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The Influence of Sensory and Behavioral Factors on Whole Grain Bread Consumption Among a Convenience Sample of Adults

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The Influence of Sensory and Behavioral Factors on Whole Grain Bread Consumption Among a Convenience Sample of Adults The influence of sensory and behavioral factors on whole grain bread consumption among a convenience sample of adults A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA BY Sara A. Sjoberg IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Leonard Marquart, PhD, RD, Advisor February 2012 © Sara Ann Sjoberg 2012 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am extremely appreciative of my advisor Dr. Len Marquart for his encouragement and patience while I persevered through the years of completing my research and writing the dissertation. I am very grateful for being given the opportunity to design and develop my studies with my advisors’ guidance. It was a wonderful learning experience to incorporate nutrition and food science into my research and to further understand the similarities and differences. I am extremely appreciative of Dr. Marla Reicks for generously giving her strong support, time and expertise to finalize my dissertation. I would also like to thank Dr. Aaron Rendahl for his guidance and suggestions on statistical issues, and Dr. Julie Jones for serving on my examining committee. With the support and understanding from my family I was able to complete my dream. I would especially like to thank my husband, Kirk Sjoberg for being patient and supportive during this long journey. Without his encouragement and sacrifice I would not have finished this dissertation. I owe you a dept of gratitude forever and I thank you from the bottom of my heart. I am also thankful for my sister giving me moral support and constant reminders of the finish line. Lastly, I would like to thank my parents, Ken and Diane Carlson, for showing me that hard work and determination can lead to great things. The great words of wisdom from my father helped carry me through the difficult times. “Anything is possible you just have to set your mind to it”. Going though this academic marathon has given me many life lessons that I will carry throughout my life. It is great to have reached the finish line, and I am excited to endure the next exciting marathon ahead. i Abstract Substantial research has shown that whole grain foods are associated with reducing the risk of coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and obesity. However, Americans are consuming far below the recommended 3 servings of whole grains per day. Several barriers to consuming whole grains include unfamiliarity with the health benefits of whole grain foods, inability to identify whole grain foods, limited availability, preparation time and costs. Many studies have identified factors that influence whole grain food consumption; however there is little research that focuses on examining factors that influence consumption of a specific whole grain food such as bread. The fact that yeast breads are a major source of whole grains consumed by Americans and consumption of whole grains is low indicates a need to examine factors that influence whole grain bread consumption. A simple substitution of whole grain bread for refined grain bread could result in a significant increase in whole grain intake. In addition to behavioral factors influencing whole grain consumption, sensory factors (taste, color and texture) have been cited as being influential. Some sensory characteristics of whole grain bread, such as bitterness, may be preventing consumption of whole grain bread by some consumers. While many studies described the sensory quality of breads using various ingredients, processing and shelf-life conditions, the breads that were evaluated were made in the laboratory. There is no published research on the sensory quality of American commercial whole grain breads that are available to the consumer. Perception of sensory quality of foods differs among people such as the ability to detect the bitterness of whole grain bread. The differences could be dependent upon the ability to detect a bitter tasting compound 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP). There is little research that examined the ability to detect PROP and liking of whole grain breads. Examining PROP intensity ratings and liking differences among whole grain breads may provide reasons why some people like whole grain breads and consume whole grain breads. Examining both sensory and behavioral factors will give a comprehensive explanation for liking and consumption of whole grain breads. Comparing the sensory characteristics of whole grain breads to the consumer liking of whole grain breads will allow for an understanding of which sensory attributes contribute to consumer acceptability. ii This current research study included four phases that were interrelated and included both quantitative and qualitative methodologies. In phase 1, through the use of descriptive analysis, a lexicon was developed and used to describe the taste, flavor, aroma, appearance, aftertaste and oral texture of 100% whole grain commercial breads. A convenience sample of nine University students received 20 hours of training to develop the lexicon. Multivariate principal component analysis was used to reduce the set of sensory attributes that described the breads and to determine five breads that offered the greatest diversity in sensory qualities for use in a subsequent bread liking study. Phase 2, part 1 included development and testing of a questionnaire associated with consumption of whole grain bread. The questionnaire, which was based upon the theory of planned behavior, assessed psychosocial beliefs related to whole grain bread consumption. Subjects also provided their whole grain versus refined grain bread preference, provided a bread bag of the bread typically consumed and completed a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) that measured bread intake. The theory-based questionnaire and FFQ were tested and re-tested with 30 grocery store consumers to develop a reliable questionnaire. In phase 2, part 2 the theory-based questionnaire was used to determine factors that influence whole grain bread consumption among 270 bread consumers that were recruited at a local grocery store. Sensory factors (overall bread liking, whole grain versus refined grain bread preference, and PROP rating), usual whole grain bread consumption pattern, exercise frequency and demographics were added to the theoretical model to examine if these variables increased the predictive power of the model for intention to consume whole grain breads and whole grain bread intake. The objectives of phase 3 were to examine if there were differences in liking ratings among five commercial whole grain breads and if liking ratings were influenced by different consumer groups (whole grain versus refined grain bread preference, type of bread bag returned and PROP taster groups). In addition, cluster analysis was used to examine if there were differences in liking of breads, psychosocial beliefs, and whole grain bread intake for each cluster based on centered overall liking ratings of the breads. iii The secondary objective of phase 3 was to determine which descriptive analysis sensory attributes had an effect on bread consumer liking ratings. Results are reported as follows for each phase of this project. In phase 1 descriptive analysis was used to characterize 12 commercial whole grain breads. Use of multivariate PCA reduced the number of attributes that described the breads and principal components one to five explained 76% of the total variance. Visual assessment of the score plot of the first two principal components showed that Cub Foods, Country Hearth, Natural Ovens, Pepperidge Farms, and Sara Lee breads were representative of the range of different breads, so these were chosen to be used in a subsequent bread liking study. Next, in phase 2 part 1 focus groups were conducted to develop a questionnaire based on the TPB that assessed predictors of intention to consume whole grain bread and whole grain bread intake. Theoretical statements within the questionnaire included 11 attitudinal beliefs, six normative beliefs, 16 control beliefs and two intentional statements. For phase 2 part 2 the majority of consumers that completed the TPB questionnaire and FFQ were highly educated, white women. The mean daily whole grain bread intake was 1.3 servings. Liking, whole grain versus refined grain bread preference, and usual whole grain bread consumption pattern were significant predictors of intention to consume whole grain bread and significantly increased the variance explained by the model compared to the standard model. Intention, whole grain versus refined grain bread preference, and usual whole grain bread consumption pattern were significant predictors of whole grain bread intake and significantly increased the variance explained by the model. Results from phase 3 (bread liking study) showed that Cub Foods and Country Hearth breads were most liked and Natural Ovens bread was least liked. Consumers’ characteristics (whole grain versus refined grain bread preference, type of bread bag returned, and PROP taster status) had no effect on liking ratings. Using cluster analysis, three cluster groupings were determined based on centered overall liking ratings. Attitudes and usual whole grain bread consumption pattern were significantly different between each clustered group. iv When comparing descriptive analysis sensory attributes and liking ratings, several sensory attributes had a significant effect on bread liking ratings. Bitter taste and flavor of the crust had a significant effect on flavor liking of the breads. Along with Sara Lee bread, the least liked bread
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