CEU eTD Collection

In partialIn fulfi N EGOTIATING D ANCE l lment Second Reader: Professor Francisca Haan de Submitted Centralto European University Supervisor: Professor Hadley Z. Renkin C of theof requirements for the degree Masterof Arts of in AMPAIGN IN AMPAIGN Department ofGender Studies R Budapest, ESPECTABILITY Zsuzsanna Varga Gender Studies 2013 By

Hungary

I NDIA

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- 1910 A NTI

- CEU eTD Collection sexualities Keywords: suchcolonial as anxieties, defining Europea proper anti eugenic in nineteenth late violating century sexuality dangerous of form a as entertainements dance Indian campaign dance 2002). Stoler 1996, (Stoler framework theoretical anti the situating by and (1978) biopower inte entertainment. Indian of form a to attitude British acceptable as

an act of negotiating boundaries of colon of boundaries negotiating of act an - anti British the of rpretation dance campaign shared sexual anxieties with the metropole, the with anxieties sexual shared campaign dance The thesis The Western

understandings understandings anti - dance campaign, dance - centric a revealed, has studies the studies conventions about respectability. These conven These respectability. about conventions of British participation in the anti the in participation British the the

that body, health and morality as signifying race and nation. and race signifying as morality and health body, - demarcation of demarcation dance campaign by applying Michel Foucault concept of of concept Foucault Michel applying by campaign dance h Biih eomr ietfe sxaiy once to connected sexuality identified reformers British the

A BSTRACT ial British society and as an attempt an as and society British ial - ac cmag i An tlrs postcolonial Stoler‟s Ann in campaign dance i

colonial boundaries, boundaries, colonial n behaviourcolonies inthe The discourse analysis of the Briti the of analysis discourse The

- dance campaign in colonial India colonial campaignin dance h tei atmt a new a attempts thesis The at the same time reflected time same the at discursive formation of formation discursive tions were embedded were tions .

to prescribe to sh anti sh Th e -

CEU eTD Collection Professor FranciscaHaan for de in invested he energy his for year, academic the throughout me supporting for Professor Renkin, Z. Hadley supervisor, my thank to like would I all, Above thesis. this finish to me helped kindness and patience their with who those all to thanks sincere my express to like would I developing my thinking my developing her commentsher on A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii . Also I would like to express my gratitude to to gratitude my express to like would I Also .

my drafts.

guidance, and the and guidance,

CEU eTD Collection CHAPTER NAUTC 3: THE INFLUENCING O PUBLIC CHAPTER NAUTC 2: THE CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCT OFTABLE CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ABSTRACT 3.4 3.3 3.2 3.1 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3 P 2.2 2.1 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 RODUCTION

D T E P R T G S T C P T I I NFLUENCING NFLUENCING NDIAN RIMARY PACE OWERAND HE HE HE HEORETICAL XPLORED AND ONCLUSION ESEARCH ENDER ANCING E E N XPENSES OF THE THE XPENSES OF XPANDING AUTCH ,

M W

...... I

N THE N S OBILITY AND OBILITY AND ...... G OMEN OURCES Q IRLS AND R UESTION AND UESTION

...... Q P EFORMERS F UBLIC UESTION RAMEWORK U A P C NEXPLORED NEXPLORED ERFORMERS NTI ATEGORY OF ATEGORY

......

- ...... T O N N EMPLE EMPLE V

PINION ...... AUTCH : AUTCH ASYMBOLICH AS SITE KNOWLEDG H QUESTION: PINION

ISIBILITY ION ...... A M S THES

...... ETHODOLOGY

P ...... A

T ...... C

ROSTITUTES P SPECTS OF THEOF SPECTS ...... ABLE OF CONTENTS ABLE AMPAIGN B ROSTITUTION

...... RITISH RITISH ...... iii ...... R

......

...... : EFORMERS EFORMERS ......

B ...... RITISH

...... A ...... NTI ...... - ......

D R

...... OF DIFFERENCE P ANCE EFORMER EFORMER ERCEIVED E PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTION E ...... C ...... AMPAIGN ...... K ......

...... NOWLEDGE NOWLEDGE ......

......

......

. III

42 40 35 34 32 30 27 25 22 20 16 15 10

II

7 6 5 1

I

CEU eTD Collection BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER 4: 3.8 3.7 3.6 3.5 S P ECONDARY RIMARY

C T T “W HE HE ONCLUSION HAT IS IMMORAL IN HATISIMMORAL N N S AUTCH AS A AUTCH AS OURCES L CONCLUSION ITERATURE

......

......

...... S IGNIFYING C IVILIZATIONAL

...... E NGLAND

...... R ACIAL ,

...... IS IMMORAL IN ISIMMORAL ...... D ...... D IVIDE IFFERENCE iv ......

...... I

NDIA ...... ” ......

......

61 60 60 54 52 48 46 45

CEU eTD Collection 6; 6, January India (1894 Conference annuall the as such debates, reform social on introduced were 2.5) Section accept to Br the from and parties, dance attend and organize to not Indians, from commitment for India of Times ( prostitutes elite Indian the by women, o continuation the against 198 (Srinivasan Madras in operating Association Reform Social Hindu the around centering reform, influenced Western British of effort joint the was campaign ( occasion festive on entertainments provide to performers the invited who elite, Indian the of The services. sexual for available were time same the at and dancing, and singing from lived entertainers professional India) South Nadu, Tamil 1998:627). (today India of Presidency Madras the in 1890s the oei 025 i dti also detail in 2012:5, Soneji the the , 1895, November 5, 4 5, 1895,November , This thesis examines the British participation in the anti the in participation British the examines thesis This discouragement of dance entertainments (nautch or nautch parties) by asking personal asking by parties) nautch or (nautch entertainments dance of discouragement h ivtto of invitation the

Singh 1997:164, Singh The . Therefore the campaign relied heavily on influencing popular opinion popular influencing on heavilyrelied campaign the Therefore .

h Tms f India of Times The 1899, January 6, January 1899, anti - 1895; - ac cmag etniey rtcsd nin eae acr, h as who dancers, female Indian criticised extensively campaign dance performances that performances 1898 8: ; epoig acn wmn cmol rfre t a nau as to referred commonly women, dancing employing f Indian

177 TheIndia Times of proceedings C - and urged legal resolutions to identify dancing women as as women dancing identify to resolutions legal urged and 1901 see

HAPTER ). Reformers ). 6 ). At the same time, reformers time, same the At ). s hpe 2 Chapter 10, Janua 1901, , , f ac i o te programme the on is dance if The Times of India of Times The r efor of the Indian National Social Conference 1899, Conference Social National Indian the of 1:

caused British disapproval British caused

I mers Scin 2.1 Section , appealed to colonial government to take a stand a take to government colonial to appealed 1 NTRODUCTION

, 1898, January, 1898, 5,6 y , 8 5, ry

and a layer of Indian society supportive of supportive society Indian of layer a and , 1894, January 13, 6; 13, January 1894, , ), literature was distributed on the the on distributed was literature ), ) Te ntain f h anti the of initiation The . y held Indian National Social Social National Indian held y

- strived to gain public support public gain to strived dance campaign launched in launched campaign dance ,

The Times of India Times of The ( in detail see Chapter 2, 2, Chapter see detail in

occurred in the homes the in occurred The Times of of Times The : p : roposals not itish ( , 1899, , 1899, - Parker Parker dance The The tch tch

CEU eTD Collection femininities supporters However, Indian 1998:97). (Whitehead society Indian for degrading and shameful as performer regarded and entertainers, dance of profession the of part unavoidably was who Indiansperformances 1985:1873). (Srinivasan of homes the to marches as such anti organized, the (Levine of course prostitute the in elite, a Indian asthe among dancer the of image 2003: the reinforcing thus prostitution, to fametheir dancers lost from alienated became prostitutes, significance religious and se the emphasized huge was campaign the time, long at successful a for help legislative secure to failed movement to due women dancing Bombay theof marginalization precededbythe was legislation However, formal 1995:51). (Whitehead and Mysore Madras, Calcutta, in 1930s, and 1920s the in already effect in were Act 1988:197). (Srinivasan extinct dancer temple 1998:627). abolishing 1947, in Act dancer) (temple Devadasi spread press (ma by thepopular nautch the of effects harmful 192 The common belief belief common The The ).While previously inviting dancing women was a symbol of pres of symbol a was women dancing inviting previously ).While However, by this time the temple dancing tradition in South India was almost almost was India South in tradition dancing temple the time this by However, acceptable for the Indian nationalist revival, and aimed aimed and revival, nationalist Indian the for acceptable Indian an informal, community level community informal, an

xual component of the dancing women‟s work, denying denying work, women‟s dancing the of component xual of the of ca

pin a an had mpaign as entertainers and consequently their income, they increasingly turned turned theyincreasinglyincome, entertainers consequently asand their oppression of dance performances dance of oppression h pesr o te anti the of pressure the the Catre 19:1. h d The 1992:21). (Chatterjee

Br inly Mailand by The Madras Nuce 19, ulr 1900) Fuller 1893, (Nautches itish itish a lw sprsig eiiu ad non and religious suppressing laws ual their their

and xesv history, extensive elite Indian customers Indian elite

Indian Social Reformer Social Indian (Wald 2009:20) (Wald 2

- ac cmag. let h anti the Albeit campaign. dance - dance campaign collective action was was action collective campaign dance

t fnl oet a te Madras the was moment final its .

nig oe, categorized women, ancing were mobilized mobilized were The British and Indian reformersIndian and British The The IndianThe Reformer Social

otne t ognz dance organize to continued

n reformer and (Chatterjee 1992:21) (Chatterjee s

shared was that sex work work sex that was shared to detach omnte (Parker communities t he

- the native female native the religious dancers dancers religious t tige and welfare welfare and tige

o construct o i standpoint was was standpoint

r artistic merit artistic r the cultivation the .

As the the As - dance ). new

as as ly ly s

CEU eTD Collection appa the reformers from apart campaign the of dimensions other exploring allows approach This Levine2003). 2002, 1995, (Stoler inclusion and exclusion of dynamism anti race. and hierarchy moral sexuality, of measure complex meanings newgained entertainer the problem, social a addressed campaign anxieties the morality, and society Indian of reform a Prince ofWales when visiting Victor Prince Albert of tour the on acceptable was nautch a giving 1889 in While programmes. tours, official att openly be could entertainments dance attitude British the on effect profound had campaign dancers female Indian and males audience European the for fascination of source a was dancer female the and gatherings, social of features popular were lewdn the of unaware characterise dances reflected campaign the of figuredegraded the from music and dance of - ac cmag b situating by campaign dance

(Chatterjee 1992:23) (Chatterjee The thesis argues that while the British supporters of the anti the of supporters British the while that argues thesis The carried a different meaning for the British colonial community. colonial British the for meaning different a carried

of maintaining the boundaries of the European community. community. European the of boundaries the maintaining of s and its its and s to spread Western Western spread to d

uoen as Europeans after the anti the after

the inner tensions of Indian of tensions inner the negative negative

ess and sexuality tied to tied sexuality and ess through the interpretation of the of interpretation the through - , in 1905 in , dance campaign was launched was campaign dance (Paxton oil consequences social attending Indian dance entertainments, but but entertainments, dance Indian attending

Madras(Thurston 190 civilisation

a nt ae (Wald rare not was 1999:86 t n psclna faeok ht mhszs the emphasizes that framework postcolonial a in it it was unanimously dropped from the programme of the of programme the from dropped unanimously was it ended, and ended, . Th - 87) 3 these amusements. these mrl uget f h nautch the of judgment moral e

society lee widespread alleged British British Furthermo .

o performer n 9

could be features be could :

to Indian society. However, this problem problem this However, society. Indian British reformers British 133

(Whitehead 1998:97) (Whitehead apin reflect campaign dance entertainments as well. While While well. as entertainments dance

).

2009:18) I propose an interpretation of the the of interpretation an propose I

these were dropped from official official from dropped were these e itmc bten European between intimacy re, wom Nevertheless, these dances these Nevertheless, a Te British The . - n. dance campaign claim campaign dance prostitution prostitution rent claims of British British of claims rent The Indi The

, and nautch became a becamenautch and , The British campaign British The of public events, like events, public of ed British

un , British however interested and and interested an anti an of anti anti was more more was colonial - female nautch nautch - - , these these , dance dance dance ed

CEU eTD Collection entertainment, endangering reformers to believed identify I boundaries: the changing anti British The policing. community segregation, informal was campaign the entertainments, dance regulate t by and prostitutes, as identified performers the of isolation the by directions: two from attempted chapter This issue. significant more British the however, British the traditions Indian the describe Ibriefly consequences. anti the of contextualization colonial poss it makes situation. metropole, the of code sexual the (Collingham of campaigns behaviour and sexuality can nautch over interpretation Indian or Western of antagonism the than complicated e oct o the of boycott he The society, but This also suggests also This perceive the

attending dance entertainments became grounds for for grounds became entertainments dance attending discussion discussion have

2001:181, Stoler 2001:181,

bet dlnaent nytebudre built boundaries the only not delineate to ible

h Erpa commu European the Britain rts attd t Ida dne entertainments dance Indian to attitude British h Biih nee ntv space native entered British the pcfc nesadns f respectability of understandings specific be be be d

en also the mobility and unregulated sexuality of the native female performer female native the of sexuality unregulated and mobility the reformer‟s prahd y sig h claimed who asking by approached greatly influen greatly

iltd by violated s iie into divided is see and , efracs Hwvr a clna gvrmn ws eutn to reluctant was government colonial as However, performances.

shed

that it that s 1995:95 -

light on dance campaign, by introducing its claims, pursuits and and pursuits claims, its introducing by campaign, dance

conceptualization of these per these of conceptualization it as a process of negotiating of process a as it

oee, h ca the however, Europeans demonstrates process. dynamic a was ced conventions about sexual behaviour sexual about conventions ced iy Through nity. -

97 the internalboundariesBritish of w chapters two ) , and the and , 4

tedn Indian attending ,

significantly more successful at successful more significantly intermingled that the purification of purification the that

pin a cnetaie i a in contextualized was mpaign anti

f analysis of - participating in an Indian dance dance Indian an in participating dance campaign can be connected to connected be can campaign dance of ,

h rgt o eie appropriate define to right the This - between the between colonial boundaries. colonial ooil boundaries colonial

ac cmag scedd in succeeded campaign dance formers and performances is a is performances and formers ih aie oit, n also and society, native with public criticism. public reformers

dance I C In . and strengthening colonial colonial strengthening and postcolonial s

of morality. The debate debate The morality. of performances. hapter

colonial society.colonial colonial were disapproving, disapproving, were rts n Indian and British

in the colonies colonies the in 2 approach also also approach

In

I provide a a provide I society was was society the level of level the

The The that Chapter 3 3 Chapter

colonial British British

purity w

ere as as

CEU eTD Collection bodily inherent in performances. affecting difference belief strong the shows dance Indian of learners and fans enthusiast for website community to attention paying worth question a is this that felt you dance, other any never like is dance Indian but or person, similar, be could performance your practice enough with or success, for chances limited have you birth, by Indian are you unless that are options The (http://indiaitanc.network.hu/). whether inquiring 1 ra nationalism, late to arguments these connect and employs thesis stud is the of boundaries the defining 1.2 the a of body circulating the are These us. with colonial of consequences the now, past the is threatening as seen were that bodies entertainm dance Indian of suppression prestige as well. individual and performances could dances

priua, u idctv eape s pl pos poll a is example indicative but particular, A

R performance. ESEARCH ied through ied n this In I n order to maintain personal, national and racial privilege racial and national personal, maintain to order n

a these as , racial

mean ce and s and ce research Q discourse analysis, to analysis, discourse

ized

1 UESTION AND UESTION

the construction of construction the the potential health hazards were hazards health potential the

you think Hungarian girls are capable of mastering Indian dance dance Indian mastering of capable are girls Hungarian think you

opportunities Other and the belief that the performer‟s body significantly determines significantly body performer‟s the that belief the and Other ol rsl in result could exuality. aim

analyze I

British M

For the purposes of this research, I selected to study the distal the study to selected Iresearch, this of purposes the For ETHODOLOGY

o itrail sexuality. interracial for Western

to

losing social social losing colonial community colonial i dangerous dangerous

dentify the building blocks of the campaign material, campaign the of blocks building the dentify power relations power how - ns a a particular a was ents ieenh etr cnetos f respectability, of conventions century nineteenth . However, However, . simply have to practice a lot. Fortunately lot. a practice to have simply

- centric h Biih anti British the t

d o ed 5 situations, such as the anti the as such situations,

sexualities and sexualities n a Hungarian website dedicated to Indian Indian to dedicated website Hungarian a n oiin that position the formulation and the fact, that it is place is it that fact, the and formulation the icuss f tahn sxaiy to sexuality attaching of discourses believed . Although the context of the campaignthe of context the Although .

between 1892 between The - ac campaign dance

to be to an example of marginalizing marginalizing of example an

bodies financial ol undermine could

the British attempts at attempts British the

the same as that of an Indian Indian an of that as same the dangerous dangerous in the campaign. the in - - 1910 dance campaign are campaign dance

xess f these of expenses

? only a few people people few a only contributed contributed

to the to This question This European European British dance, dance, d on a on d The The

the the the to CEU eTD Collection on the on authorship: shared a display sources these tracts, of compilations As audience. beginnings its debatesince and women of situation the on essays short 18 of combination the is source concise This 1900. in titled monograph p Pice of un Society Literature reformers media 1.3 analysis understanding tothebroad points 2006:viii.) interconnected what reveal to sources the investigate yet, being life, immoral an leading prostitutes, be to reported were dancers female Professional reformers British but power, studying by not and perspective, constructivist settings cultural and the of context

P RIMARY RIMARY epce ad a access had and respected ftetm.Teeas reveal also These time. the of hs hss eis n rcs rte ad dtd y oil uiy soitos and associations purity social by edited and written tracts on relies thesis This apers apers .

T n o cus what course of and by on he he se S

o OURCES reform movements in India, and discusses and India, in movements reform lcn mr epai on emphasis more placing

akoe f hs nlss s h booklet the is analysis this of backbone e o maig aon se around meanings of web n Indian n discourses (Phillips discourses

The wrongs of Indian w Indian of wrongs The salse a agae to language a established der the title the der ,

s h cnet f discourses. of context the as

r eform

in 1892 in

(Nautches 1983) (Nautches was Nautches: An a An Nautches:

. The common purpose of the texts was to influence a wide wide influencea to was texts the ofpurpose common The . o h bs Ida society Indian best the to

and

mte fo te apin material. campaign the from omitted the communication b communication the a signifi was Hardy 2002:19 Hardy s omanhood published by Mrs. Marcus Jenny Fuller Jenny Marcus Mrs. by published omanhood

of th revealing

represent 6 ult, edr cas n race and class gender, xuality,

e terme ppeal to ppeal directly ; and the compilations of moral tracts moral of compilations the and ; cant h ideologies the s

apoc te et fo te s the from texts the approach I

- “ native n t in 21 prostitution

the relations between language and and language between relations the e

published by the Madras Christian Christian Madras the by published the advancement the ducated Hind ducated ), to focus on focus to ), e anti he etween colonial government and and government colonial etween performances and performers. performers. and performances

( hpe 2 S 2, Chapter - nautch nautch

” producing the text. text. the producing

and us, 1893 us, social class, regional regional class, social

“ s of the anti the of s nautch rm the from

hs qualitative This ection

, (MacKenzie (MacKenzie in the series series the in ”.

general, general, 2 - Indian dance in the the in .3 ocial ocial The ) I . on on e

CEU eTD Collection highlightingIndia,those Southby in institution devadasi the of examination an provides work u the describes and perspective ethnographic an takes 1988) (Srinivasan Srinivasan Amrit of speci predominantlyp from the traditions art and religious cultural of development the affected seriously and consequences social considerable 1.4 Native Papers. Indian the of proceedings India of residents of archive the used I anti the from collected material and Reports Law 2 Volume India, 1995:56) Spectator reprinted sample anti Indian the from selection articles, testimonies reformers of opinion the described hand nique religious and social roles of the Indian temple dancer community. This fundamental This community. dancer temple Indian the of roles social and religious nique

E fic XPLORED AND

h anti The tracts thesesince However, ally, that of the devadasi (temple dance) tradition (Soneji 2012:5). The seminal work seminal The 2012:5). (Soneji tradition dance) (temple devadasi the of that ally, f rts standpoint British of .

articles (Phillips 2006:67) or 2006:67) (Phillips as used also I

-

dance ca issued in issued , and and , m

U from e NEXPLORED NEXPLORED

The The and Castes The work, ethnographic Thurston‟s Edgar from British affiliated British from apin s n xesvl suid ujc, s h mvmn had movement the as subject, studied extensively an is campaign

erspective of rvdd pc fr eae on debate for space provided Indianreformers National Social Conference and published a weekly a published and Conference Social National Snj 2012:5). (Soneji 1909 that 1909 ie o India of Times . t lo a t b epaie, ht h feunl quoted frequently the that emphasized, be to has also It The Indian Social Refor Social Indian The - dance campaign, campaign, dance

A were issued by British authors and groups, and authors British by wereissued SPECTS OF THE OFTHE SPECTS

was a compilation of ethnographic descriptions, Indian descriptions, ethnographic of compilation a was the

as a group. group. a as

reconstruction and dance revival reconstruction traditions,more of as well. as well. , rm 80 to 1880 from Indian 7 hrfr te apin a approached was campaign the Therefore

- dance campaign. C campaign. dance hs a b rgre a a as regarded be can this

A n NTI ewspapers, journals, such as such journals, ewspapers, O mer n the other hand other the n - D the nautch question, question, nautch the 90 that 1910, , published in Madras (Whitehead (Whitehead Madras in published , ANCE C AMPAIGN AMPAIGN ontrasting th ontrasting that served the British British the served that , these ,

and contained and t ie of ribes representative review of the of review

incorporated incorporated covered the the covered ese sources ese The Indian The s out or or

h a , CEU eTD Collection anti anti the in involvement betwee divide growing anti the support to agents British the that suggests and dancers, temple efforts medical and evangelical army British the in disease venereal growt 1995 (Whitehead courtesans and class devadasis on projected working of image the and dancers, professional Indian of treatment understanding that stresses also She in approaches sanitary and language medical Judith dancers. between difference hier the recognize to refused convenience administrative of sake the for British the of image Western service sexual from apart embellishment cultural provided who workers, sex of categories indigenous of incorporation the to section a devotes She century. nineteenth the in prostitute Indian the Chatterjee2009). Ratnabali Wald 1995, and 1998), (Parker law the of enforcement the and legislation prostitutes, as women dancing identify prof against taken be to action governmental demanded the by used language journalistic universalistic, on focuses she Nevertheless, society. Indian of i Western for controversies unacceptable as seen were that peculiarities - nautch campaign in her book exploring imperial sexual politics (Levine 2004:191 (Levine politics sexual imperial exploring book her in campaign nautch o te aeoy f rsiuin n Ind in prostitution of category the of h

(Chat the eje 1992: terjee surveillance surveillance

the prostitute was imposed on Indian female entertainers, and entertainers, female Indian on imposed was prostitute - Ida ad rts scey was society British and Indian n dance campaign. Philip campaign. dance 19 of nautch women women nautch of - 26). asd the caused -

dance movement dance h pooe ta rgrls o ter ritc eis the merits, artistic their of regardless that proposes She

Whitehead studied the gradual introduction of Victorian Victorian of introduction gradual the studied Whitehead s

medical conceptualization of prostitution stimulated the the stimulated prostitution of conceptualization medical of prostitution in Englan in prostitution of

Wl 2009 (Wald in her studyher in marginalized marginalized to 8 was was ia

ly on ly pa Levine includes a brief discussion brief a includes Levine pa the regulation of prostitution in North India. North in prostitution of regulation the

anti rudd n mdcl otx t prevent to context medical a in grounded

investigated (Chatterjee 1992, Whitehead Whitehead 1992, (Chatterjee investigated (Wald 2009:19 (Wald ) follows the process of the construction ofconstruction the processof the follows Se rus ta te obnto of combination the that argues, She .

- dance high :51 of -

). Similarly, Erica Wald traces the traces Wald Erica Similarly, ). class devadasis and points to the the to points and devadasis class psil rao fr European for reason possible a sinl efres nml to namely performers, essional oeet Sne h campaign the Since movement. courtesans, nautch women and and women nautch courtesans, d

significantly influenced the the influenced significantly - 21). She also notes that a a that notes also She 21). nfluenced reformists reformists nfluenced prostitute suggests archical archical

on the on - 193) was that .

CEU eTD Collection anti anti the part other to expanded r particular that from sources my collect anti the where Madras, The noted. be can entertainments nautch the to attitude campaign, the of decades two first reformers British was marriage ritual This domesticity. and marriage of formall the in T the treat to false ex valid a as deity, the to dedication divine dancer‟s temple the seeing and 1995:50) (Whitehead sensuality 1995:49); Whitehead respectability 200 Levine 1988:178,192, (Srinivasan perspective Western a from morality Indian of misinterpretation B the and performers female byBritish simply prostitution. the as temple dancing temple that scholarship,former w agrees and sexuality commercial on ban a as system devadasi the on ban the reads She he different phases different he - n attack on Victorian marriage ideals (Levine 2003:192). (Levine ideals marriage Victorian on attack n dance campaign on Indian society is society Indian on campaign dance first decade first y married woman, woman, married y literature mentioned Above - planations dance campaign, this framework expands also. expands framework this campaign, dance 3 11; of :191); n itra sntr ad med and sanitary Victorian in long .

T not did British the campaign the of and he temporal framework I selected I framework temporal he

of the campaign were characterised by different concerns. For instance, instance, For concerns. different by characterised were campaign the of

anti recognizing nautch women as a sign of uncivilized state and exotic exotic and state uncivilized of sign a as women nautch recognizing

s possible possible

- of India of p ac campaign dance - oetn Wsen mgre o Indian on imageries Western rojecting dance as Philippa Levine suggested (Levine 2003:192), 2003:192), (Levine suggested Levine Philippa as ritish participation in the anti the in participation ritish

reasons for British disapproval of dance entertainments, dance of disapproval British for reasons

campaign as one single analytic category analytic single one as campaign (Whitehead 1995:52 (Whitehead from 1892 to 1892 from hs a se te esn fr regulati for reasons the seen has thus was a deeply misunderstood local tradition, identified tradition, local misunderstood deeplya was

a well a started

e in Hwvr a te anti the as However, gion. 9

- studied studied

cl nesadns (Chatterjee understandings ical Siiaa 1988:195 (Srinivasan 1910, -

53)

highlight that the temple dancer temple the that highlight simply for my analysis is approximately the the approximately is analysis my for While the social the While the area - , in describing the consequences of of consequences the describing in , region under study study under region dance campaign as campaign dance period in which a change in the the in change a which in period While I While (Soneji 2012:5), the 2012:5), (Soneji not recognized as marriage as recognized not

society and grounding grounding and society believe these claims are claims these believe ) , and I attempted to to attempted I and , consequences , as some works do. works some as , - ath campaign nautch n vi g the result of result the s ot India, South is olatin Indian native native Indian

restrictions 1992:7 g notions notions g

of the the of was it is it

the - ith ith by by 8. a CEU eTD Collection sexua and sexualities of creation the identifies Foucault1978). (Foucault Europeanhistory modern in prestigeand power from exclusion and Foucault 1.5 from colonialsociety was campaign the of focus the however, civilization, Indian of backwardness the of proof further a as interpreted attempts anti the that Hinduism and erotic erotic, the between the of conceptualization different of problem the dissect to thesis anti in embedded is nationalism that movement revivalist a of form the in Indians 1900). however byidentified person not years early the society. British colonial of boundaries the complicated anti the analyse to is study my of aim the Therefore campaign British the

T HEORETICAL .

Furthermore, since I believe it belongs to the area of cultural studies, I do not attempt not do I studies, cultural of area the to belongs it believe I since Furthermore, A limitation of this this of limitation A h tertcl onain of foundations theoretical The

‟s of Indian society Indian of womanhoodin The anIndian ofwrongs( is outline this theevents describedof , that appear that ,

The History of Sexuality exposing how sexuality became the grounds for inclusion inclusion for grounds the sexualitybecame how exposing Sexuality of History The (Whitehead 1998:91) (Whitehead - ac cmag cn e iutd n h bodr otx of context broader the in situated be can campaign dance of the of F RAMEWORK , and not religious conversion. notreligious, and conversion.

ed British British im , a historiography was reconstructed by Nagendra Singh (Singh 1997 (SinghSingh reconstructedbyNagendra historiography awas ,

oe o th on posed the in the campaign the in

(Fuller 1900 (Fuller

the eradication of professional dancers, non dancers, professional of eradication the work ard Co sacred. anti

is that the that is - and to account for these is these for account to and dance campaign is a neglected topic: European actors are actors European topic: neglected a is campaign dance

British e , Wald 2009:21 Wald , hs thesis this crig h religi the ncerning

(Srinivasan 1988:178) (Srinivasan

anti 10

and power of acts as identities l ooil oit hs trce ls attention. less attracted has society colonial - dance are based on the seminal work work seminal the on based are

- ) ath campaign nautch .

movement spark movement Th Unfortunately, the historiography of historiography the Unfortunately, e existence of temple dancers was dancers temple of existence e u conflict ous

well , I , - beyond the scope of this this of scope the beyond find it important to note, to important it find - religi

and ed resistance among among resistance ed as it it as f hitaiy and Christianity of British - ooils and colonialism ous or religious or ous h relationship the negotiated evangelical a rgues that that rgues of Michel Fuller Fuller direct

and and ) , ,

CEU eTD Collection 1985). (Mosse throug source of a as prostitute the establishing in language medical and legal debates, social of power the the how that structure. social and respectability ideology, sexual of relationship g the explores She sexuality. subjects sexualized an that demonstrates she approach, Foucault‟s the of repeal and implementation the of Foucauldian sexualities endangered. as defined andidentity, sexual fixed their of basis the on divided was population categories, these Th of specification classification, populations. of management the for basis the as sexuality of management the on places he role central the and biopower, of concept and order, bourgeois the creation the influenced significantly hierarchies sexual of formation discursive This power. of solidification the and production knowledge

administering, spatial management and surveillance system surveillance and management spatial administering, e

helped me to formulate to me helped categorization hout the nineteenth century in England and Germany was explored by explored was Germany and England in century nineteenth the hout The relationship of sexual hierarchy, sexual of relationship The fi physical and metaphoric pollution. andmetaphoricpollution. physical gure of the prostitute prostitute the of gure

a crid u b Jdt Walkowitz Judith by out carried was paradigm mjr nlss ht addresse that analysis major A h iel o middle of ideals The a a at f building of act an was

and were to challenge the Victorian repressive hypothesis through the case study study case the through hypothesis repressive Victorian the challenge to solidification

brought under state control, in this case, nonconjugal, commercial commercial nonconjugal, case, this in control, state under brought to and medicalizat and

my analytic perspective was her in her was perspective analytic my defining ne ad ls cdd eul eaiu i Bian ad the and Britain, in behaviour sexual coded class and ender became identified as identified became

- ls respectabi class f sexualities of eul hierarchies. sexual

Contagious Diseases Acts of 1864 of Acts Diseases Contagious ion of ion

n h nntet cnuy t century nineteenth the In

moral boundaries between between boundaries 11 te ehoois f aaig ois and bodies managing of technologies the s

newly produced newly sexualities ever behaviour ,

n icroaig h individual the incorporating and a source of anxiety of source a iy sc a s as such lity, Wloiz 1991 (Walkowitz nraig pee f sexuality of sphere increasing Most importantly, I rely on his his on rely I importantly, Most

w

s a

ere nd class belonging d belonging class nd - (Foucault 1978:25 (Foucault depth analysis of the process, the of analysis depth sexualities are extensions of extensions are sexualities

transformed into principles into transformed eulzd subject sexualized One of h of One xa self exual he he ). . She demonstrated She .

discourses on the the on discourses h apis the applies She - er 1869 George Mosse Mosse George - major results results major dangerous or or dangerous restrain - 26, 44 26, . e Based on Based vel s. The The s. s into into s oping and t - 46). and and of of

CEU eTD Collection metropole the in sexuality and morality of construction discursive the highlights repeatedly t into desire and sexuality the of incorporate experience to colonial work scholarly her of much devoted who Stoler, L. Ann by presented power dynamics. contextuali the on depending beliefs, and politics sexuality of direction the the in forms between hybrid of possibility the entail relationship also models main These metropole. the reciprocal and colonies a interconnectedness, strong a suggest who 2004), and 2002), (1995, Stoler Ann by discredited is approach periphery centre This developments. spreading in agents British to largelyattributed activity is political ( by provided opportunities late the of code sexual puritan legisla definitions, in voice leading metropoleprovidingthe asthe envisions Hyam, Ronald describedby approach, as diffusionist sexualcolonial of relationship ( sexualities dangerous identities of construction health,individual butalsoposedthe threat ona ofdegeneration debilitating as pictured were homosexuality and masturbation sexuality, c and together, tied became patriotism and morality high while sexuality, assoc were and urges sexual their overcome to unable be to reputed moderation ym 1992 Hyam An extension of the Foucauldian framework Foucauldian the of extension An was politics colonial and ideology imperial in Sexuality ee eadd o be to regarded were . ,

critici

sm Levine 2004:134, Phillips 2006:14). In this model, innovation and and innovation model, this In 2006:14). Phillips 2004:134, Levine sm - lse hd polgt sxa code sexual profligate a had classes Stoler 1995, Levine 2003 Levine 1995, Stoler , was grounds to the surveillance of bodies and for the segregation of of segregation the for and bodies of surveillance the to grounds was , h colonies the

politics - nineteenth and twentieth century in Britain with the sexual sexual the with Britain in century twentieth and nineteenth

itntv marker distinctive in ad reading and tions

and Europeandevelopmentsand srsig h cnrlt o te rts experience British the of centrality the stressing , 12

). There are There ). he exercise of power. In her works she she works her In power. of exercise he , critical , s

ertain forms of sexuality, like excess excess like sexuality, of forms ertain f ls blnig low belonging: class of s

f eult. ym otatd the contrasted Hyam sexuality. of t different o my argument in the thesis, the in argument my o

national level. level. national Mse 1985:10 (Mosse

(Phillips 2006:10 (Phillips Philippa also

i models describing the the describing models td ih commercial with ated

employed o only not zation and local local and zation

Levine (2003, (2003, Levine - - classes were were classes 13). - 14). The 14).

for the the for Sexual n the in is - CEU eTD Collection and behaviour, appropriate prescribe to struggle a as 2003:6, 177). whiteness and colonies the in defined a defined be to had difference, sexual here difference, that regards also Stoler, like Levine, sexuality. and prostitution, of regulation the on level societal a on ideas circulating devot by based. were medi laws, flexibilityof the illustrates disease venereal metropole. the from derived hand, one the on Other, racial a to relation with colonies the in invented part in were virtues, national of 1995:179 (Stoler but rule, colonial from society of segments racialized only and respectability, of understandings class middle on based was respectability of agents Attempts imperial of arrangements sexual and prestige. European to inclusion homogenization the for demanded was Europeanness of enactment an competency, cultural a birth: by secured as seen not was Europeanness when late the to refers frontier Interior affirmed. an cultural bel racial origin, 2002:42 Stoler 1995:52, (Stoler frontiers‟ „interior is bodies of management the to approach century (Stoler sex bourgeois and racialized (Stole empire and This theoretical framework theoretical This - n te sec the ing that suggests She 71). d racial hybridity increased, European increased, hybridity racial d

She introduces widely shared conventions about sexuality in the British Empire, British the in sexuality about conventions shared widely introduces She

of European behaviourEuropean of - nig a nt ufcet g sufficient not was onging 182). The perceptions of sexual morality and the body, as the embodiment the as body, the and morality sexual of perceptions The 182). 19, 2002) 1995, r n hl o Pottto, ae and race Prostitution, of half ond d , e o h icesd ubr f ooil ujcs f mixed of subjects colonial of number increased the to ue

provides and 1995:97). Her concept for analysing the late nineteenth late the analysing for concept Her 1995:97).

was believed to be to believed was resulted in a public surveillance of domestic surveillanceof public a in resulted the

Philippa . As Ann As . a basis to basis a - uuly constitutive, mutually 13 ieenh etr sit n ooil strateg colonial in shift century nineteenth ons o camn privilege claiming for rounds

distinctiveness had to be affirmed and re and affirmed be to had distinctiveness

Levine‟s (Levine 2003) monograph on on monograph 2003) (Levine Levine‟s

Stoler importantly highlights, European highlights, importantly Stoler

cal definitions on which sexual politics politics sexual which on definitions cal study the study politics s n tep t define to attempt an as

critically tied to sexuality (Levine sexuality to tied critically poor

(Levine 2003) 2003) (Levine British European European discursive formation of of formation discursive anti - . As fears about about fears As . dance campaign dance classes classes to

excluded not excluded introducing introducing respectable , conjugal , as well well as d re nd ies, ies, - -

CEU eTD Collection of middle r and moral g sexuality of behaviour of private of and dances the of Admiration nautch. to attitude eneral colonial anxieties, such as the management of European space, the fear of cultural, of fear the space, European of management the as such anxieties, colonial eneral - pleasure c lass morality. lass morality. acial c acial , violating the violating ,

to be policed. policed. be to ontamination of native society native of ontamination

and attending nautch parties nautch attending

idealized The naut The

sexual code of British colonial settlers. colonial British of code sexual ch was was ch characterized and solidified as as solidified and characterized 14

became a became were interlinked and interlinked were Indian dance Indian British rs was detached from the realm realm the from detached was rs community concern, a concern, community complicated by complicated

a In the campaign, the In dangerous form dangerous notions notions

form form CEU eTD Collection prostitutes on regulation strict of consequences (1886) anti the Nevertheless, traffic the of prevention effective more introduce to order in as dancers professional administering and Registering prostitution of form this against measuresimplement to legislation colonial reformer of interest the serve hardly could solution proposed and women” reformers British Although well. from reveals study closer However, a British the relations power colonial through men and women, nautch the primarily women, Indian constituted and standards, Western by entertainments Ind of normalization the 1991) (Mohanty approach analytic Mohanty‟s Chandra of basis the on campaign, dance Presidency Madras elite of behaviour acceptable the define to attempting movement Te anti The .

C the This chapter focuses on the process, the on focuseschapter This HAPTER n Ida C Indian and s

British categorized Indian society from the from society Indian ppeared - dance campaign started started campaign dance as imperial agents defined agents imperial as attempting project, ideological and political Western a as interpreted be can 2 :

( T oa Tml Nadu Tamil today

- HE dance campaign took place place took campaign dance s iiiig gns n euaos f nin society Indian of educators and agents civilizing as ath oe a prostitutes as women nautch ontagious a scey Te rts anti British The society. ian N AUTCH INFLUENCING PUBLIC O

that the exemplar the that

D ee rocpe wt saving with preoccupied were Q alleged is ae A eases UESTION ) n h ls dcd o te nineteenth the of decade last the in

( rnvsn 9815 Pre 1998:627 Parker 1988:195, Srinivasan on the moral the harmful effects of effects harmful 15 how the how

cts cts

y behaviour y : ( after the the after

akwt 19:0 Lvn 2003:92 Levine 1991:90, Walkowitz . K In the course of the anti the of course the In (1888) NOWLEDGE PRODUCTION

- standards of the British the of standards

dance campaign judged Indian dance dance Indian judged campaign dance Catre 1992:21) (Chatterjee prostitutes could have been beneficial beneficial been have could prostitutes British PINION the debate on the repeal the on debate

performe ht eeld h devastating the revealed that the the

anti ig in king the nautch the

British reformers demanded reformers British rts ad nin colonial Indian and British - dance campaign became a became campaign dance h “prse Indian “oppressed the women. r

oe ad children and women to colonial discourses colonial to

entertainments,

( Singh 1997:164) Singh ad demanded and , - dance campaign dance -

century,

community as community Scin 2.5) (Section

of the British British the of

The ). AND h anti The

British n the in . Of ).

the - . . .

CEU eTD Collection 2.1 moral the define standards of to right the claim to struggle a of part and power, of act an already was patrons. th and women dancing of sexuality the characterizing of moment key a 2003:192). anti the of course the in meaning symbolic gained India of dancers temple the that suggests, also Levine of process the delineate and criticised campaign social a to meaning symbolic reformers prost the and work, their of part be could the a thereexisted hand, one the campaignOn the acted. which on differentlevels by motivated British the on posed colonial society. entertainments dance anxieties and discomfort the expressed time the that suggest I surveillance. of means with women nautch the of situation the improve to aiming resulting these course,

I sexual exploitation o exploitation sexual NDIAN n re t argue to order In British anti British I ts sign ts

atetet f pr of maltreatment rae a representation a created However, in this analysis I would like to focus on British knowledge production asIBritish production knowledge to focus analysis on wouldlike However, inthis W - British and IndianBritish andcolonial society ac campaign dance

OMEN OMEN debate eea clna axeis and anxieties colonial general ificance lies in the fact, that establishing a language to represent to language a establishing that fact, the in lies ificance

- P dance campaign claimed the moral uplift of Indian society, society, Indian of uplift moral the claimed campaign dance s

ERFORMERS i nt creat not did f

a number of of number a ht h Biih stand British the that ostitutes , and were described as examples of Indian vice (Levine (Levine vice Indian of examples as described were and , problem.

of a nvra opsto t te fiil euain and regulation official the to opposition universal a e ,

oee, t iet atnin o h cont the to attention directs it however, the women who lived as hired performers and and performers hired as lived who women

itution of minors. minors. of itution hrfr I nrdc bify h taiin the traditions the briefly introduce I Therefore nin aie eae performers female native Indian 16 . sexual sexual

point British knowledge production. production. knowledge British fears,

gis dne netimns was entertainments dance against From this social reality, social this From i t is necessary to separate the the separate to necessary is t sxaiy f their of sexuality e

social problem social n at and radiction at the same same the at the sex tached a a tached Philippa British nautch nautch

work

of of ,

CEU eTD Collection th that ensure to believed and auspicious considered mai her O widow. a becoming of position vulnerable the from protected also was devadasi the property, hold and inherit to entitled legal privileged before service temple to marria formal a was ceremony dedication This puberty. dedicated reaching were Devadasis music. and dance classical poetry, outsta were there 1988:183 them (Srinivasan rituals Among at dancing and singing divinity, the of statue cult the (Srinivasan 1988: reformers this by mobilized likely most function. ritual entertain dance 2012:5), (Soneji dances‟ dancer religiou performed and temples to dedicated were interchangeably 2009:269). (Jagpal entertainers the of background class the and variation regional word “ as performers “nautch”, anti the The customs social disapproved. and campaign traditions the describe briefly to helpful be would it “

nautch (Jagpal 2009:269). (Jagpal The devadasis, The pursuits the untangling Before n social function social n

the anglicized the ee lo omte t te upeso o dance of suppression the to committed also were ”

nautch girl nautch

Th ald o ifrnit bten eiiu ad non and religious between differentiate to failed used for the tawaifs, Muslim courtesans in Northern India,the tawaifs,for courtesans Northern in devadasis,who used Muslim for status 192) e British participants of the South India based anti based India South the of participants British e

or temple dancers temple or ad status a and , version of the Hindi verb “nach” meaning meaning “nach” verb Hindi the of version

resulted

The correct usage of of usage correct The s” “nautch women” “nautch s” British

kind of of kind ndingly educated women, accomplished at literature and and literature at accomplished women, educated ndingly

from this privileged status, her presence in weddings was was weddings in presence her status, privileged this from

and to and

of of apin applied campaign ments arranged in private homes, without religious or religious without homes, private in arranged ments were fulfilling religious functions, such as caring for for caring as such functions, religious fulfilling were the a entertainments entertainments are wom married adopt children. As being married to the divinity, the to married being As children. adopt British involvement in the anti the in involvement British 17

or „dancing girl „dancing or the

s duties, and practically for any professional any for practically and duties, s nautch is closest to describe „salon type of of type „salon describe to closest is nautch bie could bride e a Snj 2012:5 (Soneji o ac promne te word the performances dance to n

o h tml dancer temple the to s ‟ (Srinivasan 198 (Srinivasan ‟ ge to the deity that ensured a a ensured that deity the to ge s -

religio “ aig lc i temples in place taking to dance to

lo escape also - dance cam dance us dancers, ignored ignored dancers, us ) however, , - ” dance campaign, dance , and referred to referred and ,

8 Nautch was was Nautch paign were were paign the fate of of fate the wo was who , :179). The The :179). British - - dance ne of of ne 186).

CEU eTD Collection soon published wife, his of memoirs the as Dufferein, Lord Viceroy the entertain to as such were entertainments nautch the the describing remarks were There 2009:18). (Wald British the by expressed were women nautch customary others resided in well became some women: nautch the of circumstances and society clientele Indian in reputation favourable s were a there Again, 1998:50). have (Whitehead not did performers public as women dancers‟ temple also d and singing nautc houses, private func ritual or religious without entertainers professional were women These 1988:191) concubines topoormen 190 (Thurston described descr ethnographic his in Thurston Edgar instance, For circumstances. number the was considerable however, clientele, elite an for liaisons sexual availablefor wereusually artists Highlytrained patrons. with arrangements an widowhood for long outstanding income that derived from their fees and gifts for performances and from sexual sexual fromand performancesforgifts and fees their derivedfrom that incomeoutstanding dances be a profitable profession, but the nau the but profession, profitable a be Thro institution Indian unique a constituted communities devadasi The

, however, the nautch women nautch the however, , the basavis, whose ritual functions were nominal, and fulfilled household duties as duties household fulfilled and nominal, were functions ritual whose basavis, the

were rarely highlighted among Indians among ughout the nineteenth cent nineteenth the ughout ancing (Chatterjee 1992:21). The profession of the non the of profession The 1992:21). (Chatterjee ancing

social standing was slightly elevated by their religious function, but nautch nautch but function, religious their by elevated slightly was standing social poor dwelling areas and areashadpoor low dwelling (Srinivasan 1988:183 (Srinivasan h women were often escorted by musicians, and entertained patrons entertained and musicians, by escorted often were women h

nau , and preceding the anti the preceding and , tch performances tch

f requently organized in honour of honour in organized requently . Participating in . Participating in 9 ury organizing ury :135 , were less characterised by such cultural specificity. specificity. cultural such by characterised less were - tch women women tch 186). giiat ifrne bten h atsi merits, artistic the between differences ignificant -

136). as improper as 18

High - -

class customers (Chatterjee 1992:21). nautch campaign nautch a nautch considered not was

- were stigmatized by IndianThesociety. by stigmatized were nautch in honour of British guest British of honour in nautch class devadasis could behonou class devadasiscould , the ,

f hs, h lived who those, of

erotic or sexu or erotic

high

positive positive British - religious dancer religious pino ot India South of iption - nw ad sought, and known

only few European European few only

al components al tion. Invited into into Invited tion. official on tours, on official appraisals of appraisals improper, andimproper,

in (Srinivasan (Srinivasan

moderate moderate red with s could could

with was was the the of CEU eTD Collection dancing of Anglo in women representation the describe to abjection of concept the applies Paxton Nancy valoris 2009:18) (Wald prostitutes anti the preceding p in involved noted reports Medical Europeans. to partners sexual women seen not were European all not although His as far as were present theexercise in of proceedings the at but present been part, the India, observed a Excellency of formed parts nautch different a in which travelling of when entertainments times, two or one on has, He language in improper of organization the supported Miller Dr. Reverend College, t in nautch India Albert‟s Victor Prince on 1889, In incomprehensible tho amusement, and propriety extreme the nautc to as you instructing in succeeded yet I Have usual than movement their very was nautch The interest, but illustra 1889 in India left they after h? There is never any incident in it, and no apparent purpose, and it is a most most a is it and purpose, apparent no and it, in incident any never is There h? ed hs sucs eel h jdmn o nuc o sca gatherings, social on nautch of judgment the reveal sources These

dismissed dismissed concubines among the British until the mid mid the until British the among concubines he official programme. On this occasion the principal of the Madras Christian Christian Madras the of principal the occasion this On programme. official he

did nuc pry Catre 19:3. h Viceroy The 1992:23). (Chatterjee party nautch a ottto, and rostitution, improper not consider it - Indian - ac campaign dance anti

pretty, the women having most lovely dresses, and being more active in active more being and dresses, lovely most having women the pretty, - . I .

nautch appeals that by stating novels

m, not characterised by any impropriety, and the performers were were performers the and impropriety, any by characterised not m, their profession as dancers... t is a different question to reconstruct to question different a is t s found s

Bcue f hi sil i skills their of Because . (Ava

oe a risk a posed inappropriate: , an objectionab an ,

ughI of like a it little 1889:13) the nautch the tes. Lady Dufferein talked Dufferein Lady tes.

they

tour n ae dsicin ewe dnig women dancing between distinction a made .

f vener of After dinner we had native music and a nautch. a and music native had we dinner After

19 entertaining or lively, the public performances public the lively, or entertaining le, but erotic attraction erotic but le,

dsue pre of hte t provide to whether off sparked dispute , e (qtd by Singh 1997:168). (qtd by 1997:168). Singh

l ies to disease al dnig n msc dvdss were devadasis music, and dancing n (Ava nineteenth

1889:334).

about nautch with a moderate a with nautch about

to a f India of ht acn women dancing that

etr Pxo 1999:87). (Paxton century nautc what extent were dancing dancing were extent what uoen e, however, men, European .

A

, n sw nothing saw and h, relevant source, that that source, relevant

n 1 in du

lness n so, that show, and 9 in 892

[ sic careful ]

were were

f a of and and

a

CEU eTD Collection Madras were from selected were (Nautches 1983:3 testimonies Indian and parties, nautch to invited Europeans of stories confidential enjoyed, girls nautch luxury the on stories anecdotal or popular newspapers, and journals from articles material p neutral a not was information this of interpretation and organization c on knowledge insightful P 2.2 her at nimbleness andleopard marvel continually and song, her to attention rapt with Anglo listen and East, the in function social every to hear not has Who European by gone days in a He 1999:89). them among find to expect little would one which ease, and grace peculiar a and manner, of gentleness a feature, and face of softness a with tinge, in yellowish somewhat Presidency S shows ot‟ rpr, h ws Surgeon was who report, hortt‟s RODU

D h Ida Spectator Indian The

ANCING ANCING this abjectionthis C British reformists strived to collect information from various sources,various from informationcollect to strived reformistsBritish Wieed 1995:56) (Whitehead TION on the nautch question contained citations from citations contained question nautch the on

attitude to

oe, that noted,

dmitted tha dmitted G ” d of the nautch girl of India? Music and dancing girls are the chief attraction chief the are girls dancing Musicand India? of girl nautch the of d - RS AND IRLS 5, Fuller 190 5, d A . Western influenced influenced Western

dances and a growing divide between colonial Indian and British Indian British colonialand growing dividea between and - like agility.‟ ( fnat f h nuc as gave also nautch the of efendant epe dancers temple ertain aspects ertain t European officers “ officers European t

that Pilp 2006:67) (Phillips T . 0:130 EMPLE EMPLE

nin etmne wr collected were testimonies Indian was to a great extent due to greatextent was toa - eea Sprnedn o Vaccinat of Superintendent General - 133, 172 The Times of Indiaof Times The

P or directly British affiliated British directly or of the dances and dancer communities dancer and dances the of ROSTITUTES could 20 -

173). 173).

frequently became infatuated by these women women these by infatuated became frequently or

e ey trcie “ attractive very be - nin wo ae h nautch the hate who Indians h Ida Sca Reformer Social Indian The The articles reprinted in the British tractsin the British reprintedarticles The :

B , 1903,Nov manifold sources: these incorporate these sources: manifold RITISH RITISH

the anti voice to the double standard of of standard double the to voice R - fro nautch campaign:nautch EFORM ember 10, ember media f lgt ae colour, pale light a of elegant Ida intellectuals, Indian m rocess. The campaign The rocess. o i te Madras the in ion . S . ER and displayed an displayedandan ”

uch

society,

rt wonderful trot, (qtd by Paxton by (qtd 4). ; - pbihd in published , K girl on paper paper on girl however, the the however,

NOWLEDGE NOWLEDGE newspapers newspapers

is John is John d

CEU eTD Collection ( differentiation non and religious performers, 1983:1). Nautches crshewho Itis everywhere. girlis everywhere is she India over all society in and invitation; she and was nautch instance, were nautch the of descriptions consequently and belief strong for a was nautch. the of representation new a created British the that did antagonism from material to similarly chastity female of understandings Brahmanic attempts modernisation and society Indian the refusing Europeans reformers Christian, and Hindu both Indians, from gathered largely be to information The 1900:16). (Fuller customs Indian of descriptions the verify to taken T or doctors he foreword of The of foreword he [the nautch woman] woman] nautch [the the descriptions were descriptions the The m of m

school inspectors most commonly referred to as educated or enlightened Hindus. enlightened or educated as to referred commonly most inspectors school Indian caste in

Indian reformers Indian (Whitehead 1998:91) (Whitehead Orientalist knowledge production (Said 2003 (Said production knowledge Orientalist

apl 2009:269 Jagpal the possibility the not appear in appear not

antagonism antagonism

anti broadly cuil ntne f hs generalizing this of instance crucial A

would simplyIndianwould t misjudge wrongs of Indian w Indian of wrongs said to be “ be to said - dance movem dance has her right and place in the temple. In Western India she is there by by there is she India Western In temple. the in place and right her has

“representing the whole of India” of whole the “representing

plig ht knowledge. that applying stimulated (Whitehead 1998:91). Therefore, although the although Therefore, 1998:91). (Whitehead

of , the British campaign material, therefore it can be concluded, concluded, be can it therefore material, campaign British the dominant questions dominant ) - . religious, temple dancers and nautch dancers without without dancers nautch and dancers temple religious, sa the entirely it mapping nautch, the of picture overall an giving

owns the merriment at all timesall atmerriment the owns h saeet of statements The valid . In part, part, In . ent primarily reflect primarily ent protests me in the North as in the South” the in as North the in me omanhood omanhood without horizontal or vertical differentiation. For For differentiation. vertical or horizontal without Western influenced reinterpretation of traditions of reinterpretation influenced Western 21 also caused disputes over the nautch question, nautch the over disputes caused also

against n against

in the Indian the in assures the reader, the assures houghtcustoms. and

h reformers the rts reformers British autch. However, autch. ed .” The

logic logic

(Fuller 1900:133). “ 1900:133). (Fuller :45 (Fu the

- British knowledge production production knowledge British ller 1900:16). ller

46). This is eviden is This 46). tension and developments and tension nautch . is that campaigners treated treated campaigners that is “

(

The therefore became easily easily became therefore that great efforts were efforts great that

debate

B Subodh Patrik Subodh

(Nautches 1893:2), (Nautches claimed rahmanic and non and rahmanic British borrowed British “In South India South “In , such as caste as such , The dancing The

hre that charge

ced by the by ced ht t that was a ,

said he qtd.

of ir - - ,

CEU eTD Collection time. same the at victim a being and woman fallen seductive, a being of duality the in captured vice.” by live they and immoral is profession Their simple. and pure prostitutes, of class a are women ( immoral as plainly 2.3 tradition, British the interpreting perspectives, their from information gathering of step the With of regulation the campaign, the of start the to invested anti Dirks by described reformers the of the in campaign colonial century nineteenth late production. knowledge their of legitimacy Nicholas the prove to order in sources their verify to custom and religion differ, original). of may shelter them the among under custom immorality of details the much the These nautch. umbrella one under traditions, different together weaved they as verifiable,

T - devadasi ac campaign. dance HE The Bhavins The arguments, convincing building of rhetoric the from Apart reformers

N

Dirks (Nautches 1893:1). 1893:1). (Nautches British reformers British AUTCH establishing authenticity, in order t order in authenticity, establishing British r British

r h nautch the or , Muralis studied the studied

claimed theright regulateclaimed to the Q UESTION eformers Fuller 1900, Nautches 1893) Nautches 1900, Fuller

n h cmiain of compilation the In , Jogtins

- competing knowledge competing claimed, that girls that claimed, girl; but under whatever name these women pass, and however however and pass, women these name whatever under but girl; :

A described nautch women as inescapably prostitutes and nautch nautch and prostitutes inescapably as women nautch described h fgr o dnig il ad epe acn girls dancing temple and girls dancing of figure The S THES

and others seem to be considered a lower orde lower a considered be to seem others and

(Dirks 1997:189 (Dirks

B RITISH the the

British British 22

were R o argue a position of authority. of position a argue o nautch nautch

EFORMERS EFORMERS Madras

nautch. . production “Stripped of all their acquirements, these these acquirements, their all of “Stripped

trained fr trained rcs led consi already tracts - 190, 205) 190, came .

Presidency Fle 1900 (Fuller

h picpe s h sm i all in same the is principle the P from Indian society and rel and society Indian from o ERCEIVED ERCEIVED of different interest groups in groups interest different of m

can be applied in case of the of case in applied be can

infancy to a life of vic of life a to infancy British reformer British

(Dirks 1997 (Dirks 15 epai i the in emphasis :125,

eal efrs were efforts derable - term, that of the the of that term, r of being than than being of r Before and at and Before ). s The tactics The attempted attempted igion e and and e

was

a . ,

CEU eTD Collection who Those themselves. of spite both Unluckily in book. the saints without speak monotonous become as dancing and have music Indian condemn who sinners seasoned those on times, at lively very be is to Itapt think. to seem friends English our as affair an tame so always not is Nautch Indian The Or as arevisits neverwelcomeun intercourse private for desire a creates performance public a at them of one of sight The part only form however, payments, Such women received for 1983:2 Nautches qtd “ what was it 190 ar women nautch it women, of clothing the Concerning obscene; suggestive sexually audience. European the to were conversation in pleasant and witty being “ The 1900:128). w a jewellery and consequences were It frequently happens, that these dancing these that happens, frequently It elfare of nautch women women nautch of elfare 9:130)

not described as intrigui as described not a ntae it ter rfsin n uh n al ae ta te fail they that age, early an such in profession their into initiated every one every a supportive Indian testimonysupportive suggest

well that Indians understood, understood, Indians that . Nevertheless, British reformers British Nevertheless, . nd attire of the nautch women was was women nautch the of attire nd - grounded fact, that dancing wom dancing that fact, grounded

British reformers did not question the question not did reformers British

[sic] si t b te ot eety dressed decently most the be to said e

moral character of their acts. acts. their of character moral t either he ).

knows, or ought to know to ought or knows, i s r Mur Dr. As r dancing r andwas singing , while the songs the while ,

less accompanied by gifts. (qtd less accompanied by rts rfres d reformers British lure ng or amusing, or ng or at any rate the consequences are almost invariably so, except so, invariably almost are consequences the rate any at or d

ucs ad or oe t ji te rfsin (Fuller profession the join to women poor and outcast oh a doch oee, European however,

was noted, that it was it that noted, was ” -

of the expenses connected with [ with connected expenses the of girls are rich, beautiful rich, are girls

(Fuller 1900:130). N 1900:130). (Fuller referred to referred ed rts reformer British accompanying the performances were performances the accompanying were 23 :

d o mention not id services sexual providing invariably were en ” crutv eape o te w other to example corruptive a

( not allof overwhelmingly judged to be monotonous be to judged overwhelmingly The Indian Social Reformer Social Indian The eomr argue Reformers

education of education the dancing women dancing the s

u t lnug barriers language to due

Fuller 1900:132)

among

t not the slightest revealing, rather rather revealing, slightest the not he argued, the payment the nautch nautch the payment the argued, i

evertheless, the performances the evertheless, r income: that

and very attractive, besides besides attractive, very and dancers, dancers, nin oe (Thurston women Indian h nautch the d ta t that ,

as prostitutes, as

sic nor their charms: their nor ed ]

e glamorous he

such women. such o ug the judge to 1892, June 4 June 1892, dance

mn the omen: sai i not. did d to be be to d were s . Such Such as if as

CEU eTD Collection part potential poetry preferred and manners, good lacked who customers, society Indian of admiration high the suggest on more relied or partners, others while embellishments, cultural of instead n be could women some greatly: vary professio the and training The component. erotic any lacked dances that to explicitly dances from suggestive range sexually couldbelieve these that and audience the to according least at varied probably performance. the of claim purposes. that mention not did reformers port were house weddings, parties, dinner be ( dancers who qtd f been have arts these

TheIndia Times of made

(Chatterjee 1992:21). h sources The repre This the to According

t hat high hat The Indian Social Reformer Social Indian The rayed as present on nautch nautch on present as rayed

considerable exp considerable i

mmorality of mmorality Itis f the of - rae te a bza pottts Acrig to According prostitutes. bazaar as them treated sentation of the nautch displayed nautch the of sentation class court class speculative to attempt to re to attempt to speculative suggest or ages divorced from divorced ages or , 1893, July, 1893, 1,8)

ath entertainments nautch British reformers, British the dances the

enses to elevate the fame of fame the elevate to enses

esans took esans hi dnig n snig talents. singing and dancing their ht rts rfres ee rocpe with preoccupied were reformers British that

Europeans order Europeans - warmings, organized in organized warmings, having plain sex plain having , June 4, 189 4, June ,

entertainments is unsupported is

pride in their artistic merits, and were accustomed to accustomed were and merits, artistic their in pride uc wmn ny n ae ad rvd sx work sex provide and name, in only women autch Catre 1992: (Chatterjee patrons were patrons purity of life and conduct. ( conduct. and life of purity construct the sensuality of the of sensuality the construct 24 ad h a the and ,

ed 2

the services of nautch women for private private for women nautch of services the 1983:1 Nautches qtd ol be could certain ambiguities: most apparently the the apparently most ambiguities: certain

, or the immorality of attending of immorality the or ,

as guests i guests as to nal standards of the dancers the of standards nal

to

being entertained by dance, music or music dance, by entertained being

festive affluent 21) the scain of ssociation mainly

Te gety ilkd British disliked greatly They . purpose of the entertainment. the of purpose n a in

Ethnographi Ida households, Indian n occasions by inviting nautch nautch inviting by occasions members of Indian society, Indian of members oiin t position private space private a

orea, h British the courtesan, ). These events could could events These ). The Indian Spectator Indian The

performances that performances the reconstructions c o choose their their choose o eult a a as sexuality rts with British . Europeans Europeans could

a

British British nautch nautch also also

I

CEU eTD Collection legislati or administrative 2.4 8) ( course. dishonourable suc and unsafe most the as considered bringing with of face experiment to the rescues, face few society a respectable attempt to possible were it if Even redemption. past be to as chastity and virtue of sense all to lost so are members its where and immorality can steepedreclaiming thattheir is class bechildh from deep, noa there that missed be not should fact lucre...The filthy for virtues womanly their of exchange the by livelihood out eke who females depraved of class a from recruited are girls nautch The campaigncriticizing strengthened voices thenautch Goftar of the unaware of profession were Europeans reformers, British the of phrasing the In women. nautch the the and songs, the of lewdness the as such performances, these of circumstances fail also women fascination nautch with encourage nautch the appreciating society of members ranking high and father the of example The 1893:6). (Nautches childhood their in already nautch with ill of presence the to accustomed both because unnoticed go could nautch of immorality the that perceived opinion, my naut the of reputation. questionable of women featured that entertainments

P OWER AND OWER , T ed h Ida Spectator Indian The e arguments he

rsiue n oit ta siuae Biih disapproval. British stimulated that society in prostitute c to recognize the impropriety of impropriety the recognize to h it was the presence of the nautch women in social gatherings, the presence of presence the gatherings, social in women nautch the of presence the was it , t , he dances performed for a broad a for performed dances he R EFORMERS nautch nautch

asd y the by raised women, e ep for help ve

utd y aths 1893:9). Nautches by quoted (Nautches 1893:6). - reputable women on festive events. Indians g Indians events. festive on women reputable aey ht hy were they that namely British British osdrbe time considerable h degraded dregs of humanity humanity of dregs degraded h the nautch the 25 anti

audience were not were audience

- According to British reformersAccording to , as the ath apin i nt eev direct receive not did campaign nautch , because they because , The Times of India of Times The

Times of India Times of pro ( akr 1998:629 Parker stitutes I Neverthless, the “ the Neverthless, n the second decade of the the of decade second the n ood, inthe worst practice of the d

described as described rts reformers British were t

e youth he rts ad Indi and British fr example (for

wrote unaware of the full the of unaware hud las be always should , 1907, April 10, April 1907, , ) ,

: o however, the the however, o eeo a develop to

improper t acquainted acquainted t visible sex work sex , Europeans Europeans , The Rast Rast The n got ans argued argued ”

part . of of In a

CEU eTD Collection dancers temple of tactics the illustrates 19 and 17 minors of adoption the on on directed was attention campaign( Co Social National performances proven. not was Madras of of help practical the in hope their expressed and same, the do to officials colonial requested and for responsibility took themselves petitioners The entertainments. was there poi nine into ( Madras of Governor tha reformers 1893 in Association Reform Social Indian the by submitted and religion regardedreformersc however, reformers British 19 (Fuller dissent and tension evoking as threatening found government to external authority an in successful was campaign the colonial government. Thesecolonial by appealsboththeGovernor Viceroy were refused and oe lal dfnd ead fr eilto apae o te gna f h Indian the of agenda the on appeared legislation for demands defined clearly More government colonial the to directed appeal recorded first The

they n ws owre t te ieo ad Governor and Viceroy the to forwarded was and

Singh 1997:168, 1997:168, Singh n 1893 in (Fuller 19 already an agreement between reform supporters to discourage nautch nautch discourage to supporters reform between agreement an already nts, this app this nts, one t te ndqay f rts colon British of inadequacy the to pointed

erie fo epesn otad criticism outward expressing from refrained frne n 89 we a un could turn a when 1899, in nference olonial rule olonial , on the grounds that that grounds the on , 00:183 Singh 1997:164, Singh the eal argued, that argued, eal temple dancers temple by temple dancers dancers temple by Fuller 1900:137; Fuller1900:137; chang colonial government, a government, colonial - 185)

as ing .

o vertly

British attitude to nautch to attitude British who :

the the a ban on ban a compromising and tolerant towardstolerantand compromising The Times of India of Times The quoted 26 the alleged immoral character of the nautch nautch the of character immoral alleged the were nautch women were women nautch

attempting to attempting

demanded. This petition of two gi two of petition This demanded. nd often demanded often nd dancers h ul texts full the

be noticed in the pursuits of the the of pursuits the in noticed be ‟ a sca policy social ial

dedication to dedication - . General of India, and to the the to and India, of General The British reformers British The avoid criminal prosecution in prosecution criminal avoid , 1899, Jan 6, 6 6, Jan 1899, , of not attending nautch parties parties nautch attending not

1997:1 invariably prostitutes invariably the ws ond y British by joined was t

ooil government, colonial reforms that colonial that reforms 64

temples 00:183 was the petition petition the was - 168). Organized 168). making.

native customsnative ). Apparently, ). -

8) The 185). and a ban ban a and rls aged rls

formed formed British

and and CEU eTD Collection 12 1893:10, of custom the if society from eradicated be could 2. population, society. Indian sexuality this make to attempted sexuality. the of 1978:25 (Foucault apply to like would I same time public action against from requested was help legislative levels: two on nautch the purposes of prostitution. the that presumed was it proven, otherwise Unless 1998:629). offen penal a as defining Medical the before sent are we Officer. (Thursto after religion, our to according prostitutes be to house permission request our establish thus be to and wish married, we Now dead. are mother and father Our prostitutes identify to performers enforced campaign the how demonstrates document This Madras. 5

I NFLUENCING

campaign, Parallel to seeking governmental intervention, governmental seeking to Parallel campaign, the of production knowledge and pursuits the of introducing the Following that 1924 than earlier not was It

: S

exuality a , Srinivasan 1988:192 Srinivasan , nd a divide of respectablend a divide and n 190 The nautch became a new divide of divide new a became nautch The

British reformers British P - 44) in the in 44) UBLIC UBLIC

9 tied to tied :134) Michel ce the selling, hir selling, the ce O

the nautch nautch the PINION The antiThe interpretation the ocuts theoretical Foucault‟s

intelligible to intelligible ).

nautch wasnautch urged. defined

The - - ae Or ohr lo a o ti poeso. e now We profession. this of was also mother Our name. nautch campaign attempted to curtail the practice ofpractice the curtail to attempted campaign nautch was characterized and isolated, and characterized was

an amendment was added to the Indian Penal Code, Penal Indian the to added was amendment an British and Indian and British unrespectable ing of the of the nautch entertainments as a form of dangerous of form a as entertainments nautch the 27

the the of a of

British inviting dancers was abandoned (Nautches (Nautches abandoned was dancers inviting colonial government and to the British and British the to and government colonial ie rsiue, s e r nt iln t be to willing not are we as prostitutes, like

person under eighteen years eighteen under person dangerous and endangered and dangerous

British reformers British framework

population. anti

the reformers addressed m addressed reformers -

nautch campaign. nautch colonial government and at the the at and government colonial trafficked trafficked

n cnet f biopower of concept and

and and proposed that nautch that proposed female was used for for used was female British

In the In segments of of segments old embers of of embers reformers reformers (Parker (Parker

course the the as as

CEU eTD Collection campaign Initially, advance social promote to duty it that belief The 2006:26). Phillips see strategy common a (as power authority personal as officials, the of programme the scrutinising previously IndiaTimes of on insist greatbe to fail not further could disapproval would authoritative an such of society native on effect moral The entertainments. they sure feel th of consequences the them. only if And meet to invited is that company of kind the ascertain accepting to beforeparties, evening Collectors, to invitations and Governors of practice the is It parties. nautch attending of exposure full a make now should you that them, for is your itEuropean reached and ...ever friends, our againstI nautches But denunciation doubt,if example behaviou exemplary for life family and public personal, question nautch India of Times The ( reform social of promotion the in steps practical out carry to associations purity regional of members the from pledges take to was 1899 of Conference Social National community invite and dances encourage 12) 1893:10, (Nautches be could performance and parties, nautch for invitation and Indian both The

from - colonial government‟s colonial based and non and based The Rast Goftar , 1888, ” the British community: they community: British the

representatives of the British empire. Reform supporters appealed to the the to appealed supporters Reform empire. British the of representatives was the need for stricter observance of personal duty, duty, personal of observance stricter for need the was ers saw their main duty as duty main their saw ers and we should then should we and f ooil officers colonial of 10, aur 6 6 6, January 1901, ,

May29, 3) expected and make previous inquiries if na if inquiries previous make and expected r Te rs ad aplt rpael pedd niiul nt to not individuals pleaded repeatedly pamphlets and press The .

ulse b te media the by published - official surveillance of the practice the of surveillance official

:

acr, enhl tee ee lo teps o organize to attempts also were there meanwhile dancers,

(Times of India, 1901, January 6, 6). 6, January 1901, India, of (Times

Bro 1994:35 (Burton asked authority and responsibility and authority I them, to represented plainly were nautch a at presence eir

see the last of nautch parties. nautch of last the see . mn the Among ). that uoen t sa aa fo ho from away stay to Europeans asked asked 28 h Biih c British the expos

- the Indian elite Indian the pk t a broad a to spoke ing 37)

proposed

of the social ill ill social the was the niee t acmay colonial accompany to onsidered

togy rsn i ti claim. this in present strongly serious risks to public morality public to risks serious were . The innovation of the Indian the of innovation The . eouin concerning resolutions utch is on the programme the on is utch not to organize and accept and organize to not

imposed on imposed ( The Rast Goftar Rast The r uine Hr i an is Here audience. er the

However, was nautch was causing, was nautch ss hr nautch where uses the purification of of purification the

a British national national British a Fuller 1900:137, Fuller

the t he demands demands he

person of person

qtd

“ The the the

CEU eTD Collection non and officials European high by attended been have to said are and which and parties feature, prominent wedding a been has of nautch the accounts which in published families, native of have processions newspapers the days few last the Within Indianin homes: parties nautch in participated often British the since events,public to limited not was attention progra tours during official of popularity the belong?girls class these towhat does dancing henot know follows: as 1893 in already nautch a attending of accused was Elliot Charles Sir Governor Lieutenant nautch. a attending for 1900:147). (Fuller intensity 5 30, 6; 13, January Conference Social National nautch Indian the of the proceedings of decline rapid the and campaign the of progress the on place, the After Europe 1997: in royalty the of be women, of performances wh the at present being Majesty her of representatives the on wonder greatasrespectand sheis for piety isas purity Their great caused reform purity support to Governor disappointment: the and Viceroy the of reluctance following to and rule colonial to recognizable it make to and such. Do they get prostitute dancers to perform at entertainments given speciallygiven in atentertainments dancersget Do theyprostitute toperform such. o everybody knows, are prostitutes, and their Excellencies, hereafter, at least must must least at hereafter, Excellencies, their and prostitutes, are knows, everybody o ). 167 Excellencies s Nvrhls, tedn a nautch a attending Nevertheless, ms. The nautch was hoped to die out die to hoped was nautch The ) is to er o te apin fo 19 t 1894, to 1892 from campaign, the of years two first omn that comment The Times of India of Times The

the

should (Thurston 1909:130 (Thurston nautch preceding the campaign, fewer dance entertainments were given given were entertainments dance fewer campaign, the preceding nautch

? a pbihd in published was not forget that they represent in this country a sovereign whose whose sovereign a country this in represent they that forget not

Nevertheless, ( h Ida Sca Reformer Social Indian The , 1895, November 5, 4 5, November 1895, , “ His honour has been in thi in been has honour His ) , albeit it was not dropped unanimously from official official from unanimously dropped not was it albeit , , however, and the campaign the and however, , European ignorance was not an acceptable excuse excuse acceptable an not was ignorance European 29

great ol eoe ulc rtcs. h soe of scope The criticism. public evoke could h Ida Sca Reformer Social Indian The

. The people of India lookwith but cannot . The of people 1894, 1895 The Times of India of Times The 1895 1894, British ; ” The Times of India of Times The

(Chatt , October 14, 14, October , A eeln ex revealing A . s country for a long time, and and time, long a for country s piitc elrtos took declarations optimistic e rjee 1992:23). soon lost soon - officials, 1893 qtd. Singh Singh qtd. 1893

, 1903, , n 1893 in

( ml i the is ample

o example for

much of its its of much Contrasting Contrasting ladies and and ladies know to know January honour , 1894, 1894, , . The The .

CEU eTD Collection abov from initiated or sexual the nautch notpart was of behaviour acceptable colonial audience society, of members unrespectable sexuality dangerous a as it categorizing re and prescribe interpreted be can attempts These well. as British the on restriction imposed parties, nautch frequented anti the preceding British the example. through society Indian educating to similarly duty, national British a 2.6 1909 performances (Thurston entirel am I that generallyknown be it youlet would if glad however,be should, I offered.was it which in kind been spirit the in compliment acceptedthe I have arrange, moneyto cost had what attend declineto sometimes dancing have or people singing arrange tour, to settlement) enough revenue (land jamabandy my during his express to eager officer, solidarity withthe anti British a by issued letter, circular this is example Another April 2, in sosteepedin is who miserablesister w it Is such. as it resent will they that hoped, is it them to clear made are facts the that now preference... and choice by prostitutes nautch that say, to mark the beyond not is gentlemen...It

C ONCLUSION In the British anti British Inthe

8 . society

) It was a was It

y in accord with what is known as the anti the as known is what with accord in y .

h asmto, ht h anti the that assumption, The - define newly articulated behavioural code for both for code behavioural articulated newly

and marking boundaries, marking and - nautch campaign:nautch t Biih ooil oit, it society, colonial British to e -

dance campaign,t dance tiue o nautch. to attitude

hrfr te rts reformers‟ British the therefore :133) - ath apin oh s fiil n a piae programmes private as and official as both campaign nautch

politics of colonial government. It was not acoherentIt government.was ofcolonial po politics not .

regulating regulating famyto as

a new boundary was c was boundary new a ate, n, s t ol hv be dsoreu to discourteous been have would it as and, parties,

he 30

both both task to advocate social reform was reformadvocate social to task

is supported by the fact the by supported is y m By

- ath campaign nautch omanly to take pleasure in the writhings of a of writhings the in pleasure take to omanly be the unawareit of apping and representing the nautch, nautch, the representing and apping

nautch women, nautch - -

girls are invariably unfortunates, and and unfortunates, invariably are girls nautch movement in regard to s to regard in movement nautch rs a a itra atmt The attempt. internal an as arose

reated

lis to claims Indian society, and society, Indian ?

was was ( The Times of IndiaTimesofThe

between respectable and respectable between

their patrons and and patrons their n c o negoti of act an that the regulation the that avoid

Nevertheless, the

s fot to efforts as portrayeda [Europeans] for

nautches British

1907, 1907, ating their licy, uch uch

of s

CEU eTD Collection reformers inthenautch. chapter next society dance native a in emphasize campaign. campaign, boundaries. dance public of community of possibilitythe encouraged marginalization the in intervene to government colonial of reluctance , class coded behaviour an behaviour coded class , h Biih anti British The

British reformers relied on the on relied reformers British the However,

is devoted to i to devoted is

distinctiveness of Europeandistinctivenessof

entertainment t h sm tm te British the time same the at

- ac cmag ws o ioae fo te nin anti Indian the from isolated not was campaign dance dentify, what was perceived to colonial boundaries by the British the by boundaries colonial to perceived was what dentify,

s

d European association with an Oriental e Oriental an with association European d could violate the spatial management spatial the violate could - based, sporadic and non and sporadic based,

s on the basis of the attitude to nautch.toattitude the of basis the on s Western influenced layers of Indian society Indian of layers influenced Western 31

anti - ath apin tepe to attempted campaign nautch - official

of European colonial colonial European of

policing of policing ntertainment. The The ntertainment.

Participating colonial colonial

- in the the in dance r s CEU eTD Collection d code moral and sexual European keeping in invested efforts considerable were there consequently, and was behaviour and European living of standards behaviour, domestic upli society, and European conjugal sexual, the 2002:42 (Stoler agents on imperial of depending arrangements be to believed was Europeanness British participation British the of reading can and framework, transnational her into situated be can campaign nautch (Stole familiarity and politics body relations, sexual of that rule: colonial in „intimate‟ the studied extensively has who work, transgress could women analysis This and prostitute depth and entertainers professional of immorality of representation systematic a created influ suppo nautch the e n sed the ce public ce In anti C ly

the the Te British The . HAPTER rts reforemers British - legitimiz nautch also British sic fo te eul n mrl oe f aie ouain I population. native of code moral and sexual the from istinct the sexuality tied to tied sexuality the con native opinion, achieve governmental and le and governmental achieve opinion, r sidered to be to sidered eveals the co the eveals ed campaign 3 anti

:

tn ad ooeiig uoen standards European homogenizing and fting communities the continu the T .

- HE dance campaign the British the campaign dance The analytic approach I apply I approach analytic The did

N

discursiv not was considered vital in demarcating the difference between between difference the demarcating in vital considered was AUTCH AS A began began lonial boundaries lonial revealing morality, race and nation and race morality, revealing the nautch entertainments nautch the ation of dance entertainments among entertainments dance of ation

organize 19, 02. rm nme o perspectives of number a From 2002). 1995, r n h anti the in . n ae nineteenth late In in a phase of colonial rule, when the criteria of of criteria the when rule, colonial of phase a in the e formation of the nautch women, women, nautch the of formation e nautch nautch

that of that 32 ath ate, oee, ih hi presence their with however, parties, nautch S -

YMBOLIC ath campaign. nautch

- that 71). Due to the heterogeneity of colonial colonial of heterogeneity the to Due 71). women that women Indian society. Indian were depicted depicted were gislative support, the British campaign British the support, gislative Br itish itish relies on Ann L. Stoler L. Ann on relies - etr scea tikn s thinking societal century S as a as ITE OF reformers

attempted to attempted

form of racialized sexuality. racialized of form The This chapter This as indirect supporters of of supporters indirect as D , (

also also IFFERENCE uh as such organized systematic,

perceived perceived

Indian Levine 2004:136 Levine demonstrate result in result as a racialized racialized a as

s

standards of of standards . analy hs o be to has t ‟s In order to order In the nau the

scholarly scholarly

h anti the zes a new new a exual

tch tch the the in - ) -

CEU eTD Collection and policed be to has what and sexualit dangerous are what terms, spatial in possible was prostitution where conventions, to sexuality, to connected directly questions raised nautch The disturbing. equally was that to prostituti of displacement perhaps or woman, nautch the of figure reformers anti British interdependent 165 (Collingham 2001: mora entire the of becam health maintaining prestige the as seen was health Individual o vitality nineteenth the of half second the In 2001). (Collingham Collingham M. Elizabeth by studied was rule colonial of nation was attention, governmental and medical attracting of besides body, on and order, and cleanliness moral reflect to eugenics by supported project, scientific a as understood was colonies secure could dependant 1995:97) mutually (Stoler constructs were sexuality racialized and sexuality bourgeois that emphasized,

the grounds of public health was a means of surveillanceof means a was health public groundsof the

Levine l resonance to daily and domestic practices, since body, health and moral and health body, since practices, domestic and daily to resonance l

and culture ( culture and These conventions were conventions These

and hygiene

te ain and nation the f iapoe mr ta te possibil the than more disapproved

2003, 2004 - ath reformers nautch

h dsiciees of distinctiveness the Mosse (Bashford 2004:118, ) - . century the imperial agent‟s body was measured as reflecting the the reflecting as measured was body agent‟s imperial the century

on, the visibility of the nautch women, and their mobility in society in mobility their and women, nautch the of visibility the on,

e a patriotic responsibility. This approach to health and body and health to approach This responsibility. patriotic a e 1985:

ad n tak on attack an and , (on these question of prostitution of question these (on

signifying signifying ihihe ad on problematic found and highlighted

10 reflected in the in reflected - 13 ). The British visualization of the body as an instrument an bodyas the of visualization British The ). - uoen norms. European 167).

British the 122, 130

33 segregation of European and native and European of segregation

ity of commercial sexuality attached to the the to attached sexuality commercial of ity

the particular conditions particular ac promne. t a the was It performances. dance

superiority ) ath s a as nautch . Physicalcleanliness, order wasbelieved Maintaining of colonial bodies. colonial of a

in general in medical language medical colonial Cliga 2001:165 (Collingham om f ailzd sexuality racialized of form A . of the Indian nautch the nautch Indian the of pparent uoenes in Europeanness osdrd o signify to considered

community, thereby thereby community, see Walkowitz see ity was seen as as seen was ity ly The individualThe th , of sexuality of population

e potential

British British -

167). 1991 gave

ies the , ,

CEU eTD Collection C professiona the Madras in that highlight, to worthwhile women nautch described also report This 1899:28). that reported women nautch the classified famou was sexuality of form anxiety, an that, to connecting and prostitution of understanding the Categorizing British of image Western the the long in live to customary ( casual anti only perhaps dancing, and Even life. t task, difficult a is reformers 3.1 hteje 1992: Chatterjee

T - nautch women nautch nautch campaign was likely to likely was campaign nautch HE primnay report parliamentary s sex work was an „irregular‟ form of pr of form „irregular‟ an was work sex isl, t hud e clarified be should it Firstly, reformers E . XPANDING British reform British The na The promr, i performers, l h nuc women nautch the

receive

utch women were women utch ath oe a prostitutes as women nautch 19 over

o reconstruct the reconstruct o

provided music and music provided - 23 C emphasi ATEGORY OF ATEGORY

the Wieed 1995:51 Whitehead , o controlled not inco d ers acknowledged that that acknowledged ers - term agreements with one man one with agreements term de a ubr f eitrd rsiue akd xmto from exemption asked prostitutes registered of number a ndeed in in okn class working as forming a wholly separate group from groupseparatefrom wholly formingaas

sing zed zed n rsiuin n India in prostitution on prby etr ramn than treatment better mparably

ing commercial se commercial could

the conceptualization of conceptualization the avai undeniably undeniably

P

nautch women as prostitutes, prostitutes, as women nautch (Fuller 1900:124). The central issue that stimulated the the stimulated that issue central The 1900:124). (Fuller ROSTITUTION o te aeoy f rsiuin a ue by used was prostitution of category the how

(Chatt

lability and sexual component of component sexual and lability dan

e on i civil in found be prostitute ce, cultural entertainments, their work their entertainments, cultural ce, ). 34 re 1992:19 erjee ostitution from a Western a from ostitution involved in commercial sexuality, however, i however, sexuality, commercial in involved temple dancers temple

a b epand by explained be can o isac among instance For xuality as part of of part as xuality ontagious

Wieed 1995:51) (Whitehead Te uess d Queens‟s The ,

( Srinivasan 1988:180 Srinivasan

- prostitution: the nautch women‟s women‟s nautch the prostitution: 3 n Wl 2009: Wald and 23 society D often iseases iseases that nautch, as nautch, that military but the the

engage Ade and (Andrew bod n expandin and broad a militaryprostitutes temple dancers it was was it dancers temple it em it nautch A

the nautch wome nautch the - cts centric perspective perspective centric . aughters prostitutes. d In summary, the the summary, In phasized

only in singing singing in only i nt cover not did

women‟s life. life. women‟s - 181 17 a dangerous dangerous a

did not did - n India in 20) Bushnell Bushnell ), and ),

that the that British British

The . , and , t is It n‟s n‟s fit as g t , CEU eTD Collection 3.2 domestic sphere aimed was women British of self a establish a as least relationship at sexuality, interracial push to contributed and women, native with concubinage in living men European of institution colonial the of discouragement as men European century, society civil 1993:85) to exposed Indian prostitution. tha sexuality, of form dangerous but 1 women public of exclusive is This more. many number of femaleIndia, inthePresidency dancers there Throughout wasbe must very 11,573. all ever are “ women nautch prostitute military provide sexualservices hir were they that grounds the on examination 8 9

S 3:7). PACE rts r British

. However, regulating the nautch belonged to the regulationthe to belonged nautch the However, regulating . a Nautch women were thus seen as seen thus were women Nautch n example of this, was the the was this, of example n ,

M

regular wd to owed . Increased policing of interracial sexuality in sexuality interracial of policing Increased . o h mris f society of margins the to OBILITY AND OBILITY - contained European settler community (Sen 2001:3). (Sen community settler European contained

eformer move more freely in native society than public women in civilised countries countries civilised in women public than society native in freely more move ( Sen 2001:3 prostitutes (Collingham 2001:183 (Collingham prostitutes s

medical investigation a investigation medical n rm working from and native . ”

(Levine 2003:220). Fle 1900:131) (Fuller also s

V rsiue wo rvdd eul evc t Br to service sexual provided who prostitutes ) ISIBILITY . to exclude the exclude to

seldom seldom t escaped the pervasive control pervasive the escaped t tep o categorize to attempt -

clas

oe that noted ( olnhm 2001:183 Collingham

source nd treatment in lock hospitals from hospitals lock in treatment nd “ pottts As prostitutes. s

According to the Madras Census of 1881, the the 1881, of Census Madras the to According Indian 35 ed only for singing and dancing and singing for only ed

s wo a who ,

of anxiety: as representing an unregulated, unregulated, an representing as anxiety: of - the native women from the European male‟s male‟s European the from women native 184 ath oe wr differ were women nautch , Stoler 2002:50 Stoler , e a mr numerous more far re India began began India

the Indian Messenger Indian the Indian - 184

native native

)

of interracialof characterizing Th . T he he in the late nineteenth late the in - 51). This ste This 51). e form of legitimate legitimate of form increasing presence increasing itish soldiers were were soldiers itish e were se women cohabiting cohabiting women

1868 (Arnold 1868 , and did not not did and , ” ( .” sexuality in sexualityin

described, registered registered fot to efforts Nautches Nautches n from ent p was p

a

CEU eTD Collection (Levine setting fear t Perceiving refomers homewasthe invitedto womannautch the Ithat believe,and 2003:298) “ colonial writes medical serious a surveillance ke be to were and localities, certain to restricted be to expected also were Brothels risks health potential the reducing thus healthy, space. spatial native and European of the of contrast depicted connotations the and morality, and cleanliness the to segregation discuss to like would I section this In sexuality. commercial giv openly as questioned, was home Indian the of sanctity The sexualities. of This described thevisibility mobility womenspatial and violatedsegregation the ofthe nautch 1900:143 be may character bad of people where entertain to engaged places other or theatres to different going very a people is from which thing remembered: be must it perform, to invited is woman nautch The coming realm: tothe private enter debased a case, such in and home, Indian the in place took performances These gathering. social a in participate to allowed was woman nautch the when highlighted, was performances private of impropriety the Predominantly occasions. festive

o uiul atcltd n h colonies the in articulated uniquely not

L reformers British there were increased fears of maintaining the private sphere private the maintaining of fears increased were there

2003:298

ock hospitals hospitals ock ) s pottt ot f lc, h burd h budre o boundaries the blurred who place, of out prostitute a as

he (Lev prostitute as a source of source a as prostitute eul omre pe wsen b western upset commerce sexual ine 2003: ine -

299 and the public the ). in India in crutv mrl pr moral corruptive a T

xrse ter iapoa o te rsne of presence the of disapproval their expressed he colonial European home was believed to be to believed was home European colonial he 300). The 300).

. served the p the served

( The prostitute The Indian Social Reformer Social Indian The danger, as as danger, urpose to isolate to urpose

36 oblem (Walkowitz

operating outside designated areas was areas designated outside operating

oe to posed potentially udre o pbi ad private” and public of oundaries

( eie 2003: Levine

1991:34

hi cinee ( clientele their prostitutes infiltrating into the home the into infiltrating

1893, October 14 October 1893, ) 300

anet a said was tainment h and the European sphere European the and owever, in the colonial colonial the in owever, ) until cured or deemed or cured until f public and private. private. and public f . interpreted e As xposed to the threat the to xposed Indian Indian rod 1993:85 Arnold Philippa ing space for for space ing acr on dancers

by qtd Fuller qtd

pt under under pt

(Levine seen as as seen Levine British British was o be to

). a

CEU eTD Collection hom European the between space, native Indian and European between difference drawing the into recognition ofimmoralityand entertainment their wo They insulted. and scandalized house the leave for would they Englishwoman, an should But bring mind. of out host be would it English sight of Out possible. an grace tiresome, best the perhaps with or endured curious, and novel something as tricks, a juggler‟s feats, travellingcharmer‟s snake a would they as performance, nautch a watch would them of many who regulation spatial dancesand 20, 4 acros foot her set to allowed were living her f evil did who one if ever for violated be would character their that goodness, to sacred so considered were mothers our of homes the that fact the to passions, our against fight a make sancti the of idea the another in matter the put to allowed be light? I May stage. the off are they what nothing matters of performances the that nautch ground the on unimportant, as matter the treat you this, of Instead the newspaper of editor the Bombay of Bishop the home. British the of definitions behavioural and sanitary cetagorized c as seen was 2003:299) Levine disease of

oaiy f h ntv hm ws criticized was home native the of morality fai )

What have we, Europeans and Christians not owed, in the formations of our morals, to morals, our of formations the in owed, not Christians and Europeans we, have What - I find the next quotation next the find I hs ocs ecrt ons to points excerpt concise This girl l

to notice c , s

as in themselves are neither lively, neither are themselves in The Times of India of Times The rid y h ntv pplto ( population native the by arried atc unorganized haotic, o prostitutes could openly enter the Indian home, built a sharp contrast with the with contrast sharp a built home, Indian the enter openly could prostitutes f being too compromising f being too . the immorality ofthe nautch: Th ( The Times of India of Times The ty of the home? How much have we all been indebted, if we had tried to to tried had we if indebted, been all we have much How home? the of ty e European home was described as described was home European e .

This excerpt This vice that vice

written by written to be a revealing passage on passage revealing a be to

Lvn 2003:299) (Levine

could never be endured.could (Fuller 1900:143) never , 1893, July 7, 6) 7, July 1893, ,

ay set of aspects many in the is

a British anti British a s the threshold the s

fromBritish a nor decorous, and so long as this can be said, it it said, be can this as long so and decorous, nor 37

fr example for , nautch question: ahod 2004:130, Bashford The . -

an ordered place, while native space native while place, ordered an dance campaign supporter, campaign dance . T . In the In

? moral tract addresstractmoral his the possibility, ( The Times of India of Times The

by the relationship of relationship the is an is British

representation

- the room a similar class of of class similar a room

excerpt from a from excerpt Collingham aos sermon famous anti

that that - nautch c nautch nautch women, women, nautch uld regard it as as it regard uld ing Europeans, Europeans, ing

f symbolic of

, 1893, May 1893, ,

the 2001:165, e and the and e accus ampaign letter to to letter t be to d nautch nautch of ing the or or

CEU eTD Collection “ because pe the of account spa native with associated already 11, juggler girls, nautch featuring in Court Earl‟s at Exhibition Ceylon and India the Similarly, “ and Observer empire vast our compromising could audience London the where wi a to spoke and practice established already an was terms such in dance Indian Representing cultur c dances nautch that denied and entertainment, class qualifie nautch that suggests juggler the charmer, snake The there. unimaginable f space privileged a as there homes Indian in that implicating, relations, drawing The difference the and bazaar the of symbolism not are Englishwoman a drawing Europeans passage This home. Indian rformance of the nautch girls could girls nautch the of rformance e ulc n h Biih mie T Empire. British the in public de

6 . h bodr rmn o nuc a a uspitctd fre ie netimn was entertainment like farce unsophisticated, an as nautch of framing broader The ). ed oe lvr juggling clever some categorized audience. In spatial terms, the nautc the terms, spatial In audience. , it is popularly believed in England that the nautch has a spice of naughtiness about naughtiness of spice a has nautch the that England in believed popularly is it 1 h believe who 885 aall with parallel - room appeared room ” , November 5 November ,

refers to prostitutes, and to the campaign‟s central claim, that Indian dancers Indian that claim, central campaign‟s the to and prostitutes, to refers ie o India of Times

as prostitutes, despite of despite prostitutes, as or d

cultivating Europeanness, therefore a nautch entertainment would be would entertainment nautch a therefore Europeanness, cultivating

t was it

” British

as a cultural symbol, a distinguished place of cultivating social social cultivating of place distinguished a symbol, cultural a as ie to aimed , 6 , s, dervishes, illusionists ( illusionists dervishes, s, on ”

). Another correspondent Another ).

a ,

h programme the incn entertainment innocent n ugig sae hrig n nautch and charming snake juggling, e I i itrsig o contrast to interesting is It ce. n h Ida Vlae xiiin rmrig ht the that remarking exhibition, Village Indian the on actors er aot h life the about learn

be informative and educational to educational and informative be e nin ilg ehbto i Abr Pa Albert in exhibition Village Indian he demonstrate the immorality of the nautch to those those to nautch the of immorality the demonstrate

n context. and engaging in sex work sex in engaging between the English and Indian home a home Indian and English the between 38 h was h

was (

The tied to the to tied no such room. It can also can It room. such no ould be appealing to an educated or or educated an to appealing be ould The Guardian,

also The phrasing phrasing The n aueet o te “ the of amusements and Manch (see

high entertainments of the bazaar. bazaar. the of entertainments

hpt 2 S 2, Chapetr .

86 a avrie with advertised was 1896 ester ester

hs broadcasts these lighted In spatial terms the dense dense the terms spatial In 1885,

Guardian the British audience, British the

Dec “ a offered was nautch, wrestling, nautch, iia cas of class similar cin 2.3 ection me 27 ember be d ae 1885, lace, 1896 int

as a low a as ih the with erpreted erpreted ppears. people people ,

) ( May May 6 , , The The

by by ). -

CEU eTD Collection 2004:130 population native the with context colonial the in 1980:3), (Walkowitz classes low and prostitutes with associated filth, physical and metaphoric the Also possible. was Indian not homewas the visit presumed ill native space contagious 1993:90). diseases (Arnold attraction the resist not could who those morality: natives controlled dise native, the 1993:89 (Arnold bazaar the of prostitutes century nineteenth late the for undesirable with Oriental eroticism. Eastern in uninterested as community cent nineteenth late divided was opinion European although that suggests, allusion… this dispel to measure, hav we and it, the nautch women ( . This . . alsoaThe reformers gavepiece o British native of place a bazaar, the with association An Because of the habit of inviting professional dancers, dancers, professional inviting of habit the of Because These These ) , that the turmoil of e of turmoil the that , - , could be carried into the Indian home by the prostitute, and Indians and prostitute, the by home Indian the into carried be could , aaeet of management space advice assumptions are related to eugenic ideas, by seeing disease as a bodily mark of of mark bodily a as disease seeing by ideas, eugenic to related are assumptions

ase n dut bu i, ht rcia aqanac wt i wl sre i great in serve, will it with acquaintance practical that it, about doubt no e the , continuously threatened continuously , - also connected also ridden population, whereas whereas population, ridden European colonial community. community. colonial European r tee ee led concerns already were there ury

Nautches 1893:11). cle Europeans were advised to avoid the food, entertainments and the and entertainments food, the avoid to advised were Europeans arly separated from public fromarly public separated pc wt te arrangements the with space xtended families living together cause together living families xtended

morality and inappropriate living conditions, conditions, living inappropriate moralityand ( ” h Tms f India of Times The

netimns ad seily o eue associations refuse to especially and entertainments, - by its filthy surroundings and by t by and surroundings filthy its by 90

). ). 39 European environment was regarded as a safe, a as regarded was environment European The bazaar was seen as place for place as seen was bazaar The

f advice to s of the bazaar were disposed to disposed were bazaar the of s Due to the to Due space: it

on the merits of Indian dance, in dance, Indian of merits the on o represent to 1885, , Indians regarding

f European of in the view of British reformers, reformers, British of view the in growing attention to hygiene,to attention growing netimn ws oe than more was entertainment

was a place where prostitution where prostitution awas place

u 14, Jul the the d

many Indian men to to men Indian many

ooil European colonial ) Ti statement This 3). space he infiltration of infiltration he the regulation of of regulation the and contrastedand

allowed that. that. allowed . mixing with mixing

Reformers Reformers t ( he risk of of risk he Bashford

th in in e - CEU eTD Collection Theref be only could system purdah spectators the of seclusion the practicing household, the of females it) of lack the (or class and national racial, of sign a considered was self understanding, Western in that maintaining, the statements is these underlying behind assumption attraction developed mobi Murdoch seductive, the of that and wife bound spatially uneducated, the of 1909:131 secluded prefer male system s bodily causing be sy purdah The middle in practiced was trope, cultural popular part constru the to turn 3.3 unwillinglyboundaries andcrossingand private, entering between public the an Ind in entertainments nautch on guests as Europeans, For

G

connected to connected ENDER ore, in ore, After demonstrating the contrast between the Indian and British home, I would like to like would I home, British and Indian the between contrast the demonstrating After appear

a rts reformer British a , ).

h c who of the nautch and were denied the possibility the denied were and nautch the of red The them The

I an almost exclusively almost an N THE N THE stem was frequently criticised from a from criticised frequently was stem ed

the company of company the

ud not ould n h anti the in domestic space domestic ctions of gender of ctions ymptoms, passivity and idleness ( idleness and passivity ymptoms, A was e of the degraded Indian woman woman Indian degraded the of e o the to NTI

fml responsibility female a -

N

e n qa prnr n arae ( marriage in partner equal an be AUTCH ath women nautch -

ath campaign nautch ugse that suggested

the .

C male nautch women, because the Indian wife was was wife Indian the because women, nautch identity in the British anti British the in identity The seclusion of Indian women Indian of seclusion The AMPAIGN environment

qd y ulr 1900:131 Fuller by (qtd 40 t a a aua cneune ht nin men Indian that consequence natural a was it

-

also

- or upper or

mastery, the ability to control sexual desire sexual control to ability the mastery, - ( belonging os 1985:5 Mosse

: Western Hall recognition of male sexual desire sexual recognition ofmale , desire for desire , rts rfres presumed reformers British recurr

- 2004:53 class class of ian homes, there was the threat the was there homes, ian ed

- intermi the social control of male desire male of control social the centric approach, it was seen to to seen was it approach, centric -

nautch campaign that were in were that campaign nautch in the dualistic representation representation dualistic the in Indian

the prostitute was s was prostitute the ulr 1900:134, Fuller - ) 11) . The ngling with male guests. male with ngling

). (purdah) ,

homes tlr 2002:71). Stoler but unarticulated, An debate o debate e prostitute. le

, that became a became that , ( Hall unsafe place. n uneducated

the purdah the th 2004:53 een as an as een Thurston Indian e . While While

The The Dr. Dr.

of of ). ,

CEU eTD Collection men, “ 2011:76). (Jagpal women nautch the E o entertainment are the dancers to introduced nautch whenever leave, to them encourage and husbands, their on influence o tract The programme. the on was nautch that known they friends had These same. dinner, (Fuller 1900:136) the the do to would gone I here, have were not wife would my If going. in right quite doing are their stated clearlygovernment English An they going. for stay,reason to pressed when and depart, to arose friends our Immediately upon their returning totheir tents sitting foundnautch women onthecarpet: wro The females colonies the in women home the of morality the and morality maintain colonies 2001:181). (Collingham laziness Oriental into Bri the of qualities idealized the to opposition home. the of morality T men. Indian of immorality nautc lust immora by characterized were and practices, unnatural in engaging as described often desire. male of outlet home nglish women presumed European men as potentially getting under the erotic influence of of influence erotic the under getting potentially as men European presumed women nglish Hl 20:5. niig rsiue t te home, the to prostitutes Inviting 2004:55). (Hall h women in the presence the in women h however, his results are based on the on based are results his however, - wreckers

(Stoler g o Ida wmnod presented womanhood Indian of ngs was f

Dr. Dr. pictured as as pictured

2002: ” ,

J. Murdoch specifically addressed English ladies, to put in effect their their effect in put to ladies, English addressed specifically Murdoch J. threatening the domestic sphere by having sexual raltionship with married with raltionship sexual having by sphere domestic the threatening 33

The bodily and moral inaptness moral and bodily The n h ohr hand other the On , ), and ), a t peet t prevent to was a urin f ite and virtue, of guardian e nin ie a described was wife Indian he

the same was their their was same the of the spatially segregated wives segregated spatially the of get (Jagp guests f Charn Jagpal also describes the nautch women as as women nautch the describes also Jagpal Charn

, Indian males in British colonial discourses were were discourses colonial British in males Indian , official sitting near whispered to the husband: You husband: the to whispered near sitting official e niay between intimacy he literary representations of the nautch women in women nautch the of representations literary 41

a confidential story of two Englishmen, who who Englishmen, two of story confidential a tish wife: energetic, active, who active, energetic, wife: tish

l 017) Ti gender This 2011:76). al (Stoler utemr, h Erpa woman European the Furthermore, duty he

when when of

dt as duty r 2002:71 experiencing the present on nautch on present Indian woman Indian as

point ). The presence The ). being European European

an

ed

s i pra agent mperial xa arousal exual unable to control the the control to unable

to -

oe duty coded

the indecency and and indecency the males

can be placed be can

performances

of European European of did and

o sink not

lity and and lity

for the the for a to was in the the in of the the of native native

in in .

CEU eTD Collection women. these by ruined to irretrievablyhad has man families wealthy a aristocratic Many and royal see to saddening is It middle the nautch entertainments of participation the to refers also passage this However, aristocracy. represented N presented was rupees, 2000 about girldancing theneighb in at valued stones precious with set jewel, a ago time thes They unwo nautch on unreasonably spent money the about complained Murdoch driven, women‟s nautch the out pointing women nautch the fees Reformer Social money” entertainment nautch of costs 3.4 nautch campaign Section 3.7). also see Anglo autch

T

e women by men, who will not give a pice a give not will who men, by women e of HE rthyIndian patrons: by purposes [the nautch women] women] nautch [the - Indian(Jagpal 2011:75 novels

R and the

entertainment E is among the first enlisted harmful effects of inviting dancing women ( women dancing inviting of effects harmful enlisted first the among is ecurrent and lengthily discussed theme discussed lengthily and ecurrent XP nautch women nautch ignor the the E NSES OF THE OF NSES ath s ri o mn families many of ruin a as nautch , n.d., , ed the ed . British reformers also attempted to prove t prove to attempted also reformers British s were known to be be to known were s :

April

religious or cultural f cultural or religious orhood by ofFuller Madras.‟ (qtd 1900:132). , are as a rule avaricous… : Very large sums are often wasted on on wasted often are sums large Very : avaricous… rule a as are N and about and

16, Naut 16, AUTCH s

and the greed and wealth and greed the and

court poverty and disgrace on this account. Even in middle in Even account. this on disgrace and poverty court greed and greed

-

ches 1893:4). Popular stories were stories Popular 1893:4). ches 77). the valuable jewels and jewels valuable the

(On the gender constructions of Indians thean in gender (On constructions the of expensive, expensive,

unctions unctions emphasized 42

[1/64 of a rupee] a of [1/64 s

in the in

and of t of lt entertainments. elite

, that , British s a as he dancers. The British reformer British Thedancers. he of the the of

he he as o the of cause estates estates the campaign nautch women. The “loss of of “loss The women. nautch immorality of the nautch by by nautch the of immorality for female education. Some Some education. female for nautch nautch , presen

as

cited about the high high the about cited was on

were

eln o Indian of decline rts reformers British ted

money spent on spent money

entirely profit entirely

by patrons patrons by the h Indian The - financial ls in class to a to

Dr. Dr. ti to - -

CEU eTD Collection home, Indian and 1995:179). s interracial and commercial to turning to unable be to considered nineteenth In soldiers. and classes nautch, the of sexuality and aristocracy middle to conforming of sign the be could nautch was stratification social of aspect class articulatedreformers of transgression a and A dangerous entering of risk of boundaries the Leaving Europeans. entertainmen imagination: pro representing dancer that believe I Nevertheless, Indian. or European either nautch, suggests thatthe na that fact, The of thirst insatiable the quench to money and youth sanctified immorality... their away fritter many society, class dmir ing sll as solely s - and in decent in and is, wud ie o eiw wa priiaig in participating what review, to like would I First, ls clbae self celebrated class

and desir and

The British anti British The lt cass b claiming, by classes, elite t that was not appropriatet that was not for the from the lower the from utch British British

ath a re was nautch ing ing avaricious

dances were dances spatial and spatial society. H society. ( the the commercial and interracial and commercial The IndianThe Social Reformer anti colonial

overcom nautch wom nautch - dance campaign dance - nautch discourse is about the participationrulingin classes nautch of discourseisabout -

native oeain discip moderation, courtesan - owever, classes national boundaries national

a a in f Oriental of sign a as d boundaries given in honour of European officials in Indian homes also homes Indian in officials European of honour in given e - etr scea tikn slir ad low and soldiers thinking societal century th pc, and space,

the self the eir passions and desires (Mosse 1985:10 (Mosse desires and passions eir

that e exuality was exuality

(Mosse 1985:10 (Mosse n could n s it did not consider the regulation of regulation the consider not did it dmnn cnen of concern dominant a

the

elcs ht atrd the captured what reflects middle the demanded demanded

43 middle - ewe Erpas and Europeans between

contained British colonial British contained

ath i nt ae pae n respectable a in place a have not did nautch

mean attending l - , n ad separat and ine class

, 18 spoke to a to spoke

- in the in an acceptable behaviour of them (Stoler them of behaviour acceptable an class

an opportunity an 9 the boycott of boycott the

- 2, April 6 qtd. Fuller 1900:1332, April 6qtd.Fuller morality. 11). . campaign

un luxurious , potential criticized heavily The behaviour associated with poor with associated behaviour epcal sca gatherin social respectable the

h cmag. Avoiding campaign. the The distinctive code of the the of code distinctive The ed ath ol ips on impose could nautch ,

for

but at the same time time same the at but the nautch from nautch the themselves British British

Indians

interracial sexuality, interracial community held community eaec, n an and decadence, the nautch the - . - attention 11

classes were were classes The British British The

), therefore therefore ), rm the from f essional

British )

as

and the the the the the gs.

a CEU eTD Collection nautch the of danger and ofwastinghealth‟,a semen, result offspring‟ as ‟degenerate were women, Indians. were on working of instead strength indulged who Those marital co sexual the violated attention of Eur anti British o as males prostitution of image racialized 1991:34) Walkowitz see Britain Great in prostitute prostitute, the of prostitution of neglect that emphasized, also Spectator pure, is that all of sake belo morally it where place the by supported low - wie aprs cue b ntv pottto (tlr 1995:182.) (Stoler prostitution native by caused pauperism white f class entertainment. entertainment. class with The The dangers of the n ecs sexuality excess and

qtd. Nautches 1983:9). qtd. Nautches aroi duty. patriotic

the - and ath oe, eotd to reported women, nautch ac cmag cn e nepee as interpreted be can campaign dance

the upper social classes. British reformers British classes. social upper the said to be appearing be to said h cneune o ursetbe eaiu, ht is that behaviour, unrespectable of consequences The nautch opeans to thedangersopeans to of

idealized as

draining the resources of the of resources the draining

in the pleasures of pleasures the in de of the middle the of de

women the (Nautches nautch

middle nautch werenautch no oee, u t te ooil iuto, the situation, colonial the to due However, British nautch , can , as

higher purposes. higher girls should be banished from respectable society ( society respectable from banished be should girls

ngs

- (Levine

eietn atnin from attention redirecting

class

1893:5 ol rsl i dcyd elh ls o vtlt and vitality of loss health, decayed in result could reformers be connected to to connected be medically -

- outside of decent society decent of outside

class. N class. morality was a more complicated question. complicated more a was morality

the the e rsiue, ersne a om f eult that sexuality of form a represented prostitutes, be - t only described in financial terms. British reformers reformers infinancialBritish described terms. t only 2003:2 ) Te os f ee was semen of loss The 7). nautch. nautch. nautch were said to be wasting energy and bodil and energy wasting be to said were nautch

, 44

explicitly as manifested in manifested as ineteenth

According to British reformers, these patrons patrons these reformers, British to According 8, as 28), “ better classes better the

n tep, o dct and educate to attempt, an colonial n hs case this in -

in century public opinion opinion public century claimed claimed aimed

ae of case patriotic patriotic

fears ” ‟nervous debility‟, ‟enfeebled debility‟, ‟nervous to “relegate it “relegate to syphilitic infection a syphilitic could be ( Fuller 1900:136 Fuller (as a characterization of the the of characterization a (as ht h prt rfr is reform purity the that h itmc of intimacy the a a native a was

described by Ann Stoler, Stoler, byAnn described duty patronizing ad o e especially be to said perceived conflict conflict perceived

Consequently, (Mosse

[ the regarded non regarded ).

The Indian The oa. A woman.

the ” ”For the the ”For ” The figure The nautch] 1985:11 European European rw the draw

nautc in the the in t he he of to ). ). h y -

CEU eTD Collection h attach not does he if position his worth not nautch to regard 2002:121 (Rendell standing social of could patrons pr as dancers designated work sex and patrons fromgifts whether debates, also thereweremetropole the in commercialized,and also classes high of lifestyle ostentatious the with dancers professional with aristocrats of code 3.5 between and patriotism sexuality, to This pleasure 1893:6). (Nautches selfis No; they Are countrymen? their of welfare the at Look fu selfishness since and existence, they uni were instincts, animalistic low, their obeying be to said hav youthfulbrightness seventeen. reach they time the by spent and exhausted are boys youth. the to dangerous

“W excerpt illustrates how the British reformers British the how illustrates excerpt The figure of the nautch woma nautch the of figure The IN IMMORAL HAT IS hness is their leading feature. Their money, as far as available, is devoted to sensual to devoted is available, as far as money, Their feature. leading their is hness character of the men who keep dancing girls? girls? dancing keep who men the of character interpreted

also : “In large cities, like Madras, I am afraid the general opinion is that a man is man a that is opinion general the afraid am I Madras, like cities, large “In :

be (on the sexual code of European aristocrats see Mosse 1985:5) Mosse see aristocrats European of code sexual the (on connected e gonee sexuality. nterested i Bomb the As the

in Europe in E

eul behaviour sexual NGLAND

[sic] to

n the welfare of their country:n thewelfare of .” professional dancers, and supporting a dance a supporting and dancers, professional , such as such ,

( ay School Inspector testified: “ testified: Inspector School ay , - Nautches

ostitutes. In late ninetee late In ostitutes. 122) IM IS n as a luxury prostitute implies prostitute luxury a as n the . MORAL IN IN MORAL supporters of every movement for their benefit? their for movement every of supporters

rts reformers British 45 balle

imself to a dancing girl...” ( girl...” dancing a to imself ( as reflecting morality, and and morality, reflecting as Rendell 2002: Rendell

1893:

conceptualized t dancers t 5 I ) NDIA

Furthermore, were in the metropole the in were ” [

121

sic] n raised raised

th century Europe, Europe, century th proper middle proper - 122) r te itrse i the in interested they Are Their former energy and and energy former Their The great majority of the the of majority great The

the smlr concern similar a .

However, ballet was was ballet However, the profligate sexual sexual profligate the

nautch patronsnautch The Indian Social Social Indian The a a saw - class attitude class r was a sign sign a was r

fle their lfilled

con associated associated high class class high . Liaisons . nection nection

were with CEU eTD Collection on imposed bes d 3.6 code of in sexuality 1992:64 in and opportunity sexual in decrease ( society 1995:99). (Stoler Other imported from Europe, (Stoler exclusion shared metropole the and colonies can respect drawn be can analysis nuanced more a However, the stimulated chastity and respectability (Levine 2003:191). well as Britain in common were performers of standing social the on debates sexuality, and Reformer Collingham 2001: Collingham cdne I odr o examine to order In ecadence.

spotv eiec i t suy h question, the study to is evidence supportive t T HE T that noted, also has literature Previous Britain. - N was he 65). The refusal of commercial sexuality and especially the con the especially and sexuality commercial of refusal The 65).

AUTCH AS A AUTCHAS 1892, April 16, qtd. Nautches 1893:3). 1893:3). Nautches qtd. 16, April 1892,

also be a particular particular a be also British

the anti the ooil oit t society colonial these : increasingly (The section title isquoted from title section (The

and 181

- eomr‟ iapoa o the of disapproval reformers‟ nautch sexual sexual -

opr 1997:3 Cooper C others were invented in the colonies, articulated in reference to a racial racial colonies, inreference articulated toa inthe were invented others 182 IVILIZATIONAL t s motn t nt, ht h mrl oe of code moral the that note, to important is It ). The sexual code sexual The ).

following apincud reflect could campaign anxieties hrough xml o An Stoler‟s Ann of example er of fears of the of

- nite and anxieties this campaign. As the simple binary of colonizer and and colonizer of binary simple the As campaign. this 4 the moral moral the ee ls coded. class were ). ). nraig pol increasing D

relationship between the colonies the between relationship British en ascae wt Oina entertainments, Oriental with associated being IVIDE IVIDE at f h ntos f middle of notions the of Part 46

emerging

Fuller 1900:116) itra sxa cd, itra nrs of norms Victorian code, sexual Victorian ant A

definitions

i ssociations between bodily perf bodily between ssociations ath a a was nautch - the influence of influence the shared how the divide of East and West was was West and East of divide the how nautch campaign (Whitehead 1995 (Whitehead campaign nautch cn o etaaia sexuality extramarital of icing

in the 1880s in Britain resulted in resulted Britain in 1880s the in

T prah o ooil tde: the studies: colonial to approach e anti he h daetc o icuin and inclusion of dialectics the of

s a lso - respectability ath campaign nautch the new puritan puritan new the

-

cerns about youthful about cerns class morality were were morality class h Biih colonial British the refusal of Oriental Oriental of refusal and the of of metropole ormance ormance

(Hyam (Hyam Britain in this this in sexual :42). the the a CEU eTD Collection in participating the to due that 1900s the in campaign, the morality. elite Indian the and well, as classes of forms c Curtailing elite. social the of definition the to contributed had code sexual here behaviour, appropriate how fact, the to points passage melodramatic This Mail, high ( sirens these with concubinage and of adultery of state the in living culture, Western spectacle of the than deplore li of men sincerely Hindus, more community Hindu well true educated all which one not Madras, in sight melancholy more a not is There Western behaviour tobe was towards attitude 1893:10). men.”(Nautches educated some by seen be to beginning are evils their that years of thousands forIndia in performed beenhave system. nautch the of perils the recognizing on influence beneficial a had example for see responsib civilising a British of effort East 1995:7 (McClintock society colonial of relations power the describe adequately not does colonized onformi r cvlzto ad morality and civilization ern 1893, March 2 , n h campaign the in ),

The

ng sexual relationships for the mi the for relationships sexual

to Western definition Western to significance of avoiding significance the of ir th Burton 1994:35 Burton the

e ght and leading, and recipients of the most civilising and humanising form humanising and civilising most the of recipients and leading, and ght niheig work enlightening d nin eomr, who reformers, Indian nd ility, advocating social reform (on the conceptualizatio the (on reform social advocating ility, nautch could serve as grounds for o for grounds as serve could nautch

nautch became a sign of cultural of sign a became nautch qtd Nautchesqtd 1893: . West By that time, time, that By

followed as anfollowed as - r civilization ern 37).

s

y nin. h anti The Indians. by of morality. Adultery and concu and Adultery morality. of were te moaiy of immorality the ,

The Western perspective, according to to according perspective, Western The ddle 3 nautch is even more apparent in the second decade of decade of more inthe second apparent iseven nautch

to be policed according to British understandings of of understandings British to according policed be to ). the

- example class were to be abandoned by the by abandoned be to were class 47 British and Indian reformers Indian and British followed Western values, such as undertaking undertaking as such values, Western followed

a not was without apparen without

byIndiancircles reform supporting

and civilizational civilizational and pen criticisms. This criticism a criticism This criticisms. pen - dance campaign was the combined combined the was campaign dance the the simply ath was nautch the nautch was interpreted was nautch the ersne b British, by represented binag t protest, it is satisfactoryis it protest, t

affiliation. Idealized affiliation.

“Although nautches nautches “Although e

a known fact, and and fact, known a took it for granted, for it took

n of Western duty Western of n as non as British reformers reformers British - wishers of the the of wishers

Indian ruling Indian - acceptable - educated

Madras Madras ffected ffected .

The and

as as

CEU eTD Collection watched as depicted encountered Europeans context, whom was thesexuality prost a of spell the under fall could Who groups. acting the of racialization p nautch made what question, The sexuality. racialized identifying in role considerable a played campaign The difference. was it Indians, and Europeans 3.7 1907, A so this the of of disposal promoters the Sir at it placed had that Hall, Town the of nautch use of the lending to a regard in announcement strict gener over are by who the authorities performance the that that was a affair the regretof patronise feature surprising received...Another and to consented surprise had small Mehta no Pherozeshah with therefore was It enter ( discard to promised who figures, se to ‟beginning ( communities‟ ‟advanced the exemplary, avoided who Those communities. and persons public The Rast Goftar Rast The

T tainments could result in tainments could result HE isl, h ne for need the Firstly, the Although ug

N erformances was was erformances t u o cuts, ic te were they since courtesy, of out it AUTCHAS ust uninterested in watching a nautch, a watching in uninterested

7, 8 e this evil in its proper light‟ ( light‟ proper its in evil this e

) qtd by qtd

- S ald concert. called British IGNIFYING IGNIFYING

of thenautchappealing? women The Times of India of Times The ndqaey nwrd y h campaign the by answered inadequately

the criticism anti

n the R - the the based on deeply embedded understandings about racial racial about understandings embedded deeply on based uc ws ad o e coming be to said was autch na ACIAL ACIAL utch campaign complicated complicated campaign utch ath ny s guest as only nautch ( nautch in their palaces, estates received congratulations received estates palaces, their in nautch h Ida Sca Reformer Social Indian The

and h Tms f India of Times The D in IFFERE ,

48 debate 1902, Aug 27, Aug 1902, The Times of India of Times The well considering

the - NCE

wr o the of aware s ath rtc wa ws moa in immoral was what erotic, nautch

on

wh o Ida hss Erpas were Europeans hosts. Indian of s it ungraceful it ere 10, u 15, Jul 1903, , 3).

the nautch ath ee ihihe as highlighted were nautch However, However, xlsvl fo a Indian an from exclusively , 1902, Aug 27, Aug 1902, , iaca costs financial h sca dvd betw divide social the qtd , Te nwr is n the in lies answer The . the the and monotonous, and monotonous, and h Tms f India of Times The nautch as a form a as nautch

was organizing itute dancer, for for dancer, itute ) wo were who 3), possible. possible. - women was was women of a nautch nautch a of 3). Leading 3). nautch nautch

ally een the

of of ,

CEU eTD Collection undifferentiated the on discourses Orientalist broader, to connected be can desire sexual overs the and sensitivit the of indicator an is that girl, performancescould not ( and women were hand other the on Indians Palace. Viceregal a the Nautches 1893:9 in think ballroom Magistrate, the in Mofussil dancing the as harmless to down Viceroy the from India in Englishmen that think, I therefore is it and custom, English honourable an is Dancing European ball background cultural therefore songs, Nautches 1893:9) ( host? their to grateful feel gentlemen and ladies same these would le their understood and women, these of character the host, the cracked voices, own tune of their undergo to halt as civil so are who ladies, worse, is what and gentlemen, European those now If them [ Indiaof Times The entertain The Times of India of Times The - Indian enthusiasm about their cultural productculturaltheir Indian about enthusiasm the nautch the an European guests - If Europeans were Europeans If d barriers, language to due Europeans, hour‟s real martyrdom, sitting stiffly while the dusky girls writhe before them to the the to them before writhe girls dusky the while stiffly sitting martyrdom, real hour‟s ment (see ment exualized exualized kne prevented women attractive. It asserts, that not the dances the not that asserts, It attractive. women w that everyone in the company is a pos a is company the in everyone that w ) were

, 1907 , Other the circular letter of the British officer, qtd i qtd officer, British the of letter circular the

be pleasing toEuropeans , 1907, April 10, 8 10, April 1907, , of Europeans, of

unaware of the the of unaware ]

pleasure‟(Fuller 1900:135).

them to , April 2,8 April , perceived unimpres

- be shocked immorality by the ofthe nautch. eotd o e ul aae f the of aware fully be to reported

if only they knew, as does every native in the hall including thehall including in asevery native knew, does if onlythey

). Or theyOr ). figure as them sed by the clumsy, unsophisticated moves of the nautch nautch the of moves unsophisticated clumsy, the by sed impropriety accustomed ) y and sexuality of those who found who those of sexuality and y . Some Some as sexually charged. sexually

49 ( The Times of India Times of The id opinions eve opinions

, but a but ,

o udrtn te bcn cnet f the of content obscene the understand not

of such events. events. such of to respectable to d

, this must be th bemust this ,

deliberate insult to su to deliberate insult sible customer of the nautch the of customer sible n went further, suggesting it was was it suggesting further, went n These notions on the unlimited the on notions These wd songs, how far, I wonder, I far, how songs, wd .. were sexually were n

nautch , 1907, April 10,8). , 1907,April entertainments ( Reformers argued, that the that argued, Reformers h Ida S Indian The Chapter 2, Chapter from

profession of the nautch nautch the of profession e ‟Hindu‟s idea of givingof eidea ‟Hindu‟s

The Rast Goftar Rast The f acn grs as girls dancing of

the

ppose that these that ppose

suggestive, Section 2. Section

nautch , pectator such

women dances dances as

5

qt qtd. ; or ; but but th d e .

CEU eTD Collection the of characterby Singh 1997:167). moral the consideration (qtd India. or Europe in either athletes or intodancers byprofessional out carried been have which take to him to en these at performers occurred never has improper; it considered he degree and remotest the in anything seen ever he has which of none at present been has Excellency His denying anti hissupportofthe performances. comparing of voices were not could she that indecency, of preoccupation the perceived the hierarchy (see ofsexualities Rubin other the on sexualit desire, sexual overabundant their males, Indian of indecency mentioned. specifically were people these that underlining, worth Patrika impressionable young to attention of there centreearly, too is her to introduction If their the minds. is her she feet, dress, and rich hands her her In of manipulation morality. youthful of bane the is She characterwas returned dancers the dancers; the m f 2003:188 (Said other Oriental the of drive sexual Of urther characteristics o characteristics urther a n, who visit who n, co urse, these specific examples did examples specific these urse,

o only Not qtd Nautches 1983:6) ies , as of prematur of as , the nautch the

said be to ed hs s n xep fo te etr f h Gvro o Mda, rm 1893, from Madras, of Governor the of letter the from excerpt an is This

simple

the temples under the guise of reli of guise the under temples the Indian to

his the woman tertainments, any more than when he has been present at performances at present been has he when than more any tertainments,

- f the f too immature toresist the charmstoo of thenautch

minded, but affluent m affluent but minded,

oe s rie m ruined a as home ae wer males discourses on the impossibility of saving her, as sunk too low too sunk as her, saving of impossibility the on discourses e and that of a simple a of that and e

Indian males, who admired the nautch. the admired who males, Indian as - nautch campaign:nautch e redeemed be the characterized by characterized on several occasion on which notches have been performed performed been have notches which on occasion several on e described as hypersexualized. The British reformers reformers British The hypersexualized. as described e ath o uoen harcl per theatrical European to nautch 1984

not cover all patrons of the nautch women, but it is it but women, nautch the of patrons all cover not :279). :279).

( 50 h Tms f India of Times The a

a (ulr 9010, a 1900:120), (Fuller n

- n, who after the be the after who n, minded man minded greed and sensuality. This is s is This sensuality. and greed

is yet no repulsion about it about repulsion yetno is gion, whereas his real purpose was purpose real his whereas gion, - 8, 311). 187,

have a relatively low place in in place low relatively a have rie voice trained

The British British The 10, pi 10, April 1907, , These could illustrate the illustrate could These witchin These were These woman: nd the youth, whose whose youth, the nd omne, ballet formances, g encounter with with encounter g ad h skilful the and , reformers .

(

The Subodth The upported by upported

ad these hand, the wicked wicked the

8 ).

to see to There gave gave

into

CEU eTD Collection add presence her does How ceremony? t in part take to girl dancing a getting of custom horrible the have Hindus marriages, at performances th and society of members the and bride innocent the prostitute, of that society: Indian of insensitivity moral the accentuate India in life theywere wome gives that religion and society nautch the but true; is That land. any in occur may this that say because estranged reformers British nautc the sensuality oversexualized, this behind assumption was there that maintained, admitted, reformers be character her was woman nautch the that was ( dancers. nautch Indian H owever, n w n The other, more prominent distinctive marker between the European ball European the between marker distinctive prominent more other, The e ceremony he h woman was the claim, the was woman h

ere British reformers invited to be there.be to invited could not the

described to be to described Catr , eto 2.2) Section 2, (Chapter maue youth immature came and

eotd that reported, of the of be regulated.be that that y a by

” Nuce 1893:10) (Nautches .” orpe a a ery g (Ful age early an at corrupted Fuller 1900:133 Fuller influence of a prostitute a of influence uoen eae perfo female European comp

pottt (see prostitute e denied the validity of comparisons thevalidity of denied possibility a belief belief

The nautch women were women nautchThe present on weddings, weddings, on present

her a peculiar vantage ground vantage peculiar a her

a

trained into her profession from from profession her into trained n te prostitute, the and rison many

ht eult i inse is sexuality that that

could Indian

grac the nautch wome nautch the

) . .

for European women to quit their profession. The The profession. their quit to women European for

There were two rea two were There rts reformers British e or sanctity to such occasion such to sanctity or e Chap 51 e ht h ntv woma native the that be family “

ht a a rsiue o o n marriage a in do to prostitute a has What , of the nautch woman nautch the of , r me e 2 Scin 2.5 Section 2, ter

on n ue te utpsto o esteemed of juxtaposition the used and s ol also could rs a ruined, was said to be to said e 1900:144 ler dinners in dinners n aal fo hr person her from parable were respected were .”

ple bnr opstos to oppositions binary applied between sons for this. One explanation explanation One this. for sons

- (Fuller 1900:133) (Fuller girl has a recognized place in in place recognized a has girl an an part of the pr the of part

wealthy houses, moreover, moreover, houses, wealthy ubn ad ie became wife and husband engage engage early childhood, therefore childhood, early - . 145) ) . “

European dancers and European dancers “ Besides the ordinary ordinary the Besides n was regarded as as regarded was n But our readers our But .

(

n e work sex in While The Indian Social Social Indian The in ivate and public and ivate Indian et dancer and and dancer et

The nautch nautch The the

and her her and society. British they ,

may

CEU eTD Collection prostitu of category the Expanding domain, of governability sexuality: 3.8 of thenautch wom stigmatized held generally were devadasis although and society, Indian 1988:177 Srinivasan see question prof the as such describing to reminiscent extent some to are characterisations from nautch of number a summarizes passage This Nautches 1893:2) giv by class do the patronise men to best scruple very not the protests, many so after now, even Bengal, In line. royal distinguished dancing a seen North the In ladies. married to than them to shown are respect and attention greater fact, In to. allowed ever are countries civilised in women public than society dancing the Punjab, the ...In and vertically. s country, whole the characterising Reformer

C ONCLUSION regular . From the From British at the same time same the at , 189 omril n racialize and commercial

(Whitehead 1995:49). Campaigners simply equated the mere presence and wealth wealth and presence mere the equated simply Campaigners 1995:49). (Whitehead prostitutes, but also but prostitutes, 4

- reformers perceived reformers girl treated with as much courtesy as if she were a princess descended from a from descended princess a were she if as courtesy much as with treated girl , June 9 June , sin en hereditary being ession

bodies: British

e n with social esteem.n

qtd. Fuller 1900:173 Fuller qtd. reformers

h nuc women nautch the British British - il ejy ulc aor te mv mr fel i native in freely more move they favour; public enjoy girls prostitutes, and could and prostitutes, ). However, the the However, ). patrons could easily turn to commercial and commercial to turn easily could patrons ‟

uggesting that the prostitute was prostitute the that uggesting the perspective, nautch was understood was nautch perspective, d. in o noprt nau incorporate to tion

n ing nautc ing points points h nuc voae mn apcs of aspects many violated nautch The autch women as a class of women, who were were who women, of class a as women autch ,

the

ol mv fel and freely move could 52 ).‟ Adding to that, the nautch was nautch the that, to Adding ).‟ ath women nautch h Biih eomr ciiie i te Indian the in criticized reformers British the

hes in their houses. (Indian Messenger (Indian houses. their in hes n autch women were of ill of were women autch

flourish

i nt form not did t

as auspicious, still they were were they still auspicious, as c the only i only cud hav could h

nautch nautch -

We

everywhere horizontally horizontally everywhere n could enter the private private the enter could India. (Although these these (Although India. st Provinces we have have we Provinces st as a form of deviant of form a as women - reputation within reputation a e

interracial sex interracial caste

utie the curtailed

described as as described h desired the as .

n this On a distinct distinct caste, qtd. .

CEU eTD Collection same time perceiv disti clearly less norms British make and and mobility their available, sexually were were performances by violated be could 2003:228) The subversivesexuality unproductive (Stoler 1995:180)patriotic sex. and productive self white and which rigor on the rested on supposedly authority colonial missions, moralizing Dutch and French British, of name the In governingproblem of inacolonial desire context: in tension basic a as colonies the in malesubjectsof possibilities sexual describesthe Stoler Ann morality,and belonging, attitude national class tonautch thereforecould the However, acceptable. was behaviour achieve to defining of problem a 1995:99 (Stoler framework a as established was nautch segregation the demanded British privileges colonial

supposed ed by ed a nti

that could se - a ath campaign nautch

xual politics (Stoler 1995:179). (Stoler politics xual the the - distinction between British norms of sexuality and racialized sexuality (Levine sexuality racialized and sexuality of norms British between distinction el prescribed newly discipline, native lust and white civility, native sensuality and white morality, white and sensuality native civility, white and lust native discipline, British British undermin British

often not characterized by characterized not often

proper European conduct in the colonies. The British campaign strived campaign British The colonies. the in conduct European proper reformers

reformers e -

97 the f respecta of its agents distinguished between desire and reason, native instinct instinct reason, native and agents betweenits desire distinguished

, 115 , om f nepcal behaviour unrespectable of form attempted prestige

perceived the perceived behaviour

as endangering as - 119, 179 119, uoen attending Europeans since since

l scey from society ble of the nguishable from native norms native from nguishable to presence in society could blur could society in presence , - I would like to cite hercite to like I would eul eaiu was behaviour sexual 182 53

y liig rgt o eie hs sexual whose define to right a claiming by isolate entire

nautch women nautch impropriety, the fact, that fact, the impropriety,

), participating in participating),

Eu

British ropean dangerous the h nuc. vn if Even nautch. the

s colonial on an individual level, individual an on

ath s el Attending well. as nautch enjoyed. On the one hand, t hand, one the On enjoyed. . Drawing on Ann Stoler‟s Stoler‟s Ann on Drawing . nin female Indian

the excellentsummary community. interpreted

n . autch c autch T colonial boundaries colonial he nautch could be could nautch he the nautch women nautch the gain significance. ould appear as as appear ould

as revealing revealing as

bodies the but at the the at but nautch nautch on the on , and the the he ,

CEU eTD Collection her and work, th scholarly and morality Stoler‟s sexuality, of Ann role the identifying on of framework relied transnational have I threatening, be to perceived was women nautch the society colonial British the of boundaries specific the reveal to order informal Britis and Indian eli the from dancers professional segregating and women nautch the of mobility Bri behaviour, sexual O society. British colonial entertainments characteri to attempted interpreted implications theoretical society. anti the were demands campaign the that stu closer However, parties. nautch avoiding by society Indian to example an set dutynationalto and personal a conceptualizedaswas it empire,the representativesof as since indifferent society. colonial British of boundaries the demarcating to contributed time same the at society, Indian of reform a t s reformers. ish The thesis The - plig ihl ocuts eia ter o booe (Fouc biopower of theory seminal Foucault‟s Michel Applying ath apin a mr cmlx oiain ta te oa ulf o Indian of uplift moral the than motivations complex more had campaign nautch segregation,

observers the the , anti British and h. has argued has respec dniyn nuc wmn s prostitutes as women nautch Identifying strived to strived ann te ooil lt t avoid to elite colonial the Warning

f ath bt vn s uh were such, as even but nautch, of policing e the ze al and table n h dsore o te campaign, the of discourses the In of n the basis of basis the n - dance campaign dance

uih Walkowitz Judith that although the British anti British the although that

mak eult cnetd to connected sexuality C n ngtaig h budre o acpal behaviour acceptable of boundaries the negotiating and

HAPTER already ambiguous, and suggest, that the British support of support British the that suggest, and ambiguous, already

e it intelligible it e unrespectable the attitude to nautch, nautch, to attitude the 4: as a boundary marking act. marking boundary a as 54

C s ao study major ‟s

ONCLUSION

ebr o scey ee rdcd y the by produced were society of members to colonial government, colonial to the

committed to address the problem, problem, the address to committed - nautch campaign was encouraging was campaign nautch ath oe and women nautch the ol esr rsrcin o the on restrictions ensure could

in other words, on the basis of of basis the on words, other in h Biih were British the nautc

Wloiz 1991), (Walkowitz entertainments h The British reformers reformers British The ut 98 and 1978) ault

and to and dmsi in domestic e

o the to te, both te, otae as portrayed

Indian and Indian dy revea dy

have I nautch nautch served from

the the In ls CEU eTD Collection indecency the notice to failing thus custom, social and religious were Indians nautch, the of language As morality. of and sexuality of behaviour, of codes plural Western framework theoretical Mohanty‟s Chandra Indians of colonization discursive race. of that ultimately and sexuality women, threats a nativewomen, pose thenautchsettlers. femalebodyonEuropean could colonial reflect supporters campaign British of concerns The boundaries. colonial transgress alarmi but spectacle, bazaar a as art her eroticism, Oriental objectionable of na symbol culture, Indian saturated a as contexts, and traditions dance different of amalgam an women, the established supporters campaign British The society. colonial British the for and wom nautch the of figure the campaign, Briti the anti the outbreakof the to contributed societythat built material al nautch the of opponents avoid context colonial a in Europeanness maintaining of difficulty the as such Indianand reform supporters, 2002). defining social ofCooper hierarchies (Stoler1995, colonialand1997, the Stoler Stoler society

the In the Although - h upres orwd ruet fo Ida priiat o te anti the of participants Indian from arguments borrowed supporters sh centric viewpoint and from a perspective that neglected that perspective a from and viewpoint centric - dept oa, eul n clua cnaiain o ntv society. native of contaminations cultural and sexual moral, h analysis of the campaign the of analysis h n slce fo ti material. this from selected and in n rc. h nuc wmn was woman nautch The race. and tion

initiation of the of initiation ed atcltd etrie ies ad h Biih campaign British the and ideas, Westernized articulated ready the nautch nautch the

hog the through anti - posed dif a eitd s non as depicted nautch campaign was campaign nautch has revealed has n gained new interpretations in British perception British in interpretations new gained n

(Mohanty 1991) (Mohanty 55

oee, te itra tnin o Indian of tensions internal other However, - G ferent thre nautch movement d movementnautch British nrl atrs a b identified be can patterns eneral

the discursiv the

- anti ersne a te moiet of embodiment the as represented hnig n big euae by regulated being and thinking ats to .

Nautch was interpreted from a a from interpreted was Nautch rts reformers British - ac campaign dance the

of

the British colonial British the eradicate to attempted and nautch combined e formation of the nautch nautch the of formation e id

not appear. Although Although appear. not nme o Indian of number A .

Western influence Western te ifcly to difficulty the ,

ngly, she could could she ngly, effort of British of effort

established y applying by society, society, - nautch nautch nautch ed n the in

the the a

CEU eTD Collection premature and commercial and dangerous attributing t depicted in engaged and immorality, British words other in natives, Indian with intermingling could sexuality Indian Overabundant be to husband not could boundaries. colonial and male, European oversexualized, wi Indian body the ( ( Mosse‟s healt racial society inneed depicted was ofexternal for social intervention advance. influenc portrayed was sphere domestic Indian the was non was Stoler Stoler -

changing handed down from father from down handed depicted as depicted h,

difference embedded in late nineteenth, early twentieth century century twentieth early nineteenth, late in embedded difference At the same time At thesame 2002) oit. n h ohr ad nin ae, s raies f ath parties nautch of organizers as males, Indian hand other the On society. potentially body ed layers of Indian society were port were society Indian of layers ed s, even more, they more, even s, e were ves

Mosse eifroiy f Indian of inferiority he s elcig oaiy sxaiy and sexuality morality, reflecting as anan the maintain

.

and tradition The whereas the British women British the whereas an impulse to recognize this recognize to impulse an 1985), Elizabeth 1985),

vitality gender

influenced charact , in which Indians took Indians which in , anti British , the oaiy f h Indian the of morality

Ti apc o te apin a suid y plig George applying by studied was campaign the of aspect This . constructions of the campaign were campaign the of constructions

rzd y oiy idleness bodily by erized were eult, th sexuality, eiiaig sexualities debilitating nrdcie n unpat and unproductive

to son, as the nautch woman was woman nautch the as son, to y retl erotici Oriental by

powerless witness powerless

ae ad Indian and males Collingham corrupt him, him, corrupt - nautch campaign articulatecampaign nautch at were were at According to British reformers, t reformers, British to According

pae f orpin Te rts ad Western and British The corruption. of place a eeprryda guarding as portrayed were 56 rayed as educators and reformers and educators as rayed

‟s delight generation delight social problem, as problem, social

s infig na signifying as

( Collingham oe r rvn th prevent or home understood es sm society

, evn te onais f h colonial the of boundaries the leaving

itc sexuality. riotic n ae of case in of it. it. of o nin society Indian to h nuc wmn were women nautch the in case of attending the nautch. nautch. the attending of case in T in he European male was depicted was male European he

permeated by interpretations of interpretations by permeated 2001) as a quasi a welcome in the in welcome

in n rc. The race. and tion after generation. Immorality generation. after roots of of roots the entering native space and and space native entering d

and and highly specific points of pointsof specific highly nautch was nautch - e immorality of of immorality e h Biih reformers British The

eia language medical

Ann Stoler‟s work Stoler‟s Ann sc a excess, as such , the morality of the the of morality the understandings of of understandings ainl or national he Indian wome Indian he , while native native while ,

Indian home, home, Indian ecie as described

an ancient, ancient, an patroniz secluded secluded racial racial t , by by , he ed i n s r

CEU eTD Collection E contrast, bo the to qualities these projecting of result the is attributed campaigners perf nevertheless, society, qualify not did often celebrated although Europe, in performers in organized dances of types soiree or salon nevertheless, performances, dance of locations as serve can halls music and theatre only that display byraised As specificity.cultural little occasions festive reformers British women. other of education the in not but prostitutes, music. and be to said were women was and respected, and recognized d woman, nautch the understanding, supporters campaign nautch the byincorporating prostitution, of category the expand IndianIndiandone tothe individual home,to moralityand society. were entertainments bas the space organized clean, a European with contrasts nautch, favouring by exposed were patrons Indian that eroticism, unproductive and energy money, of drainage The degeneracy. ormance ed h cmag tu dfnd ath s fr o rcaie sxaiy ad tie to strived and sexuality, racialized of form a as nautch defined thus campaign The e o ntoa sria. eetees a Biih apinr dne ta nautch that denied campaigners British as Nevertheless, survival. national of s

similarities uropeans in the campaign the in uropeans The British reformers depicted depicted reformers British The s

of the nautch wome nautch the of , however, these however, ,

mainly

raie by organized to nautch to h nuc ws vlae a a e an as evaluated was nautch the sensuality

the best educat best the .

Nautch was also an attack on the home and on the family that were that family the on and home the on attack an also was Nautch a ttacked . A major difference could be the spatial arrangement, alleging, thespatial. Amajor could difference arrangement, be

n w n to dances, h Biih and British the dance entertainments entertainments dance

were the at f oil n rlgos lif religious and social of part ere defendants of the nautch, European nautch, the of defendants ed out of out ed nautch women and their patrons. their and women nautch

not described as sexually suggestive, instead suggestive, sexually as described not

described by restraint, who could be exposed to the the to exposed be could who restraint, by described Indian that did did that

57 the home existed in Europe also. Professional Professional also. Europe in existed home the

Indian women, and women, Indian as

no

n h Erpa hm, t a a damage a was it home, European the in a society that invested that society a y f h oesxaie native. oversexualized the of dy t have religious connotations connotations religious have t I iec o Ida promiscuity. Indian of vidence te is dcd o te campaign the of decade first the n organized sie f en a rsiue was prostitute, a being of espite behaviour as regulated and led in in led and regulated as behaviour

women as well. In the British Inthe well. as women

as respected members of of members respected as e. Moreover the dancing dancing the Moreover e. n h piae el for realm private the in cultivators of cultivators

ballet performances ballet In my opinion, this opinion, my In in the education of of education the in

Indian art Indian display British As a a As The The ed

CEU eTD Collection indi the threaten could health stability, financial losing of risk The representation. realistic a not was it that suggest, sources other women, nautch and Europeans between sexuality to reference the to Europeans of attention were ill social a was practice ( governmentality colonial in place central a occupied sexualities of regulation the Although acceptable. is sexuality whose define to right a claimed and sexuality, dangerous of form forms accepted to privilege tie struggleto population asapollution. source of prostitute the The situation. colonial se extramarital of policing increased and sexuality youthful about concerns opportunity, sexual the to response centre a by described be cannot campaign the nevertheless, Britain, of code sexual and anxieties sexual the followed nautch number A 1997). Cooper and (Stoler inclusion and exclusion metropole the of terms in theory, postcolonial for watch. Europeans tiresome to and boring as described was entertainmentit native of form a as nautch, the enchantmentwith being without women, native of sexuality and eroticism Stoler 1995, Levine 2003 Levine 1995, Stoler ult. Ho xuality. h anti The anti British The vidual to be regulated and controlled. and regulated be

as as ee, ovnin from conventions wever,

European newly emerging sexual code of the 1880s in Great Britain, such as restricting as such Britain, Great in 1880s the of code sexual emerging newly - a ath apin a b itrrtd s xrsig eul nite ad a and anxieties sexual expressing as interpreted be can campaign nautch source of pollution, pollution, of source

no figure of the nautch woman reflected metropolitan fears of fears metropolitan reflected woman nautch the of figure , but threatened the prestige of the British colonial ruling community ruling colonial British the of prestige the threatened but , t only directed at the at directed only t - dance campaign can be a particular example of Ann Stoler‟s Stoler‟s Ann of example particular a be can campaign dance ) , the nautch practice was was practice nautch the ,

harmful effects of of effects harmful

- eihr rltosi. h anti The relationship. periphery

and

British d British h mtooe ee eriuae i rsos t a to response in rearticulated were metropole the

of sexuality. British reformersBritish sexuality. of was was 58 colonial government, colonial mer

iscourses

n te oois hrn te ilcis of dialectics the sharing colonies the and the ged not judged by colonial g colonial by judged not

nautch. Although the campaign omits omits campaign the Although nautch. with colonial fears of fears colonial with

attracted. The campaign rejected campaign The attracted. attempting to attempting of considerations of - ath apin was campaign nautch these

prove that the na the that prove produced nautch as a a as nautch produced aimed to draw the draw to aimed seeing t seeing overnment as a a as overnment of identifying identifying he the anti the native native

utch any

a -

CEU eTD Collection boun anti the in participation den was boundaries cultural and racial violating native as of sexuality, entertainment, forms to attraction European of possibility the that fact, the of Despite well. as d aries of the British colonialariesBritish community. ofthe - ath apin a b in be can campaign nautch 59

t erpreted as an act of negotiating the the negotiating of act an e, h British the ied, CEU eTD Collection Indiai TáncKlub.(n.d.). E TheIndia Times of The Observer The Manchester The Guardian The Observer N Thurston,E. (1909). Nautches: anappeal Hindus. educated to Fuller,B. M. (1900). Ava, H.G. (1889). Andrew, K.C.(1899).Bushnell, & E. W., P RIMARY RIMARY LECTRONIC LECTRONIC EWSPAPERS http://indiaitanc.network.hu Murray.London: J. and Scott. S OURCES , 1880 , 1880 , 1880

R ESOURCES Guardian

, 1880 Our viceregalmy from inIndia:selections life 1884 journal, - -

- 1900 1900 1900 Castes and tribes ofsouthern India andtribes Castes The wrongs of Indian of womanhood wrongs The Indiai TáncKlub -

, 1880 1910

- 1900

B

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