Li et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:5 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-020-0355-7

RESEARCH Open Access Monpa, memory, and change: an ethnobotanical study of use in Mêdog County, South-east Tibet, Shan Li1,2*, Yu Zhang1, Yongjie Guo3,4, Lixin Yang1 and Yuhua Wang1*

Abstract Background: Due to their relative isolation, the previous studies of Monpa plant use were only conducted in north-east . In October 2013, Mêdog County was no longer remote, thanks to completion of a highway into the county. This study of plant used by the Monpa had three research objectives. These were (i) to identify and record local names and uses of in Mêdog County, (ii) to assess which of these were uses of endemic or near-endemic species within this part of the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot, and (iii) to assess how plant uses reflect socio-economic change in Mêdog County? Methods: Field surveys were conducted in 12 villages of four townships in Mêdog County, Tibet, China. Two field visits were made. The first field trip was in November 2017 and the second field trip was in May 2018. We interviewed 64 key informants between 21 and 84 years old. Most of them were the village leaders and other local people who are knowledgeable about plants. After transect walks with knowledgeable local people, we used free listing, key informant interviews, and semi-structured interviews during the field work. Plants traditionally used by the Monpa were documented. Utilization frequency was used to assess the significance of each species, and the Cultural Importance index was used to estimate the cultural significance of the species in common. We also used the informant consensus factor (FIC) to determine the homogeneity of the informants’ knowledge of medicinal plants. (Continued on next page)

* Correspondence: [email protected]; [email protected] 1Department of Economic Plants and Biotechnology, Key Laboratory of Economic Plants and Biotechnology, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

© The Author(s). 2020 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Li et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:5 Page 2 of 26

(Continued from previous page) Results: One hundred ninety-four plant species belonging to 82 families and 158 genera were recorded and collected. One hundred twenty-two species, primarily fruits, were food plants. Forty-five species were used as traditional medicines. This included highly valued species collected in alpine areas (Paris polyphylla) and brought to villages in Mêdog, which are at a lower altitude (between 728 and 1759 m a.s.l). Seven edible plant species were also used as herbal medicines. We also recorded 39 species used for other purposes in Monpa daily life. These included nine species that were used to make agricultural tools, five species for dyes and mordants, four species for timber, three species for fuelwood, four species for religious ritual use, three species for washing, two species for incense, two species for thatching, two species for fiber (rope and paper), two “calendar plants” were used to indicate seasons for agricultural purposes, two fish poison plant species, and one species were used as a tobacco substitute. Based on taxonomic insights and from studies elsewhere, we suggested that fiber species were under-reported (c. 14 species were used vs. one species reported used). Even though these plant species are rich and diverse, the use of endemic or near-endemic species was rarely recorded in previous studies. These species included micrantha (used for starch), Hornstedtia tibetica (fruits), Castanopsis clarkei (edible nuts) and Gnetum pendulum (edible nuts), Ophiorrhiza medogensis (vegetables), Derris scabricaulis (fish poison), Radermachera yunnanensis (agricultural tools), Litsea tibetana (seed oil), Dendrocalamus tibeticus (wine strainers and implements for administering medicine), Zanthoxylum motuoense (spices), Cinnamomum contractum (tobacco substitutes), Morus wittiorum (medicines), and Garcinia nujiangensis (funeral rituals). Despite the absence of roads until 2013 and the impression of “isolation,” Monpa knowledge of plant use reflects three categories of change. Firstly, oral histories of plants used in were also encountered by Monpa people after their migration from Bhutan to south-eastern Tibet. Secondly, a “slow change” through centuries of exchange of knowledge (for example of Chinese and Tibetan medical systems), seeds of introduced crops (finger millet (indigenous to Africa), maize (from Meso-America)), and experimentation and use of introduced medicinal plants (such as Datura stramonium, which originates from North America). Thirdly, “fast change” over the past decade. This is reflected in changes in traditional architecture and in rising commercial trade in selected plant resources such as Dendrobium orchid stems and Paris polyphylla rhizomes which are in demand in China’s Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) markets). Conclusions: Monpa people in the south-eastern Tibet have detailed knowledge of the diverse plant resources. But that traditional knowledge is now faced with a crisis because of the modern socio-economic change. In addition, Monpa knowledge of plants reflects slower changes in knowledge as well. For example, Monpa ethnomedicine has been influenced by traditional Tibetan and Chinese medicine over a longer period in time. Overall, this study provides a deeper understanding of the Monpa peoples’ knowledge on wild plants, including endemic and near-endemic species whose uses have not been previously recorded. Several of these narrowly distributed species, such as the fish poison Derris scabricaulis, could be the focus of further studies. Some wild edible plants may also have interesting dietary constituents which need in-depth studies. These detailed studies could enable the Monpa people to benefit from the use of their traditional plant- derived culture and therefore support the biodiversity conservation. Keywords: Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot, endemic plants, Monpa, cultural change

Background practices is well recognised [1]. In their review of con- Introduction servation needs for the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot, This study was carried out in Mêdog County in the for example, the CEPF (2012) stressed the need for south-eastern Tibet, at the edge of two “biodiversity hot- “greatly improved information on status and distribution spots” which were the Himalayan and the Indo-Burma in Indo-Burma to highlight species for which available biodiversity hotspots. Due to its biogeography, topog- information is so limited that it precludes any form of raphy, and altitudinal range (a difference of 7500 m over meaningful conservation action”. This study is a contri- 40 km), south-east area of Tibet has high levels of bio- bution toward both conservation and development. diversity. South-eastern Tibet is also culturally diverse, Although a few studies have been done on Monpa with Tibetan, Hui, Monpa, Lhoba people developing cul- plant use in north-east India [2], this is the first study of tural landscapes through farming, pastoralism, wild plant Monpa ethnobotany in this formerly remote part of use, and management. The need to combine traditional China. No longer remote, this area is undergoing rapid ecological knowledge with management strategies to socio-economic change, which may lead to declining achieve biodiversity conservation in local beliefs and knowledge of local plant uses. In other parts of the Li et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:5 Page 3 of 26

region, however, 68 medicinal plant species were recorded County and “Bangxin” which means “flat land” in as used by Tibetans in Shangri-la, , China [3]. Tibetan language. Jiaresa Township is located in the Traditional knowledge of 168 wild edible plant species northern part of Mêdog County and is one of the were recorded in Tibetans of Shangri-la region, Yunnan, three remote towns in the Mêdog County (Table 1). China [4]. The uses of 81 species of vascular plants were The location of the 12 study villages in Mêdog County recorded in Tibetans of Zhouqu county, Gansu, China [5]. are shown in Fig. 1. The names and altitudes of the The uses of 54 species of vascular plants and 22 mush- seven villages of Beibeng Township are Beibeng Village rooms were recorded in Tibetan community of Zhagana (839 m a.s.l), Jiangxin Village (893 m a.s.l), Xirang Village in Tewo County, Gansu, China [6]. (823 m a.s.l), Gelin Village (1759 m a.s.l), De’ergong Village (1552 m a.s.l), Badeng Village (1316 m a.s.l), and Study aims and research objectives Acang Village (1342 m a.s.l). The altitudes of the three The aim of this study was to document the ethnobotan- villages in Dexing Township are Dexing Village (728 m ical knowledge of the Monpa people in Mêdog County, a.s.l), Hezha Village (1051 m a.s.l), and Naerdong Village south-eastern Tibet. As no previous studies had been (1571 m a.s.l). We also studied one village in Bangxin done on Monpa plant use in China, we had three re- Township: Bangxin Village (1162 m a.s.l) and one village search objectives. These were (i) to identify and record in Jiaresa Township: Gengbang Village (1330 m a.s.l). local names and uses of plants in Mêdog County, (ii) to assess which of these were uses of endemic or near- Cultural background: Monpa in Mêdog endemic species within this part of the Indo-Burma bio- The literal meaning of Monpa is “man of the lower diversity hotspot, and (iii) to assess how current plant country,” referring to several ethnically related peoples, uses reflect socio-economic change in Mêdog County? which may not be related linguistically [9]. In the early to mid-eighteenth century, due to the hardships and Methods heavy taxes in Bhutan at the time, the local Monpa Location of the study sites people heard that there was a sacred place in the south- Mêdog County is the most remote county in the south- east of Tibet, called Pe-ma-ko (now Mêdog), where there eastern Tibet, which covers a total area of approximately was the chance for a better life, so they decided to flee 31,395 km2, located in the lower river valley of the from Bhutan to Tibet [10]. The oldest record of men- Yarlung Tsangpo River. It is called “Pe-ma-ko” by the tioning Monpa was the Tibetan epic of King Ling Gesar Tibetan Buddhists, meaning “hidden lotus.” The average during the fourth century [11]. The language used by annual temperature in Mêdog County ranges from 16 to “Monpa” belongs to the Tibeto-Burman language group 18 °C. The lowest temperature is 2 °C in January and the of the Sino-Tibetan language family [9]. However, the highest temperature is 33.8 °C in July. The annual average Monpa people do not have their own written characters. rainfall is 2350 mm, the frost-free period is about 330 days, Consequently, the history of the Monpa people is known and the average humidity is over 80%. In the horizontal through oral histories and Tibetan literature [12]. In distance of 40 km, Mêdog County has an altitudinal differ- 1964, the Monpa group was officially recognized as an ence of more than 7500 m, with plant species ranging independent ethnic group by the People’s Republic of from alpine plant species to tropical plant species and China [13] and approximately 25,000 Monpa currently complex vegetation structures [7, 8]. reside in the low-altitude areas of Tsona, , and We had selected 12 villages belonging to four town- Mêdog in the of China [14]. ships in the Mêdog County from different altitudes for In China, the highest population of Monpa speakers lives investigation (Table 1). Monpa people accounted for in Mêdog County, a biologically and culturally diverse 99.2% of the total population of the Beibeng Township. region that is 34,000 km2 in extent. Dexing Township is the nearest township to the Mêdog County. It is located on the right bank of the Yarlung Field survey Tsangpo River, across the river from Mêdog County. Ethnobotanical fieldwork took place over 45 days Bangxin Township is situated in the northeast of Mêdog spreading between November 2017 and May 2018. We

Table 1 Basical geographical information of the Townships Township Beibeng Dexing Bangxin Jiaresa Elevation 400–3260 m 850 m 1240 m 1120 m Climate Low mountain tropical humid climate and Low mountain tropical humid climate and Mountain subtropical Mountain subtropical Mountain subtropical semi-humid climate Mountain subtropical semi-humid climate semi-humid climate semi-humid climate Population 2371 1668 1370 581 Li et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:5 Page 4 of 26

Fig. 1 The location of Villages in in Mêdog County, Tibet, China interviewed 64 key informants. After transect walks with cultural importance index (CI) were adopted. The use knowledgeable local people, information was collected frequency of certain species was estimated by utilization through free listing, semi-structured, and key informant frequency: interviews, participatory approaches and group discus- N sions. Most of key informants were the village leaders and f ¼ m the knowledgeable persons in the village. The age of key N i informants ranged between 21 and 84 years old. The in- Where N was the number of certain species men- terviews included the questions that were relevant to m tioned by informant, and N was the total number of in- document detail information on all useful wild plants. The i formants. High f values indicated the plant used questions investigated included: What is your age? What frequently [15]. is the local name of each plant? What are the most fre- FIC was determined using the following formula to quently used parts? What ailment does this plant treated? evaluate the information of medicinal plants distributed What is the cooking or preparation method of each plant? between informants and to determine the homogeneity Do you know any other uses of the plants? We docu- of informant’s knowledge on medicinal plants. mented the ethnobotanical information for each plant, in- cluding scientific name, vernacular name, parts used, − ¼ N ur N t habitat and other specific purposes. Additional file 1 and FIC N ur−1 Additional file 2 local writing system is derived from Ti- betan language, so the local name is spelled by the writing Where Nur was the number of use reports from infor- system which is founded by Turrell Wylie (https://www. mants for each ailment category, and Nt was the total omniglot.com/writing/tibetan.htm) (Additional files 1 and number of species used by all informants for this ailment 2). Scientific names of plants were confirmed by The Plant category. Values of FIC ranging between 0 and 1. High List (http://www.theplantlist.org). All the voucher speci- FIC values (close to one) showed the agreement among mens of listed species were collected and deposited at the the informants about this ailment category. On the con- herbarium of Kunming Institute of Botany. trary, low FIC values (close to zero) showed disagree- ment among the informants [16]. Data analysis Each species mentioned by an informant within one Ethnobotanical quantitative indices including utilization use category was a use report (UR). Cultural importance frequency, informant consensus factor (FIC), and index (CI) was used to indicate the spread of the use Li et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:5 Page 5 of 26

(number of informants) of each species as well as to part is the fruit (58 species, 47.5%) in this study, determine diversity of uses. which is consistent with the situation in , which has similar bio-climatic conditions [18]. XuNC XiN URui This demonstrates the rich diversity of wild fruits CIs ¼ ¼ N and vegetables in the region, providing local residents u u1 i¼i1 with sustainable economic pillars and livelihood se- N was the total number of informants and NC was the curity by targeting wild edible fruits and vegetables total number of use categories. CI was the sum of the that can be developed commercially [18]. Out of 122 proportion of informants that mentioned each of the use wild edible species, seven are also used as herbal categories for a given species. The higher CI value medicine. Equisetum ramosissimum, for example, the indicated the multiple uses of a species [17]. root of this species is usually eaten directly as a fruit and boiling the aerial part could be used for treating Results and discussion rheumatism. Wild edible plants with high CI values Diversity and enumeration of Monpa plant use may have peculiar dietary constituent and require This study has documented 194 plant species belonging further research. In addition, the alcoholic beverage to 82 families and 158 genera used by Monpa people in consumed by almost all Nepalese and Tibetans Mêdog County (Table 4 in Appendix). Of these plant (known as “jnard”) which has the same ingredients as species, 84 were herbaceous (43.3%), 52 species were this yellow “wine” in Mêdog County [19]. Seasonal (26.8%), 35 species were (18%), and 23 fishing and fishing by poison are also great economic species were lianas or (11.9%). The survey results activities for many tribal people in the world. Studies reveal that there are 45 species of ethnomedicinal plants, in recorded that four entirely different plant 122 species of local edible plants, and 39 plant species species exploited as fish poison plants [20]. Tsering has been traditionally consumed as other purposes in et al.’s study was focused on higher altitude species Monpa daily life, including agriculture tools (9), dyes (5), used by Monpa people, including the medicinal incense (2), timber (4), fuelwood (3), religious ritual use plants Aconitum heterophyllum, Neopicrorhiza scro- (4), washing (clothes and hair) (3), thatching (2), fish phulariiflora, Paris polyphylla, Rhododendron hodgso- poisons (2), fiber (2), seasonal indication (2), and a to- nii, Swertia chirayita,andTaxus baccata [2]. In our bacco substitute (1) (Fig. 2). study, one of these higher altitude species was re- In contrast to the staple diet of naked barley, yak meat, corded (Paris polyphylla). mutton, buttered tea, and barley wine of traditional Tibetan, they seldom eat vegetables or fruits, yet plant Edible fruits and vegetables resources in Mêdog County are more plentiful. Monpa Food categories include fruit, vegetable, starch, oil, people have a wide variety of vegetables and beverages nut, beverage, condiment, and forage (Fig. 3). The in their traditional daily diet. The most frequently used most widely used wild edible species are fruits (42

Fig. 2 Plants used for different purposes by the Monpa ethnic group in Mêdog County, Tibet, China Li et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:5 Page 6 of 26

Fig. 3 Different categories of edible plants used by the Monpa ethnic group in Mêdog County

species), followed by vegetables (41 species). The process more than ten times. The Entada rheedii Monpa depended on wild fruits with high CI values seeds are then cut into pieces and fried with rice. such as Saurauia punduana (0.78), Elaeocarpus bra- Other categories were less frequent in use such as ceanus (0.5), Duchesnea indica (0.41), or Ficus semi- forage (13), starch (seven), beverage (seven), oil (six), cordata (0.39) for vitamins and nutrients. The same spice source plant (five), and nuts (two). However, as Lhoba people [21], Monpa depended on fruits from Monpapeoplehavearichtraditionofextracting wild edible species which may be related to the low beverage, starch, and oil from specific plants in the productivity of cultivated fruit trees of the Monpa region. group. Rubus ellipticus Sm. (0.33) is a renowned wild edible fruit to Monpa ethnic people in Mêdog Fermented beverages County, whose ripe fruits can be taken orally and act Traditional consumption of alcoholic beverages is an as medicine for aperient and juice of the tender ancient tradition that is still an integral part of leaves cures oral ulcers in the Udhampur, Monpa society. The Monpa people have the trad- J&K, India [22]. Monpa people have been using stone itional custom of “three bowls of wine”, meaning casseroles as cookware since ancient times [23]. that guests have to drink three bowls of yellow wine Monpapeopleliketoeat“hot-pot” dishes in the before they enter the door to show their friendship. stone casserole including wild vegetables and meat Seven plant species were used to produce a yellow which are a popular food combination in Mêdog “wine.” The mainly ingredients were rice (Oryza County. Wild vegetables with high CI values included sativa L.), maize (Zea mays L.), Eleusine coracana, Crassocephalum crepidioides (0.78), Pimpinella diver- and Fagopyrum esculentum. Buddleja asiatica is the sifolia (0.56), Rorippa dubia (0.31), Solanum torvum most important plant species during the preparation (0.2), and Gonostegia hirta (0.08). Gonostegia hirta is of alcoholic beverage fermentation by Monpa people a leafy vegetable that is also used as a functional food in Mêdog County. Based on the uses of Buddleja to provide energy for children and elders [24]. It is lindleyana and Buddleja officinalis in coloring rice interesting that while it is used as a medicine in yellow [26]andB. officinalis in indigo fermentation Bhutan [25], Entada rheedii is a popular addition to [27], we suggest that B. asiatica is a dual purposeful food by Monpa people. The cooking method for species, as both a wine colorant and a source of mi- Entada rheedii is time-consuming due to the toxicity croorganisms that an aid to fermentation (Fig. 4). oftheseeds.Theseedshavetobedetoxifiedby leaching and heating. The seeds are boiled with water, Starch sources which is poured off each time to clear away the tox- Starch in Monpa people diets was supplemented by icity, then refilling the pot with water, repeating the starch processed from wild species. Cultivated starch Li et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:5 Page 7 of 26

Fig. 4 The “yellow-wine” production process. a “Cakes” used to start rice “wine” fermentation drying on a bamboo rack. These are made from a mix of species based on a secret recipe. b Preparing the starch base for “yellow wine” from rice (Oryza sativa), maize (Zea mays), Eleusine coracana,andFagopyrum esculentum. c Finger millet (Eleusine coracana). d Straining the wine using a strainer made from Dendrocalamus tibeticus culms. e Ready for a welcome drink of three cups of yellow wine: cultural and social values underpin the continued production of the yellow wine

sources were from both cereal crops and cultivated are almost abandoned. This decrease in consumption tubers (Table 4 in Appendix). The cultivated cereals of these wild starch sources has increased the produc- were buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum and Fagopyrum tion of cultivated cereal crops in Mêdog County [32]. tataricum), finger millet (Eleusine coracana) rice, and maize. Three taro (Colocasia) species and four yam Seed oils (Dioscorea) species were cultivated as starch sources The Monpa in Mêdog County totally used six wild (Table 4 in Appendix). Of these, Dioscorea alata tubers edibles as the source of oil and fats. One of these have 80% starch in dry matter [28] and Colocasia species, Perilla frutescens, was also widely used in esculenta have 70–80% starch in dry matter [29]. Wild various tribal groups of the northeast India [33]. species also provided supplementary starch sources Moreover, Perilla frutescens oil is rich in natural com- (excluding the starch-rich seeds of Entada rheedii men- pounds that could be developed as nutraceuticals tioned in the previous section). Two of these were and/or phytomedicine [34]. palms (Table 4 in Appendix)inthegenusArenga.As Ellen points out [30], this is one of main starch- Medicinal plant use producing palm genera used for food in , the According to our survey results, 45 plant species are used other genera being Borassus, , Corypha, as herbal medicines for treating 13 different categories of Eugeissona,andMetroxylon. Starch production from human ailments. Botanical and ethnobotanical information Arenga micrantha is poorly known as it is endemic to about these plant species include scientific name, family Mêdog County [8] and is documented in this study name, vernacular name, part(s) used, the method of prepar- (Fig. 5). In contrast, Arenga pinnata is widely distrib- ation, the ailments treated, and voucher specimen number. uted in Asia, where it is most commonly served as Just over half medicinal plants were herbs (51.1%). This palm sugar [31], but is also used as a starch source agrees with reports from the lower elevation of Bhutan that [30]. Other starch sources were Alsophila articulata most of the ethnobotanical plants were herbs [25]. The and Chenopodium album. Today, the uses of Arenga common use of herbs as sources of medicine found in this micrantha, Arenga pinnata,andAlsophila articulata study were also indicated by studies conducted elsewhere Li et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:5 Page 8 of 26

Fig. 5 Arenga micrantha, a near endemic starch source. a A. micrantha showing leaves and stems. b Slicing the starch rich pith. c Slices of A. micrantha drying before storage

[35, 36]. Leaves (40%) are the most predominantly used two species, five use-reports), immune system diseases parts of these medicinal plants, followed by roots (22.2%), (FIC = 0.67; two species, four use-reports), and respira- fruits (15.6%), seeds (11.1%), stems (6.7%), whole plant tory system disorders (FIC = 0.6; three species, six use- (6.7%), branches (6.7%), and burgeons (4.4%). The prefer- reports) (Table 2). One of the important livelihoods of ence for leaf has also been recorded among the traditional the Monpa is hunting; the highest FIC for musculoskel- Tibetan doctors of Mustang district of the north-central etal system disorders is related to the damage caused by part of Nepal [35]. the accidents. Uses for all illnesses for wild medicinal plants are lo- An empirical observation on the use of medicinal cally classified into 13 categories (Table 2). These are plants by the Monpa people of Mêdog County study skin and subcutaneous tissue diseases, circulatory sys- area requires cross-validation with published literature tem, immune system, genitourinary ailments, neuro- on phytochemical and pharmacological properties of logical diseases, inflammation, gastrointestinal ailments, medicinal plants reported in this study to verify their ef- endocrine and metabolism disorders, respiratory system fectiveness. Our literature review of 21 medicinal plant disorders, leech bites, snake bites, abortion, musculoskel- species shows that local uses are generally consistent etal system disorders, and other diseases. FIC results for with known pharmacological properties. And based on a the 13 illness categories ranged from 0 to 0.75, with the literature review, 11 medicinal plant species had partial highest for musculoskeletal system disorders (FIC = 0.75; uses similar with reported pharmacological properties. Li et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:5 Page 9 of 26

Table 2 Informant consensus factor for traditional medicinal plant use categories

Illness category Number of taxa (Nt) Number of Informant consensus use-reports (Nur) factor (FIC) Circulatory system such as high blood pressure, altitude sickness 3 4 0.33 Endocrine and metabolism disorders such as diabetes 1 1 – Gastrointestinal ailments such as diarrhea, stomach pain, cholecystitis, 6 10 0.44 intestinal worms Genitourinary ailments such as menstrual problems 2 2 0 Immune systerm such as rheumatism 2 4 0.67 Inflammation, suppuration, infective, toothache, sinusitis, clear heat and 8 17 0.56 detoxification Malaria, mosquito and flea repellent, snake bite, leech bite 5 8 0.43 Morning sickness, abortion 2 3 0.5 Musculoskeletal system such as sprain, arthritis 2 5 0.75 Neurology diseases such as epilepsy, acute alcoholic intoxication 4 6 0.4 Others (heat stroke, refreshing, killing insects, rice blast) 4 5 0.25 Respiratory system disorders such as cold, sore throat and stuffy nose 3 6 0.6 Skin and subcutaneous tissue diseases such as wound, bruises, psoriasis, 16 28 0.44 allergy, scar, leprosy, bleeding, bad skin odor

To date, no research studies are available on the phyto- known indigo source [78]. Boiling the stems of Rubia chemical constituents or pharmacological properties of membranacea are used as a red dye. Mashed Curcuma the Cinnamomum contractum, Brassaiopsis hainla, longa tubers are used to dye threads yellow, while Eurya floribunda,orZanthoxylum motuoense. acuminata is used to dye threads green. In India, Eurya Literature studies indicated that seven species, namely acuminata is used as a mordant together with Rubia Artemisia vestita, Coix lacryma-jobi, Equisetum ramosis- cordifolia [79]. Whether E. acuminata is used in Mêdog simum, Oxalis corniculata, Persicaria capitata, Uncaria as a mordant with Rubia membranacea or Rubia wall- rhynchophylla, and Uncaria scandens, were used in ichiana is unknown at this stage, but is worth further Tibetan medicine to treat the same ailments [37]. Four investigation. This is because the Eurya (Penta- other species (Curcuma aromatica, Dendrobium catena- phylacaceae) is a known aluminium hyperaccumulator tum, Elaeocarpus braceanus, Sambucus williamsii) were group [80] that are effective as mordants for red dye possibly the substitutes for Curcuma longa L., Dendro- processes together with anthroquinone rich dye species, bium nobile Lindl, Terminalia chebula Retz., and including Rubia [81]. Sambucus adnata Wall. in Tibetan medicine. And only one species (Paris polyphylla) was used for different Paper making purpose by the Monpa than in Tibetan medicine. The Monpa community in Linzhi city is famous for Comparison of the information on traditional medi- hand-made paper for religious scripts that is made cinal plant use of Monpa ethnic group with ethno- from the stem bark of gardneri. Peeling botanical studies conducted in the lower elevation of the stem bark and removing the outermost layer of Bhutan, which has similar bio-climatic conditions the stem bark, the remaining parts are soaked in the [25], shows that only one wild medicinal plant, water, then stir the solution into a viscous state, pour Datura stramonium, is used in the same for tooth- the solution into a wooden flat mold, and dry it into ache (Table 3). a paper. Linzhi paper is better than Tibetan paper produced elsewhere. Natural dyes and mordants Strobilanthes cusia (Yang-shar-pa), Rubia wallichiana Fibers for rope and string (Lae-nyi), Rubia membranacea (Lae-nyi), Eurya acumi- Although Edgeworthia gardneri (Thymelaceae) can nata (Zem-shing), and Curcuma longa (Dgrong) are the also be used for making rope and string, the value of commonly used species in traditional dye processes. this species for paper making may be a reason why Fresh stems and leaves of Strobilanthes cusia are a well- this alternative use was not mentioned by local people Li

Table 3 Comparison of indigenous plant use and pharmacological properties of reported medicinal plants Ethnomedicine and Ethnobiology of Journal al. et Scientific name Reported phytochemical/pharmacological properties Indigenous use [38] Local use agreed with known properties Alocasia longiloba Miq. Livestock wounds [37] Anti-infective and treating burns Yes Altingia excelsa Noronha Antipyretic, aphrodisiac and carminative, expectorant, anti-inflammatory, and Refreshing Partial anticatarrh [39] Artemisia vestita Wall. ex Besser Clearing deficient heat, invigorating stomach, promoting diuresis, inducing the Stomach pain Yes expulsion of gas from the stomach or intestines [40] Begonia acetosella Craib Invigorate the circulation of blood [37] Leeches bite Yes Bidens pilosa L. Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, liver-protective, blood-pressure lowering, and Cold, sore throat, and stuffy nose Yes hypoglycemic effects [41] Brassaiopsis hainla (Buch.-Ham.) Seem. No relevant report found Arthritis Cinnamomum contractum H. W. Li No relevant report found Stomach pain Citrus medica L. Antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic [42] Cold Yes (2020)16:5 Coix lacryma-jobi L. Inhibit obesity and reduce blood lipids [43] High blood pressure Partial Craibiodendron henryi W. W. Sm. Antioxidant activities and vasodilator effects [44] Rice blast Curcuma aromatica Salisb. Antioxident, relieving pain and anti-inflammation, contributing flavor, and Heat stroke, irregular menstruation, Partial preventing cancer [45] and alcoholism Datura stramonium L. Ulcers, wounds, anti-inflammation, rheumatism, bruises, fever and toothache [46] Toothache Yes longifolia (Burm.f.) Wedd. Antitumor, rheumatism [47, 48] Preventing miscarriage, and bruises No Dendrobium catenatum Lindl. Enhancing immunity, resisting tumor, nourishing yin and clearing heat, Cold Yes benefiting stomach and promoting body fluid [49] Dichroa febrifuga Lour. Anti-malarial activity [50] Mosquito repellent Partial Duchesnea indica (Jacks.) Focke Anti-inflammatory, clearing heat, detumescence, and detoxification [51, 52] Detoxification and bruises Yes Elaeocarpus braceanus Watt ex C. B. Clarke Anxiety, depression, nerve pain, epilepsy, and migraine [53] Diarrhea No Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. high blood pressure and diabetes [54] Rheumatism No Fraxinus floribunda Wall. No relevant report found Sprain and sunburn Hovenia acerba Lindl. Alcoholism and vomiting [55] Alcoholism Yes Impatiens arguta Hook.f. & Thomson Amenorrhea, abdominal pain, and hemostasis [37] Stop bleeding Yes Isodon lophanthoides (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) H.Hara Enteritis, jaundice, hepatitis, laryngopharyngitis, lepromatous leprosy, and Intestinal worms Yes ascariasis [38] Leycesteria formosa Wall. Traumatic bleeding and fracture [37] Stop bleeding Yes pachycarpa Benth. Anthelminthic, a medication capable of causing the evacuation of parasitic Killing insects Yes intestinal worms [56] dioica Roxb. ex Willd. Diuretic, laxative, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic Cholecystitis Partial 26 of 10 Page properties [57] Morus wittiorum Hand.-Mazz. Antioxidant activity and cytotoxicity [58] Leprosy Partial Mosla dianthera (Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.) Allergic disease is involved in many diseases such as asthma, sinusitis, and Allergies Yes Li

Table 3 Comparison of indigenous plant use and pharmacological properties of reported medicinal plants (Continued) Ethnomedicine and Ethnobiology of Journal al. et Scientific name Reported phytochemical/pharmacological properties Indigenous use [38] Local use agreed with known properties Maxim. rheumatoid arthritis [59] Nicotiana tabacum L. Antitumor, detoxification and anti-inflammatory [60] Sinusitis Partial Oxalis corniculata L. Giddiness, cough, cold, fever, diarrhea, dysentery, antihelmintic [61] Morning sickness No Paris polyphylla ssp. Anticancer, snake bite, parotitis, mastitis, chronic bronchitis, injuries from Diabetes No fractures, as well as to stop bleeding [62] Persicaria capitata (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) H.Gross Anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, analgesic, and diuretic [63] Burns Yes Piper semiimmersum C. DC. Platelet aggregation induced by thrombin (IIa) or PAF in rabbit [64] Altitude sickness and irregular No menstruation Piper sylvaticum Roxb. Anthelmintic, antioxidant and hepatoprotective activities and treatment of Anti-inflammatory Yes bronchitis [65] Ricinus communis L. A Laxative, an anti-infective, or an anti-inflammatory drug [66] Bruises Partial (2020)16:5 Sambucus williamsii Hance Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, fracture healing [67] Bruises Yes Sauromatum venosum (Dryand. ex Aiton) Kunth Mitogenic and anti-proliferative activity [68] Suppuration No Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq. Constipation, back pain, snakebites, toothache, headache, skin infections, Psoriasis Partial cough [69] Stephania abyssinica (Quart.-Dill. & A.Rich.) Walp. Treat various stomach disorders, laxative, antidote, regulator of menstrual Rheumatism and snake bite Partial cycle [70] Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Febrifuge and epilepsy [71] Anti-malaria Yes Swertia nervosa (Wall. ex G. Don) C. B. Clarke Clearing away heat and toxic material, invigorating blood circulation and Diarrhea Yes regulating menstruation [72] Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. Relieve pain and stasis as well as for haemostatic, treat malaria, fever and Epilepsy No to cure rheumatism [73, 74] Uncaria rhynchophylla (Miq.) Miq. ex Havil. Treatment of hypertension, headache, and stroke [75] High blood pressure Yes Uncaria scandens (Sm.) Hutch. Treatment of nosotoxicosis, headache, dizziness, high fever in children, Epilepsy Yes seizures, convulsions [76] Viburnum cylindricum Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Cough, diarrhea, rheumatoid arthritis, and tumefaction [77] Anti-inflammatory, scar and Partial repelling flea Zanthoxylum motuoense C. C. Huang No relevant report found Bad skin odor ae1 f26 of 11 Page Li et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:5 Page 12 of 26

during our fieldwork. What was mentioned as a link to animistic beliefs, where even the new houses have source of rope was the aerial roots of Poikilospermum soul [83]. Laurocerasus undulata seeds oil and liquor are lanceolatum (). Based on taxonomic in- blended together during religious rituals by Monpa sights and from studies elsewhere, however, we sug- people, and then poured near the house to drive away gested that fiber species were under-reported (c. 14 misfortune and malevolent spirits. Nowadays, Monpa species in four families (, Moraceae, Urtica- culture has been deeply influenced by Tibetan culture ceae, and Thymeleaceae) were used compared to the and most of the Monpa people believe in Tibetan use of just one species (Poikilospermum lanceolatum) Buddhism. Cinnamomum iners and Elsholtzia blanda reported used for rope making). For example, Debre- are used as incense sources, which play an important geasia longifolia (Urticaceae) is known for the quality role in the religious rituals of the Monpa. Luculia gratis- ofitsfibersfromotherpartsofChinaandMillettia sima locally called “nom-meng” is also used as an offer- pachycarpa (Leguminosae) bark is also recorded used ing in religious rituals. for rope in the (www.efloras.org). It is The Monpa in Mêdog County have a unique fu- also likely that the bark of Moraceae (Ficus auricu- neral culture owing to the special geographical envir- lata, Ficus cyrtophylla, Ficus oligodon, Ficus semicor- onment, cultural background, and religious beliefs. data, Ficus subincisa, Morus alba,andMorus The practice of re-burial occurs when after burial, wittiorum) are also used for rope or twine. As is the the bones are dug out for cremation, and the ashes stem bark of several Urticaceae (Elatostema cunei- are scattered into the Yarlung Tsangpo River. This forme, Elatostema nasutum, Gonostegia hirta, Pilea cremation is ignited by the leaves of Altingia excelsa hilliana). locally called “Sang-shing,” which was used by the Monpa people to burn the body. In the meantime, House construction, tools, and utensils yak butter and liquor are periodically added to the Morus wittiorum, Celastrus glaucophyllus, Terminalia fire, along with offerings of rice, maize, and “Kon- myriocarpa, and Pinus wallichiana are the main timber pu” (Eleusine coracana). Secondly, put the leaves and species that the Monpa used for building their houses, stems of “Sra-gu” (Arundo donax) and the branches of which Terminalia myriocarpa is the best quality of “La-ga-dong-shing” (Garcinia nujiangensis)in of all timber species but cannot be chopped now be- turn. The leaves of “Sang-shing” are an essential ig- cause of it is vulnerable species according to the nition material for every funeral of the Monpa China Red Data Book [82]. Erythrina arborescens, people. Wendlandia tinctoria, Maesa rugosa, Radermachera yunnanensis, Abroma augusta, Macaranga denticu- Fish poisons lata,andPhrynium placentarium are used to make Seasonal fishing and hunting are great economic agricultural tools or daily-life utensils. For example, activities of Monpa ethnic community in addition Wendlandia tinctoria canbeusedtomakehiltsfor to agriculture. Fishing by poison was well-known knives and Erythrina arborescens is used to make throughout the world in historical time [84]. Derris carvingsforreligiousrituals. scabricaulis and Hydrocotyle javanica are poisonous Imperata cylindrica and Themeda villosa are used for plants used by the Monpa people in Mêdog County thatching, of which the quality of Imperata cylindrica is for fishing. A proper amount of poisonous plants better than Themeda villosa. Themeda villosa are cov- are soaked in the water, the fish will lose con- ered on the roof, paved 5 cm thick, and changed once in sciousness and float to the water within half an 3years, but Imperata cylindrica can be maintained hour. However, if you could not catch the fish in 7 years. time, the fish will wake up. No relevant reports In addition to use of bamboo (mainly Bambusa teres about these two poisonous plants were found. How- and Dendrocalamus tibeticus) for making household ever, the , saponins, and cyanide are the utensils, the rattan Calamus acanthospathus is used to main active ingredients of these fish poison species make baskets (Fig. 6). This widespread species is found [85]. in China (Tibet, Yunnan) as well as in Bhutan, India, , , Nepal, , and which is Calendar plants also used as a source of edible greens (from the young According to our investigation, Mussaenda pubescens shoots). and Meliosma pinnata are used for indicating the timeofsowingmaizebyMonpapeople.Mussaenda Ritual uses of plants pubescens blossoms and the weather is fine, then The Monpa belief systems, derived from the pre- you can sow the seeds in the field, but you cannot Buddhist Bon religion and from Tibetan Buddhism, also sow the seeds after the blooming period of Meliosma Li et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:5 Page 13 of 26

Fig. 6 Rattan as a basketry resource. a Men returning to their village with bundles of Calamus acanthospathus stems. b Details of harvested C. acanthospathus. c Splitting C. acanthospathus in preparation for weaving. d A woven rattan strap for a carrying basket. e. Completed winnowing basket. f Storage baskets

pinnata. The flowering period of Mussaenda pubes- (for fruits), Castanopsis clarkei,andGnetum pendu- cens is during June to July. The blooming period of lum (for edible nuts) (Fig. 7a, d) and Ophiorrhiza Meliosma pinnata isduringMaytoJune[86]. The medogensis (for vegetables). In contrast to the wide- flowering time of these two species is exactly the spread use of the poisonous Derris trifoliolata (Legu- same as maize planting time. minosae) containing , which occurs from East Africa to the Western Pacific, Monpa people Uses of endemic and near-endemic plant species use Derris scabricaulis which is endemic to Yunnan Uses of endemic and near-endemic species in 12 and Tibet. In terms of farming and equipment used by plant families reflect the plant diversity of this part local households, agricultural tools are made from the of the Indo-Burman biodiversity “hot-spot.” Uses of high-density wood of Radermachera yunnanensis (Bigno- these species have been rarely recorded in previous niaceae) while wine strainers and implements for adminis- studies. In our field survey, we recorded the uses of tering medicine are made from Dendrocalamus tibeticus narrowly distributed edible plants, for example, Are- (Poaceae). Litsea tibetana (Lauraceae) is a near endemic nga micrantha (used for starch), Hornstedtia tibetica seed oil source, as are spices from the endemic Li et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:5 Page 14 of 26

Fig. 7 Usual sources of food, spice and incense used by Monpa people. a Edible nuts from Castanopsis clarkei King ex Hook.f.. b Zanthoxylum motuoense C. C. Huang, a local source of spicy fruits. c Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco wood used for incense. d Gnetum pendulum C. Y. Cheng., a near-endemic species with edible fruits

Zanthoxylum motuoense (Rutaceae). Additional unusual from Africa (Eleusine coracana and Sorghum bi- records are the use of Cinnamomum contractum (Laura- color) and meso-America (Zea mays), cultivated ceae) as a tobacco substitute (a species only found in fruits from north-west China (Prunus persica), me- south-east Tibet and NW Yunnan, Morus wittiorum dicinal plants from Africa (Ricinus communis)and (Moraceae) fruits for medicine and the use of Garcinia North America (Datura stramonium), fuel from the nujiangensis (Clusiaceae), a species restricted to south-east Mediterranean Basin and the Middle East (Arundo Tibet, north-west, and west Yunnan for funeral rituals. donax), and three South American Solanceae that have come into “traditional” use (Nicotiana taba- How do plant uses reflect socio-economic change in cum, Solanum americanum and Solanum aculeatis- Mêdog County? simum). Although oral histories do not indicate Until October 2013, there were no major roads in when these species were introduced, the fact that Mêdog County and Monpa people practised swidden several introduced species are used ritually (maize, agriculture, supplemented by hunting and gathering Eleusine coracana and Arundo donax) is one indica- [87]. Despite the absence of roads, Monpa knowledge of tion of early introductions. Another indication is the plant uses reflect at least three categories of change. “traditional” medicinal use of introduced medicinal Firstly, through oral history, knowledge of plants plants such as Datura stramonium (Fig. 8). Al- that Monpa ancestors would have encountered in though D. stramonium seeds are known to be used Bhutan and Tibet prior to their migration to for treating toothache elsewhere [88], but the Mêdog. Secondly, a slow change in knowledge as in- method of preparation and administration used by troduced species were brought to Mêdog along the Monpa people is innovative (Fig. 8a–d).Thirdly,in trade routes. These species include cereal crops contrast to these “slow changes,” there is “fast Li et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:5 Page 15 of 26

Fig. 8 Experimentation and use of an introduced species in Monpa “traditional” medicine. a Datura stramonium fruits. The seeds are used to treat toothache. b, c Mixing D. stramonium seeds with pig fat. d Creating hot steam by placing a red hot iron in water, on which the Datura seed/fat mixture is placed. e Dendrocalamus tibeticus bamboo culm, sealed using rice around a protruding tube that is placed over the super-heated Datura and pig-fat infused steam to direct the ingredients to the sore tooth and remove the “insect” causing toothache

change” over the past decade that has speeded up Conclusions rapidly since the highway was opened in October Monpa traditional plant-based knowledge are prac- 2013. This is reflected in changes in traditional ticed, accumulated, and passed down from generation architecture and in trade in selected plant resources to generation. The Monpa people in Mêdog County (such as Dendrobium and Paris to China’sTCM still preserve most of traditional plant-based know- markets). ledge. We documented 194 wild plant species belong- While Monpa people still have a wealth of ethno- ing to 82 families 158 genera used for traditional botanical knowledge that has been passed down or- medicines, food, dyeing, timber, religion, and other ally from generation to generation, the construction purposes during our ethnobotanical survey. Overall, of a highway to Mêdog County has stimulated rapid this study provides a deeper understanding of the change and possible loss of traditional knowledge. Monpa traditional knowledge on wild plants. The The influence of modernization, social and eco- study suggests some wild medical plant species might nomic development, and the lack of interests shown have new active ingredients which are necessitated for by the young generation are seriously threatened to further investigation. Since the development of the ethnic culture of no written words [89]. Our modernization has changed the Monpa lifestyle and research shows that the increasing publicity and production structure, traditional knowledge and bio- availability of Tibetan and Chinese medicines has cultural diversity can be essential components to en- also affected the indigenous knowledge of the sure the sustainable development of Monpa Monpa. There are no exclusive traditional doctors community and may play a significant role in the sus- in the villages now and traditional medical know- tainable use and development of Tibetan plant ledge is about to disappear. resources. Li et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:5 Page 16 of 26

Appendix Table 4 Ethnobotanical inventory of Monpa in Mêdog County, Tibet, China Family name Scientific name Vernacular Habit Parts used Local use f CI Voucher name specimen number Acanthaceae Strobilanthes cusia Yang-shar- Herb Leaves Dye plant 0.25 0.25 WangYH0009 (Nees) Kuntze pa Actinidiaceae Saurauia punduana A-rong-ma Food (a kind of fruit) 0.78 0.78 18CS16811 Wall. buds and fruits Adoxaceae Sambucus williamsii Bha-mu- Leaves Leaves are baked on the fire with butter 18CS16839 Hance klung-shi used for treating bruises Adoxaceae Viburnum Uh-mu- Tree Fruits and Fruit oil soaked in alcohol for anti- 0.05 0.05 18CS16894 cylindricum Buch.- ling-shing burgeons inflammatory and soaked in honey for re- Ham. ex D. Don moving scar. Burgeons are boiled in water for repelling flea Adoxaceae Viburnum Tseh-za- Tree Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 18CS16949 erubescens Wall. klu-shing Altingiaceae Altingia excelsa Sang-shing Tree Branches, Fuel. Fruits are burned for refreshing. Making 0.53 0.53 18CS16869 Noronha fruits and tea burgeons Amaranthaceae Chenopodium Shar-ri-mu Herb Seeds Food (extracting starch) 0.09 0.09 18CS16857 album L. Anacardiaceae Choerospondias Ju-ru-ra Tree Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.16 0.16 18CS16940 axillaris (Roxb.) B. L. Burtt & A. W. Hill Apiaceae Pimpinella Gya-ma- Herb Whole Food (a kind of vegetable) 0.56 0.56 18CS16816 diversifolia DC. ga-dsa plant Apocynaceae Apocynaceae sp. Nu-ru Roots and Medicine used for treating allergy 18CS16899 stems Araceae Alocasia longiloba Bo-zong- Herb Roots Sliced roots used for anti-infective and treat- WangYH0069 Miq. gang-gyi- ing burns pa Araceae Colocasia affinis Bu-dong Herb Rhizomes Food (a kind of vegetable). Extracting starch 0.17 0.17 18CS16922 Schott Araceae Colocasia Bu-rong Herb Whole Food (a kind of vegetable). Extracting starch 0.11 0.11 18CS16824 antiquorum Schott plant Araceae Colocasia esculenta Pon-song Herb Whole Food (a kind of vegetable). Extracting starch 0.05 0.05 WangYH0184 (L.) Schott plant Araceae Remusatia pumila Pon-song Herb Whole Food (a kind of vegetable, and boiled in the 0.05 0.05 WangYH0029 (D. Don) H. Li & A. plant water) Hay Araceae Remusatia vivipara Ri-bo- Herb Leaves Food (a kind of vegetable, and boiled in the WangYH0178 (Roxb.) Schott srong water) Araceae Sauromatum Reh- Herb Whole Crushed plants are used for treating 18CS16876 venosum (Dryand. drong-ma plant suppuration ex Aiton) Kunth Araliaceae Brassaiopsis hainla Bhong- Tree Barks Boiled for treating arthritis 0.05 0.05 18CS16883 (Buch.-Ham.) Seem. dong- shing Araliaceae Hydrocotyle Sa-la- Herb Whole Fish poison plant 0.06 0.06 18CS16948 javanica Thunb. meng-ba- plant ren Araliaceae Schefflera khasiana Pyu-shing Tree Stems Musical instrument 0.22 0.22 18CS16897 (C. B. Clarke) R. Vig. Arenga micrantha Ta-shi Tree Stems Food (extracting starch). Forage 0.34 0.36 18CS16836 C. F. Wei Arecaceae Arenga pinnata Ta-shing Tree Stems Extracting starch 0.16 0.16 WangYH0132 Li et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:5 Page 17 of 26

Table 4 Ethnobotanical inventory of Monpa in Mêdog County, Tibet, China (Continued) Family name Scientific name Vernacular Habit Parts used Local use f CI Voucher name specimen number (Wurmb) Merr. Arecaceae Calamus B-nyu-mu/ Vine Burgeons Food (a kind of vegetable and fruit). Making 0.43 0.43 18CS16864 acanthospathus Ba-ser and fruits agriculture tools Griff. Arecaceae Caryota obtusa Chu-shing Tree Stems Making chopsticks 0.09 0.09 18CS16819 Griff. Asparagaceae Polygonatum Ren-gyi- Herb Burgeons Food (a kind of vegetable) 0.05 0.05 WangYH0194 oppositifolium tsong (Wall.) Royle Asparagaceae Rohdea nepalensis Ka-lu Herb Tender Food (a kind of vegetable) 18CS16958 (Raf.) N.Tanaka stems Athyriaceae Diplazium Ta-wai Fern Tender Food (a kind of vegetable) 0.34 0.34 18CS16817 esculentum (Retz.) stems and Sw. leaves Balsaminaceae Impatiens arguta Gyang- Herb Leaves Crushed leaves are used for stopping 0.33 0.33 WangYH0050 Hook.f. & Thomson tsong- bleeding. Forage hwen Begoniaceae Begonia aborensis Gyu-bu Herb Stems Food (a kind of vegetable) 0.08 0.08 18CS16834 Dunn Begoniaceae Begonia acetosella Pa-pa-man Herb Leaves Mashed leaves are used for treating leeches 18CS16936 Craib bite Berberidaceae Holboellia latifolia Chou- Vine Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.2 0.2 18CS16898 Wall. dang-lie-si Bignoniaceae Radermachera Gya-srong- Tree Stems Making agriculture tools 0.08 0.08 18CS16944 yunnanensis C.Y.Wu ni-shing dichotoma Pa-mi- Tree Fruits Extracting oil 0.13 0.13 18CS16818 G. Forst. shing Brassicaceae Cardamine Shu Herb Whole Food (a kind of vegetable) 18CS16852 macrophylla Willd. plant Brassicaceae Rorippa dubia Ling-zong- Herb Whole Food (a kind of vegetable) 0.31 0.31 18CS16835 (Pers.) H.Hara mer-mu plant Campanulaceae Codonopsis affinis Gyang- Herb Fruits Spice plant 0.27 0.27 WangYH0037 Hook.f. & Thomson phu-sen Campanulaceae Codonopsis inflata Gyang-hu- Vine Fruits Spices plant 0.05 0.05 WangYH0038 Hook.f. ser Cannabaceae Celtis tetrandra Long- Tree Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.2 0.2 18CS16903 Roxb. shing Caprifoliaceae Leycesteria formosa Pya-min- Shrub Leaves Medicine uesd for stopping bleeding WangYH0170 Wall. mon Celastraceae Celastrus Ling-shing Twining Trunks Timber plant WangYH0048 glaucophyllus shrub Rehder & E. H. Wilson Clusiaceae Garcinia La-ga- Tree Fruits and Food (a kind of fruit). Fuel 18CS16931 nujiangensis C. Y. dong- stems Wu & Y. H. Li shing Clusiaceae Garcinia Kor-mang Tree Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) WangYH0027 pedunculata Roxb. ex Buch.-Ham. Combretaceae Terminalia Ba-lem- Tree Trunks Timber plant WangYH0124 myriocarpa Van shing Heurck & Müll. Arg. Streptolirion volubile Pa-ner-ju Herb Whole Forage 18CS16885 Edgew. plant Li et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:5 Page 18 of 26

Table 4 Ethnobotanical inventory of Monpa in Mêdog County, Tibet, China (Continued) Family name Scientific name Vernacular Habit Parts used Local use f CI Voucher name specimen number Compositae Acmella oleracea Nyi-ra-ki Herb Burgeons Food (a kind of vegetable) 0.13 0.13 WangYH0056 (L.) R. K. Jansen Compositae Artemisia vestita Myer-rang- Herb Leaves The powder of “xin zei” are wrapped in 18CS16868 Wall. ex Besser ma leaves and rolled up, and then placed on the navel as moxibustion, used for treating stomach pain Compositae Bidens pilosa L. Sgrong- Herb Leaves Boiled leaves used for treating cold, sore 0.05 0.05 18CS16872 treng-rong throat and stuffy nose Compositae Crassocephalum Gyal-pa- Herb Whole Food (a kind of vegetable) 0.78 0.78 18CS16809 crepidioides (Benth.) ehn plant S. Moore Compositae Gynura procumbens Wen-gya- Herb Aerial Forage 0.06 0.06 WangYH0121 (Lour.) Merr. pa parts Compositae Helianthus Yang-gyal Herb Tubers 18CS16854 tuberosus L. Cornaceae Cornus capitata Da-ming- Tree Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.08 0.08 18CS16950 Wall. der-shing Cucurbitaceae sp. Doe-shung Vine Tubers Washing hair and clothes 0.19 0.19 18CS16823 Cucurbitaceae Momordica dioica Su-ba Herb Leaves Food (a kind of vegetable), boiled leaves 0.31 0.31 18CS16874 Roxb. ex Willd. used for treatinng cholecystitis. Washing hair and clothes Cucurbitaceae Solena heterophylla Gang-gu- Herb Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.25 0.25 18CS16873 Lour. long Cucurbitaceae Thladiantha Su-pa Vine Tubers Washing hair and clothes 0.34 0.34 18CS16863 cordifolia (Blume) Cogn. Cucurbitaceae A-pa-kas Vine Seeds Food (a kind of vegetable) 0.06 0.06 18CS16943 tricuspidata Lour. Cucurbitaceae Zehneria japonica Ka-gyi Herb Whole Food (a kind of vegetable) 0.19 0.19 18CS16826 (Thunb.) H.Y. Liu plant Cupressaceae Platycladus shug-pa Tree Stems Religious ritual use WangYH0017 orientalis (L.) Franco Cyatheaceae Alsophila articulata A-gyi Tree Stems Making alcohol beverages. Extracting starch 0.16 0.18 WangYH0108 J. Sm. ex T. Moore & Houlston Cyperaceae Scirpus rosthornii Gong-bu- Herb Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.06 0.06 18CS16946 Diels ueh Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea alata L. Dgro-ton/ Vine Rhizomes Food (a kind of vegetable). Extracting starch 0.08 0.08 WangYH0140 Gyu-dang Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea Bo-zon-za- Vine Leaves Food (a kind of vegetable). Extracting starch. 0.06 0.06 WangYH0059 melanophyma Prain lu and Forage & Burkill rhizomes Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea Pan-dang Vine Roots Extracting starch. Forage. Food (a kind of 0.34 0.34 18CS16889 pentaphylla L. fruit) Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea sp. Ju-dang Vine Rhizomes Food (a kind of vegetable). Extracting starch 0.36 0.36 18CS16877 Ebenaceae Diospyros lotus L. A-mu- Tree Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 18CS16954 dong-ba- shing Ebenaceae Diospyros variegata Ang-dri- Shrub Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) WangYH0104 Kurz pha Elaeagnaceae Elaeagnus conferta Trong-pa- Shrub Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 18CS16952 Roxb. lin Elaeagnaceae Elaeagnus Dar-ma Shrub Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.27 0.27 18CS16859 Li et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:5 Page 19 of 26

Table 4 Ethnobotanical inventory of Monpa in Mêdog County, Tibet, China (Continued) Family name Scientific name Vernacular Habit Parts used Local use f CI Voucher name specimen number umbellata Thunb. Elaeocarpaceae Elaeocarpus Gar-shar- Tree Seeds and Boiled seeds used for treating diarrhea. 0.5 0.5 18CS16858 braceanus Watt ex dong- fruits Food (a kind of fruit) C. B. Clarke shing Elaeocarpaceae Elaeocarpaceae sp. Dang-bu- Tree or Fruits Extracting oil 0.19 0.19 18CS16942 ru shrub Equisetaceae Equisetum Nyer-tshyu Herb Roots and Food (a kind of fruit). Boiled liquid for 0.3 0.3 18CS16878 ramosissimum Desf. aerial parts treating rheumatism Ericaceae Craibiodendron Shar-kor- Tree Branches Put in the field for treating rice blast 18CS16890 henryi W. W. Sm. shing and leaves Ericaceae Gaultheria Tsong-pa- Shrub Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.08 0.08 18CS16861 straminea R. C. ling Fang Euphorbiaceae Macaranga Tsa-la-ga Tree Leaves Making agriculture tools 18CS16909 denticulata (Blume) Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae Ostodes paniculata Ga-ren-de- Tree Seeds Extracting oil 0.06 0.06 18CS16840 Blume shing Euphorbiaceae Ricinus communis L. Gyal-mu- Herb Leaves Leaves are baked on the fire with butter 18CS16888 na used for treating bruises. Seed oils Fagaceae Castanopsis clarkei Suo-na Tree Fruits Nut 0.11 0.11 18CS16938 King ex Hook.f. Gentianaceae Crawfurdia Suo-long- Herb Leaves Food (a kind of vegetable) 0.09 0.09 18CS16831 angustata C. B. ma and Clarke Gentianaceae Swertia angustifolia Pau-sein- Herb Leaves Medicine used for treating malaria WangYH0023 Buch.-Ham. ex D. po and roots Don Gentianaceae Swertia nervosa Pa-bhu- Herb Leaves Leaves are boiled in the water used for 18CS16841 (Wall. ex G. Don) C. ser-pu and roots treating diarrhea B. Clarke Gnetaceae Gnetum pendulum Gyong-ga- Vine Fruits Nut 0.22 0.22 18CS16959 C. Y. Cheng sa Hydrangeaceae Dichroa febrifuga Yo-gor- Shrub Branches Branches are burned as mosquito repellent 18CS16901 Lour. shing Hypericaceae Hypericum bellum Kor-ma- Shrub Fruits Food (sweet taste) WangYH0110 H. L. Li shing Hypoxidaceae Molineria capitulata Tsan-ngan Herb Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.27 0.27 18CS16829 (Lour.) Herb. Lamiaceae Elsholtzia blanda Na-gang- Herb Aerial Incense plant WangYH0071 (Benth.) Benth. shing parts Lamiaceae Elsholtzia feddei Pa-pi Herb Leaves Spice plant for making blood sausage 18CS16882 H.Lév. Lamiaceae Isodon Ra-khu-la- Herb Whole Boiled liquid for treating intestinal parasites WangYH0172 lophanthoides dang plant (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) H.Hara Lamiaceae Mosla dianthera Shing- Herb Leaves Chewed leaves used for treating allergies 18CS16871 (Buch.-Ham. ex nang-gu-lu Roxb.) Maxim. Lamiaceae Perilla frutescens (L.) Nang Herb Seeds Extracting oil 0.08 0.08 WangYH0199 Britton Lamiaceae Pogostemon Na-mu- Herb Whole Food (a kind of vegetable) 0.2 0.2 18CS16865 brevicorollus Y.Z.Sun sein plant Li et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:5 Page 20 of 26

Table 4 Ethnobotanical inventory of Monpa in Mêdog County, Tibet, China (Continued) Family name Scientific name Vernacular Habit Parts used Local use f CI Voucher name specimen number Lauraceae Cinnamomum Shing-tsa Tree Roots Crushed roots are used for stomach pain. 0.28 0.28 18CS16892 contractum H. W. Li Tobacco substitutes Lauraceae Cinnamomum iners Lho-pa- Tree Leaves Incense plant 0.06 0.06 WangYH0030 Reinw. ex Blume sang-shing Lauraceae Litsea tibetana Yen Snying- Shrub Fruits Extracting oil 0.09 0.09 18CS16934 C. Yang & P. H. shing Huang Leguminosae Amphicarpaea Shor-ru Herb Roots Forage WangYH0094 bracteata subsp. edgeworthii (Benth.) H.Ohashi Leguminosae Derris scabricaulis Ang-du-ru Liana Roots Fish poison plant 0.16 0.16 18CS16821 (Franch.) Gagnep. Leguminosae Erythrina Tsa-shing Tree Stems and Stems are used for carving materials. Making 0.25 0.32 18CS16891 arborescens Roxb. leaves agriculture tools Leguminosae Entada rheedii Kor-lo-ba- Vine Fruits Food (remove toxicity by boiling 10 times) 0.22 0.22 18CS16846 Spreng. ru Leguminosae Millettia pachycarpa Ngra-ru Liana Seeds and Crushed seeds and roots are used for killing WangYH0061 Benth. roots insects Loranthaceae Tripodanthus Tsa-snying Shrub Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 18CS16928 acutifolius (Ruiz & parasitic Pav.) Tiegh. Malvaceae Abroma augusta Go-men- Shrub Whole Making agriculture tools 0.06 0.06 WangYH0003 (L.) L.f. ta-dong- plant shing Malvaceae Malvaceae sp. Pu-lang- Tree Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.06 0.06 18CS16827 shing Malvaceae Sterculia lanceifolia Bha-ba-ba- Tree or Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.23 0.23 18CS16910 Roxb. gu shrub Malvaceae Urena lobata L. Tsi-ming- Herb Whole Religious ritual use 0.22 0.22 18CS16893 uenh plant Marantaceae Stachyphrynium La-gu-la-la Herb Leaves Making agriculture tools WangYH0196 placentarium (Lour.) Clausager & Borchs. Melanthiaceae Paris polyphylla ssp. A-du-ba- Herb Rhizomes Boiled liquid for treating diabetes 18CS16853 du Menispermaceae Stephania Ru-dour Woody Roots Boiled the dried roots used for treating WangYH0177 abyssinica (Quart.- vine rheumatism and snake bite Dill. & A.Rich.) Walp. Menispermaceae Stephania sp. Yong-ju- Woody Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.22 0.22 18CS16932 pin vine Moraceae Ficus auriculata Ba-drong- Tree Fruits and Food (a kind of fruit). Forage 0.06 0.08 18CS16960 Lour. ma-shing leaves Moraceae Ficus cyrtophylla Pa-ju-ma Tree or Fruits Beverage 18CS16915 (Wall. ex Miq.) Miq. shrub Moraceae Ficus oligodon Miq. Ba-ler- Tree Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.09 0.09 18CS16918 drong-ma Moraceae Ficus semicordata Drong-ma Tree Fruits and Fruits are eaten directly. Leaves are used as 0.39 0.43 18CS16832 Buch.-Ham. ex Sm. leaves sandpaper to burnish the bowl Moraceae Ficus subincisa Rel-me- Tree Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 18CS16925 Buch.-Ham. ex Sm. sgrong-ma Moraceae Morus alba L. Sems-ling- Tree Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.17 0.17 18CS16902 shing Li et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:5 Page 21 of 26

Table 4 Ethnobotanical inventory of Monpa in Mêdog County, Tibet, China (Continued) Family name Scientific name Vernacular Habit Parts used Local use f CI Voucher name specimen number Moraceae Morus wittiorum Sems-ling- Tree Stems Boiled liquid for treating leprosy. Timber 0.25 0.25 18CS16947 Hand.-Mazz. shing plant Musaceae Musa sanguinea A-nyi-lae- Herb Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.3 0.3 WangYH0176 Hook.f. sih Nephrolepidaceae Nephrolepis Ta-wai Fern Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.33 0.33 18CS16896 cordifolia (L.) C. Presl Fraxinus floribunda Tra-per- Tree Barks Boiled liquid for treating sprain and sunburn 18CS16912 Wall. shing Omphalotaceae Lentinus sajor-caju Bren-ba- Fungi Mushroom Food (a kind of vegetable) 18CS16933 Fr. ba-mu Omphalotaceae Lentinus sp. Tsyer-gen- Fungi Mushroom Food (a kind of vegetable) 18CS16930 ba-mu Ophioglossaceae Ophioglossum Gu-gu- Grass Burgeons Food (a kind of vegetable) 0.06 0.06 18CS16844 vulgatum L. meng Orchidaceae Dendrobium Shi-hu Herb Stems Boiled liquid for treating cold 18CS16856 catenatum Lindl. epiphytic Oxalidaceae Oxalis corniculata L. Ju-bu- Herb Leaves Eaten directly, used for treating morning 18CS16867 uenh sickness Pentaphylacaceae Eurya acuminata Zem-shing Tree or Leaves Dye plant and mordant WangYH0067 DC. shrub Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca acinosa Mye-mye- Herb Leaves Spice plant 0.06 0.06 18CS16881 Roxb. gang-pu- mon Pinaceae Pinus wallichiana Shog- Tree Trunks Timber plant 0.2 0.2 WangYH0128 A.B.Jacks. shing- nang Piper Pi-pi-ling Climber Leaves Boiled the dried leaves used for treating 18CS16845 semiimmersum C. altitude sickness and irregular menstruation DC. Piperaceae Piper sp. Sa-pa Shrub or Leaves Mashed leaves used for stopping bleeding 18CS16822 climber Piperaceae Piper sylvaticum Pang-ser Climber Leaves Mashed leaves used for anti-inflammatory WangYH0188 Roxb. Poaceae Arundo donax L. Sra-gu Bamboo Leaves Fuel WangYH0097 and stems Poaceae Bambusa teres Li-shing Bamboo Culms Making bow and arrow 0.09 0.09 WangYH0092 Munro Poaceae Coix lacryma-jobi L. Phon-pa- Herb Seeds Boiled liquid for treating high blood 0.27 0.27 WangYH0179 lin pressure. Ornament plant Poaceae Dendrocalamus Ha-po Bamboo Culms and Food (a kind of vegetable). Making 0.1 0.1 WangYH0160 tibeticus Hsueh & T. shoots. agriculture tools P. Yi Poaceae Eleusine coracana Kon-pu Herb Seeds Making alcohol beverages. Extracting starch 0.47 0.5 WangYH0001 (L.) Gaertn. Poaceae Imperata cylindrica Shing-pu Herb Leaves Thatching 0.06 0.06 18CS16843 (L.) Raeusch. Poaceae Phyllostachys Suo-nong Bamboo Burgeons Food (a kind of vegetable) 0.08 0.08 18CS16907 mannii Gamble Poaceae Sorghum bicolor (L.) Phin-nang Herb Stems and Stems are eaten directly. Seeds are used for 0.05 0.12 18CS16814 Moench seeds preparing alcohol beverages Poaceae Themeda villosa Pi-li Herb Leaves Thatching 0.11 0.11 18CS16842 (Lam.) A.Camus Li et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:5 Page 22 of 26

Table 4 Ethnobotanical inventory of Monpa in Mêdog County, Tibet, China (Continued) Family name Scientific name Vernacular Habit Parts used Local use f CI Voucher name specimen number Polygonaceae Fagopyrum Pin-dae- Herb Leaves Food (a kind of vegetable). Forage 0.13 0.15 18CS16813 acutatum (Lehm.) mu Mansf. ex K.Hammer Polygonaceae Fagopyrum Ka-la Herb Fruits Food (extracting starch) 0.13 0.13 18CS16855 esculentum Moench Polygonaceae Fagopyrum Ka-la Herb Seeds Making alcohol beverages. Extracting starch 0.17 0.21 WangYH0182 tataricum (L.) Gaertn. Polygonaceae Persicaria capitata Long-pa- Herb Whole Medicine used for burns 0.05 0.05 WangYH0155 (Buch.-Ham. ex dang- plant D.Don) H.Gross mon-nang Polygonaceae Persicaria nepalensis Gong- Herb Whole Food (a kind of fruit). Forage 0.06 0.08 18CS16919 (Meisn.) Miyabe sgrer-ming plant Polygonaceae Polygonum Gu-ju-ma- Herb Tender Food (a kind of vegetable) 0.09 0.09 18CS16820 chinense var. shing stems and ovalifolium Meisner leaves Polyporaceae Polyporus sp. Shing-pa- Fungi Mushroom Food (a kind of vegetable) 0.09 0.09 18CS16917 mu Primulaceae Embelia floribunda Ju-bu-ru Vine Fruits and Food (a kind of fruit) 0.09 0.09 18CS16927 Wall. roots Primulaceae Maesa marioniae Ker-seh-ru Shrub Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 18CS16953 Merr. Primulaceae Maesa rugosa C. B. Lho-ku- Shrub Leaves Making agriculture tools 0.09 0.09 18CS16957 Clarke mer-shing Ranunculaceae Clematis Vine Leaves Forage WangYH0058 napaulensis DC. Rhamnaceae Hovenia acerba Shi-pi Tree Fruits Boiled or eaten directly, used for alcoholism 18CS16884 Lindl. Rhamnaceae Rhamnus napalensis Da-gor- Shrub Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.06 0.06 18CS16923 (Wall.) M. A. shing Lawson Rosaceae Chaenomeles Tong-ju- Tree Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.27 0.27 18CS16921 cathayensis (Hemsl.) bha-bu C. K. Schneid. Rosaceae Duchesnea indica Pu-tshu-la- Herb Fruits Food (a kind of fruit), boiled the dried fruits 0.41 0.41 18CS16875 (Jacks.) Focke gong used for detoxification and treating bruises Rosaceae Laurocerasus Dan-bur Tree or Seeds Extracting oil. Religious ritual use WangYH0068 undulata (Buch.- shrub Ham. ex D. Don) M. Roemer Rosaceae Prunus persica (L.) Lin-shing Tree Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.33 0.33 18CS16956 Batsch Rosaceae Rubus ellipticus Sm. Tser-gong Shrub Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.33 0.33 18CS16850 Rosaceae Rubus niveus Tu-lu-tse- Shrub Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.05 0.05 18CS16815 Thunb. gong Rosaceae Rubus sumatranus Ga-bu- Shrub Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.14 0.14 18CS16939 Miq. dong-tse- gong Rubiaceae Luculia gratissima Nom- Tree or Flowers Religious ritual use WangYH0051 (Wall.) Sweet meng shrub Rubiaceae Mussaenda Meng-gya- Shrub Leaves Seasonal indication 0.06 0.06 18CS16941 pubescens Dryand. bai-dong- shing Li et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:5 Page 23 of 26

Table 4 Ethnobotanical inventory of Monpa in Mêdog County, Tibet, China (Continued) Family name Scientific name Vernacular Habit Parts used Local use f CI Voucher name specimen number Rubiaceae Ophiorrhiza Ming-zi- Herb Whole Food (a kind of vegetable) 0.11 0.11 18CS16862 medogensis H. Li ma-mu plant Rubiaceae Rubia Lae-nyi Herb Stems Dye plant WangYH0114 membranacea Diels Rubiaceae Rubia wallichiana Lae-nyi Herb Stems Dye plant 0.3 0.3 WangYH0127 Decne. Rubiaceae Spiradiclis sp. Mi-zu-ma Herb Whole Food (a kind of vegetable) 0.09 0.09 18CS16833 plant Rubiaceae Uncaria Gou-du Liana Stems Boiled liquid for treating high blood 18CS16962 rhynchophylla (Miq.) pressure Miq. ex Havil. Rubiaceae Uncaria scandens Tsae-tsu Liana Leaves Boiled liquid for treating epilepsy 18CS16905 (Sm.) Hutch. Rubiaceae Wendlandia Mehi- Tree or Stems Making agriculture tools 0.17 0.17 18CS16900 tinctoria (Roxb.) DC. neng- shrub nang-shi Rutaceae Citrus medica L. Hpo-rang- Tree or Fruits Medicine used for treating cold nying-pa shrub Rutaceae Toddalia asiatica Ae-pi-ka- Shrub Seeds Seed oil with butter is used for treating 18CS16961 (L.) Lam. ba epilepsy Rutaceae Zanthoxylum Gei Tree Fruits Crushed fruits are used for treating bad skin 0.56 0.56 18CS16895 motuoense C. C. odour. Spice plant Huang Sabiaceae Meliosma pinnata Beng-shar- Tree Flowers Seasonal indication 0.06 0.06 18CS16945 (Roxb.) Maxim. shing Scrophulariaceae Buddleja asiatica Yang-ren Shrub Whole Making alcohol beverages 18CS16914 Lour. plant Solanaceae Datura stramonium Yun-ma- Herb or Seeds Medicine used for treating toothache 0.06 0.06 18CS16837 L. chu-dong subshrub Solanaceae Nicotiana tabacum Da-mu-ga Herb Leaves Crushed leaves used for treating sinusitis 18CS16906 L. Solanaceae Solanum Gu-ju-shu Herb Burgeons Food (a kind of vegetable) 0.14 0.14 18CS16838 americanum Mill. Solanaceae Solanum Kha-lang- Herb to Roots Crushed roots and the leaves of Luffa 18CS16866 aculeatissimum gyi subshrub cylindrica are used for treating psoriasis Jacq. Solanaceae Solanum torvum Kha-lang- Shrub Fruits Food (a kind of vegetable) 0.2 0.2 18CS16812 Sw. gyi Taxaceae Torreya grandis var. Gae-long- Tree Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 18CS16880 yunnanensis shing (W.C.Cheng & L.K.Fu) Silba Edgeworthia Sho-gu- Tree Barks Papermaking 0.05 0.05 WangYH0006 gardneri (Wall.) shing/ Ju- Meisn. pu -shing Urticaceae Debregeasia Rang- Shrub Roots Boiled liquid for preventing miscarriage and 18CS16870 longifolia (Burm.f.) shing treating bruises Wedd. Urticaceae Elatostema Tsen-tsen- Herb Aerial Forage 0.08 0.08 WangYH0091 cuneiforme pa parts W.T.Wang Urticaceae Elatostema Da-mi-ru Herb Leaves Food (a kind of vegetable boiled in the 18CS16848 nasutum Hook.f. water first) Urticaceae Gonostegia hirta Ro-gyi-ba Herb Whole Food (a kind of vegetable) 0.08 0.08 18CS16924 Li et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:5 Page 24 of 26

Table 4 Ethnobotanical inventory of Monpa in Mêdog County, Tibet, China (Continued) Family name Scientific name Vernacular Habit Parts used Local use f CI Voucher name specimen number (Blume ex Hassk.) plant Miq. Urticaceae Pilea hilliana Hand.- Ru-gong- Herb Leaves Food (a kind of vegetable) 0.05 0.05 WangYH0159 Mazz. su-gang Urticaceae Poikilospermum Ba-mi-ru Shrub Leaves Leaves are used for forage. Aerial roots are 0.34 0.36 18CS16830 lanceolatum and aerial used for rope (Trécul) Merr. roots Urticaceae Urtica mairei H. Lév. Gang- Herb Leaves Food (a kind of vegetable) WangYH0040 dang-gyal- zu Violaceae Viola sp. Pian-mier Herb Whole Boiled liquid for clearing heat and WangYH0066 plant detoxification Vitaceae Tetrastigma Ju-bae-ru Liana Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.28 0.28 18CS16828 serrulatum (Roxb.) Planch. Xanthorrhoeaceae Hemerocallis fulva Chu-ta Herb Leaves Food (a kind of vegetable) 0.17 0.17 18CS16887 (L.) L. and flowers Zingiberaceae Alpinia bambusifolia Tar-gang Herb Flower Food (sweet taste) 0.2 0.2 WangYH0101 C. F. Liang & D. buds Fang Zingiberaceae Alpinia malaccensis Tar-gang Herb Flower Food (sweet taste) 0.2 0.2 WangYH0103 (Burm.f.) Roscoe buds Zingiberaceae Curcuma aromatica Dgrong Herb Roots and Boiled roots used for treating heat stroke, 18CS16879 Salisb. leaves irregular menstruation and boiled leaves used for treating alcoholism Zingiberaceae Curcuma longa L. Dgrong Herb Roots Dye plant 0.22 0.22 WangYH0070 Zingiberaceae Hedychium Ma-mi-niu- Herb Burgeons Food (a kind of vegetable) 0.05 0.05 18CS16849 coccineum Buch.- mu Ham. ex Sm. Zingiberaceae Hornstedtia tibetica Su-mi Herb Fruits Food (a kind of fruit) 0.08 0.08 18CS16847 T.L.Wu & S.J.Chen Voucher specimen number with CS means collection section

Funding Supplementary information This work was supported by the Strategic Priority Research Program of Supplementary information accompanies this paper at https://doi.org/10. Chinese Academy of Sciences (No. XDA20050204, XDA19050301, and 1186/s13002-020-0355-7. XDA19050303) and the 13th Five-year Informatization Plan of Chinese Academy of Sciences (No.XXH13506), and the National Public Scientific Data Center for Basic Sciences. Additional file 1. The Tibetan alphabet (Consonants). Additional file 2. The Tibetan alphabet (Vowels). Availability of data and materials All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this Acknowledgments published article and its supplementary information files. We are very thankful to the local people in Beibeng Village, Jiangxin Village, Xirang Village, Gelin Village, De’ergong Village, Badeng Village, Acang Village, Dexing Village, Hezha Village, Naerdong Village, Bangxin Village, and Ethics approval and consent to participate Gengbang Village in Mêdog County, who have provided valuable The authors asked for permission from the local authorities and the people information related to the useful plant resources. Extremely gratitude is interviewed to carry out the study. expressed to the families of Rinchin lhamo for their kind hospitality, and to Padma Dorje for his genuine assistance. Consent for publication The people interviewed were informed about the study’s objectives and the ’ Authors contributions eventual publication of the information gathered, and they were assured SL and YHW conceived and designed the research. SL, YZ, YJG, LXY, and that the informants’ identities would remain undisclosed. YHW collected the data. YZ and YJG provided the botanical identification. SL analyzed the data and prepared the manuscript. LXY and SL took the photographs. YHW reviewed the manuscript. All authors read and approved Competing interests the final manuscript. The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Li et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:5 Page 25 of 26

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