 21-2, 23, 24-30, 31, 33, 35-40, 128 heresiography, 9, 82 n.25, 129 n.30, 129 nn.34, 41, 130 ~i4iina, 116 n.59, 131 n.65, 133 nn.6, 14 Hippocrates, 5, 6, 7, 19, 20, 22, 70, 122 infanticide, 8, 9, 25, 71, 73, 79, 80, nn.l9, 29, 128 n.25 101-15, 146 n.l9; see also wad ~isba, 9, 60, 63 iqiima, 35, 132 n.3 I;Iunayn b. Isi).aq, 56 al-I~fahani, Abu al-Faraj, 13 Hunt, D., 70 Isi).aq b. I;Iunayn, 4 hygienics, 5, 7, 20, 23, 27, 32, 77, 123 Isi).aq b. 'Imran, 89 n.52, 129 n.30 i'tifiid, 157 n.49 Index 175 al:Jal;li~. 'Arnr b. Bal;lr, 13 pet-names, 90 plague epidemics, 9, 70, 74-6, 81, 86, khitiin, see circumcision 119, 147 nn.42, 48, 148 n.51 kuttiib, 9, 10, 54, 55, 63, 116, 143 n.l4 Plato, I, 4, 27, 50 Plessner, M., 4 lamentation poems, 13, 74, 80, 87 pregnancy, 6, 7, 25, 69, 81, 109 law, Islamic, 9-10, 53, 63, 79, 80-2, 85, prostitutes, children of, 81 105, 106, 107, 116, 117, 123 n.52, 126 psychology, 4, 6, 7, 8, 21, 22-3, 28, 30-2, n.90, 137 n.21 33, 45, 47, 60, 116, 117 lullabies, 13, 132 n.83 puberty, 23, I 16 punishment, 13, 64-5; corporal, 2, 9, 52, al-Mada'ini, 'Ali, 112 61-6, 78, 115, ll8 madrasa, 46, 136 puppet theatre, 59 Maimonides, 132 n.90 al-Majiisi, Ibn 'Abbas, 5 al-Qabisi, 'Ali b. Mul;lammad, 10 Malik b. Anas, 79 Qa<;li Khan, 77, 78 al-Manbiji, Abii 'Abdallah, Mul;lammad, al-Qali, Isma'il, 13 11, 75,80-1,82, 83, 90, 91, 97,98 al-Qayrawani, Ibn aljazzar, 5, 6, 8, 29, marriage, 9, 48, 91, 137 n.21 38, I28 nn.l5, 25, 130 n.43, 132 n.85 Marrou, H.l., 61 Qays b. Asim, 1 08 al-Mawardi, Abii al-Hasan, 53 al-Qaysi, Mul;lammad b. Ali, ll, 75, 88, midwives, 33, 77 · 89,90,98 mothers, 2, 6, I4, 24, 26, 38, 52, 72, 73, Qur'an, 8, 19, 26, 50, 55, 56, 57, 76, 79, 76, 77, 78, 81, 90, 91, 101, 104, 107, 82, 83, 91, 97, 102-5, 106, 107, 108, 108, lll, ll2, ll3, ll5, ll9, 129 109, llO, Ill, ll3, ll4, ll7, 133 n.13, nn.31, 33, 34, 38, 139 n.39, 140 n.44, 138 n.35, I39 nn.37, 38, 43, 141 n.68, 149 n.74 150 n.97, 155 n.9 Mul;lammad, the Prophet, 8, 19, 24, 25, al-Qurashi, Mul]ammad (Ibn al• 36, 37, 38, 39, 48,50, 52, 60, 64,80, Ukhuwwa), 60 81, 85,86, 87, 88,89, 90, 94, 95,98, al-Qurtubi, Abii 'Abdallah, Mul;lammad, 99, I02, 104, 105, 106, 108, ll2, 114 Ill, 158 n.61 Musallam, B.F., 19 al-Ququbi, 'Arib b. Sa'id, 6, 26, 28, 29, music, 132 n.83 128 n.25 Muslim b. al-J:Iajjaj, 95 al-Raghib al-I~fahani, Abii al-Qasim naming, 13, 30, 33, 35, 48, 131 n.80, 132 J:lusayn, 13 n.5, 134 nn.I 7, 24, 149 n.86, 158 Raja' b. J:laywa, 89 n.65; see also pet-names ritja.', see wet-nursing al-Nawawi, Yal;lya b. Sharaf, 9, 78, 79 rites of passage, 35-6, 73; see also negligence, 9, 31, 71, 72, 78, 109 childhood rites nurses, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 77 riyiitja, 40 nightmares, 132 n.83 rocking, 31, 132 n.83 Rosenthal, F., I obstetrics, 6, 10 ~abr, 92, 94-100, ll2 parents, I3, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, al-Sakhawi, Mul]ammad, ll, 12, 92 51, 55, 60, 61, 64, 71, 72, 73, 78, 80, al-?alil;li, Mul;lammad, 12, 92 82, 83, 86, 87, 88, 91, 101, 103, 104, al-Sarakhsi, Shams al-Din, 9, 80 106, 111, 112, 119, 138 n.36, 139 sex differentiation, 8, 10, 14, 31-2, 32-3, n.39, 143 n.ll; see also fathers; 37, 38, 39, 40,48, 51, 76, 77, 91,92, mothers; adult-child relationships 97, 98, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, pediatrics, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 20, 21, 22, 23, Ill, ll3, ll4, ll6, ll8, 132 n.5, 133 26, 30, 32, 33, 34, 38, 77, ll7, 122 nn.6, 8, 17, 134 n.20, 137 n.l9, 139 nn.I9, 20, 22, 123 n.41, 129 n.30 n.39, 148 n.53, 155 n.23 176 Index sexual intercourse, 25-6, 98 teething, 7, 26, 29, 70 al-Shafi'i, Mul].ammad b. ldris, 79, 106 theology, Islamic, 9, 79-85, 150 n.93 Shahar, Sh., 71 toys, 59, 60, 89 shuhadii', 106, 112 training, physical, 58, 132 n.83; see also sijilliit, 3, 119, 148 n.53 education, physical siyiisa, 40 travellers, western, 14 sleep, 27, 31, 58, 77 smile, 23 'Ubaydallah b. Ma'mar, 147 n.48 Soranus, 27, 129 n.41, 130 nn.56, 58, 59 Ullmann, M., 74 St Augustine, 1 'Umar b. 'Abd al-'Aziz, 89, 112 ~iifism, ix, 4, 19, 46, 47, 136 n.14 'Umar b. al-Khattab, 56, 78, 79 Sulayman b. 'Abd al-MaJ.ik, 89 Umm Sulaym, 94-9, 153 n.lO al-Suyiip, JalaJ. al-Din, 12 swaddling, 6, 27-8, 118, 131 n.65 violence, 71, 78-9, 80

wa'd, 103, 106, 107, 108, 109; see also al-Tabari, Al].mad Mul].ibb al-Oin, 10 infanticide al-Tabari, Mul].ammad b. Jarir, 107, 108 Waki', Mul].ammad Khalaf, 112 ta'dib, 49 w~aya, 13 ta'dhin, 35, 132 n.3, 133 n.14, 134 n.24 weaning, 25,26-7,59, 70,71 taQnik, 35-40, 95 wet-nursing, 5, 6, 8, 9, 24-6, 52, 69, 71, talqin, 84, 150 n.105 77, 139 n.43 tamyiz., 23, 52-3, 54, 83, 128 n.26, 140 Wilson, S., 72-3, 131 n.65 n.48 tasmiya, see naming al-Yiinini, Miisa, 82 teachers, 2, 4, 9, 10, 50, 54, 61, 63, 64, 65, 78, 142 n.74, 143 n.11, 144 nn.15, a1-Zamakhshari, Abii al-Qasim Mal].miid, 26 108