Glaciovolcanism on Earth and Mars: Products, Processes and Palaeoenvironmental Significance John L

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Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-03739-7 - Glaciovolcanism on Earth and Mars: Products, Processes and Palaeoenvironmental Significance John L. Smellie and Benjamin R. Edwards Index More information

Index

ablation zone, 321 Cenozoic, 8 accommodation space, 235 Coulman Island, 25 Africa, 15, 40, 56, 125 Crary Mountains, 24, 247 Mt Elgon, 56 Daniell Peninsula, 26 Mt Kenya, 56 Debussy Heights, 20 Mt Kilimanjaro, 15, 56 Dobson Dome, 332 Garanga Tal valley, 56 Dry Valleys, 298 lahar deposits, 56 Ellsworth Land, 15, 17, 21–22 Main Rhomb porphyries, 56 Erebus volcanic province, 25 Penck Rhomb porphyries, 56 Hedin Nunatak, 24 Sud Ost Tal, 56 Hobbs Coast, 24, 336 Mt Meru, 56 Icefall Nunatak, 23 Mt Nyiragongo, 1 Jones Mountains, 21 agglutinate, 19, 181, 183, 191, 213, 270 Larsen Ice Shelf, 19 Aleutian volcanic arc, see North America McMurdo Volcanic Group, 25 Alexander Island, 17, 20–21 Minna Bluff, 25, 247 alignment bedding, 228 Mt Berlin, 22 alkali olivine basalt, 38, 40, 42, 45, 47, 141 Mt Casertz, 23 alkaline basalt, 44, 53, 105, 147, 221, 233 Mt Erebus, 2 alpine-type setting, 242 Mt Haddington, 19, 165, 166, 331, 333 Amazon River, 70, 81, 359 Mt Kauffman, 22 amoeboid clasts, 210 Mt Manthe, 21 amoeboid lava pillow, 206 Mt Melbourne, 25 amoeboid obsidian masses, 294 Mt Moses, 21 analcite, 154 Mt Petras, 23 ancient ice, 299, 300, 330 Mt Pinafore, 20 andesite, 13, 17, 31, 32, 34, 36, 37, 49, 51, 177, 188, Mt Pond ice cap, 20 195, 196, 250, 261, 262, 269, 395 Mt Rees, 24, 334 annealing, 288 Mt Sidley, 24 Antarctic Ice Sheet, 16, 59, 298, 329, 335 Mt Siple, 22 Antarctic Peninsula, 15, 18, 20, 51, 65, 247, 321, 330 Mt Steere, 24, 334 Antarctic Peninsula Ice Sheet, 19, 333 Mt Takahe, 22 Antarctic plate, 50 Mt Waesche, 22 Antarctica, 1, 4, 15–26, see also Alexander Island, Prince Gustav Channel, 333 Deception Island, Hudson Mountains, Ravel Peak, 20 James Ross Island, Mandible Cirque, Ross Sea, 25, 334 Marie Byrd Land, Mt Murphy, South Rothschild Island, 20 Sandwich Islands Seal Nunataks, 19, 20 Anvers Island, 19, 331 Snow Nunataks, 21 Beacon Valley, 298 Teeters Nunatak, 21 Beethoven Peninsula, 20 Transantarctic Mountains, 8, 25, 334 Brabant Island, 19, 331 Turtle Peak, 24 Bransﬁeld Strait, 20, 65 Victoria Land, 8, 166, 334

461

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-03739-7 - Glaciovolcanism on Earth and Mars: Products, Processes and Palaeoenvironmental Significance John L. Smellie and Benjamin R. Edwards Index More information

462 Index

Antarctica (cont.) Bláhnúkur, 285, 292, 293, 294, 296 Webber Nunatak, 22 blanket-like, 243 West Antarctic Rift System, 2, 16 Blautakvísl stream gully, 276 antidune structures, 210 blocky jointing, 222, 243 apatite, 45 bomb sags, 226 aquiclude, 326, 328, 329, see also firn bomb-like, 210, 245 aquifer, 326, 328 bombs, 207, 212, 227, 281, 282, 283, 285 aquitard, 326, 329 Breknafjöll, 221, 229, 230, 231, 232 Arctic Circle, 35 brinkpoint, 238, 305 armoured lapilli, 210, 237 British Columbia, see North America, Canada ash aggregates, 281, 282 bubbles ash falls, 351, 356 annealing, 150 affected local farmers, 356 collapse, 288 aviation, 358 nucleation, 234 basaltic fissure eruptions, 357 bulbous flow noses, 311 contamination of drinking water, 358 buoyancy, 185, 187, 189, 310, 311, 312, 313, 344, effects on rates of snow and ice melting, 358 347, 348 Eyjafjallajökull, 356 ice-clad volcanoes, 358 Calbuco, 392 lahars, 358 calc-alkaline, 250 modern jet engines, 358 calcite, 154 phreatomagmatic, 356 caldera, 249, 269, 287, 326, 327, 329, see also Reykjavik, 356 Grímsvötn snowpack, 358 caldera lake, 82 volcanic hazard assessment for Iceland, 357 caldera margin, 326 Ash Mountain, 174, 341 California, 344, 347 ash scavenging, 84 Campanian, 343 assimilation, 46, 345 carbon dioxide, 94, 107, 150, 153, 246, 318, 320, 342, Atlantic Ocean, 85 349, 392, 393 Atlin volcanic district, 38 increase in atmospheric, 4 atmosphere, 62, 89, 99, 172, 287, 349 solubility, 138 Austral volcanic zone, 51 carbon dioxide ice, 371 Australia plate, 54 Cascade volcanic arc authigenic minerals, 314, 317 Cauldron Dome, 251 autobreccia, 181, 188, 189, 190, 197, 198, 200, 203, Mt Cayley Volcanic Field, 251 213, 254, 259, 266, 270, 286, 289, 302, Pali Dome, 251 306, 309 Ring Mountain, 251 avalanche, 201, 203, 262 Slag Hill, 251 aviation, 363 Tricouni Peak, 251 Caspian Sea, 368 back-arc, 47 cauldron, 319 Bárdarbunga, 249, 349, 397 cavity-confined meltwater lake, 221 basal length, 170 Cenozoic, 15, 18, 26, 35 basal thermal regime, 93, 299, 300, 325, 328, 329, Central volcanic zone, see Northern Cordilleran 330, 334 Volcanic Province basalt, 23, 24, 36, 37, 43, 51, 84, 103, 106, 107, 109, central volcano, 178, 261, 275, 287 129, 187, 195, 221, 223, 261, 262, chabazite, 154, 314, 316 316, 334 Channelled Scablands, 370 basaltic andesite, 13, 36, 37, 51, 63, 65, 81, 84, chaotic fractures, 195 250, 251 Chile, 59, 344, 392 basanite, 33, 38, 40, 52, 105, 215, 253, 309 cirques, 53 bedding definition, 223 clastic injections, 228 bedrock gradient, 254 clastogenic, 181, 183, 190 bedrock junction, 244 clasts, flattened, 262 benmoreite, 13, 264 clay minerals, 154 bergschrund, 259, 277, 288 climate–volcanism feedbacks, 342 bergschrund lavas, 260 Clinker Mountain, 268

Index 463

CO2, see carbon dioxide Digital Elevation Models, 146 Coast Mountains, 339 dilute pyroclastic density currents, 42 cold-based ice, 9, 26, 162, 170, 299, 321, 329, 334, 335 domes, 177, 181, 230, 231, 259, 265, 266, 272, 274, colonnade, 188, 189, 193, 239, 242, 243 275, 279, 283, 287, 292, 333 column on column, 197, 240 dome collapse, 48 columnar jointing, 243, 295 drainage events, 220 comendite, 42 dry-based ice, see cold-based ice complex tuya, 10, 163 ductile shearing, 288 compound, 174, 187, 188, 215, 220, 232, 248, 271 dykes, 8, 44, 45, 192, 212, 218, 220, 222, 224, 287, concentrate density flows, 205 288, 292, 342, 346, 347, 395 cone surface overlap, 304 dyke intrusions, 224 cone-shaped mountains, 381 confining pressure, 228 East Antarctic Ice Sheet, 300, 334 conical tuya, 8, 173 Edziza continuous uprush, 227, 231, 234 Arctic Lake Formation, 44 contorted pillow fragment, 206 Big Raven, 42 cooling fractures, see jointing Big Raven Formation, 44 Cordilleran Ice Sheet, 8, 39, 46, 268, 337, 341 Cache Hill, 43 Coropuna, 196 Camp Hill, 43 Cotopaxi, 350 Edziza Formation, 44 coulées, 190, 265, 289, 308 Ice Peak, 42 Crater Lake, 264, 394 Ice Peak Formation, 43 Cretaceous, 15, 20, 166, 333 Kakiddi Formation, 44 critical overpressure, 347, 348 Klastline Formation, 44 cryolithosphere, 162, 399 Pharaoh Dome, 43 cryosphere, 1, 113, 342 Pillow Ridge, 42, 43, 44, 106 cube jointing, 215 Pyramid Formation, 42, 43 Culliton Creek, 268 Sheep Track member, 44 current reworking in glacial lake, 232 Sphinx Dome, 43 Tennena Cone, 42, 44 dacite, 31, 32, 33, 36, 48, 49, 51, 188, 259, 261, 262, Tsekone Ridge, 43 268, 269 Edziza volcanic complex, 215, 217, 248, 340 Dalakvísl, 283, 285, 287, 292 Eemian interglacial, 275 Dalsheidi type, 241, 242, 244, 246 Ember Ridge, 257 Daniell Peninsula, 289 emplacement modes, 138–143 debris flow, 53, 215, 217, 228, 232, 273, 276 alkali olivine basalt, 141 debris flow deposits, 19 andesite and dacite, 142 debris rainout in glacial lake, 232 basalt, 142 Deception Island, 20, 62, 65–67, 343 dyke intrusion, 139 ablation zone, 66 excess pressure, 139 caldera-margin faults, 65 Hoodoo Mountain, 139 gas-driven melting, 67 high rates of magma discharge, 142 jökulhlaup, 65 ice cavity pressure, 141 lifting overlying ice, 67 intermediate, 141 mean discharge, 65 intraglacial intrusion, 141 subglacial meltwater escape, 67 magmastatic driving pressure, 141 supraglacial discharge, 65 magmatic fragmentation, 142 supraglacial flooding, 66 observed rates of melting during Gjálp eruption, 142 volume of ice melted, 65 prevention of magmatic fragmentation, 142 deformation of ice cavities, 95 rates of cavity growth, 142 deglaciation, 4, 121, 342, 343, 344, 347, 348, 349 rates of ice deformation, 142 delta front overlap, 305, 306 rhyolite, 142 devitrification, 190, 290 sensible heat, 142 diamict, 176, 230, 243, 265, 299, 301, 335, sill intrusion, 139 336, 337 rock–ice interface, 140 diamictites, 215, 216, 232, 240, 243, 289 space problem, 142, 397 differential GPS (DGPS), 146 subglacial, 141

464 Index

emplacement modes (cont.) explosive eruption, 85 supraglacial, 139, 141 Fimmvörðuháls, 85, 88 assimilation–fractional crystallization, 141 basaltic magma, 87 Fimmvörðuháls, 139 collapse features, 85 Hoodoo Mountain, 141 conductive melting, 85 large-scale experiments with basaltic lava, 143 heat transfer, 85 pressure gradient driving the propagation of lava–snow interactions, 85 dykes, 139 tephra mound, 85 steam-buffering, 143 tephra-covered snow, 85 Tolbachik, 139 geothermal activity, 85 Veniaminof, 139 Gígjökull drainage, 86 endogenous factors, 9 ice cauldron, 86 endolithic microborings, 315, 317 ice melting rates, 86 englacial chimney, 236 jökulhlaups, 86 englacial lake, 6, 8 lahar, 86 englacial vault, 170, 249 minor base surges, 87 entablature, 195, see also jointing rates of meltwater discharge, 86 Eocene, 15, 29, 143, 188, 189, 193–197, 239–244, 288 sandur, 86 epiclastic lithofacies, 184, 289 seismic swarms, 85 equipotential gradients, 326 sheet-like sequences, 29 erosional scouring in glacial lake, 232 snowpack, 85 eruption types stratospheric jet stream, 87 Peléan-style, 48 stratovolcano, 85 phreatomagmatic, 21, 29, 32, 107 tephra fall, 86 Strombolian, 20, 41 tephra insulation, 86 supraglacial, 46 thin ice, 29 Surtseyan, 20, 33 trachyandesite, 85 esker-like lava flow, 163 esker-like sequences, 176, 292 Falkland Islands, 79 Espenberg maars, 35 falling passage zone, 306 Devil Mountain maar, 35 falling water level, 303, 306 North Killeak maar, 35 Farallon plate, 35 permafrost glaciovolcanism, 35 faults, 214, 346 South Killeak maar, 35 listric, 214 Whitefish maar, 35 normal, 214 Eurasia plate, 54, 126 reverse, 214 Europe, 85, 356 thrust, 214 France, 367 transform, 26 Mt Etna, 1 feeder dyke, 220, 264, 283, 288 Stromboli, 1 felsic rock, 13, 32 eustatic, 343 Fimmvörðuháls, see Eyjafjallajökull exogenous domes, 265 firn, 100, 221, 242, 245, 289, 306, 321, 322, 323 exogenous factors, 9 aquitard, 96 explosive fragmentation, 234 density, 91 explosive hydromagmatic eruptions, 208, 209, 221, firn–ice boundary, 96 225, 235, 264, 276, 281, 282, 286 hydraulics, 96 Eyjafjallajökull, 4, 10, 29, 33, 57, 59, 60, 77, 85–88, permeability, 96, 100 106, 240, 242, 243, 249, 348, 392, 397 fissure system, 81 ‘a‘ā basaltic lava flows, 85 fissure-erupted centres, 284 14 April start of summit eruption, 85 flame structures, 228 1612, 85 flattened structures, 186, 187, 210, 283 1821–1823, 85 flooding, 37, 54, 82, 89, 187, 193, 215, 247, 274, 306, 200 m of caldera ice, 86 308, 351, 359–360, 397 air traffic disruption, 85 1918 Katla, 359 ash on eastern seaboard of North America, 86 peak discharge, 359 ash on Russia, 86 1996 Gjálp, 359 caldera, 85 concentrated flows, 359

Index 465

Deception Island, 65 thick ice eruptions, 136 debris flow, 359 vaults connected to atmosphere, 136 Grímsvötn, 360 France, 367 Hekla, 57, 62–65 frictional freezing, 205 hyperconcentrated flows, 359 frozen-bed ice, 300 ice ‘slurry’ flows, 360 fumaroles, 69, 79, 89 jökulhlaups, 359 lahars, 359, 360 geochemical studies, 146–149, see also avalanches, 360 geochronometry, stable isotopes Calbuco, 360 authigenic minerals, 154 Chillos Valley Lahar, 360 major elements, 105, 106, 146 Grímsvötn, 360 British Columbia, 147 longer-term release of volcanic heat, 360 compositional shift, 147 Mt Rainier, 360 crystal sorting or fractionation, 147 Popocatepetl, 360 Eyjafjallajökull, 146 Villarrica, 360 Hudson, 146 mass flows, 359 Iceland, inferred minor fractionation, 148 Cotopaxi, 360 monogenetic, 147 ice-clad volcanoes, 359 Pillow Ridge, 147 infrastructure, 359, 360 polygenetic eruptions, 147 Mt St Helens, 360 shifts in magma compositions, 146 Nevado del Ruiz, 360 thick ice, 148 peak meltwater discharge, 359 palagonitization Skeidarársandur, 359 Ash Mountain, 154 supraglacial, 46 basaltic andesite, 154 temperature, 64 high-Al, 154 water-rich slurries, 359 low-Al, 154 flow banding, 190, 257, 270, 273, 277, 283, 288 pH, 154 flow tills, 241, 291 South Tuya, 154 foreset beds, 182, 201, 238, 326, 334 stoichiometry, 154 Fort Selkirk volcanic complex, 38 Tuya Butte, 154 fossil water level, 238, 305 spectroscopy fossiliferous deposits, 19 Hlödufell, 157 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, 150 Mars, 157 fractures, see also jointing Thorolfsfell, 157 jigsaw-fit, 246 trace elements, 148 linear, 193 changes in magma storage, 148 fragmentation processes, 135–137 compositions of Antarctic tephras, 149 bubbles, 136 correlation, 148 collisional, 135, 136 cryptic stratigraphy, 148 critical volume fraction of bubbles, 136 deglaciation linkages, 149 effusive eruptions, 136 degrees of melting in Iceland, 149 explosive eruptions, 136 monogenetic, 148 Gjálp tephra mound, 137 multiple eruptions at Icefall Nunatak, 148 growth and expansion of bubbles, 12 tindar, 148 heat transfer, 136 Torfajökull rhyolite tuyas, 148 heat transfer efficiencies, 136 West Antarctic Rift System, 149 hydrostatic pressure, 136 zeolite jets, 136 Antarctic lava-fed delta, 156 low water, 136 differences due to local alteration, 157 magma discharge, 135 overprinting, 156 magmatic, 135 submarine, 156 phreatomagmatic, 135, 136 geochronometry, 158–159, 341 quenching, 7, 12, 135, 136 ‘high-precision’ Ar-Ar, 158, 398 quench-granulation, 33 cosmic ray bombardment of olivine, 159 steam coatings, 136 cosmogenic nuclides, 158 subglacial tunnels, 136 exposure age limitations, 159

466 Index

geochronometry (cont.) overflow on sloping surface, 97 exposure ages as eruptions ages, 159 polythermal valley glaciers, 93 intermediate compositions, 158 pre-Pleistocene, 37 K–Ar, 158 Upper Seward Glacier, AK, 91 Last Glacial Maximum, 159 glacio-isostatic, 344 Little Bear Mountain, 159 glaciolacustrine fan, 230, 232 magnetostratigraphy, 158 glaciovolcanic lithofacies, móberg, 5 melted xenoliths, 159 glaciovolcanic sequences, ice-contact, 329 Milankovich cycles, 158 glaciovolcanic tuff cones, 10, 52 snow cover, 159 glaciovolcanic vault, 321, 322 syenitic xenolith, 45 water level in, 102 U/Th–He, 45, 158, 398 glaciovolcanism, 1–5 geothermal fields, 326 ice-dominant interactions, 59 geothermal heat, 92, 232, 325, 383 incidental interaction, 60 Gjálp, 10, 57, 59, 65, 67, 79–81, 85, 102, 173, volcano-dominant interactions, 60 319, 322, 323, 395, 397, see also Godafjall, 191 Grímsvötn Gorda plate, 47 basaltic andesite, 81 grain size, 159–160 cauldron, 80 2004 Grímsvötn, 160 edifice palagonitization, 81 air fall, 160 edifice permeability, 81 phreatomagmatic, 160 heat transfer, 79 pyroclastic density currents, 160 hyaloclastite ridge, 81 2010 Eyjafjallajökull, 160 ice canyon, 81 ash aggregates, 160 ice cauldron, 79 Cotopaxi, 160 ice thickness, 80 Hudson, 160 initial meltwater generation, 79 ice-slurry deposits jökulhlaup, 81 at Redoubt, 160 magma discharge, 79 at Ruapehu, 160 moulin, 81 jökulhlaup deposits in Iceland, 160 supraglacial, 79 lahars, 160 supraglacial meltwater drainage, 81 Popocatepetl, 160 thick glacier, 79 pumice flows, 160 timescale of tephra lithification, 79 Grand Canyon, 368 tindar, 81 gravitational collapse, 166, 179, 207, 276, 279, 286, glacial pumping, 123 292, 294, 296, 312 glacial sedimentary deposits, 5, 19 gravitational spreading, 288 glaciations, 343, see also Last Glacial Greenland, 1, 26, 330, 343 Maximum Greenland ice cores, 343 Alaska, 36 Grímsvötn, 4, 33, 39, 57, 59, 79, 81–84, 249, 343, see ancient, 392 also Gjálp Gogon, 54 1934 eruption, 83 Komia, 54 1934 jökulhlaup discharge, 83 Megane, 54 1983–4, 83 Mexico, 49 1998, 83 NA Cordillera, 340 2004, 83, 87 Neoproterozoic, 56 air fall deposits, 83 Northern Hemisphere, 28 ash scavenging, 84 Ordovician, 56 earthquake, 83 Permo-Carboniferous, 56 eruption plume, 83 pre-Pleistocene, 21 flow deposits, 83 Russia, 53 ice cauldron, 83 Snowball Earth, 392 jökulhlaup discharge, 83 Tongo, 54 mass fluxes, 84 glaciers particle aggregation, 84 cold-based glaciers, 399 phreatomagmatic, 83 outlet glaciers, 94 pyroclastic density currents, 84

Index 467

snowfall, 84 Ecuador, 350 surge deposits, 83 gravitational collapse, 350 Surtseyan explosions, 84 Grímsvötn, 351 tephra cone diameter, 83 hazard mapping, 73 volcanic tremor, 83 ice-clad volcanoes, 351 2011, 88 Japan, 350 basaltic eruptions, 81 jökulhlaups, 20, 29, 54, 57, 81, 100, 351 caldera, 81 lahars, 55, 57, 60, 67, 350, 351 composite volcanoes, 82 mass flows, 241, 282, 351 fissure system, 82 Mexico, 350 flood, 81, 82 mudflows, 350 flood peak discharge, 81 Nevado del Ruiz, 350 floodwater volume, 81 New Zealand, 351 geothermal activity, 80 North America, 350 jökulhlaups, 79, 80, 82 phreatomagmatic explosions, 350 lake, 82 Russia, 351 Lakigigar, 84, 87 tsunami, 350, 351 pressure release floods, 82 volcanic avalanche, 60 Skeidararsandur, 81 HCl, see hydrogen chloride subglacial lake, 80 heat capacity, 310 tephra temperatures, 83 heat flow, 325 Vatnajökull, 81 heat transfer, 89, 111, 113, 116, 123, 125, 127, 129–135, 142, 257, 295, 347, 392, H2O, see water 394, 395 hackly jointing, 243 1934 Grímsvötn eruption, 129 Haraldur, 281, 283 advection, 130, 131–133 Hawaii, 15, 53–54, 60, 125 dyke, 131 Hamakua Group, 53 Gjálp, 133 Laupāhoehoe Group, 53 heat capacity, 132 Makanaka glacial episode, 54 ice–bedrock contact, 132 Mauna Kea, 15, 53, 60 natural convection, 132 Quaternary, 127 rate of meltingof overlying ice, 132 Waihu Formation, 54 thermal diffusivity, 132 Waihu glaciation, 54 volumetric eruption rates, 132 hawaiite, 42, 45, 53 basalt, 129 hazard mapping, 48 conduction, 124, 129, 130–131 lahar paths, 48 cooling of a basaltic lava pillow, 130 hazards, 13, 350–363, see also ash falls, flooding, lava geometry, 130 flows, lightning lava flow emplaced onto ice, 130 atmospheric transport, 350 MSH dome, 131 avalanches, 351, 360 numerical solutions, 131 Mt St Helens Stefan formalism, 131 ballistic blocks, 362 thermal conductivity, 130 deglaciation, 362 thermal diffusivity, 130, 131 impound lava flows, 362 timescales of heat transfer, 131 lahars, 362 convection, 130 snow avalanches, 362 efficiency, 134–135 Plinian eruption, 362 basaltic lava, 135 sector collapses, 360 effusion dominant, 135 thick ice, 362 energy used for ice melting, 134 triggered by earthquake, 360 eruption timescale ice-melting efficiency, 134 Chile, 350 fragmentation dominant, 135 climate heat capacity, 134 atmosphere, 362 latent heat of fusion, 134 carbon dioxide, 362 palagonitisation, 135 Last Glacial Maximum, 362 potential latent heat, 134 debris flow, 60, 68 sensible heat, 134

468 Index

heat transfer (cont.) basaltic lava flows, 78 space problem, 135 caldera, 78 tephra, 135 circular collapse pits, 79 total thermal energy of the magma, 134 crater diameter, 78 pillow lava into ice, 129 crescent-shaped structures, 79 radiation, 130, 133 dacitic magma, 78 emissivity, 133 eruption volume, 78 Fimmvörðuháls, 133 fumaroles, 79 large-scale experiments, 133 Huemules glacier, 78, 79 latent heat of fusion for ice, 133 Huemules valley, 78, 79 maximum melting rate, 133 ice-melt collapse pits, 79 rate of heat transfer, 133 ice-rafted debris, 79 Stefan–Boltzmann law, 133 kettle-holes, 79 supraglacial, 133 lahar deposits, 79 Tolbachik, 133 lahars, 78, 79 Hekla, 57, 62–65 phreatomagmatic, 78 1104, 63 second phase tephra volume, 78 1845, 63 Strombolian, 78 1947, 63, 87, 89 Hudson Mountains, 21 1980–1, 64 diamict, 21 1991, 65 lapilli tuff, 21 2000, 64 pāhoehoe, 22 2000 initial discharge, 65 pillow mounds, 21 flooding, 63, 64 tillite, 21 hlaup, 63 Hudson Mountains Subglacial Volcano, 22 icelandite, 63 Hvalvördugil, 271 initial lava discharge, 64 hyaloclastite, 45, 197 lava flows on snow, 63 hyaloclastite fan, 230, 231 lava temperatures, 63 hyaloclastite inclusions, 225 Markarfljót River, 63 hyaloclastite ridge, see Landforms Plinian eruption, 63 hyalotuff, 226 Rangá River, 63, 64 hydraulic potential, 98–102 surge, 64 hydraulics, 9, 177, 238, 307, 308, 321 total discharge, 64 hydrogen chloride, 107, 150 volcanic bombs, 64 solubility, 138 Helgafell, 209, 221, 226, 227, 228, 229 hydrogen fluoride, 107, 150 Hesperian, 383 solubility, 138 HCl, see hydrogen chloride hydromagmatic explosions, 201 HF, see hydrogen fluoride hydrostatic pressure, 33, 150, 234 high-Al basalt, 52 hydrothermal convection, 328 Hlödufell, 221, 224, 225, 226, 227, 229, 240, 311 hydrothermal fluids, 49, 206 Holocene, 42, 46, 47, 49, 51, 76, 127, 247, 267, 268, hydrothermal systems, 326 339, 340, 343, 349 hydrovolcanic, 173 Hoodoo Glacier, 339 Hoodoo Mountain, 44, 45, 168, 187, 251, 252, 253, ice, see also firn 258, 264, 267, 272, 339 aquiclude, 96 horizontal passage zone, 226, 304, 335 basal geothermal heat flux, 93 Höttur, 283 basal sliding, 93 Hrafntinnuhryggur, 266, 287, 288, 289 basal thermal regime, 26, 91 Hrútsfjall, 271 cold ice, 24, 94, 95, 96, 177, 178, 300, 322 hryggir, see Landforms cold-based, 9, 26, 162, 170, 299, 321, 329, 334, 335 Hudson, 51, 57, 59, 60, 78–79, 89, 106 confining ice, 164, 288 17 ka eruption, 78 deformation rates, 94 1971, 78, 79 dirty ice, 94 1991, 78 effect of impurities on strength, 94 ash column, 78 englacial vault, 33 ash plume, 78 fine-scale connected fractures, 92

Index 469

frozen-bed ice, 94 supraglacial discharge, 102 ground ice, 93 thermal regimes, 93–94 heat capacity, 94 thin ice, 110 hydraulics, 91, 92, 93 water flow, 96–98 water flow ice overburden pressure, 99 crevasses, 96 Ice Peak Formation, 43, 340 Darcian flow, 98 ice sheets, 298, 300, 325, 340, 344, see also Cordilleran, key-hole tunnels, 97 East Antarctic, Antarctic Peninsula, rapid pipe flow, 97 Antarctic, West Antarctic Ice Sheets supraglacial, 96 ancient ice sheets, 39 viscous dissipation, 97 surface sagging, 322 intermediate, 59 wet-based ice sheet, 19 lava confining, 193 ice streams, 24, 93, 329 melting zone, 97 ice surface gradient, 322 turbulence, 97 ice walls, 214, 224, 225, 228, 235, 254, 284, 395 Nye’s Law, 142 confining, 228 permafrost, 93 ice-block meltout cavities, 31, 195, 197, 225, 226, 242, permeability, 96, 97 243, 309 polythermal ice, 93, 300 ice-clad volcanoes, 89, 397, 398 porosity, 97 ice-confined, 240, 249, 251, 275, 307, 392 pressure melting point, 93, 95 ice-constrained, 235 rates of ice creep, 95 ice-contact, 177, 254, 259, 273, 309, 310 relationship between thickness and dimensions, 92 ice-impounded, 215, 248, 250, 251, 256, 264, 268, 271, shear planes, 62 292, 310 shear stress, 92 ice-melt collapse pits, 79 strength, 94 ice-rafted debris, 35 temperate, 9 Icefall Nunatak, 208, 221, 222, 224, 226, 227 temperature profile, 93 Iceland, 4, 5–7, 26–33, see also Eyjafjallajökull, thawed-bed, 93 Gjálp, Grímsvötn, Hrafntinnuhryggur, thick ice, 5, 9, 41, 46, 59, 170, 259 Kalfstindar, Katla thin ice, 9, 20, 23, 24, 59, 168 andesite, 31 tunnels, 92, 95 Bárdarbunga, 33 warm ice, 93, 95, 300 Bláhnúkur, 32 warm-based, 9 rhyolite, 32 wet-based, 94, 162, 321 Borgarfjordur, 337 ice caps Breknafjöll, 232 Deception Island, 65 dacite, 31 Mt Pond, 20 Dalakvísl, 32, 209 South America, 51 Deildargil ignimbrite, 28 ice cauldrons, 86, 99, 279, 319, 328 Eastern volcanic zone, 26, 60, 337 ice cavities, 30, 32, 97, 172, 186, 209, 231, 235, 256, Fagradalsfjall, 231 287, 295, 296 felsic, 31–32 ice chimneys Deception Island, 65 glacial sedimentary deposits, 28 ice domes, 19 Godafjall, 30 ice masses Hafrafell, 337 bedrock gradient, 99 Hafursey, 62 excess pressure, 99 Helgafell, 12, 30, 31, 109 hydraulic potential, 98–102 Herdubreid, 30 hydraulics, 95, 102 Hlödufell, 30, 31 normal, 102 Hrútsfjall, 30 hydrostatic pressure, 99 Hvalvördugil, 270 ice surface gradient, 99 intermediate, 32–33 meltwater flow Karlshryggur, 218 supraglacial, 101 Karlsrani, 218 meltwater hydraulics, 99 Kerlingarfjöll, 31, 32, 109 physical structure, 91–93 Kirkjubæjarheiði, 5 rheology, 94–95 Kreppuhryggur, 218

470 Index

Iceland (cont.) Cone Glacier, 45 Kvíarjökull, 270 Iskut River, 45 Lindarhryggur, 218 King Creek, 45 Mid-Iceland volcanic zone, 26 Lava Fork, 45 mildly alkaline magmas, 26 Little Bear Mountain, 45 monogenetic, 28, 30–33 Second Canyon, 45 MORB, 26 Snippaker Creek, 45 Mýrdalsjökull, 29, 60 Tom MacKay Creek, 45 Mýrdalssandur, 61 isostatic rebound, 345 Northern volcanic zone, 26 isotopic compositions, 345 Öraefajökull, 30, 32 Öraefajökull volcanic zone, 26 James Ross Island, 17, 18–20, 165, 166, 204, 238, 247, polygenetic, 28, 29–30 301, 303, 305, 308, 315, 316, 317, 331 Prestanúkur, 31 Volcanic Group, 18, 331, 333 Raudufossafjöll, 31 Japan, 15, 53, 60 rhyolite, 31 Hidaka Range, 53 Reykjavik, 3, 83 Mt Tokachi, 53 rhyolite, 31 Jarlhettur, 221, 229, 230, 231 lava-dominated tuya, 31 jets, 210, 234 tephra-dominated tuya, 31 jetting activity, 210 Rotarfjall, 32, 271 jigsaw-fit texture, 227, 265, 272, 275 Selfjall, 62 jointing, 143–144 Sida Formation, 29 blocky, 23 Skaftafell, 337 colonnade, 29 Skeidararsandur, 81 Columbia River basalts, 143 Snaefellsnes volcanic zone, 26 columnar, 243, 295 South Iceland Seismic Zone, 26, 62 cube, 215 Sveifuhals, 218 entabulatures, 143 tholeiitic, 26 flooding with water, 143 Torfajökull volcanic centre, 31 fractometry, 143 Undirhlíðar, 30, 165 fracture modes, 144 Vatnafjall, 32, 270 hackly, 243 Vatnajökull, 26, 28, 29, 79, 83, 84, 337 kubbaberg joints, 56 Vegaskard, 218 platy, 195–197, 254, 288, 299 Vik, 62 prismatic, 23, 29 Virkisfell, 218 pseudopillow fractures, 56 Western volcanic zone, 26 thermal stresses, 143 ichnotaxonomy, 316 jökulhlaup, 17, 113, 121, 218, 244, 245, 247, 258, 289, ignimbrite, 24, 28 343, 396 Indonesia, 15, 40, see also Papua New Guinea Jones, J, 7 Krakatoa, 350 Juan de Fuca plate, 47 interface sill, 244, 245, 388, 396 intermediate rock compositions, 180, 181, 188, 190, Kalfstindar, 30, 209, 213, 221, 229 192, 198, 211, 248, 252, 257, 261, 268, Kamchatka, 187, 189, 250, 394 308, 310, 339, 394 K-Ar, see geochronometry intermittent tephra jets, 234 Karelia, Russia, 158 intrusions, 19, 27, 41, 181, 192, 282, 326, 328, 396, Katla, 33, 57, 59, 60–62, 65, 70, 85, 247, 249, 369 397, see also dyke intrusions caldera, 60 hyaloclastic margins, 32 debris flow, 61 interface sill, 29 earthquake, 60 irregular, 262 flood depths, 60, 62 linear contact, 192 floods, 61 peperitic margins, 32 hyperconcentrated density flows, 61 inverted topography, 254, 395 iceberg-sized masses, 62 Iskut volcanic field, 45–46 intraglacial discharge, 62 Canyon Creek, 45 jökulhlaups, 60, 61, 62 Cinder Mountain, 45 Kötluhlaups, 61

Index 471

Kötlutangi, 62 littoral cone, 53 peak discharge, 62 maars, 35, see also Espenberg maars sandur, 62 magmatic conditions, 164 subglacial discharge, 62 móberg ridge, 5 supraglacial discharge, 62 monogenetic, 24 Kawdy Mountain, see Kima’ Kho morphometric parameters, 165 Kerlingarfjöll, 211, 212, 261, 262, 275, 276, 280, 283, ellipticity, 165 284, 287, 292, 295 irregularity, 165 basal meltwater drainage, 264 physical conditions, 164 Bringur, 261, 262 pillow mound, 10, 31 Campsite Gully, 261, 262 pillow ridge, 12 Haraldur, 261, 262 pillow sheet, 163, 176, 177, 215, 238, 240, 244, 381, Höttur, 280 385, 396 Ögmundur, 280 pillow volcano, 31, 33 South Ögmundur, 280 pillow volcano stage, 19 Tindur, 261, 262 polygenetic central volcano, 19 kettle holes, 79 pyroclastic cone, 84 Kjartansson, G, 5 pyroclastic passage zone, 13 Kima’Kho, 10, 41 remnant cliff, 163 Klyuchevskoy, 52 scoria cone, 17, 24 Kriki hyaloclastite flow, 247 shield volcano, 13, 19, 22, 42 kubbaberg, 56, 193, see also jointing stapar, 5, 163 stratovolcano, 22, 24, 48 lahar deposits, 37, 43, 51 subglacial dome, 163 lahars, 48, 49, 51, 53, 215 subglacial mound, 10, 163 lakes, 39, 203, 207, 208, 209, 211, 218, 221, 226, 235, table mountain, 5 236, 237, 283, 301, 303, 305, 306, 307, tephra-dominated felsic tuya, 163 308, 313, 320, 322, 336 tindar, 5, 7, 10, 30, 31, 52, 102 drainage events, 138 tuya, 47, 53 englacial, 7, 40, 41, 43, 47, 106, 138 lapilli, 184, 198, 207, 232, 259 depths, 106 lithic, 198 glacial, 232 pumice, 208, 270 meltwater lake, 18, 31 lapilli tuff, 44, 45, 184, 197, 201, 205, 206, 209, 210, landforms, see also sheet like sequences 211, 212, 214, 217, 220, 221, 223, 225, caldera, 23, 24, 30, 37, 52, 65, 78 226, 227, 228, 231, 232, 240, 241, 242, central volcano, 19, 22, 23, 25, 27, 28, 44, 162 243, 246, 248, 261, 262, 265, 267, 281, classification, 162–177 329, 340, 396 complex tuya, 10 welded, 46 composite volcano, 82 lapilli tuff breccia, 180 conical, 53 lapillistone, 184, 212 conical tuya, 10, 163 Larsen Ice Shelf, 19 dome, 10, 48, 49, 52 laser range-finding, 146 drumlinoid, 45 Last Glacial Maximum, 15, 48, 49, 53, 240, 299, 332, effusion-dominated tuya, 48 341, 343, 349 esker-like lava flow, 163 Late Miocene, 21, 22, 301, 334 glaciovolcanic tuff cone, 10, 52 Late Pleistocene, 8, 37, 49, 52 hryggir, 5 Late Pliocene, 52 hyaloclastite ridge, 5 lateral progradation, 168, 220, 283 hydraulics, 164 lava ice-clad volcano, 51, 52 ‘a‘ā, 13, 23–5, 85, 87–89, 119, 166, 168–169, ice-constrained, 172 187–189, 198, 200, 203–203, 213, 222, ice-impounded, 162 224, 236–237, 239, 247, 264–266, 291, intermediate dome, 164 302, 305, 311–311, 333–334, 354 lava-dominated, 176 blocky lava, 13 lava-dominated felsic tuya, 163 feeder-tubes, 40 lava-fed delta, 13, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, 25, 31, 39, 40, ice tunnels, 45 41, 100, 102 ice–snow-contact, 51 linear tuya, 10, 163 ice-confined, 46

472 Index

lava (cont.) lava lobe-bearing, 203 ice-contact, 39, 45, 56 lava temperatures, 111 ice-impounded, 268, 270 forward-looking infrared radar, 114 lava-fed delta caprock, 20 geothermometers, 111, 114 overthickened, 46 glass transition temperatures, 116–117 pāhoehoe, 13, 20, 31 addition of water, 116 pillow lava, 36, 42 basalt, 116 spiracle structures, 54 basaltic glass, 116 subaqueous sheet lava, 24 cooling rate, 116 vertical pillow, 45 dacite, 116 viscosity, 116 diffusion of nutrients, 117 lava eskers, 48 liquidus temperatures, 114, 116 lava flows, 351 phonolite, 116 1983 Veniaminof lake, 355 solidus temperatures, 116 2010 Eyjafjallajokull, 352 thermodynamics, 116 2010 Fimmvörðuháls, 352 trachyte, 116 2013 Tolbachik, 352 MELTS, 111 2013 Veniaminof, 352 Putirka, 114 andesitic lavas, 355 Rhyolite-MELTS, 114 domes, 356 rock composition, 114 2004 and 2006 Mt St Helens, 356 thermal probes, 114 avalanches, 356 thermodynamic models, 114 debris flow, 356 Tolbachik, 113 lahars, 356 lava–snowpack, 89 Mt Redoubt, 355, 356 lava-dominated tuya, 269, 272, 275, 277 debris flow, 356 lava-fed delta, 9, 100, 165, 166, 168, 170, 172, 182, Drift River, 356 192, 198, 200, 201, 203, 204, 208, 213, lahars, 356 220, 224, 226, 236, 238, 239, 241, 242, rock avalanching, 356 247, 248, 264, 265, 266, 275, 283, 291, episodic meltwater discharges, 352 301, 303, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 311, experiments, 351 312, 315, 316, 317, 320, 322, 323, 324, fatalities, 352 326, 331, 333, 334, 335, 336 flooding, 351, 352 Level Mountain, 42, 247 Gigjökull glacier, 353 lightning Hudson, 351, 352 1755 Katla, 362 ice-clad volcanoes, 355 atmosphere, 362 infrastructure, 351 eruption plume, 362 interact explosively, 351 phreatomagmatic, 362 Klyuchevskoy, 351, 352 linear tuya, 173 lahars, 352 liquidus temperatures, 142 Llaima, 351, 352 lithofacies meltwater floods, 351 armoured lapilli, 41 mixed with snow/ice, 352 chaotic breccias, 37 mudflows, 352 chaotic lava lobe, 25 Nyiragongo, 351 hyaloclastic lithosome, 18 oversteepened escarpments, 351 hyaloclastite tuff, 53 snowpack, 352 lapilli, 20 subglacial tunnels, 353 lapilli tuff, 20, 30 summit crater overflows, 352 lobe-hyaloclastite, 25, 31 Tolbachik, 351 palagonitized tuff, 38 Valle del Bove, Etna, 352 pillow breccia, 36, 38, 40 Veniaminof, 354 pillow lava, 7, 38 Villarrica, 351, 352 sheet-like sequences, 21, 23, 26, 29, 30 lava lake, 165 snow-rich debris flow deposits, 37 Mt Michael, 17 subaerial lava cap, 36 Villarrica, 360 tuff breccia, 30, 37, 41, 42 lava lobe breccia, 295 vitroclastic, 33 lava shield, 13, 236, 247 lithophysae, 272, 288

Index 473

lithostatic loading, 344 magma migration Little Bear Mountain, 339 buoyancy, 128 Little Ring Mountain, 259 deglaciation, 128 littoral cone, 213 dyke, 128 Llaima, 57, 60, 75, 89 effect of regional ice sheet, 128 1994, 75 excess pressure, 128 basaltic, 73 ice loading, 128 basaltic andesite, 73 static, 128 Calbuco River, 75 subglacial, 128 crevasses, 75 supraglacial, 128 debris flow, 75 magma mixing, 565, 345 lahar velocity, 75 magma quenching, 393 lahars, 74 magma–cryosphere interactions, 89 Rio Quepe, 75 magmastatic driving pressure, 346 steam production, 75 magmatic fragmentation, 211, 212, 281, 288 tunnels, 74 magmatic vesiculation, 12 volume of ice melted, 75 magnetostratigraphy, 158 Llangorse, 215, 216, 253 Mandible Cirque, 287, 289 Llangorse volcanic field, 215 mantle plume, 17, 26, 47, 125, 330 loading, 228 Marie Byrd Land, 8, 15, 17, 22–24, 208, 221, 222, 334, 336 mafic, 13, 38 central volcanoes, 22 magma discharge, 170, 222, 231, 241 Large Igneous Province, 22 magma generation, 125–128 marine incursions, 314, 316 addition of magmatic volatiles, 127 marine isotope stage Aleutian, 127 MIS 2, 52 Andean, 127 MIS 4, 52, 53 Cascade, 127 MIS 6, 52 Kamchatka, 127 marine shelfal sequences, 330 Scotia, 127 Mars, 3, 4, 56, 239, 298, 326, 327, 328, 365, 368, wet magmatic systems, 128 398, 399 addition of volatile components, 125 Acidalia Planitia, 380 adiabatic decompression, 127 Alba Mons, 366 deglaciation, 127 Amazonian Period, 365, 366, 372 Iceland, 127 Apollinaris, 366 isostatic rebound, 127 Arcadia Planitia, 391 MORB, 127 Arsia Mons, 365, 373, 385, 388 West Antarctica, 127 Ascraeus Mons, 365, 385 western Canada, 127 atmosphere, 367, 374, 376 decreases in pressure, 125 atmospheric general circulation models, 373 deglaciation, 126 atmospheric transport, 374 increases in mantle temperature, 125 breaching permafrost seal, 388 p-MELTS, 125 buttes, 370, 380 temperature increase, 126–127 Candor Chasma, 383 Bárdarbunga, 126 canyons (chasmata), 368–369 Grímsvötn, 126 Capri Chasma, 383 Hawaii, 126 carbon dioxide ice, 367 hotspots, 126 central chasmata, 384 Iceland, 126 central volcano, 366 Kverkfjöll, 126 Ceraunius Tholus, 385 mantle plume, 126 chaotic terrain, 369, 370, 377, 383 Mauna Kea, 126 chasmata, 383 Mauna Loa, 127 Chryse Planitia, 380 MORB, 126 cold-based ice, 385 potential temperatures, 126 cone-shaped mountains, 382 source region melting, 126 Coprates Chasma, 383 Vatnajökull, 126 cryolithosphere, 368, 374, 376, 380, 388

474 Index

Mars (cont.) integrated valley networks, 368 cryolithosphere pore space, 391 interior layered deposits, see ILD cryosphere cracking, 388 intermediate obliquity excursions, 388 digitate lavas, 388 jökulhlaup fans, 373, 386 Dorsa Argentea Formation, 371, 381, 382 jökulhlaups, 369, 370, 380, 391 dyke emplacement, 365, 368, 380, 391 Juventae Chasma, 383 dyke intrusion, 380, 388 knobby terrain, 373 dyke widths, 377 lahar deposits, 380 dyke-induced fractures, 391 lahars, 380 dykes, 377 lake, 384 Early Amazonian, 380 lake deposits, 383 Elysium region, 385 lapilli tuff, 385 Elysium volcanic province, 367 Late Hesperian, 370 Elysium Fossae, 380 lava-fed delta, 384, 385 englacial lake, 383, 384 linear features, 364, 380 englacial vault, 384 lobate ejecta, 367 environment impact on glaciovolcanism, 376–378 low domes, 381 Eos Chasma, 383 maars, 380, 391 eruption styles, 376 magma intruding cryolithosphere, 388 eskers, 387 mantle plume, 368 explosive (hydromagmatic) eruptions, 384 mega-lahars, 391 feeder dyke, 366 megascale flooding, 370 flat-topped mountains, 381 Melas Chasma, 383 floods, 370, 373 meltwater deluges, 377, 391 fossae, 369, 370, 378, 380, 391 meltwater lake, 385 fuel–coolant interactions, 390 meltwater tunnels, 384, 387 fuel–coolant-type interaction, 378 mesas, 370, 380, 383, 384 Ganges Chasma, 383 móberg, 373 geological background, 364–367 móberg ridges, 380 geothermal heat from volcanoes, 382 morphometry of glaciovolcanic edifices, 378 glacial–interglacial repetition, 375 mounds of layered sediments, 368 glacial–interglacial impact on hydrological cycle, Noachian, 366, 368, 371, 381 374–375 Noachian chasmata, 383 glaciovolcanic cryptodomes, 391 Noachian Period, 365 glaciovolcanic edifices, 381 Noachian plateau surfaces, 383 glaciovolcanic pyroclastic cones, 383 northern cap diameter, 371 ground ice, 374, 388, 391 northern plains, 364, 370, 378–381 Hadriaca Patera, 366 obliquity, 374, 375, 384 Hebes Chasma, 383 oceans and lakes, 370 Hecates Tholus, 385 Olympus Mons, 367, 372, 385 Hellas impact crater, 365 Ophir Chasma, 383 Hesperia Planum, 366 outflow channels, 369 Hesperian, 366, 367, 368, 370, 371, 372, 381 palagonitized tuff, 384 Hesperian flooding, 367 passage zone, 384 Hesperian Period, 365 Pavonis Mons, 365 Hrad Vallis, 380, 390 pedestal craters, 367, 372 hyaloclastite mounds, 385 permafrost, 377 hydrothermal systems, 388 phreatomagmatic activity, 378, 380, 391 hydrovolcanic interactions, 367 phreatomagmatic explosions, 390 hyperarid environment, 365 phyllosilicates, 384 ice sheet thickness estimates, 381 piedmont-like fans, 373 ice streams, 370 pillow mounds, 383, 385 ice surge, 386 pillow sheets, 381 ice-confined pillow mounds, 381 pillow volcano, 378 ice-marginal lavas, 385 polar caps and circumpolar ice sheet, 371–372 ILD, 383, 384 possible pillow sheets, 385 insolation-related climate change, 375 possible rock glaciers, 373

Index 475

putative tuya, 385, 388 Ajusco, 49 pyroclastic density currents, 376 Citlaltépetl, 49 reversal of hydrological cycle, 375 Cofre de Perote, 49 ridged lava plains, 366 Cotopaxi, 160 rootless cones, 367 Iztaccíhuatl, 49 sapping features, 368 La Malinche, 49 shield volcanoes, 365 Las Cumbres, 49 sill intrusion, 388 Nevado de Colima, 49 sinuous ridges, 381 Nevado de Toluca, 49 snowpack, 364 Pico de Orizaba, 49 south polar cap, 371, 381 Popocatépetl, 49 south polar cap diameter, 371 Sierra Negra, 49 southern circumpolar region, 381–383 Tancítaro, 49 streamlined landforms, 369 Telepón, 49 Strombolian, 376 Tláloc, 49 sub-cryolithospheric hydrosphere, 374 microbial activity, 316 subglacial mounds, 380 Middle Miocene Climatic Optimum, 301 subglacial tunnels, 385 Middle Miocene Climatic Transition, 301 sublimation till, 373 Milankovich, 343 subsurface glaciovolcanism, 388–391 minerals surface floods, 388 calcite, 40 Syrtis Major Formation, 370 smectite, 40 Syrtius Major Planum, 366 zeolites, 40 Tartarus Colles, 388 Minna Bluff, 264 tephra fountains, 376 Mio-Pliocene, 9 tephra mounds, 385 Mississippi River, 81, 359 Tharsis bulge, 368 mixed magma, 73 Tharsis region, 366, 385 móberg, 184, 238 Tharsis volcanic province, 365, 367 Móberg Formation, 5 Tharsis volcanoes, 373 móberg ridges, 25 thick ice, 373 molten fuel–coolant interactions, 234 tindars, 373, 383 monogenetic formations, 9, 10, 19, 30, 31, 162, 166, tindar-like features, 380 168, 170, 177, 187, 201, 218, 220, 221, tropical glaciovolcanism, 385 222, 224, 227, 238, 248, 261, 308, 318, tropical mountain ice, 372–374 325, 331, 336, 341, 393 tufa (spring) mounds, 383 morphometry, 145 tuyas, 380, 383, 384 basal meltwater escape, 177 Utopia Planitia, 380 British Columbia, 146 Valles Marineris, 365, 366, 368, 369, 383–385 compound morphometry, 163 valley networks, 365, 368, 377, 385 differential GPS (DGPS), 146 Vastitas Borealis Formation, 370 digital elevation models, 146 volcanic rootless constructs (VRC), 388 felsic domes and lobes, 177 water inventory, 367 Iceland, 146 water vapour, 375 laser range-finding, 146 mass flows, 241, 282, 351, 359 MORPHVOLC, 146 Mathews Tuya, 40, 106, 148 NETVOLC, 146 Mathews, W.H., 7 passage zone elevations, 146 mega-grooves, 45 sheet-like sequences, 174 melt fraction, 345 structure-from-motion, 146 melt-back, 235, 295 tephra mounds, 173 meltout cavities, 226, 270 MORPHVOLC, 146 MELTS, 109, 114 Mt Cayley, 257, 259 meltwater temperatures, 96 Mt Cayley Volcanic Field, 257, 259 meltwater lake, 12, 102, 168, 170 Mt Edziza, 247, 252, 274, 275, 339, 340 mesas, 168 Mt Erebus, 2 meteoric groundwater, 314 Mt Etna, 1 Mexico, 15, 49 Mt Everest, 367

476 Index

Mt Garibaldi, 259 ice cover removed during eruption, 69 Mt Haddington, 308 Kalama River, 69 Mt Murphy, 23, 24, 221, 247, 334, 336 lahar deposits, 67 Mt Nyiragongo,1 lahars, 69 Mt Pinafore, 174, 241, 242, 245, 246 mass flows, 359 Mt Pinafore type, 19, 26, 241, 242 Muddy River, 69 Mt Rainier, 176, 254, 264 North Fork, Toutle River, 69, 70 Mt Redoubt, 1, 36, 37, 75–77 Pacific Ocean, 68 1989–90, 75 phreatic, 69, 70 2009, 75, 77 phreatomagmatic, 69 2009 peak lahar discharge, 77 Pine Creek, 69 air traffic, 76 plinian eruption, 69 andesite, 77 pyroclastic density currents, 69 ash cloud flow velocities, 77 snow and ice avalanches, 69 avalanches, 77 snowpack, 69 debris flow, 76, 77 South Fork, Toutle River, 69, 70 dome, 76 South Sister, 255 dome collapse, 76 Spirit Lake, 70 Drift Glacier, 75, 76, 77 Toutle River, 68 Drift River, 76 USGS Professional Paper 1250, 67 Cannery Creek, 77 volcanic avalanche, 69 oil terminal, 76 mudstone, 209, 243 Rust Creek, 77 mugearite, 13, 250, 264, 334 hyperconcentrated flows, 77 mushroom-like apophyses, 224 ice blocks, 76 ice cauldrons, 77 Nazca plate, 50 infrastructure, 76 NCVP, see Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province juvenile detritus, 77 Neogene, 15, 158, 247, 248, 300, 303, 331 lahars, 76, 77 Neoproterozoic, 56 main pumice-producing episode, 76 nephelinites, 105 mass flows, 76 NETVOLC, 146 meltwater floods, 77 Nevado del Ruiz, 51, 60, 68, 71–73, 89, 106 peak discharge, 77 1595, 72 pyroclastic density currents, 76, 77 1845 lahar, 72 seismicity, 76 1985, 72 snow avalanches, 76 andesite, 73 stratovolcano, 75 Armero, 72, 73 Mt St Helens, 57, 67–70 avalanche, 72 1980–86, 67 ballistic blocks, 72 1989–90, 70 bomb melt pockets, 73 1990–1, 70 bombs, 72 2004–06, 70 bulking rates, 73 ancient floods, 70 crevasses, 73 andesite, 67 dacite, 73 avalanches, 360 debris flow, 73 basalt, 67 estimated ice volume, 71 cocks-tail jets, 69 floods, 73 Columbia River, 68 flow margin levees, 72 Crater glacier, 70 glacier erosion, 72 cryptodome, 69 hazard mapping, 73 dam at Spirit Lake, 70 Lagunillas and Azufrado peak discharges, 73 directed blast, 69 lahar deposits, 73 dome, 70 lahar volumes, 73 earthquake, 69 lahars, 72, 73 estimated lahar discharge rates, 69 mixed avalanches, 73 fumaroles, 69 mixed magma, 73 hydrothermal fluids, 69 names of glaciers, 71

Index 477

phreatic, 72 Canada, 7–8, see also Iskut volcanic field, Edziza, physical abrasion, 73 Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province Plinian eruption, 72 Anahim volcanic province, 46 pyroclast interaction with cryosphere, 72 British Columbia, 3, 4, 5, 7, 12, 15, 33, 35, 37, 38, pyroclastic density currents, 72 39, 40, 46, 47, 106, 109, 163, 166, 171, rock avalanches, 73 174, 176, 177, 185, 186, 187, 192, 206, slush avalanches, 73 215, 216, 217, 218, 220, 221, 247, 248, snowpack, 72, 73 250, 251, 252, 253, 256, 257, 259, 261, subglacial meltwater storage, 73 264, 267, 268, 269, 272, 273, 274, 296, surge, 72 297, 303, 308, 319, 337, 339, 341, 342, tephra fall, 72 343, 344, 394, 395 New Zealand, 55, 60, 196 Ash Mountain, 39 Mt Ruapehu, 55, 83 Dease Lake, 39 Mt Taranaki, 55, 60 geochemical studies, 146–149 non-glacial lacustrine, 91 Jennings River, 39 normal grading, 180 Kawdy Mountain, 39 North America, 33–49, 127, 340, see also Northern Kawdy Plateau, 39 Cordilleran Volcanic Province Pillow Ridge, 151, 153 Alaska, 35, 36, 37, 46, 52, 83, 250, 264, morphometry, 145 338, 394 relief, bedrock, 264 Aleutian Islands, 35 South Tuya, 151 Aleutian volcanic arc, 35, 36–37, 70, 103, see also Tanzilla Butte, 151, 152 Mt Redoubt carbon dioxide, 152 Mt Spurr, 36 hydrostatic pressure, 152 Pavlof, 36 sulphur, 152 Umnak Island, 37 water, 152 Okmok, 37 Tennena Cone, 151 caldera-forming eruptions, 37 Tuya Butte, 151 Recheschnoi, 37 Tuya Lake, 39, 40 Vsevidof, 37 chlorine, 151 Veniaminof, 36 sulphur, 151 Westdahl, 36 Wells Grey–Clearwater, 47 Anchorage, 76 Fiftytwo Ridge, 47 Bristol Bay, 35 Gage Hill, 47 caldera, 70 Hyalo Hill, 47 Cook Inlet, 76 McLeod Hill, 47 Seward Peninsula, 35 Mosquito Mound, 47 Togiak tuya, 35 Mount Ray, 47 Veniaminof, 57, 70 Pyramid Mountain, 47 1983–84, 70 Sheep Track Bench, 47 1993–4, 70 Spanish Bonk, 47 2013, 70 Spanish Mump, 47 caldera-filling glacier, 70 Coast Mountains, 43 ice melting, 71 Hoodoo Mountain, 10, 33 ice thickness, 70 Kima ’Kho, 10 lake, 70 Mount Edziza, 34 lava-fed delta, 71 Pillow Ridge, 110 tunnels, 70 Wells–Gray volcanic field, 33 Wrangell Yukon River, 38 Capital, 37 Yukon Territory, 33, 37, 38, 248 Drum, 37 Cascade volcanic arc, 35, 47–48, 67, see also Mt St Gordon, 37 Helens Jervis, 37 Crater Lake, 48 Sanford, 37 Arant Point, 48 Tanada, 37 Bear Bluff, 48 Wrangell volcanic arc, 35 Dutton Cliff, 48 California, 35 Grotto Cave, 48

478 Index

North America (cont.) obsidian breccia, 278, 283, 285, 292, 295 Grouse Hill, 48 obsidian clasts, 180 Munson Ridge, 48 obsidian sheets, 32, 283, 285 Pumice Point, 48 Ögmundur, 281, 283 Redcloud Cliff, 48 Okmok, 264 Roundtop, 48 Oligocene, 23 Garibaldi olivine, chronometry, 159 Mt Cayley, 48 olivine nephelinite, 38, 56 The Barrier, 48 Öraefajökull, 191, 240, 268, 269, 271, 292, 296 The Table, 48 Ordovician, 48, 56, 255, 264, 394 Watts Point, 48 orthobreccia, 222, 223, 224, 277 Garibaldi Belt, 47 outlet glaciers, 329 Hayrick Butte, 47 Hogg Rock, 47 Pacific Ocean, 78, 356 Mt Baker, 35, 48 Pacific plate, 38 Mt Jefferson, 48 pāhoehoe, 19, 166, 168, 185, 186, 187, 188, 202, 203, Mt Rainier, 48, 57 204, 224, 226, 236, 237, 238, 247, 302, Oregon, 47 303, 305, 308, 310, 312, 331, 334, 335 Washington State, 47, 67 palaeoenvironmental investigations, 320, 329, 336 Columbia River plateau, 39 palaeoenvironmental proxies, 7, 314, 329 North American plate, 38, 47, 126 palagonite, 46, 54, 198, 200, 211, 213, 216, 224, 314 Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province, 248, 267 palagonitization, 37, 39, 154, 314, 315, 396, see also Ash Mountain, 40, 41 geochemical studies Atlin volcanic district, 38 1996 Gjálp, 154 Bell–Irving, 45 Ash Mountain, 154 Caribou Tuya, 40 basaltic andesite, 154 Craven Lake, 45 effects on heat transfer, 154 Edziza, 42–45 high-Al, 154 Fort Selkirk volcanic complex, 38 isovolumetrical, 154 Hidden Point, 39 Llangorse, British Columbia, 154 Hoodoo Mountain, 38 low-Al, 154 Iskut volcanic field, 45 Palagonite Formation, 154 Kima ’Kho, 41 permeability of edifices, 154 Level Mountain, 42 pH, 154 Llangorse, 38 porosity of edifices, 154 Llangorse volcanic field, 38 rinds, 154 Lone Point, 39 South Tuya, 154 Mathews #2 tuya, 40 stoichiometry, 154 Mathews Tuya, 40 Tuya Butte, 154 Mt Edziza, 38 weathering on Mars, 154 Nass Valley region, 46 palagonitized hyaloclastite, 259 Ne Ch’e Ddhawa, 38 palagonitized tuff breccia, 36, 45 South Tuya, 40, 41 pantellerite, 42 Stikine sub-province, 45 Papua New Guinea, 54, 60 Surprise Lake volcanic field, 38 Doma Peaks, 54 Tanzilla Butte, 40, 41 Gogon glaciation, 54 Tuya Butte, 39, 40 Gogon River dome, 54 Tuya Formation, 42 Gogon River palagonite, 54 Tuya–Kawdy volcanic fields, 38, 39–42 Komia glaciation, 54 Northern Hemisphere ice, 35 Megane glaciation, 54 Northern volcanic zone, 26, 50 Mt Giluwe, 15 Nubian plate, 56 Mt Hagen, 54 Nye channels, 92, 102 Mt Ialibu, 54 Nye’s Law, 142 Mt Kerewa, 54 Tongo glaciation, 54 obsidian, 190, 208, 211, 266, 273, 276, 277, 281, 282, Yelia, 54 283, 285, 288, 290, 292, 294, 295 particle aggregation, 84

Index 479

passage zone, 102, 186, 198, 203, 226, 236, 237, 238, post-glacial volcanism, 345 239, 248, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 311, pressure melting point, 178, 300, 321 320, 321, 322, 336, 397 pressure release, 218 falling, 238, 308 Prestahnúkur, 272 fossil water level, 102 prismatic jointing, 239 horizontal, 238 pseudopillow fractures, 273 rising, 238 pyroclastic density currents, 32, 35, 37, 51, 60, 182, subaerial–subaqueous transitions, 7 183, 209, 210, 211, 212, 235, 273, 276, Peacock, M.A., 5, 154, 342, 405 281, 282, 351, 358 pedogenesis, 302 collapse of eruption columns, 358 peperite, 247, 270, 278, 285, 301, 310 fatalities, 359 globular, 246 floods, 358 peperitic, 227, 282, 285 gravitational collapse, 358 peralkaline rhyolite, 33, 56, 276 human casualties, 358 perched lava, 253 interactions between PDCs and snow/ice, 358 peridotite, 39, 215 lahars, 358 peridotite xenoliths, 47 Mt St Helens, 358 perlitized, 285, 286, 288, 290, 294 Nevado del Ruiz, 359 permafrost, 1, 35 override topographical barriers, 358 permafrost glaciovolcanism, 35, see also Espenberg phreatomagmatic, 358 maars pyroclastic flows, 358 permeability, 89, 317, 326, 328, 329, see also firn, ice, pyroclastic surges, 358 snow snow avalanches, 359 Permo-Carboniferous, 15, 56 volcanic explosions, 358 phillipsite, 154, 156, 314, 316 pyroclastic grain sizes, 376 phonolite, 14, 22, 24, 34, 45, 46, 166, 177, 187, 250, pyroclastic passage zones, 13, 41, 210, 237, 307 253, 258, 264, 266, 267, 339 peralkaline, 105 quartz tholeiite, 151 phreatomagmatic, 53, 223, 309, 336 Quaternary, 5, 15, 35, 36, 37, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, phreatoplinian, 209 166, 248, 267, 330, 346, 398 picritic basalt, 103 quench fragmentation, see Fragmentation pillow ‘drips’, 310 quenching, 40, 181, 194, 201, 215, 228, 254, 259, 271, pillow breccia, 201, 226, 230, 231, 248 272, 273, 288 pillow lavas, 7, 36, 42, 38, 129 pillow mounds, 163, 169, 174, 176, 177, 179, 205, 220, rate of strain, 95 225, 227, 230, 239, 240, 241, 245, 246, Raudufossafjöll, 276, 277, 278, 279, 248, 273, 310 285 confining pressure, 225 Rayleigh–Taylor instability, 311 pillow ridges, 43, 109, 163, 168, 174, 176, 177, 192, reactivation surface, 203, 204 217, 218, 220, 248, 340 remnant cliff, 163 pillow sheets, 163, 176, 177, 215, 238, 240, 244, 396 reverse grading, 209, 262, 282 pillow volcanoes, 176, 215, 220, 221, 224, 230, Reykjavik, 226 232, 240 rhyolite, 22, 30, 31, 32, 37, 51, 52, 103, 106, 107, 109, Pjetursson, H, 5, 342 177, 190, 191, 195, 203, 208, 211, 231, planar beds, 208, 209 248, 261, 266, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, platy fractures, 195–197, 254, 288, 299 276, 277, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 285, Pleistocene, 19, 28, 38, 39, 47, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 287, 288, 289, 292, 294, 295, 297 55, 56, 59, 70, 226, 336 high silica, 103 Pleistocene–Holocene transition, 121 ice-confined, 32 Pliocene, 19, 22, 28, 333, 336, 337, 395 peralkaline, 42, 105 Plio-Pleistocene, 29, 33, 35, 46, 47, 398 Ring Mountain, 259 poikilitic textures, 290 rising passage zone, 248, 306 polar-ice, see ice, cold ice rock compositions, 103–105 polygenetic central volcano, 178 alkaline mafic magmas, 38 polygonal columns, 195, 251, 288, 295, 302, 310 andesite, 13 polymict diamict, 241, 243, 290 calc-alkaline, 20, 51 porosity, 234 felsic, 13, 38

480 Index

rock compositions (cont.) intermediate, 174 intermediate, 13, 32 phonolite, 174 mafic, 13 rhyolite, 174 peralkaline intermediate, 38 trachyte, 174 Rocky Mountains, 339 shield volcano, 165, 166, 236, 247, 249, 334 roof collapse, ice, 229 Siberia, see Russia Ross Sea, 301 Sida–Fljotsfverfi district, 242, 249 Röthlisberger channels, 92, 102, 245, 248 sideromelane, 29, 40, 154, 173, 201, 208, 209, 222, 223, Rubble Creek, 268 227, 241, 242, 243, 244, 246, 314, 318 Russia, 1, 15, 51–53, 189, see also Tolbachik sideromelane tuff breccia, 43 Aza, 384 Sierra Nevada Mountains, 347 Central Kamchatka Depression (CKD), 51 Slag Hill, 259 Eastern Volcanic Zone, 51 slump scar surfaces, 206, 235 Kamchatka, 15, 52, 103, 125 slump scars, 209, 213 Central Kamchatka Depression (CKD), 88 smectite, 154 Klyuchevskoy, 52, 81, 88 snow Sredinny Range, 51 aquifer, 96 Kamchatka–Kurile volcanic arc, 51, 52 hydraulics, 96 Klyuchevskoy, 1, 57, 60 permeability, 96 Lake Baikal, 52 permeable snow, 23, 100 Sheveluch, 1 snowball Earth, 15, 392 Siberia, 52 snowpack, 48, 53, 60, 63, 114, 215, 326 Azas Plateau volcanic field, 52 solidification front, 195 Tuva volcanic province, 52 Somalia plate, 56 Sredinny Range, 52 South America, 1, 15, 50–51, 52, 60, 250, 350, 392, tuyas, 41 394, see also Hudson, Llaima, Nevado del Ruiz, Villarrica sand sheets, 230 Andean volcanic arc, 50, 71, 78 scoria cone, 174, 212, 224 Austral volcanic zone, 51 seasonal variations, 349 Central volcanic zone, 51 sector collapses, 213, 235, 277 Northern volcanic zone, 50 sedimentary rocks Southern volcanic zone, 51, 74 polymict diamictite, 38 Argentina, 51, 79 stratified waterlain (fluvial) sandstones, 21 Austral volcanic zone, 78 tillite, 21, 23, 24 Bolivia, 51 sediments Chile, 51, 73, 79 basal diamict, 20 Calbuco, 51 diamict, 23, 24, 29 Lanín, 51 glacial erratics, 40, 41 Lautaro, 51 gravel, 21 Nevados de Chillan, 51 till, 21, 29, 49, 53 Parinacota, 51 Deception Island, 65 Sollipulli, 51 sensible heat, 113, 322 Colombia, 50 sequences Ecuador, 50, 51, 71 Dalsheidi type, 29 Chimborazo, 51 Mt Pinafore type, 20, 21, 23 Cotopaxi, 51, 60, 83, 350 shallow impact structures, 209 ice caps, 51 shard-like fractures, 195 Patagonia, 15 shear planes, 62 Peru, 51 shear stress, 95 South American plate, 50 sheet lava, 181, 188, 189, 190, 198, 222, 224, 225, 239, South Georgia, 79 242, 243, 272, 308 South Ögmundur, 281 sheet-like fractures, 193, 195 South Sandwich Islands, 15, 17–18, sheet-like sequences, 19, 173, 174, 176, 177, 179, 215, 51, 84 239, 240, 241, 242, 244, 245, 246, 249, Bristol Island, 17 266, 268, 287, 289, 291, 292, 323, 324, Montagu Island, 17, 84 334, 388 2001–2 first effusive episode, 84

Index 481

2003 second effusive phase, 84 stoping, 225 2005 third and largest effusive eruption, 84 stoss-side laminae, 210 2007 end of eruption, 85 stratovolcano, 215, 221, 247, 254, 269 andesite, 84 striae on columnar joints, 193 basalt, 84 Strombolian, 236 basaltic andesite, 84 structure-from-motion, 174 bomb pits, 84 structures caldera, 84 foreset beds, 13, 20 fan-like lava terminus, 84 subaqueous traction currents, 12 lava-fed delta, 84, 85 traction currents, 29 MODVOLC satellite, 84 subaerial lava cap, 13, 227, 284 Mt Belinda, 17, 84 subaerial–subaqueous transitions 7 pyroclastic cone, 84 subalkaline basalt, 34 subglacial meltwater drainage, 85 subaqueous fire-fountaining, 33, 210, 220 Saunders Island subglacial domes, 163 lava lake, 85 subglacial mounds, 8 Mt Michael, 17, 85 subglacial tunnels, 32, 228, 295, 306 South Sister, 255 sub-ice portals, 232 Southern volcanic zone, see South America submarine, 3, 17, 91, 185, 186, 231, 242, 283, 314, 396 space problem, 397 sulphide minerals, 151 spherulites, 190, 272, 288 sulphur, 40, 110, 246, 318 spillways, 322 sulphur dioxide, 107, 150 stable isotopes, 106, 110–111, 157–158, 396 supraglacial, 170, 221, 321, 348, 395 Alaska, 157 supraglacial channel, 322 Antarctica, 157 supraglacial eruption, 163 alteration temperatures, 158 surface exposure, 333, see also geochronometry assimilation, 110, 157 surge, glacier, 343 external fluid sources, 110 surge, pyroclastic, 37 geothermometers, 110 syn-eruptive slope failure, 24 hydrogen, 110 syn-sedimentary slump scars, 224 Iceland, 110, 157 Kamchatka, 157 table mountains, 168 ignimbrites, 157 tachylitic, 212 low δ18O values, 157 temperate ice, 9 Pleistocene–Holocene, 157 Tennena Cone, 176, 340 Karelia, Russia, 158 tephra large-scale experiments with basaltic melt, 158 agglutinate, 19 large-scale volcano–ice interaction experiments, 157 basaltic lapilli tuff, 28 magma mixing, 110 lapilli tuff, 20, 24, 33, 35 mantle values of δ18O range, 110 phreatomagmatic, 329 meteoric water line, 110 pumiceous breccia, 32 O isotope exchange between basaltic melt and rhyolite ash, 32 water, 111 stratified lapilli tuff, 29 oxygen, 110 tephra fall, 24 palagonitization, 111 welded lapilli tuff, 46 Russia, 110 tephra mounds, 163, 169, 173, 220, 226 Unimak hydrothermal fluids, 157 tephra ridges, 164, 173 values of δD for pristine mantle melts, 110 tephra-dominated, 173, 177, 268, 275, 276, 277, 278, standard tuya model, 11–13 281, 283, 284 basal pillows, 12 tephra-dominated tuya, 31 lava caps, 13 tephriphonolite, 13, 250, 264 passage zones, 12 thawed-bed ice, 299 subaqueous fragmentation, 12 The Barrier, 268, 269 stapar, 5, 163 The Table, 259 steam blisters, 270 thermal conductivity, 310 steam cupola, 222 thermal diffusivity, 123 Stikine sub-province, 267 thermal expansivity, 195

482 Index

thermal radiation, 133, see also heat transfer sub-snow emplacement, 88 thermodynamic properties, 120–124 voluminous production of steam, 88 buoyancy, 123 trace elements, 105, 106, see also geochemical Studies density, 123 trace fossils, 316 assimilation-fractional crystallization, 123 trachyandesite, 85 calculated as a function of pressure, 123 trachybasalt, 52 Rhyolite-MELTS, 123 trachydacite, 32, 191, 269, 270, 291, 292 supraglacial, 123 trachyte, 13, 22, 23, 24, 34, 42, 45, 46, 103, 166, 177, tephra, 123 187, 221, 253, 258, 267, 275, 289, vesicle volume fraction, 123 334, 339 heat capacity, 121, 122 traction currents, 210, 226, 241, 286 Rhyolite-MELTS, 122 traction structures, 212 sensible heat, 122 Transantarctic Mountains, 8, 25, 334 tholeiitic basalt, 122 transient conductive, 326 typical values of Cp for silicates, 122 transitions latent heat of fusion, 121 falling passage zone, 19 cryosphere, 121 passage zone, 13, 39, 40 enthalpies of mixing, 122 pyroclastic passage zone, 41 forsterite, 121 transtension, 47, 125 quartz, 121 Triangle Dome, 274, 275 Rhyolite-MELTS, 122 trough cross bedding, 227 sensible heat, 121 trough cross-stratification, 222 thermal conductivity, 123 Tsekone Ridge, 218 thermal diffusivity, 123 tuff breccia, 44, 45, 46, 182, 192, 198, 206, 214, 226, conductive cooling of lava, 124 238, 248, 267, 340, 395 thick glacier, 79 tunnels, 32, 176, 241, 242, 248, 291, 292, 295, see thick ice, 186, 271, 313, 320, 340 Llaima, Villarrica thin ice, 242, 245, 253, 254, 266, 267, 288, 312, tuyas 320, 323 lava-dominated, 171, 176, 211, 256, 259 tholeiitic basalt, 33, 53, 120, 122, 147, 233, 234 Prestahnúkur, 172 tholeiitic MORB, 26 tephra-dominated, 171, 211, 259 till, 190, 241, 243, 260, 298, 335, 337, 339 Tuya Butte, 221 tillite, 18, 271, 301 Tuya Formation, 39 tindars, 163, 168, 173, 210, 213, 220, 221, 223, 224, Tuya–Kawdy volcanic fields, 106 226, 229, 230, 231, 234, 235, 241, 246, Mathews Tuya, 40, 106, 148 248, 285, 287, 292, 303, 393 Twin Glacier, 7, 45, 339 tindar stage, 19, 20, 24, 31, 224, 226 Tindur, 283, 292 U/Th–He, geochronometry, 45, 158, 398 toeset beds, 201 unloading, 345, 347, 348, 349 Togiak tuya, 35 U-shaped valley, 38, 53, 254 Tolbachik, 10, 52, 88–89, 187, 189 ‘a‘ā,88 van Bemmelen and Rutten, 5 1975–1976 Great Tolbachik Fissure Eruption, 88 Vatnafjall, 269 2012–2013, 88 Vatnajökull, 218, 249, 323, 348 collapse of ‘a‘ā lavas, 89 Veniaminof, see North America, Alaska distinctive bulbous vitric textures, 88 vertical aggradation, 235, 283 effusion rates, 88 Victoria Land, 15, 17, 22, 24–26, 200, 264, 291, 298, fissure zone, 88 307, 321 lava temperature, 111 intermediate, 22 pāhoehoe, 88 phonolite, 22 phreatic, 89 rhyolite, 22 phreatomagmatic, 89 shield volcano, 22 physical displacement of the snow, 88 trachyte, 22 radiation, 133 Villarrica, 1, 51, 57, 60, 73 sheet lava, 88 1971, 74 snow pits, 88 1984–5, 74 snowpack, 88 basaltic, 73

Index 483

basaltic andesite, 73 eruption pressures, 150 crevasses, 75 five essential criteria, 150 eruption rate, 74 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, 150 estimated ice volume and thickness, 74 FTIR analysis, 150 fatalities, 74 hydrogen chloride, 107, 150 floods, 74 hydrogen fluoride, 107, 150 fountains, 74 hydrostatic pressure, 150 ice channel dimensions, 75 ice thickness calculations, 150 lahars, 74 Iceland lava flow front steam production, 75 Bláhnúkur, 153 lava lake, 74 Estadalsfjall, 151 melted channels, 74 Geitafell, 151 Río Pedregoso flood, 75 Helgafell, 153 river drainages, 75 Helgafell tindar, 151 rock avalanches, 75 Herdubreid, 151 snowpack, 74 Hlödufell, 151 Strombolian and Hawaiian eruptions, 75 Kalfstindar, 151 tunnels, 74 Kerlingarfjöll, 151, 153 viscosity, 10, 13, 44, 105, 117–120, 123, 132, 250, 312 Kverkfjöll, 153 addition of solids, 119 Kverkfjöll quartz tholeiite, 151 autobreccia, 119 Raudafell, 151 bubbles, 117, 118, 120 sulphur, 151 effective viscosity, 120 in volcanic glasses, 109 Einstein–Roscoe relationship, 119 phreatomagmatic eruptions, 150 felsic melts, 117 sideromelane, 151 Jeffrey’s equation, 118 sulphide minerals within vesicles, 151 mafic melts, 117 sulphur, 41 pāhoehoe, 119 sulphur dioxide, 107, 150 sheared bubbles, 120 water, 41, 43, 107, 109, 150 tholeiitic basalt, 120 volcanic gases, 351 volatile contents, 117 volcanic lightning, 351 volume fraction of solids, 120 volcanic tremor, 208 water, 117 vitroclastic, 29, 261, 262, 343 warm-based ice, 9 volatile contents, 228, 318, 320, 393 Washington State, 48, 247, 255 volatile solubility, 107–110 water, 150, 153, 186, 218, 246, 273, 318, 392, 393 bubbles, 138 solubility, 138 carbon dioxide, 138 water escape, 96 constraints on thickness of ice/depth of water during water inventory, 4 eruption, 138 water-cooled, 193, 224, 264, 302 equations of state, 138 Weichselian glacial, 275 explosive eruptions, 138 welded lapilli tuff, 46 hydrogen chloride, 138 West Antarctic Ice Sheet, 23, 336 hydrogen fluoride, 138 West Antarctic Rift System, 24 ideal gas law, 138 Western Volcanic Zone, 224, 229 sulphur dioxide, 138 wet-based ice sheet, 301 vesiculation events, 138 wetting front, 97 volume fraction, 138 Wrangell volcanic field, 35, 37 water, 138 volatiles, 107–110, 149–153 xenolith syenitic, 45 bubble annealing, 150 bubbles, 150 zeolites, 154, 314, 316, 396 carbon dioxide, 107, 109, 150 Antarctic lava-fed delta, 156 challenges to use for reconstruction, 153 chabazite, 156 effect of carbon dioxide on the water solubility– phillipsite, 156 pressure relationships, 150 submarine, 156