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EMPIRE in the HOLD: the BRITISH MARITIME CULTURAL LANDSCAPE in the WESTERN GREAT LAKES 1759-1796 By

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EMPIRE in the HOLD: the BRITISH MARITIME CULTURAL LANDSCAPE in the WESTERN GREAT LAKES 1759-1796 By EMPIRE IN THE HOLD: THE BRITISH MARITIME CULTURAL LANDSCAPE IN THE WESTERN GREAT LAKES 1759-1796 by Thomas Kurt Knoerl A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of George Mason University in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy History Committee: Director Department Chairperson Program Director Dean, College of Humanities and Social Sciences Date: Fall Semester 2012 George Mason University Fairfax, VA Empire in the Hold: The British Maritime Cultural Landscape in the Western Great Lakes 1759-1796 A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at George Mason University by Thomas Kurt Knoerl Master of Arts East Carolina University, 1994 Director: Randolph Scully, Professor Department of History Fall Semester 2012 George Mason University Fairfax, VA This work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-noderivs 3.0 unported license . ii DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my mother, Phyllis M. Knoerl, who gave me a love of history and always encouraged me to travel and see the places where history was made, both above and beneath the water. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In 1988 Dr. Stuart and Pat Scott invited me to participate in an underwater archaeological investigation of the cove area at Old Fort Niagara. It was my first exposure to underwater archaeology at an inundated colonial site. From the first I was hooked and I will be forever grateful to them for introducing me to an amazing world of material culture and the archaeologists and historians that work in this field. Researching and writing this dissertation led me to amazing places full of incredibly generous people to whom I owe much. First I would like to thank the numerous research libraries and archives I’ve visited. Folks like Brian Dunnigan at the William L. Clements Library, Brian Jaeschke at Fort Michilimackinac, Jere Brubaker at Old Fort Niagara, Thomas Evans at the Smithsonian Museum of the American Indian, the staff at the Library of Congress, the Detroit Public Library, historian Roland Nafus, and Fran Robb at Fort St. Joseph gave their time and guidance. Dr. Keith Widder graciously shared his research materials, advice, and enthusiasm with me. Moral support came from many individuals including Dan Horner, Mark Baker, and Maria Stoughton. Doctors Jim Allan, John Jensen, Gordon Watts Jr., Brad Rodgers, T. Mills Kelly, and Roderick Mather provided me with examples of academic professionalism that I have tried to emulate. Fellow PhD candidate Michelle Damian has been a sounding board, a reader during the whole process, and a great friend. She encouraged me to go for my PhD after taking the class I taught in underwater archaeology for sport divers many years ago. I am indeed in her debt. For the past few years my friends Dick Harless, Mary Linhart, Lee Ann Ghajar, Jerry Prout, Jenny Reeder, Nona Martin, and Jeff Weir, provided encouragement and sound advice.. I’d also like to acknowledge my dissertation committee for their comments and advice: Dr. Rosemarie Zagarri, Dr. Christopher Hamner, and my director Dr. Randolph Scully who taught me much and prodded me to do better when I needed it. Finally, I’d like to thank my family including my in-laws Charles and Patricia Wright and my parents John L. and Phyllis Knoerl who provided so much support over the years. My brother Dr. John J. Knoerl has been my role model since I was born and helped create the maps in this dissertation. Most importantly, my wife Nancy, my son Ian, and my daughter Kathryn made the process possible through their patience and love over the last seven years. They sacrificed much without complaint and understood when I went off on research trips to the Great Lakes, while I kept the family dining room table covered in books, articles, logbooks, and countless scraps of paper, and when I sequestered myself to write. All three of them are great scholars in their own right. Nancy is an experienced and patient teacher. Ian inspired me with his passion for his own research, and Kathryn with her love of writing and learning. I hope to emulate all of them over the future course of my academic career. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page List of Tables .................................................................................................................... vii List of Figures..................................................................................................................viii List of Abbreviations AND Symbols................................................................................. ix Abstract............................................................................................................................... x Chapter One: IT’S HARD TO SHIP A COW IN A CANOE ............................................ 1 The Changing Shape of Empire ...................................................................................... 2 Indians, Traders, and Soldiers in the Empire .................................................................. 5 Trade and Material Culture ............................................................................................. 9 Projecting Power into the West..................................................................................... 10 New Perspectives on the British Empire and the Western Great Lakes ....................... 12 The Maritime Cultural Landscape................................................................................. 13 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 25 Chapter Two: THE SMALL CRAFT MARITIME CULTURAL LANDSCAPE........... 27 Geography..................................................................................................................... 30 The Indian Maritime Cultural Landscape ..................................................................... 30 The French Period ......................................................................................................... 40 The British Period ......................................................................................................... 46 The British Army .......................................................................................................... 58 Trading in the Far West................................................................................................. 62 Conclusion..................................................................................................................... 73 Chapter Three: EXPANDING THE MARITIME CULTURAL LANDSCAPE ............. 76 A Maritime Cultural Landscape on Paper..................................................................... 80 The Geographic and Environmental Challenges........................................................... 85 Expanding the Maritime Cultural Landscape: The British Enter the Region ............... 90 Navy Island ................................................................................................................. 101 Labor, Disease, and the Chain of Command............................................................... 108 v The Role of Conflict in Shaping the Maritime Cultural Landscape ........................... 112 Development of the Maritime Cultural Landscape on the Upper Lakes..................... 127 Conclusion................................................................................................................... 129 Chapter Four: ARMED FOR TRADE: TRANSPORTING EMPIRE INTO THE WESTERN GREAT LAKES ......................................................................................... 134 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 134 Building Large Sailing Vessels on the Western Great Lakes ..................................... 140 Hull Forms................................................................................................................... 144 Building the Vessels.................................................................................................... 148 Green Wood ................................................................................................................ 150 The Chain of Command .............................................................................................. 154 Life on the Inland Sea ................................................................................................. 164 The British Army and the Development of Merchant Shipping ................................. 176 Revolution and Control............................................................................................... 182 The Return of Merchant Shipping............................................................................... 188 Conclusion................................................................................................................... 191 Chapter Five: CONFLICT AND CONTROL: BRITISH – INDIAN RELATIONS 1760- 1796................................................................................................................................. 193 Artifacts as Elements of Culture ................................................................................. 196 The Pontiac Uprising................................................................................................... 205 The American Revolution ..........................................................................................
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