REGIONAL PROJECT FOR INLAND FISHERIES PLANNING, DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT IN EA-STERN/CENTRAL/SOUTHERN AFRICA (I.F.I.P.)
IFIP 770,7CT
RAF1871099-TD/31192 (En) January 1992
Report on National Seminar on the Development and Management of the Ugandan Fisheries of Lake Victoria, Jinja, Uganda 6-8 August 1991
Ethiopia Zambia Kenya Zaire Tanzania Burundi Mozambique Rwanda Zimbabwe Uganda Malawi
-A UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
UNDP/FAO Regional Project RAF/87/099-TD/31/92 (EN) for Inland Fisheries Planning Development and Management in Eastern/Central/Southern Africa
RAF/87/099-TD/31/92 (En) January 1992
Report on National Seminar on the Development and Management of the Ugandan Fisheries of Lake Victoria, Jinja, Uganda 6-8 August 1991
Edited by
G.W. Ssentongo Fisheries Biologist, IFIP Project
and
F. L. Orach-Meza Consultant, IFIP
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME Bujumbura, January 1992
The conclusions and recommendations given in this and other reportsin the IFIP projectseries are those considered appropriate at the time of preparation. They may be modified in the light of further knowledge gained at subsequent stages of the Project. The designations employedand the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion on the part of FAO or UNDP concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or concerning the determination of its frontiers or boundaries. ii
PREFACE
The IFIP project started in January 1989 with the main objective of promoting amore effective and rational exploitation ofthe fisheries resources of major water bodies of Eastern, Central and Southern Africa. The project is executed by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), and funded by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) for a duration of four years.
There are eleven countries and three intergovernmental organisations participating in the project: Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Uganda, Rwanda, Tanzania, Zambia, Zaire, Zimbabwe, The Communauté Economique des Pays des Grands Lacs (CEPGL), The Preferential Trade Area for Eastern and Southern African States (PTA) and the Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC).
The immediate objectives of the project are: (i) to strengthen regional collaboration for the rational development and management of inland fisheries, particularly with respect to shared water bodies;(ii) to provide advisory services and assist Governments in sectoral and project planning;(iii) to strengthen technical capabilities through training; and (iv) to establish a regional information base.
PREPARATION OF THIS DOCUMENT
This report includes the final report and recommendations of a National Seminar on Development and Management of the Fisheries of the Ugandan sector of Lake Victoria as well as the working papers presented at the meeting. The first National Seminar on Management of the Fisheries of the Ugandan sector of Lake Victoria was held from 6-8 August 1991 at Jinja, Uganda.
National Seminars on Lake Victoria fisheries, for the Riparian States were recommended at the Fifth Session of the FAO Sub-Committee for the Development and Management of the Fisheries of Lake Victoria, held from 12 to 14 September 1989. The purpose of the national seminars was to discuss fishery development and Management issues, options and strategies at national levels, and also to formulate Management Plans for the national sectors. The three national plans for the Riparian States will subsequently be incorporated into a unified regional plan for the entire lake. This work is being sponsoredby the IFIP Project.
IFIP PROJECT FAO B.P 1250 BUJUMBURA BURUNDI
Tel. 224328 Telex : FOODAGRI BDI 5092 Fax 227705 iii
IFIP PUBLICATIONS
Publications of the IFIP project are issued in two series:
A series of technical documents (RAF/87/099-TD) related to meetings, missions and research organized by the project.
A series of working papers (RAF/87/099-WP) related to more specific field and thematic investigations conducted in the framework of the project.
For both series, reference is further made to the document number (31), the year of publication (92) and the language in which the document is issued: English (En) or French (Fr).
For bibliographic purposes this document should be cited as follows:
Ssentongo, G.W, and F.L. Orach-Meza (eds.) Report of a National 1992 Seminar on the Development and Management of Ugandan fisheries of Lake Victoria. UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP). RAF/87/099/TD/31/92 (En): 137p. iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
-Summary öf'Main Conclusions and Recommendations
Introduction 4
Report of National Seminar on Development and Management of the Ugandan
Fisheries of Lake Victoria held at Jinja (Uganda) from 6-8 August 1991... 5
Appendix 1 : List of Participants 17
Appendix 2 : Formal Announcement of National Seminar and Provisional Agenda 18
Appendix 3 : PAPERS PRESENTED AT THE SEMINAR 21
Appendix 3.1 : Fishery Resource Base for the Uganda Sector of Lake
Victoria 21
Appendix 3.2 : The Effect of Limnological Factors and the Changing Environment on the Fisheries of Northern Lake Victoria... 36
Appendix 3.3 : Trends in Fisheries Development, Prospects and
Limitations for Lake Victoria (Uganda Sector) 59
Appendix 3.4 : Existing Fishery Legislation and Mechanisms for
Surveillance and Control on Lake Victoria 77
Appendix 3.5 : Industrial Processing, Investment and Development for the Fisheries of Lake Victoria: Present and Future Concerns 86
Appendix 3.6 : Management Issues, Options and Strategies for Lake Victoria Fisheries 103
LIST OF IFIP REPORTS - LISTE DES RAPPORTS PPEC 133 1
SUMMARY OF MAIN CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Fisheries Statistics
Recognizing that the Fisheries statistics are still inadequate and Aware that the Fisheries Department is developing a system to maintain consistent statistical data collection,it was recommended that the statistical methodology should be standardized and the scope widened to enable the required information to be extracted.
The Status of the Stocks
Realizing that commercial landings from Lake Victoria have increased due to increased landings of Lates, O. niloticus and R. argentea, but that landings of the other species has declined; and aware that there is currently high fishing pressure and heavy industrial investment in the fishery sector without clear knowledge of the magnitude of the stocks, it was recommended that (i) stock assessment be carried out to define the magnitude of the stocks both inshore and offshore; (ii) the building of more fish processing plants be halted until the magnitude of the stocks has been defined; (iii) and that the production of existing plants be monitored so that they do not expand their existing capacity; and (iv) The quality of the fish products from the existing plants must be strictly controlled to meet established international standards.
Regulating Fishing Activities
Realising the damage caused by small mesh size gillnets to the major fishes of commercial importance (viz. Lates and Oreochromis it was recommended that small gillnets (less than 5 inches or 127 mm) should be banned.
Realising the economic importance of Lates and Oreochromis and the need to protect the fishery it was recommended that the minimum size of fish permitted by law should be specified as 11 inches (280 mm), 20 inches (500 mm) for Oreochromis niloticus and Lates respectively.
Beach Seines
In view of the destructive nature of beach seines, for example in destroying breeding and nursery grounds it was recommended that their use should be prohibited. It was further recommended thatresearchers should analyze the data obtained from the Fisheries Department and report later.
Small-sized Seines
Aware of the destructive nature of seines the use of small-sizedseines should not be permitted. It was agreed that exploitation of Rastrineobola should be done the more selective using lift nets.
Cast Nets
Realising that cast nets destroy oreochromis breeding grounds and rapidly deplete their brood stocks, it was recommended that their use 2
be prohibited.
Small-scale Purse Seining
Small-scale purse seining methods such as "Tycoon" and "Sekeseke" should be gradually phased out and eventually prohibited but researchers should examine the destructive nature of the methods.
Trawling
Noting the existence of two pairs of trawlers conducting trawling operations on experimental basis and aware that the fishery of L. Victoria is dependent on the artisanal fisherfolk for its exploitation, realising that conflicting with artisanal fisherfolk would not be desirable the Working Group recommended that:
experimental trawling could continue but should be restricted to offshore waters beyond specified distances from the land.
commercial trawling should only be permitted after obtaining stock assessment results.
in the event of allowing commercial trawling the number of trawlers should be determined according to the data from stock assessment.
Longlines
Regarding longlines it was noted that small sized hooks in practice catch immature Nile perch and Tilapia the economically important species the fishery of which should be protected. It was recommended that while the use of longlines particularly with large hooks should be allowed to continue studies should be carried out to determine the minimum size of hook to be determined by law.
Traps and Weirs
These wereregardedas harmless inthe open lake, but it was recommended that their use across rivers and river mouths be prohibited.
Envisaged New Fisheries
It was recommended that the use of lift nets by catamaran should be encouraged particularly to exploit Rastrineobola. Those fishing for Rastrineobola should be encouraged to use light after getting permission from the relevant authorities. The minimum mesh size for the lift net should be 10 mm.It was further recommended that research should be conducted to establish the exact optimum mesh size for the purpose.
Fishery Legislation/Restriction
It was noted that good provisions for fishery legislation generally existed and they were acceptable to fishermen. It was observed that: 3
the system of closed areas is applicable; the areas could be identified and gazetted it wouldbe necessaryto facilitate restricting fishing in such areas.
the system of closed seasons is not applicable.
mesh size restrictions were necessary and enforceable.
Mechanism and Channels of Communication
Aware that interaction between the researcher, fisheries administrators and fishermen has been poor,it was recommended that,interaction between fisheries administrators, researchers and fishermen should be strengthened to initiate the dissemination and execution of research information. In view of this vacuum, it is suggested that a Fisheries Liaison Committee be set up consisting of fisheries administrators, researchers, processors and fishermen to plan for interaction within the fisheries sector. There should also be at least an annual meeting of All Fisheries Officers and Research Officers and the fish dealers.
Credit Schemes
Realizing that Credit schemes are very helpful in financing projects and Aware that co-operatives and commercial banks have assisted in providing fishermen with fisheries inputs eg. nets, cords and outboard motors - but payments of the loans sometimes due to high interest rates have been poor and discouraged the recipient, it was recommended that an alternative method of organizing the fishermen into groups other than co-operatives should be sought and given legal status.
Environmental Protection
Pollution
Realising that there are potential sources of pollutants from industrial effluents, agricultural pesticides, urban effluents and the invasion of the water hyacinth, it was recommended that (i) industrial complexes construct effluent treatment plants or else they should not be licensed, and those industries without treatment plants should be closed down; (ii)there is need to set up standards for acceptable levels of pollutants that can be discharged in water systems;(iii) Fisheries Researchers should be allowed free access to factories to monitor effluents discharged and should be allowed to monitor chemicals or pollutants originating from chemical agricultural inputs.
Water Hyacinths Control
Water Hyacinths was observed to be spreading around the lake and this weed is a threat tothefisheries. It was proposedto use all acceptable available means; physical, chemical or biological to stop the spread'of the weed. At a regional level, a single country's effort cannot succeed on its own. It was therefore recommended that the three Riparian states be involved in fighting this weed. Fishermen and other people affected by the spread of the weed should be encouraged to participate in the process of eradication. UFFRO, Fisheries Department & Environmental protection should form the co-ordinating body forthis. 4
INTRODUCTION
The fisheries of Lake Victoria have undergone very substantial changes in recent years owing, in particular, to the proliferation of Nile perch since the late 1970's. While there has been some controversy over the impact of this species, the fisheries of Lake Victoria have become the main source of fish supply for the three Riparian States bordering the lake, and an important source of employment and revenue in the lake region.
The Fifth Session of the FAO CIFA Sub-Committee for the Development and Management of the Fisheries of Lake Victoria, held from 12 to 14 September 1989 at Mwanza, noted tremendous changes in Lake Victoria fisheries. It was, therefore, recommended thatnationalseminars beorganized todiscuss management issues, options and strategies for the Riparian States.
Accordingly the UNDP/FAO Regional Fisheries Planning Project (IFIP) based at Bujumbura (Burundi) organized a national seminar for Uganda from 6 to 8 August 1991 at Jinja. A national seminar for Kenya was held at Kisumu from 22 to 24 July 1999; and a national seminar for Tanzania was organized at Mwanza from 15 to 17 October 1991. The three reports on these national seminars are to appear in separate IFIP technical document series.
Regarding fish production, the total annual fish production for Ugandan sector of Lake Victoria was estimated to be about 132,400 t in 1989. Lake Victoria is the most important source of fish protein in Uganda. Fishing is mostly an artisanal activity involving about 30,000 fishermen using about 6,000 planked canoes. The primary and secondary employment in the fisheries sector is estimated at about 170,000 persons.
For the purpose of drawing up conclusions and recommendations, the
Nationa Seminar formed two working groups : (a) the Working Group for
Development; and (b ) the Working Group for Management. It should be noted that for a number of fishery issues, the recommendations of both Working Groups were similar.
This document includes the final report and all the recommendations of the National Seminar on Development and Management of the Fisheries of the Uganda sector of Lake Victoria as well as the eight working papers presented at the meeting. 5
REPORT OF A NATIONAL SEMINAR ON DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF THE UGANDAN FISHERIES OF LAKE VICTORIA, HELD AT JINJA (UGANDA) FROM 6-8 AUGUST 1991
A. Opening of the National Seminar
1. A National Seminar on Development and Management of the fisheries of the Uganda sector of Lake Victoria was held from 6 to 8 August at Jinja (Uganda).
2 The Seminar was attended by participants from the Fisheries Department (FD), the Uganda Freshwater Fisheries Research Organisation (UFFRO), the Department of Environmental Protection, Makerere University and the fishermen. A list of participants and observers is given in Appendix 1.
The Commissioner for Fisheries Mr. E. Kanyike welcomed the participants to the National Seminar and thanked the UNDP/FAO Regional Fisheries Project based at Bujumbura and the UNDP/FAO Fisheries Project UGA/87/007 based at Entebbe for sponsoring the Seminar.
On behalf of the UNDP/FAO Regional Fisheries Project (IFIP), Mr. G.W. Ssentongo stressed the importance of the Seminar as a first step to the formulation of management plans for the entire lake.The need for collaboration at national and regional levels in the rational development and management ofthe fisheries of Lake Victoria was highlighted.
Mr. A. Mulenga representing the FAO Representative in Uganda, addressed the Seminar on the importance of fish production in nutrition and the contribution of fish to the national economy. The FAO Representative observed that despite the importance of fisheries to Uganda, its role in the Agricultural and animal industry production sector is still down-played. The FAO Representative requested the participants to give serious consideration to the following development and Management needs:
sufficient financial and manpower resources;
well ranked appliedresearchpriorities and adequate consultation between researchers and policy makers as well as with the fishermen;
problem of disadvantaged artisanal fishermen;
relevant socio-economic factors;
more equitable supplyof fish productsforlocal and possibly export markets;
proper research and extension services liaison as well as the transmission of research results to the fishermen;
continuous exchange ofthe information between various fishery institutions including academic institutions; and
fisheries education and training at various levels 6
including that of fishermen.
6 The Secretary for Research, Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, Prof. J. Mukiibi represented and read the speech by Hon. Mrs Victoria Ssekitoleko, Minister of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries at the Opening Ceremony. The Secretary for Research welcomed the participants and emphasized the nutritional, social and economic value offish to Uganda.The participants were cautioned against delusion that because fish isa renewable resource,it cannot be depleted. The importance of coordination and collaboration in fisheries at national and regional levels was under-scored. The National Seminar was requested to reflect on the fishingregimes. Therate of exploitation must be commensurated with the magnitude of the available resources. Finallytheguest of honour emphasized the factthat research and stock assessment are pre-requisites to rational development and management of fisheries of the lake.
B. Administrative Arrangements:
7. Mr. E.S. Kanyike, Commissioner for Fisheries and Mr. Acere, Commissioner for Environment were Chairman and Vice-Chairman respectively for the National Seminar;Mr. G.W.Ssentongo was the Technical Secretary; Dr. Bugenyi and Dr. Twongo served as rapporteurs; Dr. Orach-Meza (FD) was the Chairman for the Working Groupon Management whereas Dr. W.A. Ssali(FD) andP.Basasibwaki were the rapporteurs for this Group; Mr. A.W. Kudhongania (UFFRO Jinja) was the Chairman for the Group on Development for which the rapporteurs were Mr. D. Mukiibi (FD) and Ogutu-Ohwayo (UFFRO).
C. The Agenda and Arrangements for the Seminar:
8. The annoted agenda and timetable shown in Appendix 2 were used at the Seminar.
D. Summary on Key Issues From the Papers Presented (Appendix 3):
Fishery Resource Base
9 The paper on Fishery resource base for the Uganda sector of Lake Victoria (see Appendix 3.1) was presented and discussed. The paper focused on the dramatic change from multi-species fisheries of the pre Nile perch period to the present-day situation of three major species: Lates, Oreochromis niloticus and Rastrineobola. It was noted that there was still no adequateinformation on the spatial and temporal distribution ofthe major species groups and on the spatial and temporal distribution of major species groups and on the fish stocks in off-shore waters. The paper on the fishery resource base, suggested suitable methods of exploiting the available and accessiblestocks, and also gave appropriate recommendations (refer to Appendix 3.1). 7
The Effect of Limnological Factors and the Changing Environment on the Fisheries
10. An examination of the effects of limnological factors and the changing environment on the fisheries was made.It was observed that the ecosystem of the lake had changed with respect to oxygen levels and nutrient supply. There was also significant changes in composition of phytoplankton(green and blue-green algae),zooplankton and other organisms. This paper highlighted the following root causes of the changes in the ecosystem of the lake which have affected the general productivity (Appendix 3.2):
the introduction of Nile perch and Nile tilapia which have been responsible for the changes in the food webs and elimination of some fish species;
the fishing activities which had been partly responsible for the decline of the multi-species fishery; and
the nutrient input mainly by rainfall from a watershed where human activities areleading to a degraded terrestrial and aquatic environments.
Trends in Fisheries Development, Prospects and Limitations for Lake Victoria (Uganda Sector)
11 The paper on trends in fisheries development, prospects and limitations for Lake Victoria (see Appendix 3.3) focused on the main phases of fisheries development, viz:
the initial phase characterized by use of baskets, traps and hooks;
the developmental phase marked by gradual switches from flax gillnets to synthetic gillnets;
earliest research and management efforts;
deep-water gillnet fishery;
the Uganda development corporation trawl fishery;
Masese Ice-making plant;
attempts on canning of haplochromines;
Haplochromis fishmeal production;
Commercial enterprises for filleting and freezing;
Kampala ice plant and fish marketing endeavour;
the current sino-Uganda fisheries joint ventures; and also
the various fish processing plants 8
12. The National Seminar considered the following bottlenecks for fishery development:
non-use of scientific information;
lack of stock assessment data;
lack of fishing gears;
limnological changes;
the problem of water hyacinth; and
post-harvest losses.
"Existing Fishery legislation and mechanisms for surveillance and control on Lake Victoria"
This paper dealt with existing fishery regulations,based on the fisheries regulations contained in the "Fish and Crocodiles Act 1964", which stipulates "to manage fishery resources so that we can obtain the maximum net benefits from them". The Government fishery development policy aims at the production of nutritious fish food at such a level that we attain self-sufficiency, and to reduce post-harvest losses, while maximising net earnings by fishermen and other fishery related activitieswhichprovideemployment inthe fisheries sectorand facilitate the Government and individuals to earn.
It was reported that Managementof thefishery, therefore, might restrict the fishing effort to limit costs and increase catch per fisherman;might impose high fees so that benefits accrue to the country asawhole; might restrict exportsin order to maintain supplies and reduce prices to consumers; and might even remove barriers to fishing in order to increase social benefits through employment.
Itwas observed that regulatory measures have included mesh size regulations, methods of fishing and gear restrictions (e.g. beating of water, light fishing, use of poison and explosives). It was noted that regulatory measures and legislations on pollutions by waste effluents have been effected. The paper cited provisions against fish introductions. It was stressed that all laws and regulations are aimed at either qualitative or quantitative control of fishing effort or are directed at both options (refer to Appendix 3.4).
Management Issues, Options and Strategies
This paper covered broadly all aspects of managing the fisheries cf Lake Victoria (refer Appendix 3.6). Specific reference was made to the following:
environmental factors infl-,:ences on resources;
resource exploitation, uti ization and conservation;
trends in administrative measures, rules and regulations; 9
educational and research guidelines;
current trends in management;
invasion of aquatic weed; and
availability of external market and the forex attached;
17. A number of management constraints were highlighted, particularly the following:
funding from local and external sources;
loan and credit schemes for the fishing industry;
interaction between various institutions through;
joint activities and seminars;
financial incentives to staff employed in the fishery sector; and
collaboration, co-ordination and harmonization of activities of the fisheries sector.
Industrial Processing Investment and Development for the Fisheries of Lake Victoria: Present and Future Trends
This paper (given inAppendix 3.5) calledattention to recent developments in the industrial fish processing sector linked to Lake Victoria and to consider their implications for the present and future state of the fisheries in both techno-environmental and socio-economic terms.
Several techno-environmental implications were given. It was stressed that there was increased demand on fish stocks because of the rapidly increasing fish plants,and this has resulted in the increase of fishing effort.
Pollution is something thatwillhave to be carefully guarded against. The benefits from these plants are:(i) improved fish product quality and a reduction in post harvest loss; and (ii) indirect improvement in the conservation of forests.
Severalsocio-economic benefitswere illustrated, namely enhanced earning by fishermen, greater employment opportunities; and additional forex earnings.However, i:was noted that the price offish has increased greatly, making i: more difficult for the poorer people to have their needed nutritional supply.
Consideration was also given to several management actions for the future, which embrace the relationship between Fisheries Agencies or Institutions (the FD and Research Institutions) dealing with policy guidelines, aquaculture, fish technology and biological research.
It was stated that the private and parastatal enterprises are the beneficiaries from the services provided by administrators, extension 10
workers and researchers. Hence, there was a need for more interactions and supporting services to fish farmers, fishermen as well as traders.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE WORKING GROUPS ON FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT
E.1 Fisheries Development
The Working Group on Fisheries Development considered development issues and made a number of conclusions and recommendations.
Fishery Information Needed for Development
Recognizing that the Fisheries statistics are still inadequate and aware of the fact that the Fisheries Department is developing a system to maintain consistent statistical data collection, it was recommended that the statistical methodology should be standardized and the scope widened to enable the required information to be extracted.
Realising the importance of basic biological data of the species on the development and management of the Fisheries; recognizing that some work onthe biology of Lates, Oreochromis niloticus and Rastrineobola argentea is in progress; noting that information on species that may still be present especially in offshore waters of Lake Victoria is lacking,it was recommended that the current research on the three species should continue and that more information on any other species that are present especially offshore should be sought.
Realising that the impact of socio-economic factors on the fishery industry and in view of the fact that some progress on this has been made through the FISHIN Project UGA/87/007 but that the data are still inadequate, itwas recommended that these studies should continue especially on aspects of the nutritional status and impact of the changed fishery on the fishing community and the consumer.
The Status of the Stocks
Realizing that commercial landings from Lake Victoria have increased due to increased landings of Lates, O. niloticus and R. argentea, but that landings of the other species has declined, Aware that there is currently high fishing pressure and heavy industrial investment in the fishery sector without clear knowledge of the magnitude of the stocks, it was recommended that: (i) stock assessment be carried out to define the magnitude ofthe stocks bothinshore and offshore; (ii) the building of more fish processing plants be halted until the magnitude of the stocks has been defined; (iii) the production of existing plants be monitored so that they do not expand their existing capacity; and (iv) the quality of the fish products from the existing plants must be strictly controlled to meet established international standards.
Fishing Methods
Realising that gillnets of less than 127 mm (5") which are normally targeted at smaller species like Schilbe, Labeo and Synodontis, now exclusivelycropimmature Latesand O. niloticus, awarethat O. 11
niloticus and Lates have contributed over 90% to our commercial fishery since 1984 with the species caught in gillnets of less than 127 mm contributing lessthan 1%. itwas recommended thatin orderto safeguard O. niloticus and Lates, gillnets of less than 127 mm (5") be prohibited on Lake Victoria until the stock assessment exercise to verify the abundance of the smaller species is completed.
Realizing that longlines mainly catch large mature Nile perch using baitsof Clarias or mature O. niloticus and artificial bait and therefore have no detrimental effect on the fishery, it was recommended that use of Longlines especially sizes of 4 or lower be encouraged.
Aware that beach seines mainly catch immature Lates, and O. niloticus and affect the breeding grounds on O. niloticus, it was recommended that they should be completely banned in Lake Victoria.
Realising that the fishing effort on the Nile perch and O. niloticus using gillnets is already very high and that some of the fishing methods like cast nets,lift nets, and Trawl nets have detrimental effects on Lates and O. niloticus fisheries and that using gillnets as an active gearhas detrimental effects on the stocks, it was recommended that Use of these nets and active fishing using gillnets should be prohibited. The coded mesh size of trawler (which are already operational) should be limited to 127 mm and trawl operations should be limited to waters deeper than 20 m but no more trawler should be allowed to fish in Lake Victoria.
Noting that 10 mm and 5 mm seine nets are already in use to catch R. argentea, that these nets can catch immature 0. niloticus and Lates and thatthe 5 mm net mainly catchesimmature R. argentea, it was recommended that use of seine nets less than 10 mm should be prohibited and that fishing for R. argentea should be done by Lampara type of net operated only offshore.
Control of Effort
Aware that only qualitative control of effort exists on Lake Victoria by prohibiting of cropping Lates of less than 20"(50 cm)and O. niloticus of less than 11" (28 cm) and aware that R. argentea is also commercially important on this lake, it was recommended that the same be extended to R. argentea of 1.8" (4.6 cm).
Realizing that Lake Victoria Fisheries are still of open access nature, and aware of the fact that the fishing effort has increased rapidly from about 3000 boats in 1971to over 8000 boats in1990, it was recommended that considerations be made to control the number of boats, nets and fishermen on the lake.
Mechanism and Channels of Communication
Noting that interaction between the researcher, fisheries administrators and fishermen has been poor,it was recommended that, interaction between fisheries administrators, researchers and fishermen should be strengthened toinitiate dissemination and execution of research information. Inview of the communication gap, it was suggested that a Fisheries Liaison Committee be set up consisting of 12
fisheries administrators, researchers, processors and fishermen to plan for interaction within the fisheries sector. It was further recommended that there should also be at least an annual meeting of All Fisheries Officers and Research Officers and the fish dealers.
Realizing that Credit schemes are very helpful in financing projects and appreciating that co-operatives and commercial banks have assisted in providing fishermen with fisheries inputs eg.nets, cords and outboard motors; and noting that repayments of the loans sometimes due to high interest rates have been poor and discouraged the recipient, it was recommended that an alternative method of organizing the fishermen into groups other than co-operatives should be sought and given legal status.
Potential Pollution Threats
Observing that there are potential sources of pollutants from industrial effluents, agricultural pesticides, urban effluents and the invasion of the water hyacinth, it was recommended that (i) industrial complexes construct effluent treatment plants or else they should not be licensed, and those industries without treatment plants should be closed down;(ii) there is need to set up standards for acceptable levels of pollutants that can be discharged in water systems; and (iii) Fisheries Researchers should be allowed free access to factories to monitor effluents discharged and should be allowed to monitor chemicals or pollutants originating from chemical agricultural inputs.
Water Hyacinths was observed to be spreading around the lake and threatening thefisheries. It was proposed to use all acceptable available means: physical, chemical or biological to stop the spread of the weed. At a regional level, a single country's effort cannot succeed on its own. It was therefore recommended that all the Riparianstates be involved in fighting this weed. Fishermen and other people affected by the spread of the weed should be encouraged to participate in the process of its eradication. UFFRO, the Fisheries Departmentand the Department of Environmental Protection should form the co-ordinating body in the fight against this weed.
E. 2 MANAGEMENT
The Working Group on management examined the relevant issues, options and strategies for rational management and made several recommendations on the following topics:
Fishery Information Base for Management
Noting that a system for collecting fisheries statistics wasin place and noting that the system was not yet adequate but further notingthat efforts were being made to improve it and this would form thebasis for future collection of data it was recommended the statisticscollection among the riparian states should be harmonised.
Recognising that substantial amount of biological data wasavailable for some species of fish but realising that littleinformation was available for other species it was aareed that there wasneed to conduct further research designed to address specific areaswhere data 13
was not available.
Noting that the existing UNDP/FAO project had established a base for collecting data on socio-economic aspects it was recommended that the data collection should continue. Itwas further recommended that certain re-occurring aspects such as fish prices should be done on routine basis while an inventory - type of survey should always cover socio-economic aspects.
STATUS OF STOCKS
It was noted that Lates was still available in the lake and the catches were still increasing though the average size was decreasing. However the distribution of the species particularly beyond the shallow waters was not known.
Regarding the Rastrineobola fishery it was noted that it was relatively new and since the stocks appeared to be high it was recommended that exploitation should be encouraged.
It was noted that Oreochromis niloticus was still abundant although its distribution was also not well known. It was, therefore, recommended that research on the life-history pattern and spatial distribution of this species be enhanced.
Regarding Protopterus, Bagrus, Clarias and other species it was noted that catch statistics over a period of time had indicated continuous fluctuations in amounts landed a factor which could be a reflection of their abundance or changes in the fishery. It was also noted that some of the species were abundant in certain areas of the lake.It was, therefore, recommended that experimental and exploratory fishing should be conducted to establish the stocks and distribution.
Types of Fishing Methods
Realising the damage caused by small mesh size gill nets to the major fishes of commercial importance(viz.Lates and Oreochromis it was recommended that small gill nets (less than 5 inches or 127 mm) should be banned.
Realising the economic importance of Lates and Oreochromis and the need to protect the fishery, it was recommended that the smallest mesh size of the nets allowed on the lake should be 5 inches or 127 mm. It was also recommended that the minimum size of fish permitted by law should be specified 11 inches (280 mm) and 20 inches (500 mm) were suggested for Oreochromis niloticus and Lates respectively.
Regarding longlines it was noted that small sized hooks in practice catchimmature Nile perch and Tilapiathe economically important species the fishery of which should be protected. It was recommended that while the use of longlines particularly with large hooks should be allowed to continue studies should be carried out to determine the minimum size of hook to be determined by law.
In view of the destructive nature of beach seines, for example in destroying breeding and nursery grounds, it was recommended that their 14
use be prohibited. It was further recommended that researchers analyze the data obtained from the Fisheries Department.
50. Envisaged new fisheries - use of lift nets by catamaran should be encouraged particularly to exploit Rastrineobola. Fishermen exploiting this species should also be encouraged to use light after getting permission from the relevant authorities. However the minimum mesh size for the lift net should be10 mm.It was further recommended that research should be conducted to establish the optimum mesh size for the purpose.
51. Small-sized seines: Aware of the destructive nature of seines the use of small-sized seines should not be permitted.It was agreed that exploitation of Rastrineobola is carried out using lift nets.
Other fishing methods:
52. Noting that there were other fishing methods commonly used on the lake, the National Seminar considered each method as follows;
Cast nets - Realising that cast nets destroy Oreochromis breeding grounds and rapidly deplete their brood stocks, it was recommended that their use be prohibited.
Small-scale purse seining, Tycoon and Sekeseke should be gradually phased out and eventually prohibited but researchers should examine the destructive nature of these methods.
Traps and weirs - These were regarded as harmless in the open lake so far and their use should be allowed to continue except for rivers and river mouths.
Trawling: Noting the existence of two pairs of trawlers conducting trawling operations on experimental basis and aware that the fishery of L. Victoria is dependent on the artisanal fisherfolk for its exploitation; and realising that conflicting with artisanal fisherfolk would not be desirable, it was recommended that:
experimental trawling could continue but should be restricted to offshore waters beyond specified distances from the land.
commercial trawling should only be permitted after obtaining stock assessment results.
in the event of allowing commercial trawling the number of trawlers should be determined according to the data from stock assessment.
Control of Fishing Effort
53. Noting that there were about 8600 fishing canoes 14 % of which were motorised and mostly using gillnets and each boat manned by three people was increasing fishing effort,it was recommended that the system of open access to the fishery should continue, with respect to artisanal fishermen. 15
Mechanisms and Channels of Communications
It was noted that although there had been little coordination/interaction between UFD and UFFRO the trend was changing towards interaction and coordination.It was recommended that this trend be encouraged. Interaction between researchers, administrators and fishermen should also be encouraged and facilitated through regular meetings (at least once a year).
Regarding credit schemes the Working Group noted that fishermen had been receiving credit from some financial institutions. However, it was also observed that the prevailing interest rates were high making loan repayment difficult or failin some instances.It was,therefore, recommended that the credit scheme to fishermen should be encouraged but interest rates should be substantially reduced.
It was also recommended that fishermen should be encouraged to form cooperative societies with the assistance of cooperative and Fisheries extension workers.
Fishery Legislation/Restriction
It was noted that good provisions for fishery legislation generally existed and they were acceptable to fishermen. It was also observed that:
the system of closed areas is applicable; the areas could be identified and gazetted to restrict fishing in such areas.
the system of closed seasons is not quite applicable.
mesh size restrictions were necessary and enforceable.
58. In view of the inadequate mechanisms for enforcement, it was generally recommended that:
it was necessary to separate the functions of law enforcement from that of extension services; and
law enforcement should be a collective responsibility of the Fisheries Department, fishermen and the community leaders (RC.$). For the time being, it should be left to authorized officers who should receive the necessary training in the law relating to fish.
Potential pollution threats around the lake and the available means and mechanisms for abatement
59. The Working Group reviewed the potential pollution threats around the lake and acknowledged that these existed. It was recommended that:
laws regarding waste treatment by industries and individuals should be drafted and initially discussed among the Fisheries Department, researchers and Ministry of Environment Protection;
waterqualitystudiesshould be conducted by the various 16
laboratories in the country on a regular basis;
research laboratories should be adequately equipped;
certain farming practices such as cultivating along the edges of major water bodiesshould bediscouraged and soil erosion 'minimised;
researchers should work hand in hand with agricultural extension workers to educate farmers on when and how to apply agrochemicals so that they do not pose a danger to aquatic systems.
importation of agricultural chemicals should be well scrutinized by an Agro-Chemical Control Board; and
The Ministry of Environment Protection should coordinate all water quality studies.
The Need for Water Weed Control
60. Realising that the water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) had colonised the Lake Kyoga/Victoria basin and posed a threat to the respective fisheries, the National Seminar recommended:
the institution of urgent measures to control and ultimately eradicate the weed;
educating the public particularly fishermen about the danger caused by the weed; and
conducting research into all water weeds and water pollution, in this respect, interaction with international scientists should be encouraged.
61. This report with all its recommendation was adopted by the participants of the National Seminar at Jinja (Uganda) on the 8 August 1991. 17
Appendix 1: LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
Mr. E. Kanyike, Commissioner for Fisheries, (FD), Box 4, Entebbe Mr. T.O. Acere, Commissioner for Environment & Protection, Box 9629, Kampala. Dr. E. Orach-Meza, Deputy Commissioner for Fisheries (FD) Box 4, Entebbe Mr. A.W. Kudhongania, Director, UFFRO, Box 343, Jinja Mr. P. MweneBeyanga, Fisheries Officer (Planning) Box 4, Entebbe Mr. Deo Mukiibi, Asst. Commissioner for Fisheries, Box 4, Entebbe Mr; J.P. Etot, S.F.O. (R.F.0.) Jinja M/s M.E. Amongir UFEL, Box 1981, Jinja M/s John Kalinaki (United Fishing Co., Box 223, Jinja M/s Cyprian Kalulu (Musoli Fishing & Farming Coop. Ltd Jinja Dr. F.W. Bugenyi, UFFRO, Box 343, Jinja Mr. R. Ogutu-Ohwayo (UFFRO), Box 343, Jinja Miss J. Ikwaput F.O.(FD), Box 4, Entebbe Mrs R. Tumwebaze, Fisheries Officer, (FD), Box 4, Entebbe Mr. D. Nyeko F.O. FSISU, Box 4, Entebbe Mr. S.S. Nkusi, R.F.O. Entebbe, Box 180, Entebbe Mrs Rebecca Naikoba Mulemezi (UFFRO), Box 343, Jinja Mr. O.K. Odongkara, Plot 39 Nile Crescent, (UFFRO), Jinja Mr. K.M. Magumba, UFFRO, Box 343, Jinja Mr. G. Mbahinzireki R.O. (UFFRO), Jinja Mr. S.B. Wandera (UFFRO), Jinja Mr. Jonna Kamanyi S.P.R.0 (UFFRO), Jinja Mr. David L. Ocenodongo, Deputy Director (UFFRO), Jinja Erasmus Twinomujuni, (UFFRO),(RO) Jinja Yusuf Kizito (Lecturer Dept of Zoology M.U.) Box 7062, Kampala Mr. Mubaraka Kirunda, Vice Chairman of Musoliso, Jinja Miss Joyce Akumu Obbo Kabali, (UFFRO), (R.0.), Jinja Mrs Elsie Apama-Twongo (UFFRO), Jinja Erich Oloso Opolot(Stringer - Weekly Topic Newspaper), Box1725, Kampala Mr. Baliraine George C/Man Musoli F&F Co-P.S. Ltd, Box 3029 Kakira Mr. Polinali Mubiru, Secretary, Musoli F&F. Coop.S., Box 3029, Kakira Mr. Amosi Kwesiga, PEC, Jinja Mr. Wanda Fred Masifwa (R.0.) - (UFFRO), Jinja Mr. Steven Sekiranda (R.0.), UFFRO, Jinja Badru Isabirye, Fisheries Department, Jinja Dr. T. Twongo, UFFRO, Jinja Mr. J.L. Anguria, RFO, Masaka Mr. J.L.D. Wadanya, Fisheries Biostatistician, Entebbe Prof. J. Okedi, Dept. of Zoology, Makerere University, Kampala Pereti Basasibwaki, UFFRO, Jinja Dr. W. Ssli,(FD), Box 4, Entebbe Mr. J.O. Okaronon, UFFRO, Jinja
FAO Secretariat:
E.J. Coenen, CTA, UGA/87/007 J.E. Reynolds, Socio-Economist, UGA/87/007 G.W. Ssentongo, IFIP Project, RAF/87/099, Bujumbura, Burundi 18
Appendix 2 : FORMAL ANNOUNCEMENT OF NATIONAL SEMINAR ON MANAGEMENT OF THE FISHERIES OF THE UGANDA SECTOR OF LAKE VICTORIA AT JINJA 6 - 8 AUGUST 1991
National seminars on Lake Victoria fisheries, for the Riparian States, were recommended at the Fifth Session of the FAO CIFA Sub-Committee for the Development and Management of the Fisheries of Lake Victoria, held from 12 to 14 September 1989.
The purpose of the national seminars is to discuss fishery development and management issues, options and strategies at national levels; and to formulate Management Plans for the national sectors. The three national plans for the Riparian States will subsquently be incorporated into a unified regional plan for the entire lake.
Accordingly, the UNDP/FAO Regional Fisheries Project based at Bujumbura (Burundi), in collaboration with the UNDP/FAO Fisheries Project UGA/87/007, plans to organize the national seminar for Uganda from 6-8 August 1991.
Host Institution : Fisheries Department/UFFRO Ministry of Animal Industry and Fisheries.
Location Jinja
Duration 6-8 August
Working Language : English
Provisional Agenda
Date Time Programme
Tuesday 15 Oct. 10.00 - 10.30 Hrs Opening Ceremony
10.30 - 11.00 hrs Tea Break
11.00 - 11.30 hrs Administrative Arrangements
11.30 - 12.30 hrs Presentation and discussion of paper on fishery resources
12.30 - 14.00 hrs Lunch Break
14.00 - 15.00 hrs Presentation and discussion of paper on an overview of development and management issues and strategies for Lake Victoria.
15.00 - 16.00 hrs Presentation and discussion of paper on trends in fisheries development prospects and limitations 19
16.00 - 16.30 hrs Tea Break
16.30 - 17.30 hrs Presentation and discussion of paper on Linkages between the fishing industry, Research, Policy Making and Implementation
Wednesday 7 August 08.30 - 09.30 hrs Presentation and discussion of the paper on Management Issues, Options and Strategies.
09.30 - 10.30 hrs Presentation and discussion of a paper on existing fishery legislation and mechanism for control and surveillance
10.30 - 11.00 hrs Tea Break
11.00 - 12.00 hrs Two working groups discussions and the framing of recommendations for the following fishery aspects:
The working group on Management will consider resource management issues, options andstrategies, focussing attention particularly on Nile perch, Rastrineobola and 'tilapiasT. The group will particularly:
examine carefully qualitative control of effort throughmesh size, restrictions ontypes of boats and gear as well as closed areas and seasons.
examine quantitative control of effort on number of fishermen, canoes and different gears.
propose concerted actions on harmonization of management measures, enforcement and surveillance
The working group on Development will consider fishery development strategies for different fisheries. The group %,711 specifically:
(i) examine thepossibility of switching the fishing effortto dagaa (Rastrineobola); 20
discuss fishery products valorisation forboth artisanal and semi-industrial fisheries as well as reduction of post-harvest loss; and
propose options for a more equitable revenue and income distribution
Thursday 8 August 08.30 - 10.00 hrs Presentationof resolutionsand recommendations on development issues and subsequent discussions
10.00 - 10.30 hrs Tea Break
10.30 - 12.30 hrs Drafting CommitteeandtheFAO Secretariat prepare summaries on papers, working groups and summary of major conclusions, resolutions and recommendations
12.30 - 14.00 hrs Lunch Break
14.00 - 15.00 hrs Drafting Committeeandthe FAO Secretariat finalize report of summaries, resolutions and recommendations
15.00 - 16.00 hrs Adopting resolutions and recommendations on development and management strategies
16.00 hrs Closing ceremony 21
APPENDIX 3: PAPERS PRESENTED AT THE SEMINAR
Appendix 3.1: FISHERY RESOURCE BASE FOR THE UGANDA SECTOR OF LAKE VICTORIA
John Obbo Okaronon Principal Research Officer, UFFRO, Jinja
Jackson Wadanya Fisheries Officer (Statistics), Entebbe
1. INTRODUCTION
Lake Victoria which is located around the equator (30 00'S, 0° 30'N; 31° 40" and 34° 50'E) occupies an area of about 68,800 km2 49% of which lies in Tanzania, 45% in Uganda and 6% in Kenya. The entire lake has a shoreline which exceeds 3200 km, consisting of rocks, boulders, pebble beaches, sands and papyrus (Cyperus papyrus L.).
Lake Victoria had a complex multispecies fishery dominated until the late 1970s by the tilapiine and haplochromine cichlids, but with important subsidiary fisheries of more than 20 genera of non-cichlid fishes such as Bacfrus, Clarias, Mormyrus, Barbus, Protopterus, Synodontis, etc. The naturally occurring fish fauna was modified during the 1950s following the introduction of 4 non-indigenous tilapiine species and was further altered about 1960/61 by the introduction of Nile perch (Lates niloticus). Of late, fish stocks in many parts of the Lake are tending to be dominated by the two introduced species L. niloticus and 0. niloticus and an endemic cyprinid Rastrineobola arqentea (Okaronon, 1990). Most of the traditional fish species, including the once abundant haplochromines, have either declined or almost disappeared from the lake altogether.
Despite all the above events, developments continue to take place to increasingly exploit the fish resources of Lake Victoria,especially for export. A numberof fish processing and/or handling plants have been constructed along the shores of the Lake. More recently (1st July 1990) the liberalisation measures on trade,especially Border trade,have further increased demand for fish and consequently increased pressure on the stocks.
In view of the clear situation where there is continued increasing demand of fish and given that there is currently little knowledge on the magnitude and potential of the available stocks from which this demand is to be met, it is highly necessary to institute management strategies aimed at exploiting the fish resources of the Lake while conserving the stocks. This paper,therefOre,focusses on the "fishery resources base for the Uganda sector of Lake Victoria". It particularrly addresses itself to four aspects (i) a thorough review of the fishery resources base by types of fisheries and exploited fish species; (ii) the known distribution pattern of available stocks by depth and season;(iii) the problems of multispecies exploited by different gears and factors affecting recruitment; and (iv) suggested or recommended suitable methods of exploiting the resources while conserving the stocks. 22
II THE FISHERY RESOURCES BASE
The Tilapiine Fishery
The fishery for tilapiine cichlids is among the oldest fisheries in the Lake. At the beginning of this century the species exploited were mainly Oreochromis esculentus and O. variabilis, both native to the Lake. The catch of O. esculentus contributed 60 % by weight of the total annual fish yield in 1908 (Graham, 1929). This figure dropped to 25% in 1958 and to only 8% in 1959. The catch per unit of effort of the accessible stocks, particularly the tilapiine cichlids O. esculentus and O. variabilis, declined from 30 fish per net of 127 mm (5 inch) mesh in 1921 to 6 fish in 1928 and 2.9 fish in early 1940s. The above decline in catches followed uncontrolled entry of fishermen into the fisheries in early 1920s.
Exotic tilapiines (O. niloticus, O. leucostictus, Tilapia zillii and T. rendalli) were introduced into Lake Victoria during the late 1950s (EAFFRO 1964, Welcomme 1967). Following these introductions, the species exploited currently is mainly O. niloticus although O. variabilis, O. leucostictus and T. zillii also occur occasionally. The bulk of the commercial catch during 1960sand 1970s wascontributed bythe tilapiinecichlids (Fig. 1B) particularly O. niloticus. In 1965 the tilapiine cichlids contributed 86 % by weight of the annual commercial catch from the Lake; this figure dropped to 23 % in 1980 and 2.3 % in 1985 before beginning to rise again to 15.3 % in 1989 (Fig. 1B).
The Nile Perch Fishery
The Nile perch (Lates niloticus) and the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) are native species to Lake Albert, the River Nile below Murchison Falls, Lake Turkana, the Chad basin and rivers of West Africa (Lowe-McConnell, 1988). The Nile perch was introduced into Lakes Kyoga and Victoria basins in the mid-1950s but its presence in Lake Victoria was first noted in 1960 (Gee, 1965). Although Lates was introduced into Lake Victoria in the early 1960s it took more than 10 years to get fully established in the new ecosystem.
When the stocks of Lake Victoria fishes were defined during a joint survey conducted by UNDP/FAO and EAFFRO in 1969/71, the contributionof Lates niloticus to the total demersal inchthyomass of the Lake was then insignificant (Table 1); L. niloticus had not shown th success it had by that time shown in Lake Kyoga. Catches of Lates became significant from 1975,1977 and 1978 in Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania sectors of the Lake, respectively (Fisheries Department Annual Reports, 1960 onwards; Bergstrand and Cordone, 1971; Ssentongo and Welcomme, 1984). Following the establishment of Lates in Lake Victoria, total fish yield increased significantly (Fisheries Department Annual Reports, 1970-1980; Fig.1A). Lates contributed more than 50% by weight of the commercial catches at most landings around the Lake (Ssentongo and Welcomme, 1984; Fig.1B). The minimum average total fish production in the Uganda sector of the Lake in recent years (1984-1990) has been estimated at 120,000 metric tons per annum of which over 60% was Lates (Fig. 1).
At present there is strong evidence from the commercial and experimental fishing that L. niloticus is well established in Lake Victoria. At Masesefish landing near Jinja, for example,the proportion ofL. niloticus in the commercial catches increased from 0.4 % of the total catch by weight in1981 to62.7 % in 1983, settling around 50 % thereafter(Table 2 (a) ). 23
Experimental trawl catches from the UFFRO research vessel IBIS in the Jinja area of the Lake show a similar trend in catch composition (Table 2 (b) ).
Latesniloticusgrows to a large size. In its nativehabitats individuals over 120 kg have been recorded in the Ugandan part of Lake Albert (Kinloch, 1956) and specimens of over 100 kg in Lake Chad (Durand and Louben, 1969). In Lake Victoria where it was introduced specimens weighing over 200 kg have been recorded in the Musoma area (Bwathondi, 1984).
However, while the total catches from Lake Victoria appear to have been increasing during the 1980s (Fig. 1A) following the explosive incease in the Nile perch stocks, the mean size of the individual fish (particularly Nile perch) caught and/or landed from the Lake continued to decline during the same period (Okaronon, 1990). The mean weight of Nile perch in the commercial landings dropped from about 9 kg in 1982 to about 2kg in 1989 (Table 3). In the trawl catches the mean weight of Nile perch fish similarly dropped from about 5 kg in 1982 to less than 1kg in 1985 (Table 3). The apparently sharp decline in the mean size ofL. niloticus in both the trawl and landed commercial catches may be due to the influx of juvenile Lates in the fishery soon after 1983 and the increasing use in the commercial fishery of seine nets and small-mesh gillnets (Okaronon and Kamanyi, 1986).
The Rastrineobola argentea Fishery
The fishery of Rastrineobola argentea is much more developed in the Kenyan and Tanzanian waters of Lake Victoria where the species now ranks second only to Nile perch in commercial catches (Ogutu-Ohwayo et al, 1988; Wandera, 1988). In the Ugandan portion of the Lake, R. argentea locally known as "Mukene" has until quite recently been minimally harvested. It was not until the decline in catches of many preferred native species that attention shifted to exploiting "Mukene". On Lake Kyoga where the introduced Nile tilapia (O. niloticus) is abundant, no fishing for R. argentea was done before 1991 though the lake supports large stocks of this species (Proude, 1963). The increasing demand for "Mukene" as a cheap source of fish protein and as an ingredient in the animal feeds has encouraged such a rapid growth in its exploitation on Lake Victoria that the species now ranks third to Nile perch and the Nile tilapia in the commercial catches (Fig. 1B).
Rastrineobola argentea first featured significantly in commercial catch records in 1987 when it contributed 2.15 % of total catch by weight from the Uganda sector of the Lake (Fig. 1B). In Masese fish landing the contribution of Mukene to the landed commercial catches rose from 0.47 % in 1982 to 30.08 % in 1989 and was second to Nile perch in 1989 (Table 2).
Mukene fishing employs the use of the 10 mm and 5 mm mesh nets. Over 70 % of Mukene caught by the 5 mm nets are immature but the 10 mm nets crop mature individuals (Ogutu-Ohwayo and al,1988, Wandera, 1988). The 5 mm nets capture fish ranging from 19 mm standard length (SL) while the 10 mm nets catch those from 26 mm SL to about 60 mm SL. The size at first maturity, i.e. the size at which 50 % of the fish are mature is 42 mm SL for males and 44 mm for females; and males of more than 45 mm SL and females of more than 47 mm SL are mature (Wandera, 1989). 24
The Haplochromine Fishery
The Lake Victoria fish community was originally dominated by haplochromine cichlids (Fryer & Iles, 1972; Witte, 1981). These comprised at least 80 % of ichthyomass (Kudhongania and Cordone, 1974) classified under about 11 trophic groupswhichare dominated by phytoplanktivoresand detritivores (Greenwood, 1974; witte 1981).
With the constantly declining catchhes of the traditional table fish species, the exploitation of the small haplochromines was intensified during the 1960s.This involved the increased use of beach seines.Catches of haplochromines increased from unknown figure in 1950s to 18.75 % by weight of total commercial yield from the Lake in 1968, dropped sharply to 2.6 % in 1970, rising steadily again to around 10 % in 1978/79 before tailing of (Fig. 1B).
The abundance of the haplochromines in the northern part of the Uganda sector of the Lake decreased dramatically from 668 kg/hr in 1968/71 to 294 kg/hrin 1982 and down toless than 5 kg/hrin 1985 (Table 1). The contribution of the haplochromines in the commercial and experimental catches in the Jinja area of the Lake also decreased drastically during this period (Table 2). Presently the stocks of haplochromines could be considered to have been drastically reduced to very low levels in the inshore waters but not necessarilly wiped out.
Other Fisheries
The potamodromous species ofLabeo, Schilbe, Alestes, Barbus and Synodontis have now almost disappeared from the catches in the main lake. Historicallythesewerethemajor fisheriesin theLake butarenow occasionally caught with gillnets. Labeo victorianus (popularly known as "Ningu") formed the most important commercial fish species along the affluent rivers of the Lake Victoria basin (Cadwalldr, 1965 and 1969). This fishery deteriorated steadily following the intensive gillnetting of gravid individuals on their breeding migrations. In Lake Victoria, Labeo catches declined from 10.5 % of the total landed catch in 1958 to less than 1 % in 1970. Over-fishing of Labeo affected 13 other anadromous or anadromus-like fish species (Whitehead,1959). These included Barbus altianalis, Schilbe mystus, O. variabilis, Alestes spp,Synodontis spp,Clarias mossambicus, Bacfrus docmac and Protopterus aethiopicus. However, Bagrus and Protopterus species continued to feature significantly in the commercial fishery (Fig. 1B).
General Observation
Although the actual landed catch figures of the fish from the Uganda sector of the Lake may be questionable, at least the evidence points to increased landings since 1984. However, the continued abundance of the fish resources in this Lake should not be taken for granted giventhe changing environment and the continued smuggling of large quantities of fish (from Uganda region) into the neighbouring states, among other factors.
With the rising thermocline especially in the 40-80 metres depth zone, there is likely to be some cause for uncertainty in the stocks of certain species in this zone especially the high oxygen-demanding Nile perch.Nile perch and other fish species feed on lake flies which themselves feed on 25
phytoplankton; the production of phytoplankton will itself, be affected by changes in the environment. Quite recently the water hyacinth was detected in considerable quantities in the shallow sheltered inshore waters of Lake Victoria where most of the fish stocks inhabit and where the artisanal fishery currently is based. The continued presence of this weed in this zone will obviously affect the stocks and, consequently, the catches in this zone. Floating water weeds such as water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), water fern (Salvinia auriculata) and water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) in dense mats have been reported to create deoxygenated conditions in tropical lakes especially the man-made lakes, Lakes Kariba and Volta (Little, 1966). Furthermore, the local press recently reported the alarming rate at which the fis'h from the Uganda sector of the Lake is being smuggled to a neighbouring state. A conservative figure of 10 metric tons is reportedly smuggled daily and the smuggled fish is from waters in between Mukono District in Uganda and the Kenyan border.
The increasing investment in the fish processing industries and the liberalisation of trade,especially the border trade,have resulted in increased pressure on the fish stocks. Almost all the fish processing plants in Uganda are located along the shores of the lake and each of them is capable of handling more than 10 metric tons of fresh fish daily.
II. DISTRIBUTION OF AVAILABLE STOCKS
The maximum species diversity in Lake Victoria is supposed to be in the shallow inshore areas ofthe Lake.Kudhongania and Cordone(1974), for example, observed that half of the demersal ichthyomass of the Lake inhabited waters less than 30 metres deep (Table 4, Fig. 2). Most of the commercially desirable species such as Bactrus docmac, Clarias mossambicus, and all the Oreochromis species were abundant in this area and their catch rates decreased with depth (Table 4). Although the haplochromine species were observed to be euribathic, their catch rates were also highest in waters less than 30 metres deep.
In Lake Victoria, trawling surveys during the early 1970s showed that, at that time, Lates was generally limited to waters less than 30 metres deep (Okedi, 1970; Kudhongania and Cordone, 1974; Table 4). Recent trawl surveys in the Mwanza Gulf, however, indicate that Lates might have spread to deeper waters (Kudhongania and al,1988); trawl catches from the research vessel MDIRIA in the Mwanza Gulf in 1984 indicated catches of 80-150 kg/hr for Nile perch in the 50-60 metres depth zone. Further recent observations on the Nile perch suggest that it occurs in virtually every habitat of the Lake, with possible exceptions of rocks, swamps and the pelagic zone (Witte. 1984). According to other authors, Lates niloticus was mainly restricted to shallow waters over sandy bottoms where the oxygen concentration is relatively high (Okemwa 1984) Greenwood, (1966) and Hopson (1972) mention mass mortalities of Lates niloticus in Lake Albert and Lake Chad,respectively,which were probably due to low oxygen concentrations. Greenwood (1966) further quoted the experimental work of Fish (1956) which proved thatL. niloticus hasa relatively high oxygen demand compared to other freshwater fishes. It is, therefore, argued that the occurrence of Nile perch in deep water is(1) possible only during the dry season and periods during which the stratification (for waters > 5 metres deep) normally breaks down (Talling, 1966) and (2) due to alleged presence of two species, one preferring shallow water and the other living in deep water. 26
Since about 1985 Nile perch has predominated in the landed commercial catches all over the Lake with other fish species taking varying positions (Table 5).
Table 5: THE ORDER OF ABUNDANCE OF THE VARIOUS FISH SPECIESIN THE COMMERCIAL CATCH LANDINGS FROM THE VARIOUS AREAS OF LAKE VICTORIA (UGANDA)
Order of Abundance
Area 1 2 3 4 5 Remarks
Kalangala Ln Bd Ti Cm Pa Ln = Lates niloticus (Sesse) Bd = Bagrus spp
Masaka Ln Ti Ha Ra Pa Ti = Tilapiines Kasenyi Ln Bd Ti Sy Ba Ra = Rastrineobola Ha = Haplochromines
Masese Ln Ra Ti Pa Cm = Clarias spp. Sy = Synodontis spp.
Tororo Ln Ti Ra Cm Pa = Protopterus sla1D- Ba = Barbus spp.
Peak landings of Nile perch and Nile tilapia are recorded during March- June and October-November while peak landings of processed Rastrineobola are obtained during January-March and July-September.
III. THE PROBLEMS OF MULTISPECIES EXPLOITED BY DIFFERENT GEARS AND FACTORS AFFECTING RECRUITMENT
Thecombinedimpact of prolonged overfishing, lackof effective management policy, competition among species, damage to the reproductive strategies for a number of important fish species and predation are expected to have had profound detrimental effects on the fisheries of Lake Victoria as these factors generally affected recruitment.
The gradual collapse of the native fisheries has been attributed to the systematic over-exploitation of the inshore stocks through the intensification of the gillnet fishing and progressive decrease in mesh size (Cadwalldr, 1969). At the beginning of this century fishing was for subsistence needs and the fishing effort was intially low, consisting of locally made traps and hooks.The introduction of the more efficient flax gillnets during 1916 stimulated higher catches mainly of Oreochromis esculentus around the entire lake. But uncontrolled entry into the fishery soon resulted in the decline of the catch per unit of effort in the legal 127 mm mesh gillnets to unprofitable levels consequently forcing the fishermen to progressively reduce the mesh size of the nets in use. This practice led to localised over-fishing of certain stocks, particularly O. esculentus, to levels so low that they could not recover because of the drastically reduced rate of recruitment.
In 1933 the minimum mesh gillnet of 127 m was implemented for Lake Victoria with the aim of protecting the declining 0.esculentus fishery. 27
Because of management and logistical problems, given the trinationality status of the Lake, Tanzania and Uganda in 1956 and Kenya in 1961 repealed this restriction. The justification for lifting the regulation were (1) that in a multispecies fishery where the various species mature at different size ranges, a management policy based mainly on single species posed constraints and (2) that the move would enable the capture of the relatively smaller fish species(O. variabilis, mormyrids, etc.) to make up for the declining O. esculentus catches. Although the relaxation of the mesh regulation initially led to short-lived increase in catches of fish, especially 0. variabilis, the move resulted in the increased cropping of immature fish. The continued removal of immature fish from the Lake resulted in increasingly reduced recruitment to the breeding stocks of the species affected and this eventually led to the collapse of certain species including O. esculentus. As already stated, overfishing for Labeo through intensive gillnetting of the gravid individuals on their breeding migrations affected 13 other anadromous or anadromous-like fish species (Whitehead, 1959).
With the constantly declining catches of the traditional table fish speciesthe exploitation ofthe small but abundant haplochromines was intensified during the 1960s. This involved the increased use of the beach seines. Unfortunately beach seines have damaging effects on the haplochromines and tilapiines, especially to their eggs and fry and to their breeding and nursery grounds (Welcomme, 1964). The 10 mm and 5 mm mesh seine nets are being used for the exploitation of Rastrineobola argentea. These seine nets have been observed to take heavy tolls of juveniles of tilapiines and Nile perch (Wandera, 1988) in addition to their own juveniles; they also destroy and/or disturb the breeding and nursery grounds.
Another management measure, expected to replenish the declining catches due to over-exploitation, was the introduction of four tilapiine species (O. niloticus, 0. leucostictus, Tilapia zillii andT. rendalli) into Lakes Victoria and Kyoga (EAFFRO 1964, Welcomme, 1967). The establishment of four exotic tilapiines into the ecosystemsuddenly increasedinterspecific competition with the two indigenous species (O. esculentus and 0. variabilis) and enhanced the likelihood of genetic dilution due to hybridization (Lowe, 1958, Welcomme 1967). Competition and/or hybridization appear to have been instrumental in.accelerating the decline in tilapiine stocks in favour of only one exotic species (0. niloticus).
Mention must also be made of the predation by the voracious N. Perch which has had abvious effects on other species especially the haplochromines. Nile perch larger than 50 cm total length Is reportedly dependent on a piscivorous diet (Ogutu-Ohwayo, 1988).
IV. SUGGESTED/RECOMMENDED SUITABLE METHODS OF EXPLOITING THE RESOURCES WHILE CONSERVING THE STOCKS.
Nile tilapia are 50 % mature at 26 cm total length (TL) and harvested by the 101.6 mm. (4 inch) mesh gillnets. The harvest of Niletilapia from the 127 mm (5 inch) mesh nets is over 75 % mature. For Nile perch, the males mature at a smaller size than the females. The size at which 50 %of the fish are mature is 50 cm TL for males and 95-110 cm 2Lfor females (Ogutu-Ohhwayo, 1988). Nile perch after 50 cm TL shifts to a loiscivorous diet.
Gillnets are the major fishing gear used by fishermen inthe Uganda sector of the Lake. Other gears generally used include seine nets,cast nets 28
and hooks on long lines. Gillnets of mesh sizes ranging from 101.6 mm (4 inch) to 304.8 mm (12 inch) were in common use during January-March 1989 (Okaronon and Kamanyi, 1989). The most popular nets in use were the 203.2 mm (8 inch mesh (45.5 % of the total number and in 32.4 % of the fishing canoes) and 127 mm mesh (22.8% of the total number and in 33.8 % of the fishing canoes); these were used for catching Nile perch and Nile tilapia. The 127 mm mesh nets retained Nile perch of 53 cm mean TL and Nile tilapia of 31 cm mean TL (Okaronon and Kamanyi, 1988).
The mosquito nets of 10 mm and 5 mm mesh are used toharvest Rastrineobola species. The nets are used as beach seines and may.catch many juveniles of Nile perch, Nile tilapia and other fish species. They are also used as Lampara lift nets in offshore fishing. In the Lampara fishing method, minimal effect on the juveniles of other fish has been recorded except at certain periods when these juveniles leave the inshore waters for offshore waters (Wanders, pers. comm.).
Suggested recommendations
The minimum gillnet mesh size should be 127 mm (5 inch). The regulation is aimed at
protecting the Nile tilapia haversting the Nile perch above 50 cm TL because above this size the species becomes increasingly dependent on a piscivorous diet. As a management measure and in order to reduce predation pressure on other species, it is recommended that the species should be selectively cropped at the stage when it feeds more on other fishes (Ogutu-Ohwayo, 1984). Although gillnets of 127 mm mesh catch many immature Nile perch especially among the females, the species has a very high reproductive potential (Ogutu-Ohwayo, 1988).
There should be no beach seining at all. It is noted that beach seining destroys the nests of the fish in their breeding areas and catches many juvenile fish. Rastrineobola should be exploited by the Lampara lift net operated offshore.
Trawling should be prohibited until the status of the offshore stocks has been reviewad during the stock assessment exercise to be carried out as soon as the research vessels have been repaired/reconstructed. It is, however, to be noted that
even if trawling was allowed in waters of depths greater than 20 metres, there would not be any means of ensuring that the trawlers would not operate in waters less that 20 metres deep;
codend meshes of trawl nets usually smaller than that set for the gillnets in(a) above, thus these trawlers will catch even smaller immature fish;
stocksin offshore waters are unknown.The trawler may notleave inshore waters with fish to go to offshore waters where little or no fish may be caught; and
trawls dragged at the bottom destroy the breeding grounds of the fish. 29
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are greatly indebted to Dr. T. Twongo and Mr. Mbahinzireki of UFFRO for their constructive criticisms and useful suggestions. A number of other UFFROscientists andstaff madesignificant contributionstowards the successful preparation of this paper. Our great thanks also go to Mr. Osako of Uganda Electricity Board for the preparation of the figures and Mrs. Ruth Byekwaso for kindly typing the manuscript.
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1971 Afr. J. Trop. Hydrobiol. Fish., 1 (1): 13-23.
Bwathondi P.O.J., The future of the fisheries of the Tanzanian part of Lake 1984 Victoria in viewof thepredominanceof Nile perchLates niloticus. FAO Fish Rep., 335: 143-145.
Cadwalldr D.A., Noteson the breedingbiologyandecology of Labeo 1965 victorianus Boulenger (Pisces: Cyprinidae) of Lake Victoria. Rev. Zool. Bot. afr. 72: 109-134.
Cadwalldr D.A., A discussion of possible management methods to revive the 1969 Labeo victorianus fishery of Lake Victoria with special reference to the Nzoia River,Kenya. Uganda Fisheries Dept. Occasional Paper 2:1-6.
Durand J.R. et G.Loubens, Courbes longueur-poids de 46 poissons du basin 1969 tchadien. Fort-Lamy, 1969 ORSTOM, 70 p.(mimeo).
Fish G.R., Some aspects of the respiration of six species of fish from Uganda. 1956 J. Exp. Bio., 33: 186-95.
Fryer G and T.D.Iles, The Cichlid fishes of the Great Lakes of Africa. 1972 Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, 641 pp.
Gee J.M., The spread of Nile perch, Lates niloticus, in East Africa, with 1965 comparative biological notes. J. Appl. Ecol., 2 (27): 407-8
Graham M., The Victoria Nyanza and its fisheries. A report on the fish survey 1929 of Lake Victoria, 1927-1928. Grown Agents for the Colonies, London, 255 pp.
Greenwood P.H., The fishes of Uganda. The Uganda Society, Kampala. 131 pp. 1966
Greenwood P.H., The cichlid fishes of Lake Victoria, East Africa. The biology 1974 and evolution of a species flock. Bulletin Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. (Zool.) Suppl 6:1-134.
Hopson A. J., A study of the Nile perch (Lates niloticus (L), Pisces: 1972 pomidae) in Central Lake Chad. pp.1-93. In: Overseas Research Publication n°.19 Overseas Development Administration, London.
Kudhongania A.W. and A.J., Cordone. Batho-spat al distribution patterns and 30
1974 biomass estimate of the major demersal fishes in Lake Victoria. Afr. J. Trop Hydrobiol. Fish., 3: 15-31.
Little E.C.S., The invasion of man-made lakes by plants. In Man-made Lakes: 1966 The London Symposium (R.H. McConnell, ed.) pp. 75-86.
Kudhongania A.W., R. Ogutu-Ohwayo, T.O. Acere and T. Twongo, The Nile perch 1988 in Lakes Victoria and Kyoga: an asset or liability ? UFFRO mimeo, October, 1988,21 pp.
Lowe R.H., Observations on the biology of Tilapia nilotica Lifane in East 1958 African waters. Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr., 157:129-170.
Lowe-McConnel R.H., Broad characteristics of the ichthyofauna. pp. 93-110. In: 1988 C. Levegue, M.N. Bruton and G.W. Ssentongo (ed.) Biologie et Ecologie des Poissons d'Eau Douce Africains/Biology and Ecology of Africain Freshwater Fishes, ORSTOM, Paris.
Ogutu-Ohwayo R., The effects of predation by Nile perch, Lates 1984 niloticus(Linne), introduced into Lake Kyoga (Uganda) in relation to the fisheries of Lake Kyoga and Lake Victoria. FAO Fish. Rept., 335: 18-41.
Ogutu-Ohwayo R., T. Twongo, S.B.Wandera and J.S.Balirwa, Fishing gear selectivity in relation to their manufacture and to the management of fisheries of the Nile perch, the Nile tilapia and Rastrineobola argentea(Mukene) in Lakes Victoria and Kyoga. UFFRO Ocassional Paper N° 16.
Okaronon J.0., Future prospects of the fish stocks of Lake Victoria, Uganda. 1990 Food and Agriculture Conference, Kampala.
Okaronon J.O. and J.R. Kamanyi, Recent trends in the fisheries of the 1986 northernportion of LakeVictoria, Uganda. UFFRO Seminar, November 1986.
Okaronon J.O. and J.R. Kamanyi, Catch assessment survey of Uganda waters. 1989 AFRP/UFPRO Joint Fisheries Survey, Ministry of Animal Industry and Fisheries, mimeo.
Okedi J., Further observations on the ecology of Nile perch (Lates niloticus) 1970 in Lakes Victoria and Kyoga. EAFFRO Ann. Rep. 42-55.
Okemwa E., Potential fishery of Nile perch Lates niloticus Linn. (Pisces, 1984 Centropomidae)in Nyanza Gulf of Lake Victoria,East Africa. Hydrobiologia 108: 121-126.
Proude., Notes on light fishing experiments in Lake Kyoga. UgandaFisheries 1963 Department, Entebbe, (mimeo).
Ssentongo G.W and R.L. Welcomme, Past history and currenttrends in the 1984 fisheries of Lake Victoria. FAO Fish. Rep. 335: 123-135. 31
Talling J.F., The annual cycle of stratification and phytoplankton growth in 1965 Lake Victoria (East Africa). Int. Rev. Gesant. Hydrobiol. 51:545- 621.
Wandera S.B., The study of Rastrineobola argentea (Pellegrin) and its 1988 importance in the fisheries of Lake Kyoga and the northern waters of Lake Victoria. HYSEA Symposium, Nairobi, Kenya, 13-16 December 1988.
Welcomme R.L., Notes on the present distribution and habits of non-endemic 1964 species of Tilapia which have been introduced into Lakë Victoria. EAFFRO Ann. Rep. 1962/63:
Welcomme R.L., Observations on the biology of the introduced species of 1967 Tilapia in the Lake Victoria. Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 76:249-279.
Whitehead P.J., The river fishery of Kenya. 1. Nyanza Province. E. Afr. Agri. 1959 J., 24 (4): 274.
Witte F.,Initial results of the ecological survey of the haplochromine 1981 cichlid fishes from the Mwanza Gulf of Lake Victoria (Tanzania): breeding patterns, trophic and species distribution. Neth. J. Zool., 31:175-202. 32
Table 1. Trawl mean catch rates(kg/hr) of the various fishes in the northern part of the Uganda waters of Lake Victoria.
1968-71 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 510 127 191 263 110 70 Fish species hauls hauls hauls hauls hauls hauls Ca.500 144.5 223.4 269.5 113.3 68.1 hrs hrs hrs hrs hrs hrs
Haplochromis spp 668.20 543.30 294.34 270.84 108.48 4.78
Oreochromis esculentus 29.79 0.15 0.04 0.01 -
O. variabilis 1.04 8.70 1.97 1.07 0.04 0.00
O. niloticus 3.36 13.60 6.56 5.03 1.80 3.25
O. leucostictus 0.18 0.11 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00
Tilapia zillii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Bagrus docmac 33.26 4.09 8.37 11.24 4.20 1.32
Clarias mossambicus 32.60 15.07 7.16 4.32 2.11 0.06
Protopterus aethiopicus 22.08 2.66 1.09 2.23 0.40 0.50
Lates niloticus 0.96 5.02 42.03 57.47 136.73 158.95
Synodontis victoriae 4.77 0.91 0.27 0.35 0.21 0.11
S. afrofischeri 0.10 0.0" 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00
Other species 2.56 0.32 1.40 2.69 0.47 0.11
Total 796.72 594.94 363.30 355.28 254.46 166.22 33
Table 2. Estimated fish catches in the Jinja area of Lake Victoria (a) Commercial fish landings in Masese
Total Percentage by weight of Period (tonnes) Ha Ra Ti Bd Cm Pa Ln Others
1971 832 1.24 - 63.68 4.84 9.62 18.49 0.67 1.47 1972 850 1.01 - 65.47 6.38 7.95 16.05 0.60 2.53 1973 698 0.04 - 64.42 6.54 11.39 16.01 1.06 1.54 1974 691 0.23 - 40.81 10.22 11.27 9.27 26.68 1.55 1975 ------1976 431 3.22 0.31 42.63 15.30 10.66 9.31 17.86 0.61 1977 235 3.32 0.64 41.34 28.98 9.95 0.95 3.90 2.90 1978 ------1979 ------1980 ------1981 8211 96.38 0.47 2.16 0.19 0.00 0.28 0.40 0.03 1982 1418 65.79 3.33 8.92 0.56 0.95 1.31 20.31 0.93 1983 427 1.35 9.07 17.03 0.67 2.04 5.09 62.70 2.08 1984 672 0.36 11.89 33.57 0.37 0.57 2.09 50.50 0.64 1985 861 - 12.07 34.13 0.12 0.40 0.13 53.00 0.15 1986 ------1987 1848 - 12.21 49.29 0.05 0.10 0.36 37.86 0.13 1988 3675 - 27.03 28.20 0.02 0.09 0.18 44.46 0.02 1989 5983 30.08 16.06 0.01 0.16 0.16 53.52 0.00
(b) Exerimental trawl catches
1981 91.14 2.99 0.73 2.62 0.42 0.92 0.18 1982 81.02 2.34 2.30 1.97 0.30 11.58 0.45 1983 76.22 1.73 3.16 1.19 0.63 16.17 0.98 1984 42.63 0.72 1.65 0.83 0.16 57.73 0.27 1985 1.15 1.95 0.79 0.04 0.30 95.63 0.14
Ha = Haplochromis, Ra = Rastrineobola, Ti = Tilapiines, Bd = Bacirus docmac, Cm = Clarias mossambicus, Pa = Protopterus aethiopicus Ln = Lates niloticus 34
Averagesize(kg) of fish landed at Masese
Period Ov One Bd Cm Pa Ln One Ln*
1972 0.32 1.19 1.04 3.29 5.74 21.41 - 1973 0.29 1.31 1.07 3.54 3.74 21.61 1974 0.29 0.54 1.58 3.83 5.72 38.11 - - 1975 ------1976 0.30 1.13 1.20 4.02 7.17 41.01 - - 1977 0.34 1.05 0.86 4.44 6.93 41.54 - - 1978 ------1979 - - - 1980 ------_ 1981 0.38 1.21 1.07 3.35 9.14 4.81 0.69 4.30 1982 0.33 0.98 0.70 5.85 7.76 8.64 0.62 5.28 1983 0.29 1.02 0.73 4.74 8.61 5.79 0.84 5.07 1984 0.26 1.43 1.40 3.65 7.97 5.64 0.88 2.30 1985 0.35 1.42 1.71 2.58 6.62 1.57 0.99 0.84 1986 - - - - - 1.20 0.49 1987 0.35 1.80 2.28 3.97 7.21 4.12 1988 0.65 1.53 6.38 8.14 9.91 1.85 1989 0.35 1.08 4.63 7.16 13.68 2.39
Ov = Oreochromis variabilis, One : Oreochromis niloticus eduardinanus, Bd = Bagrus docmac, Cm = Clarias mossambicus, Pa = Protopterus aethiopicus, Ln = Lates niloticus * Specimens obtained by experimental bottom trawling in the Jinja area of Lake Victoria. 35
Table 4. Bottom trawl mean catch rates (weighted by depth interval) of the various fishes in Lake Victoria (in kg hr)
Depth (m) 0-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 Number of hauls 151 228 131 71 68 56 51 16
Haplochromis spp. 493.8 800.2 639.5 507.5 448.0 486.3 19,6.3 29.6 Tilapia esculenta 54.1 28.3 4.4 0.5 0.0 - T. variabilis 3.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 - - T. nilotica 10.0 0.9 0.0 - - - T. zillii 0.4 0.0 0.0 - - - T. leucosticta 0.2 - - - - Bagrus docmac 18.0 39.9 39.3 36.8 34.4 38.8 27.6 0.2 Clarias mossambicus 26.7 37.1 31.6 20.7 15.1 14.5 14.8 7.1 Xenoclarias spp. 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.3 Protopterus aethiopicus 33.3 23.1 7.3 5.5 1.6 0.5 - Lates niloticus 2.0 0.6 0.4 - -- Synodontis victoriae 0.4 1.7 7.0 9.0 11.2 26.5 29.4 14.9 S. afrofischeri 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Barbus altianalis 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 Labeo victorianus 0.1 0.4 0.0 - - - Mormyrus kannume 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.9 0.1 0.0 Schilbe mystus 0.9 1.8 1.3 0.6 0.3 0.1 0.0 Alestes spp. 0.0 ------Mastacembelus frenatus 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 -- Gnathonemus lonclibarbis 0.0 0.0 - -
Total 644.0 935.3 731.6 581.5 512.1 567.4 268.4 52.1
N°. of species encountered (excluding Haplochromis 19 17 16 11 10 8 7 4
Source: Kudhongania and Cordone 1974. 36
Appendix 3.2 THE EFFECT OF LIMNOLOGICAL FACTORS AND THE CHANGING ENVIRONMENT ON THE FISHERIES OF NORTHERN LAKE VICTORIA
by
F.W. Bugenyi Senior Principal Research Officer, UFFRO, Jinja
1. INTRODUCTION
Lake Victoria (Fig. 1), one of the Great African Lakes, is the largest in Africa, and is next to Lake Superior in area among the World's lakes. It straddles the equator (0° 20'N - 3° O'S; 31° 39' - 34° 53'E) with an area of 68,800 km2 and a total water volume of 2,700 km2 (Table 1). With a maximum depth of 84 m and an average depth af 40 m, the lake lies mainly in Tanzania (49 %) and Uganda (45%) but it also borders Kenya (6%). It fills a shallow saucer-like depression in the centre of a great plateau located between the western and Gregory Rifts, and has been locally deepened and extended by block faulting.
Rainfall, temperature, wind, sunshine and air circulation are some of the elements that make up the climate of a place. The two main wind systems affecting the climate of East Africa in general and Uganda in particular, are the north-east and south-east trade winds. The entire watershed of Lake Victoria is within the zone where the two wind systems meet. The zone receive heavy rains from conventional storms in two seasons (March-May and September - November) related to the trade wind passage periods and equatorial equinoxes. The total amount of rain received (1300 mm) and its distribution within the watershed throughout the year have a great bearing on the lake level. In the humid tropics/equatorial regions both rainfall and evaporation impinges directly on the lake surface. The main water loss is by direct evaporation from the lake surface (c 1300 mm). It is therefore possible for increased run- off to the lake, or reduced evaporation from it, to result in a rise or fall in water level, despite an outlet (the Victoria Nile). Lake level changes have great effects on fish productivity (Ssentongo & Welcome 1985). For example, following the unusually heavy rains between 1961 and 1963, there were improvements in the fish catches of the lake (Welcomme 1966).
Lake Victoria is located in one of the most densely populated areas of Eastern Africa. It is, therefore, of crucial socio-economic importance as a source of water for domestic, industrial and agricultural uses, as well as for important fisheries, recreation and transport. Certain localities around the lake have formed foci for industrial development where traditional ways of life and fishing have been largely superseded (Ribbink 1987).
In Uganda the economy of the watershed of Lake Victoria is dominated by subsistence agriculture. About 90 % of the population in the area is involved in theproduction of food and cashcrops. This involves more use of agrochemicals (Bugenyi 1984), land clearing, vegetation burning and deforestation (Hamilton 1984). The agrochemical residues and the eroded soil are transported into the lake by rivers, streams and rainfall run-offs.
The urban centres near the shores, mainly Kampala, Jinja, Masaka and Entebbe have industries variously involved in textile manufacture, mining and smelting, food processing, beer brewing and soft drink manufacture, etc. These 37
industries discharge their waste products and effluents into the lake. Both treated and untreated sewage from the towns also drain into the lake waters. The fisheries particularly in the inshore areas are exploited too.
Nile perch and Nile tilapia have also been introduced into the fishery (Ogutu-Ohwaye, 1985). The effects of fishing and the introductions have caused changes in stock abundance and species composition in the lake. Catches have, as a result soared. This has come at a time of increased demand for protein as a result of increasing human population in the lake basin. With increased agricultural activities around the lake the drainage basin could be causing a shift in the primary productivity of the lake. Industrial effluents and domestic discharges into the lake could in future become an additional nutrient point source. This would hasten eutrophication especially if there is scarcity of many herbivorous species in the trophic structure of the lake.
The introduction of Nile perch has been followed by large changes in fish species composition and trophic groups. Lake productivity mechanisms which determine long term fishery production may also be changing as a result of increased predation and/or abundance of nutrient input (Hecky and Bugenyi 1989, Bugenyi and Magumba 1990). Energy flow and trends of primary production have changed as suggested by the observed increased frequency of localised fish kills often associated with algal blooms and/or vertical mixing (Bugenyi 1986, Kitaka 1972).If the lake is undergoing eutrophication (Bugenyi and Balirwa 1989) it may be able to maintain or increase fish production even with the altered fish community. On the other hand, the increase in the introduced fish population and the decline in the population of the native species may also lead to changes in primary production which may result in decreased overall fish production.
What we need now is an understanding of the hydrological physico- chemical and biological water environments which are fundamental to the sustainable utilisation and conservation of the water resources. There is need for increased research into these and other aspects in order to minimise errors in managing the activities in the watershed which impact the waterand its resources. In this paper, a review of the past and present factors and their effects on exploited fish stocks is given. The root cause of the problem is identified, and the potential sources of pollution through urbanisation and increasing industrial activity are noted. Feasible and suitable solutions are proposed. Recommendations to be adopted to maintain a suitable habitat and avert sources of pollution are given.
2. THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE LAKE VICTORIA ECOSYSTEM IN THE PRE- NILE PERCH ERA
Lake Victoria presentsanumber ofspecial features. Its thermal stratification had been showing pronounced seasonal changes and couldvary between inshore and offshore regions (Fish 1957, Tailing 1966) and between different offshore regions ofthe lake(Graham 1929,Newell1960). Near isothermal conditions in the deep offshore waters were recorded (Graham 1929, Fish 1957) during and immediately following the coolest and most windy season (May/June - July) (Tailing 1966)(Fig. 2). In a large equatorial lake where seasonal variation in solar radiation and temperature (Table 1) areminimal and where rainfall(Fig.3) has little or no obvious effect on temporal changes,is surprising. According to Tailing (1966) many changesprobably fitted into a fairly regular annual cycle, although the full extentof that annualperiodicitycould not beascertained. Three phases of thermal 38
stratification could be distinguished between (i) September and December, (ii) January and May, and (iii) July and August for the offshore station. Complete mixing was in May/June - July and February - March. The inshore areas (Buvuma Channel) Fish (1957) followed seasonal changes in the thermal stratification and dissolved oxygen. The main seasonal cooling occurred in June/July as at the offshore station. However, in the subsequent period of warming (August to March)strong stratification with a marked discontinuity developed much earlier in the channel than offshore. This stratification also broke down earlier than the of offshore one due to the shallowness of the channel. The earlier onset of stratification in the channel was probably due to greater shelter from wind action which the nearby islands provided. In' pilkington Channel where it is less than 10 m deep,the thermal stratification was comparatively slight and largely diurnal.
The effects of changing thermal stratification were also traced in the annual variation of dissolved oxygen and four other constituents (pH, NO3, .N, PO4.Pand Si02). No appreciable changes with depth or season were found in the concentrations of seven major ionic constituents and in the electrical conductivity.
The partially deoxygenated condition below the thermal discontinuity disappeared briefly in January - March 1961. Otherwise concentrations below 10%. of saturation approximately 0.7 mg/1 were measured within the lowermost 5 m of the water column from January to June 1961; Complete or almost complete deoxygenation (<0.1 mg/1) was found much less frequently. The variation of pH showed an obvious parallelism with that of dissolved oxygen. Its changes were determined primarily by alterationsinthe content of dissolved carbon dioxide, eitherby photosynthetic removal in 0 - 20m stratum or by accumulation in the lower layers following organic decomposition. The range was found to be 7.0 - 8.6 during 1960 - 1961, and this appeared remarkable in view of the fact that there is considerable bicarbonate plus carbon alkalinity (0.92+0.02 m.eq/1) and consequent buffering of the lake water.
The distributions of three plant nutrients,NO3,.N,PO4. .PandSiO2. had several features in common. High concentrations were generally present near the mud surface and lower concentrations in the uppermost 20 m or photosyntheticzone. This distribution can be expected toresult from processes of net consumption - particularly by phytoplankton - in the upper layers,and net liberation in the lower layers and at the mud surface. Disregarding advection, the concentration of PO4..P,NO3,.N and SiO2 in the surface layers could be expected to depend upon the balance between biological consumption and replenishment by vertical mixing.
Measurements of seasonal light extinction showed declining values during strongest stratification periods and this reflected a reduction of phytoplankton density. However, the best measure for the total phytoplank.ton density was Chi-a concentrations. Its seasonal changes was correlated with the seasonal changes in stratification (Fig. 3).Higher values were obtained during mixing periods February-March and June-August.
Two general characteristics of the lake in the past had been the great variety of species of phytoplankton (Thomasson 1955) and the dominance of small coccoid Myxophyceae which included: 5 diatoms, 4 blue-greens, 7 desmids,
7 chlorococcalean and other green algae and 1 dinoflagellate. The diatom populations show differing patterns of seasonal distribution but their marked increases occur at the times ofisothermal mixing(when nutrients were 39
abundantly available and the turbulence had offset the diatom sinking rate) throughout the water column. The final and most complete mixing in June to July affected all five species, but this was not true of the more temporary isothermal phases in January to March. The correlations of the abundance of many phytoplankton species and the conditions of thermal stratification can be inferred from what has already been described above.
The plant nutrients that accumulated below the thermal discontinuity included Si02.,PO4.,P(and total P), NO3,.N, Fe, Mn and CO2. deduced from pH and alkalinity (Table 2). Since the concentrations of total Fe and total Mn measured in the 0 - 30 m zone were always below the limit of detection about 10 ug/1, it was not possible to compare them with algal changes. However, the very low concentrations raised a strong possibility that they (and particularly Fe) could be limiting algal growth. Dissolved 5i02. was almost certainlyy present in excessthroughoutthe year. The lowest recorded concentration of 2.8 mg Si0/1 was considerably greater than the range of 0 -
1 mg/1 for which there is evidence of its limiting diatom growth in nature (Hughes and Lund 1962). The concentrations ofPO4..Pin the 0 - 30 m zone are generally in the neighbourhood of 10 ug/1, and the total P between 25 and 60 ug/1. These figure indicated a considerable supply of the element which was potentially or immediately available for algal growth.NO3. Nwas present within the 0 - 30 m layer in very low concentrations throughout the year, which rarely exceeded 10 ug/1. Considerablylarger concentrations were probably incorporated in the phytoplankton, so that growth of the latter could be limited by the NO3.N supply. The chlorophyll concentration (Chl-a) was of the order of 0.5 mg dry wt./1 (assuming approximate average equivalent of 4ug Chl-a and 0.5 mg dry wt./mm3 cell volume are adopted). Beauchamp (1953) has held the view, on mainly indirect evidence, that the SO4. .S deficiency is important for limiting phytoplankton production in the lake. The concentrations were found to lie between 1.8 - 2.5 mg SO. .5/1(Telling and Tailing 1965).
Possible effects of grazing by the zooplankton were unknown then. Zooplankton and other invertebrate organismes play a vital role in aquatic food chains (Fig. 4). The activities of many influence the release and cycling ofnutrient materials that would otherwise remain locked upin bottom sediments. The nutrients in turn influence primary productivity, which form the base of food chains and energy cycles. Many invertebrates are primary consumers grazing on algae, macrophytes and epiphytic material and converting them into animal protein for use by other organisms including fish. The phytoplantivorous invertebrate organisms include: insect larvae, cladocera, copepods, gastropods and bivalves. With all the above set in place, the lake could have had a multi-speciesfishery (Fig. 4) with sustainablefish production. Through fishing activities, however, this fishery had started showing signs of declining towards the end of 1960s.
The earliest fishing was at subsistence level using basket traps, hooks and seine nets of papyrus with low efficiency carried out in swamps and river mouths. This type of fishing has now largely disappeared. At the beginning of the century gillnets of cotton were introduced. Increases in population, rapid urbanisation and improved means of communication increased the demand for fish and led to the rapid expansion of the fishing industry and to an increased fishing intensity. This development was specifically concentrated at the Kavirondo Gulf (Kisumu), at the northern coast and at Ssesse Islands. There was uncontrolled entry into the fisheries and this soon resulted into the decline in catch per unit effort (CPUE) of accessible stocks (Ssentongo 40
and Welcomme 1985).
The catches of Tilapia per net dropped from 30 fish in 1921 to 6 in 1928 in Kavirondo Gulf. Information on this development led to Graham's expedition of 1927-1929(Graham 1929) which collected very valuable information and confirmed the intensity of fishing for Tilapia species. In 1933 the limitation on mesh sizes came into force. From 1929 when Graham presented his proposals up to the 1950s, the catch of Tilapia per gillnet continued falling. It fell to 1.6 fish per net in Kavirondo Gulf because of increased fishing intensity and use of smaller meshed nets.
In 1952 synthetic fibre gillnets were introduced. These had higher catching efficiency and a longer life span. Further,in 1953, motor boat engines were introduced of which the expected effect was the expansion of fishing activity. Beauchamp estimated in 1953 an increase in the fishing effort of 100 % but only an increase in the yield of 10 %.
Thefisheries of Lake Victoria are mainly exploited by artisanal fishermen. They engage destructive fishing methods e.g beating of the water with a "tycoon" which drives the fish into the net. Others have use the same fishing area all through. The overall effect has therefore been a decline in catches, in sizes and probably in biomass.
The future of multi-species fishery in the lake is uncertain. It has become very vulnerable to man-made changes. The complex biological and abiotic interactions underlying the richness of the faunes (Lowe-McConnel 1975) has changed due to the pursuit of various socio-economic gains. Fryer (1984) points out the way in which large-scale fisheries development schemes (which are envisaged in Uganda) have proceeded largely in the absence of scientific information on the biology and ecology ofthe fishes in these complex communities. Lake Victoria supports a complex multi-species fishery harvested with a variety of fishing gears and methods. Gillnets of varying mesh sizes, however, are most commonly used, although beach seines and cast nets are presently on the increase.
Some research work has been carried out on the fisheries of the lake. The results of exploratory bottom trawling in the lake indicated that water depth is an important variable affecting spatial distribution and catch rates. The catchesof theendemic Tilapia (Oreochromis esculentus)and other tilapiine cichlids decline with increasing depth of 44.5 m beyond which the catches fall of again (Ssentongo nd Welcomme 1985). The catch rates of one catfish, Bagrus docmac, follow a pattern similar to those of haplochromine species, whose biomass had been estimated by Kudhongania and Cordone (1974) and is now reduced by piscivory (Ribbink 1987). In subsequent studies of the northern part of Lake Victoria, Okaronon and Kamanyi (1988) observed that the catch rates of almost all the species in both commercial and experimental catches were on the decline.
Fisheries based on rivers, streams, wetlands and on the litoral lake areas contribute significantly to fish landings in the region. The data on catches, however, is lacking. Among the fisheries which contribute to this are: Barbus species,Labeo victorianus, Clarias mossambicus,Synodontis afrofischeri and some smaller fishes such as the mormyrids. These are caught mainly at river mouths, and on the floodplain with a variety of fishing gear and methods (Whitehead 1958, van Someren 1962, Cadwalladr 1969). The lake shoreline and associated vegetation is a big source of the important Tilapia 41
fishery, and at river mouths thefish caughtinclude smaller clarids, Ctenopoma, Protopterus and several small fish species. All those species were abundant in the inshore areas during the 1940-1960s. Due to intensity of fishing (and species introductions) catches of those species have drastically declined (EAFFRO Ann. Rep. 1957-1960, Garrod 1960, Marten 1979). Some studies have been and are continuing to be done on the decline, the fishing methods employed, fish breeding, the biology and ecology of these species (Welcomme 1964, 1966; Balirwa 1979, 1984). In the absence of a solid scientific platform, it is extremely difficult for theGovernmentto develop a sustainable fishery to meet the growing human requirements for protein. This problem has led to intensification of fishing in the inshore areas and seems to have outpaced scientific studies and hence management policy of the fisheries and other water resources.
The present fishing patterns in the lake can be divided into a number of individual but overlapping species-oriented fisheries (Ssentongo and Welcomme 1985). Although experimental bottom trawling between the mid-1960s had revealed a substantial quantity of haplochromines, which could form a basis of a trawl fishery, there followed drastic declines in catches and stocks of the species in the 1980s (Whitte 1981,1983; Hoogerhoud et al. 1983). These changes were attributed to several factors:(a) an intensive exploitation of artisanal fishery in the inshore waters of less than 25 m depth around the lake; (b) introduction of exotic species including the voracious Nile perch; and (c) the changed ecosystem of the lake.
3. THE CHANGED ECOSYSTEM OF THE LAKE
The Lake Victoria fishery has of recent been undergoing a radical transformation because of thesuccess of theintroducedfishspecies, particularly the Nile perch (Lates niloticus) and the originally herbivorous Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). These species, introduced in the lake in the 1960s, now dominate the catch (Ogutu-Ohwayo 1990,Okaronon 1990). Analysis of commercial catches in the northern portion of the lake (within 0- 49 m depth zone) indicated that Nile perch (by weight) rose from 0.42 % in 1981 to 62.7 % in 1983 to 53.0 % in 1985 (Okaronon and Kamanyi, 1986, Acere 1988). The corresponding figures for the haplochromines were 96.38 % in 1981, 1.35 % in 1983 and 0.0 % 1985. The tilapine species in commercial catches rose from 2.16 % in 1981 to a peak of 49.29 % in 1987 before falling to 16.06 % in 1989 (Okaronon 1990). The contribution of Rastrineobola argentea rose from 0.47 % in 1981 to 9.04 % in 1983, 12.07 % in 1985 and 30.08 % in 1989. With the abundance of prey (the haplochromines at first), Nile perch populations increased dramatically. But since this voracious predator exhibits opportunistic tendencies in its feeding,it preys upon a wide spectrum of otherfish species e.g. Labeovictorianus, Oreochromisesculentusand Rastrineobola argentea (Gee 1969, Okedi 1971, Ogari 1985). Thus, changes in the fish fauna composition are reflected in a change in the diet of Nile perch e.g from one dominated by haplochhromines to one of prawns, Caridinanilotica Roux, anisoptera nymphs, Rastrineobola argentea, juveniles of Nile perch and Nile tilapia (Fig. 5),(Ligtvoet et al.1989; Ogutu-Ohwayo 1990).
This has led to various ecological and physio-chemical changes. There is increased algal productivity, there are changes in the nutrient chemistry of the lake, and there are changes in the composition and distribution of the zooplankton and invertebrate organisms (Mugidde 1990, Bugenyi and Magumba 1990a and 1990b, Ndawula 1990a and 1990b and Mbahinzireki 1990). There has also been a disruption of the normal trophic groups in the system (Fig. 4). 42
Normally, phytoplankton utilise the nutrients in the water to produce primary food. Then the zooplankton and other invertebrates consume the phytoplankton. These, together with some fish species (e.g. Oreochromis niloticus) are the 'herbivores'. These herbivores and other fish species then thrive on the zooplanktons and other invertebrate organisms. They are themselves then predated upon by the top piscivore, the Nile perch. The situation presented then is: the increased predator population which has reduced the abundance of zooplanktivorous fish would naturally result in the increase of zooplankton and other invertebrate numbers. These in turn would increase the pressure of grazing on the phytoplankton thus decreasing the phyto-biomass. On the other hand, the external input of nutrients and the rapid cycling of nutrients mainly from the detrital material could be responsible for the observed high photosynthetic productivity.
The following changes have been observed (Table 4): There have been two- to ten-fold increase in algal biomass over that reported three decades ago (Hecky and Bugenyi 1989). There is a marked decrease of the soluble reactive SiO2' concentration in the water. The composition of the phytoplankton species has slightly changed (Mugidde 1990). The lake is now less transparent, and during periods of anoxia (during stratification, Fig.6), wide areas and bigger volumes of the water (usually below 30-35 m) anoxic. There has been a change in the zooplankton composition too (Ndawula 1990a). During the pre- perch periods,cladocera usedto dominate (35 %), but now,they only contribute 4.1 %. These changes are represented in Tables 2 and 4 and in Fig. 5.
With the massive reduction in haplochromines populations which feed mainly on detritus, phytoplankton, zooplankton, insects and molluscs, these food sources are now being harvested by other organisms (Ligtvoet, et al. 1989). Phytoplankton and molluscs are possibly left largely unexploited, the status ofthe zooplankton isnot clear.The dramatic decrease inthe phytoplanktivorous fish stock may have increased the food resources of the zooplankton stock. The reduction in haplochromines may have also have the predation pressure and selectivity on the zooplankton stock. The present food web consists of four links (Fig. 5). The Nile perch is the opportunistic top predator, feeding on three trophic levels. The two main flocks of energy, formerly transferred via haplochromines, are currently the detritus food chain via the prawn caridina and insect larvae, and the phytoplankton food chain, via zooplankton and Rastrineobola and juvenile Nile perch both culminating in the adult Nile perch.
Conditions in the offshore and inshore areas have been characterised. Talling (1961) did not find much difference in the concentration of SRSi in the inshore and the offshore areas (53.6-71.4 uM and 71.4-82.4 uM respectively). We now find that the actual values are now X10 less than in pre-perch era (0.7.-10.7uMand 0.6-8.2uMin the inshore and offshore areas respectively). The increased phyto-biomass production is responsible for this decrease in SRS1.In both inshore and offshore areas Chi-a has increased (Table 4). Consequently, light intensity (% surface light) has decreased from 0.09 to 0.07 at the offshore site.
Theobservedincreasein chlorophyll is not due to increased P concentration (because P did not change much) and Talling (1966) hadnoted that its concetrations were in excess of those required to limit phytoplankton growth. The increase must be due to some or all of the following factors: 43
increase in supply of other nutrients; the absence of phytoplanktivores; and the composition of the zooplankton, which are phytoplanktivores
The other nutrients in mind are NO3, .N and SO4..S, and both of which are supplied mainly from the atmosphere (Hecky & Bugenyi 1989). Increased African savanna burning (Simons 1989) increasesthe concentrations of the two nutrients in the atmosphere, which are brought down by rain (Table 3). Other contributors of nutrients are rivers and streams e.g. River Katonga and Kagera, Budumburi stream, Nakivubo stream and many storm-drain run-offs. All these provide non-point sources of N and other chemicals, mainly organic from agricultural activities in the watershed (Bugenyi 1984),and small-scale industrial activities and domestic sewage (Bugenyi and Balirwa 1989).
The reduction in planktivores was partly the result of the increased, numbers of the predatory Nile perch. This could result in quantitative and qualitative alterations of the biological structure of the lake fish (Fig. 5).
In the absence of planktivorous fish,large bodied cladocerans can effectively control the abundance of algae.It is commonly believed that mortality rates in algal populations can exceed their reproductive rates and thus substantially reduce the phytoplankton standing crop. Subsequently, algal population levels will remain low as long as heavy grazing pressure persists (Gliwicz 1990). It is also believed that the low level of phytoplankton stocks can be sustained,regardless of whether the habitat is poor or rich in nutrients that limit algal growth. The decrease in cladocera (4.1%),as compared to 35 % in pre-perch periods) reported by Ndawula (1990), would have been able to decrease the algal phyto-biomass. With decreased cladoceran zooplankton number, however, the other types are not able to control the filamentous blue-green biomass, mainly because of its size and its little nutritive value. It can sometivmes produce toxic substances which can deter the zooplankton populations.
Nile tilapia was observed to switch from a diet mainly made up of phytoplankton (mainly diatoms) to one of the more readily available detritus andinvertebrates (Balirwa1989). Its trophic characteristics may be a reflection of ecological changes that have occurred in the lake. It no longer competes with haplochromines for the same food sources: detritus, caridina, chironomids and gastropod molluscs which are readily available (Ndawula 1990, Mbahinzireki 1990). Algal blooms and swarms of lake flies have been observed to be more pronounced now than in the past. with a reduction in grazing pressure by phytophagus haplochromines and endemic tilapiines, autotrophic production couldpresently be higher thantwenty/thirtyyears ago. A consequence of all the above could be an increase in benthic and "planktonic- rain" biomass at the sediment-water interface.
In the,absence of a control on algal biomass, the sechi transparency reduces and self-shading increases, culminating into mortality of the algal bioamas, which then sinks to the bottom and decomposes. This creates anoxic conditions which can be aggravated during the lake turn-over period (Kitaka 1972) The result can be massive fish kill (Bugenyi 1986, Ochumba and Kibaara 1989). In addition with reduced zooplantivores and detritivores, the dead algae sinks to the sediment and locks up the silica, resulting in further deterioration of the water quality.
The root causes of the changes in the ecosystem of the lake are: 44
the introduction of Nile perch-and Nile tilapia which have been responsible for the changes in the food webs and reduction of some fish species,
the fishing activities which has been partly responsible for the decline of the multi-species fishery, and
the nutrient input from the watershed where human activities are leading to a degraded terrestrial and aquatic environments.
SUMMARY AND PROPOSED FEASIBLE SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS
Uganda will continue to need more food, shelter, portable water, sanitation facilities, and more developementto better its economy as population grows. Increased and continuing human activities in sectors like agriculture, urban developments,fisheries and hydro-energy developments, industrial development venturesandtouristindustry development, will continue to stress the aquatic resources in general.
The lake is distinctive for its dependence on precipitation which maintains its water balance and provides nutrients and contributes to the degree to which biological processes modify the water quality. It is thus likely to be sensitive to pollution, including atmospheric pollution. The lake's water quality is to a great extent dependent on the balance of rapid biological processes, and hence any disturbance of the biological communities at either the microbiological or the top predators level could lead to rapid and unwanted changes on water quality. The lake has been sensitive to past changes in climate and would be expected to respond to global warming which is now being forecast. More multi-disciplinary and extensive research is therefore planned for this lake (Bugenyi 1990b, Hecky and Bugenyi 1989). The most immediate concerns, however, arise from the on-going eutrophication, pesticides and other agrochemical pollution which are altering the lake's biological communities.More understanding ofthe whole"lake basin - land/water interface -lake water" ecosystem and its dynamics of interaction is needed. A programme of collaborative research whereby international input of resources, both material and expertise will be required to address the problems. The use of the lake by the people in the watershed as a source of good quality water and a base for cheap animal protein production, requires careful monitoring by the administrators in the Ministries of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries,Envivonment Protection, Water and Mineral Development etc. in order to safe guard it for future generations. The data accumulated and made available (for local and international use) by the teams of multi-disciplinary researchers (both local and international) should be used to administer the lake'sresources to ensure their sustainable utilisation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to thank.all UFFRO staff in general and Lake Productivity Project personnel in particular who have always worked hard during sampling and analysis of the data. My thanks go to mr. O.K. Odongkara who laboured in the preparation, word and data processing and printing of the manuscript. My particular thanks go to the FWT (Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada) through Dr. R.E. Hecky for the close collaboration in the Lake productivity Work, for their wise advice and for strengthening of our Limnological laboratory in instrumentation and analysis. Special thanks go to Mr. M. Stainton who 45
trained us to use the instruments for analysis. Part of the work reported here (post-perch era) was carried outwith the aid of a grant fromthe International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada.
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Bugenyi F.W.B., Potential aquatic enviromental hazards of agro-based chemicals 1984 and practices in a developing country, Uganda. Proc. Int. Conf.
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Gee J.M., A comparison of certain aspects of the biology of Lates niloticus 1969 (Linne) in some East African Lakes. Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 80: 244- 262.
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Hamilton A.C., Deforestation in Uganda. Oxford University Press, 95 pp. 1984
Hecky R.E. and Bugenyi F.W.B., Hydrology and chemistry of the East African 1989 Great Lakes and water quality issues: Problemsiand solutions. International symposium on "Resource Use and Conservation of the AfricanGreatLakes." Bu:umbura, Burundi, 29 November - 2 December, 1989.
Hoogerhoud R.C., Whitte F., Barel, D.C., The ecological differentiation of two 1983 closely resembling Haplochromis species from Lake Victoria H. iris and H. hiatus; Pisces, cichlidae). Neth. J. Zool. 33: 283- 305.
Hughes, J.C. and Lund. J.W.G., The raze of growth of Asterionella formosa 1962 Hass. in relation to its ecology Arch. Mikrobiol. 42: 117-129.
Kitaka G.E.B., An instance of cyclonic upwelling in the soutern offsore waters 1972 of Lake Victoria. Afr. J. Trop. Hydrobiol. fish. 1:85-92. 47
Kudhongania A.W. and A.J. Cordone, Batho-spatial distribution patterns and 1974 biomass estimate of the major demersal fishes in Lake Victoria. Afr. J. Trop. Hydrobiol. Fish. 3: 15-31.
Ligtvoet W., M.J. van Oigne and Witte F., Structural changes in the food web 1989 of the Lake Victoria fish com7unity after the introduction of the Nile perch (Lates niloticus). In: Fish stocks and fisheries in Lake Victoria.A handbook tothe HEST/TAFIRI and FAO/DANIDA Regional Seminar, Mwanza, Tanzania, Jan./Feb. 1989.
Lowe - McConnell R.H.,Fish communitiesin tropical freshwater, Logman, 1975 London, 337 pp.
Marten G.G., Impact of fishing on the inshore fishery of lake Victoria (East 1979 Africa). J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 36 m
Mbahinzireki G.B., Bioecological studies of benthic invertebrates in Lakes 1990 Victoria, Kyyoga and Albert, in: Lake Productivity (Uganda/FW1) Project: 3-P-88-1036 Technical Report, March 1990, p 27-33.
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(Dganda/FWI) Project : 3-P-88-1036 Technical Report, March 1990, p 20-26.
Ndawula L.M., The role of invertebrate organisme in the fishery potential of 1990b Lake Victoria. Proceeding of a workshop on "Prevailing activities on the Lake Victoria basin with particular reference to the fisheries of the lake." Mwanza, Tanzania, 8-9 March 1990: 56-60.
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Ogutu-Ohwayo R. The effects of predation by Nile perch, Lates niloticus 1985 (Linne) introduced intoLakeKyoga andLakeVictoria. In: FAO/CIFA Report of the third session of the Sub-Committee for Dévelopment and Management of fisheries of Lakes Victoria. Jinja, Uganda, 4-5 October, 1984 pp 18-41. Fish Rep. 335. FAO, Rome
Ogutu-Ohwayo R., The decline of the native fish species of Lakes Victoria and 1990 Kyoga (East Africa) and:he impact of introducedspecies, especially the Nile perch,Lates niloticus and Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus. Environ. Biol. Fish. 27: 81-96.
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Okaronon J.O. and Kamanyi J., Recent trends in the fisheries of the northern 1986 portion of Lake Victoria (Uganda). UFFRO Seminar, November 1986.
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Simmons M., High ozone and acid-rain levels found over African rain forests. 1989 New York Times, vol. CXXXV111 No. 47,906. p 1.
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Ssentongo G.W. and Welcomme R.L., Past history and current trends in the 1985 fisheries of Lake Victoria. In: FAO/CIFA Report of the third session of the Sub-committee for the Development and Management of the Fisheries of Lake Victoria. Jinja, Uganda,4-5 October 1984, pp 123-138. fish. Rep. 335, FAO, Rome.
Tailing J.F., The annual cycle of stratification and phytoplankton growth 1966 in Lake Victoria (East Africa). Int. Revue gesHydrobiol., 51:545-621.
Tailing J.F.and Tailing I.B.,The chemical composition of African Lake 1965 waters. Int. Revue ges Hydrobiol. 50: 421-463.
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Welcomme R.L., Notes on present distribution and habits of the non-endemic 1964 species of Tilapia which have been introduced into Lake Victoria. E. Afr. Freshwat. Fish. Res. Org. Ann. Rep., 1962, 1963.
Welcomme R.L., The effects of rapidly changing water level in Lake Victoria 1969 upon the commercial catches of Tilapia (Pisces: Cichlidae). In/ L. Obeng (ed.) "Accra symposium" pp 242-250.
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Witte F., Initial results of the ecological survey of the haplochromines 1981 cichlid fishes from the Mwanza Gulf of Lake Victoria (Tanzania): breeding patterns, trophic and species distributions. Neth.J. Zool. 31: 175-202.
Witte F. Ecological differentiation in Lake Victoria haplochromines: a 1984 contribution to the comparison of cichlid species flocks in African Lakes. In: A.A. Echelle and 1. Kornfield (eds.) "Evaluation of fish species flocks." University of Maine at Orono Press, Orono. 49
Table 1: Morphometric,hydrological and physico-chemical parametersof Lake Victoria.
Latitude, Longitude 0°20'N-3°0'S; 31°39'-34°53'E Catchment area, Km2 263,000
Lake area 68,800
Max. Depth, 84
Mean depth, 40
Volume (V), Km3 2,752
Altitude, m 1,136
Temperature, °C 22 - 28
pH 8.0- 9.5
Conductivity, uS cm 91 - 98
Outflow (0), Km3 20
Inflow (I), Km3 20
Rainfall (R), Km2 (mm) 100 (1300)
Evaporation, Km2 (mm) (c.1300)
Flushing time (VIO), yrs 140
Residence time (V/R+1), yr 23
Solar radiation, cal Crn-'d-1 320 - 520
* Extracted from: Talling(1966);Becky Bugenyi(1989). 50
Table 2: The changing chemistry of Northern Lake Victoria over the last three decades in (a) pre-perch era (Talling & Talling 1965) and currently (Hecky & Bugenyi 1989, Bugenyi & Magumba 1990b).
(a) (b)
Na (mM) 0.450 0.340
K II 0.097 0.090
Ca 79 0.140 0.120
Mg 0.110 0.090
DIC 0.920
Cl 0.110 0.093
SO4. u 0.024 0.003
Fe ug 1-1 <10 35
Mn It <10
Alkalinity (me 1-1) 0.920 0.840
Si (M) 69.80 7.10
NO3, " 0.00 0.20 p04. 0.42 0.23
Total p (M) 1.52 1.13
Conductivity uS cm1 - 97 100 pH (at 0-20 m) 8.0-8.6 8.1-9.5 51
Table 3. Chemical compositon of rain and northern Lake Victoria*
Parameters Rain Northern Lake Victoria
pH 6.9 - (7.3) 8 - 9.5
Conductivity, us cm-1 16 - 59(43) 85 -, 120
Alkalinity, m eq 1-1 0.085-0.144 (0.114) 0.780 - 0.855
DIC, uM 1-1 130 - 230 (180) 855.- 1030
DOC, " 160 - 205 200 - 500
SRSI, mg 1-1 0.215 - 0.400 (0.307) 0.02 - 0.76
SRP, ug 1-1 155 - 500 (327) 2 - 9
TDP, 255 - 530 (342) 6 - 16
NO3.N," 185 - 272 (228) 0.5 - 5.0
SO4.S, mg 1-1 0.18 - 0.23 1.47
Cl, 3.29 - 3.53 1.31
Na 0.37 - 0.46 (0.41) 7.59 - 9.50
Ka, 0.70 - 2.09 (1.39) 3.14 - 5.60
Ca, u3.93 - 5.80 0.85
Mg, I I 2.16 - 2.55 0.12
Extracted from: Bugenyi & Magumba (1990b). 52
Table 4 : Changes in parameters that have led to changes in phytobiomass productivity (based on calculations by Dr. Hecky).
Historic Modern
At the offshore station
Secchi Transparency (m) 6.4-8.2 1.5-2.7
Light Extinction (m-1) 0.16-0.31 0.55
Oxygen 10m (mg 1-1) 6.5-7.5 6.3-7.9
Oxygen 40 tt 4.2-6.0 0.8-2.3
Chlorophyll 0-10m ug 1-1 1.2-4.5 11.0-22.0
SRSi 0-20m (uM) 71.4-82.4 0.6-8.2
Total P 0-20m ug-at 1-1 0.81-1.90 1.6-2.1
Mean Light Intensity (% surface light) 0.09 0.07
in inshore areas
(a) Pilkington Bay
Chlorophyll (ug 1-1) 10 - 15 25-70
Areal Productivity (g O. m-° d-1) 1.1 - 1.3 1.9-7.8
(b) Buvuma Channel
SRSi (uM) 53.6-71.4 0.7-10.7
Total P (ug-at.1-1) 0.81-3.06 0.94-2.12 53
Fig. 1 : Northern Lake Victoria showing sampling sites. PHASE 1 PH.L.SE 2 )
Depth (m)
Fig. 2 (a) : Temperature (°C): distribution with depth and time at the routine offshore station. Isotherms are inserted at intervals of =.2°C. Sampling dates are numbered above in sequence, with stippled blocks showing periods of change t more isothermal conditions. The three seasonal phases of thermal stratification are also indicated.
.1r
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Fig. 2 (b) : Above is the monthly max. and min. Temperature differences showing clearly months of isothermal stratification (A), and mixing (B) during pre-perch periods at the offshore station. 55
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Fig. 3 : Seasonal changes of some physical (a, b) and chemical (c, d, e) factors in relation to changes in the densit: of phytoplankton pigment (f). In c,d, and f, continueu: lines show the concentrations at 0 m depth, and broken lines average concentrations in the 0 - 20 m layer. In e, the content in the entire 0 - 60 m column is shown. PHY T °PLANK I ON Z OOP L ANK TCN INVE(2TEURATES- THOS- DE TZfl OTHER FIST-I CARIONA = 25 000 t MY RUS HAPLOCHROk,INI = 622 (100 t it,"-1/45MINLOBULA = 0 000 t CLARIAS/BAGRUS \ 2 600 C) = 71ILAPIII.II 900 C's t = 65 700 30 000 t )1,-1 NILE PERCH 2 000 t PRO I OP TERUS ii 20 000 cJ 2 600 t r-1 = 120 000 t /- 52 600 t o IvIULTIPLE SPECIES FISHERIES EXPLOI T ED \VII II MUL IPLE CLAW', CDco Fig. 4 : A simplified food web including possible biomass transfers in Lake Victoria (East Africa) S:Z: zeoplanktonprdwil D: detritus insect larvae gastropoda Fig 5 SimplifiedLake Victoria food fishweb ofcommunity the Ph: phytoplankton1: bivalves jo and their preys after the Lates
; L:72-27717:1=77-773, -7_ SchilbeClariasBag rus S.4. zooplanktivorouspiscivorousprawn-eating haplochromines haplochromines haplochromines 0/Ply upsurge. Theontheunbroken recent by virtuallytransition the lines.brokensituation all period,lines; species, is depictedwith is Lates represente The situation during the bold broken by the preyir 10 XenoclariasMormyridaeRastrineobolainsectivorous haplochromines ... preyslines atindicating tluit time. the most important I)* $. tj,6: .1 K -2 12.11. AplocheilichtysAfromastacembelus _ _ 21. detritivorous/phytoplankti- 16.14.13.15. ClariabellesAlestesBarbus sp. sp. 23.22. vorousGarrapelagic haplochromines pytoplanktivorous haplochromines 17. 18. Synodontis afrofisheri Synodontis victoriae Prolopterus 24. 25. 26. Labeo Oreochromis 19. Oreochromis variabilisleucostictus 20. molluscivorousRarbus altianalls haplcurhomines 27. 28. 29. Tilapia Oreochromis Oreochromis niloticus esculentus 31. juvenile Lat.( 58
Fig. 6 : Monthly max. and min. Temperature differences showing clearly months of isothermal stratifications A and mixing B at present at the offshore station. In (a) is shown anoxic depths (35 - 60) during stratification (October) and in (b) during mixing when DO occurs at every depth.
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et 59
Appendix 3.3 TRENDS IN FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT, PROSPECTS AND LIMITATIONS FOR LAKE VICTORIA (UGANDA SECTOR)
By
A.W. Kudhongania, UFFRO, Jinja
and
E.J. Coenen, FAO/UNDP Project UGA/87/007, Entebbe
INTRODUCTION
When talking about fishery resources, one should be conscious of the fish stocks, the water environment and man as the final beneficiary. The ultimate objective of fishery development is the total sum of improvements in the benefits to society from fishery exploitation together with the safeguards to sustain the resource. Benefits would be defined in terms of increased fish yield, provision of more employment or increased nutritional opportunities which are sustainable. These may be achieved, among other factors, through efficient fishing methods, minimization of post-harvest losses and sound management strategies. In turn, efficient exploitation and management regimes can be formulated only through effective and continuing research activities. Research is therefore a very essential element for rational fishery exploitation, management and development.
The national development objective of the fisheries sector is"to contribute to the exploitation of fishery resources for export, creation of employment and as a major source of food and animal protein" (MPED, 1987; MPED, 1989).
In this paper,trends in the development of the fisheries of Lake Victoria (Uganda) have been reviewed. Bottlenecks in the development process have been highlighted. The future prospect of the fishery has been discussed and some recommendations have been made.
HISTORICAL TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FISHERIES OF LAKE VICTORIA (UGANDA).
2.1 Early Exploitation of the Fishery
Although it is not certain when fisheries exploitation on Lake Victoria actually started, it is quite clear that the fishery on the lake was entirely artisanal, basicallyinshore and exploited amultispecies ichtyofauna. Relative good catches were obtained using simple fishing gears and craft,and with little fishing effort.
The indigenous fishing gears included basket traps, hooks, seine nets of papyrus, and spears. These gears were operated by wading throughthe very shallow inshore waters. But the method was soon supplanted by usingdug-out canoes and the sewn-plank type boats. These were propelledby paddles. This innovation enabled fishing in slightly deeper waters. During theearly days, transport of fish was done entirely by foot and headload so thatthe fishery benefited mainly the people near the lake shore. Most of the fishingat this 60
Fish processing was in some way a means of developing the fishery beyond subsistence fishing limitations. The most common method of curing fish was either by hot-smoking over open fires or sun-drying. Large fish was smoked or sun-dried after splitting the individuals. Apart from lengthening the shelf life and thus facilitating the transport of fish to distant markets, smoking and suun-drying impart characteristic flavours to the fish and have remained the principal traditional processing methods in Uganda for along time (Ssemakula, 1967; Ssali and Ssewankambo, 1991). However, some modifications' in the smoking kilns, salting and sun-drying have been made.
It is necessary to note that there was no documented mechanism for the collection, compilation and analysis of fishery statistics data during the early days of the fishery. As such, the various statistical variables for the period are not known although it is apparent that the fishery was quite lucrative.
2.2 Developments in the Artisanl Fishery
The earliest significant development of Lake Victoria fisheries in Uganda was the introduction of the imported flax gill-nets in 1910 (Graham, 1929). But it is claimed that Captain B. Whitehouse was the first individual to use a net on Lake Victoria sometime between 1898 (Graham, 1927,p. 17). Because gill-nets were more efficient in exploiting the fishery resources than the indigenous fishing gears, the flax gill-nets were soon followed by nets locally made of khaki sewing-cotton. The gill-nets were particularly good for exploiting the abundant Oreochromis esculentus stocks although other fish species such asBagrus docmac edwardianus,Clarias mossambicus and O. variabilis could also be netted. Gill-nets opened the way for commercial exploitation of the fisheries. In addition to gill-nets, the non-selective beach seines were also introduced during the early 1920s. Fishing operations were further developped by the introduction of the more efficient synthetic fibre (Nylon) gill-nets in 1952 (Mann, 1969). Apart from the higher efficiency in catch rate, the synthetic twine nets last longer than those made from natural fibres (flax, cotton).
While modifications in the fishing gears were taking place, fishing craftwerealso beingimproved. Frame-and-plank canoeswere gradually developed to supplement the dug-out canoes. Plankedcanoescould be constructed to larger sizes than that of dug-out canoes, were more durable, more stable and', with the introduction of out-board engines in 1953 (Mann, 1970), the fishermen could venture further into deeper waters. The use of motorized fishing vessels enabled quicker deliveries of the catch to the markets.
Developments in the fishinggearsand craftwereencouraged by increasing demand for fish which was stimulated by the growth of urban centres along the lake shore. The growth of urban centres was accompanied by the gradual development of road and rail infrastructures and the increasing use of bicycles and motor vehicles from the 1920s which increased the range for fish distribution (Crutchfield, 1959).
2.3 Earliest Research and Management Efforts
Fishery research and management are always necessary for sustainable fishery exploitation and development. ThisLsbecause fishery resources are very fragile to exploitationif the basic biological intricacies of the 61
available stocks are not taken into account. Modern approaches of resource assesment and management, traditionally geared toward biological assessment, now also include economic and socialaspects as a requirement for the formulation of sound strategies and practices aimed at sustainable fisheries exploitation, management and development (FAO 1991). Between investigations on fish stocks and socio-economic aspects is the need to examine the dynamics of the water environment (Kitaka, 1972).
The earliest fisheries research work on Lake Victoria was carried out by short-term expeditions from Europe and mainly for taxonomic work. The first detailed research survey on the lake was conducted by Mr. M. Graham and his assistant, Mr. E.B. Worthington, in 1927-1928 (Graham,1929) when the most important commercial fishspecies (Oreochromis esculentus) wasthought threatened. Later on, it was found necessary to establisha research station (EAFRO) at Jinja in 1947. At the same time the Lake Victoria Fisheries Board, which eventually became the Lake Victoria Fisheries Service, was formed for the purpose of collecting catch statistics and to harmonise and enforce any legislation imposed on the industry (EAFFRO, 1967).
The major management recommendation made following the research survey by Graham (1929) was the setting of the minimum gill-net mesh size at 127 mm or 5 inch (stretched). This measure was aimed at protecting the O. esculentus fishery and was implemented in 1930 (Game Dept. Ann. Rept., 1930, p. 23). But there was no comprehensive legislation to co-ordinate the enforcement of the management policy by the three riparian states (Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda) particularly with the difficulty of policing a body of water of the size of Lake Victoria. In addition, the multispecies character of the fishery, where various fish species matured at different size ranges, posed constraints for imposing a management policy based on the protection of a single fish species in a multispecies fishery. Consequently, the restriction was repealed in 1956 in order to enable the full exploitation of those other species which matured atsmaller sizesthan O. esculentus. The decisionto repealthe only management measure left the ground open for uncontrolled fishing practices which led to the continued use of smaller and smaller gill-net mesh sizes. Uncontrolled fishing practices have continued to this day.
The expected consequence of lifting the gill-net mesh size restriction, as predicted by Beverton (1959) and Garrod (1960), was the continued decline of the stocks of O. esculentus and numerous other fish species (Whitehead, 1959) due to over-fishing. In order to replenish the declining tilapia stocks, four exotic tilapiine species (O. niloticus, O. leucostictus, Tilapla and I. melanopleura) were introduced into Lake Victoria during the early 1950s (EAFFRO, 1964). The positive results of this management move were short-lived since only one tilapiine fish species eventually remained in the lake in commercial quantities.
Another significant management measure aimed at supplementing the declining tilapia catches was the introduction of Nile perch, Lates niloticus, into the lake during 1962 and 1963 (Gee, 1964). It was generally known that there were considerable stocks of haplochromines in Lake Victoria which were not being effectively exploited bythe artisanal fishery. Oneof the attractive ideas of how to utilize the abundant haplochromine stocks was the introduction of the predator (Lates). The predator would convert 7.he small haplochromines into the large Nile perch which would be easier to catch. The introduction of the Nile perch into Lake Victoria was a very controversial issueandthe assessment of its impacton the fisheryhas hadvery 62
contradicting interpretations (see Kudhongania et. al, 1988).
2.4 Attempts to Develop the Lake Victoria Fisheries Beyond the Artisanal Level.
Until 1949 the Lake Victoria fisheries industry was still entirely artisanal. The artisanal fishery (i) was more or less confined to the inshore waters of the lake,(ii) was mainly a canoe and gill-net fishery with beach seining, long-lining and other traditional fishing method as secondary, and (iii) had limited handling, storage, processing and marketing infrastructures. Several attempts were, therefore, made in order to develop the Lake Victoria fisheries beyond the scope of its artisanal character.
2.4.1 Deep-water gill-net fishery
A deep-water gill-net fishery, based on Dagusi Island and aimed at exploiting the open water Mormyrus stocks, was set up in 1949. The successful exploitation of deep-water stocks was expected to relieve the fishing pressure from the inshore fishery. But in 1951 the scheme had to be abandoned because it was not commercially viable. The venture was apparently being undertaken without the support of sufficient scientific information, coupled with other logistical problems (EAFFRO, 1967).
2.4.2 The Uganda Development Corporation trawl fishery
In 1953 the Uganda Development Corporation set up a trawl fishery based on Dagusi Island. The anticipated composition of the catch was Bagrus and Mormyrus to be processed by kippering and haplochromines to be processed into fish meal (Jackson,1972). This project was attractive because it was to exploit the untapped offshore stocks. It was also introducing trawling as a novel commercial fishing technique (mechanized fishing) which would eventually be developed into large scale operations. However, the enterprise closed down after two years oftrials because it was not economically viable.The development plan had been implemented on the strength of inadequate scientific data (EAFFRO, 1976).
2.4.3 Masese ice-making plant
During the late 1960s, the Uganda Fisheries Department (UFD), with assistance from external donors, set up an ice-making plant at Masese, near Jinja. The purpose of the ice was to enable fishmongers to preserve their fish ,better. This would have stimulated fish transport in fresh form to distant markets and safeguarded the traders from selling their fish at give-away prices at times of glut, or when the catch was landed late for the markets.
Although the pilot ice-making plant was an excellent fisheries extension service development appropriate to the situation of tropical high temperatures, the system was not viable due to a number of problems, including the negative traditional attitude towards chilled or frozen fish (UFD, 1971).
2.4.4 Canning of haplochromines
The existence of large quantities of haplochromine stocks which were not being exploited effectively by the artisanalfishery wasof tremendous interest. Graham (1929, p.22) had suggested catching the haplochromines for manure in Colonial Kenya's agricultural developments. Greenwood (1966, P. 63
117), on the other hand, considered that allowing the haplochromines to die naturally, would maintain the fertility of the lake.
These options were not considered to be appropriate. Therefore,in addition to the introduction of the Nile perch (2.3 above) another attractive idea promoted was the canning of the haplochromines (like sardines). For this purpose, experiments were carried out between 1965 and 1968 on canning and the acceptability of canned haplochromine, and a small ferro-cement trawler (m.v. TILAPIA) was constructed as a prototype for commercial trawlers for the canning industry. In the end, however, the idea of canning was discarded when studies showed that the cost of the empty can, which had to be imported, would be higher than the price of the fish it would contain (Gee and Gilbert, 1968). This finding is still relevant for guiding prospective investors in the fishery sector of the economy.
2.4.5 Proposal for fishmeal production from haplochromines
Following the lakewide stock assessment survey of 1969-1971 by EAFFRO whose preliminary results suggested that the stocks of the haplochromines comprised slightly more than 80 %ofthe ichtyomassin Lake Victoria (Kudhongania and Cordone, 1974), the interest for industrial exploitation of the haplochromine stocks was greatly stimulated.Since canning of the haplochromines had been found to be uneconomic, a more viable alternative use had to evolved.
It was therefore proposed that the stocks of haplochromines could be exploited for fishmeal production. However, theproposalwasstrongly discouraged (Kudhongania and Cordone, 1974) on the following grounds:
Fishmeal production was trophically uneconomic The Nile perch had already been introduced into the lake to feed on the haplochromines The haplochromine stocks were not resilient enough to withstand heavy predation by the Nile perch and industrial exploitation at the same time.
The proposed fishmeal plant was, therefore, not constructed. And recent trends in the haplochromine stocks (Okaronon et al, 1985) clearly demonstrate that the discouragement was correctly conceived.
2.4.6 Fish filleting and freezing
Although freezingis an old,well established practicefor fish preservation, it was not until the 1970's that the method was adopted on Lake Victoria (Uganda) by commercial enterprises. Frozen Foods Ltd. was established in Kampala around 1973 to process frozen tilapia fillets. The product was mainly for the export market to Nairobi and the local super-markets and tourist hotels.
At about the same time, two other firms, namely Afro-Fish and Fish Co, also based in Kampala, were involved in similar operations although at more limited scales.
Unfortunately, the three firms collapsed at about the same time around 1976 due to the national problems of the time which made it difficult for the operations to continue profitably. 64
2.4.7 Kampala ice plant and fish market
During the early 1980's another ice plant was constructed in Kampala for the purpose of supplying ice and feezing facilities to the artisanal fishing industry. Retail market stalls were also constructed as components of the ice plant in order to serve as a central fish market for the city of Kampala. This infrastructure was expected to improve fish storage and marketing facilities for the growing city and its suburbs.
Unfortunately, up to now the Kampala ice plant, although operational, has not benefited the targeted artisanal fishing industry communities for-the following reasons:
The advantages of using ice have notyet been fully grasped or appreciated by the artisanal fishing communites.
Although limited quantities of fresh, frozen and smoked fish can be purchased from the plant itself, the retail market stalls could not be used successfully because the plant is located away from the major residential areas of the city.
Accordingly, instead of serving the artisanal fishing induety, most of the ice produced at the plant is sold to hotels, bars and vendors for soft drinks.
2.4.8 Industrial/mechanized fishing
In 1987, the Sino-UgandaFisheries joint Venture Co. Ltd. was established in Entebbe. The long-term objective of the joint venture is to develop an integrated industrial fish harvesting, processing and marketing venture for both local and export considerations. It was planned that fishing would be carried out by the pair trawling method and the operations would be confined to the off-shore deep waters.
Results of the preliminary pair-trawling operations have however been different from expectations
Trawling off-shore appears to be discouraging, partly due to the longer distances to be covered in steaming and partly to the poor catch rates in deep-waters (Kudhongania & Cordone, 1974). Out of the first 31 trips,15 were made in waters shallower than 20m (Reynolds and Ssali, 1990). Pair-trawl fishing in inshore water has already resulted in several complaints from and conflicts with the artisanal fishermen.
The mean catch per one-day trip has been only 266 kg although it was assumed that the average catch rate would be around 500 kg/hr.
The apparent preference to trawl inshore due to the low catch rates in the deep waters imposes a question mark on the long-term viability of pair- trawling as a fishing technique for fishery developments on Lake Victoria. The answer to the question mark may be found from furthertrials in pair-trawl fishing operations so that the necessary adjustments and improvements inthe fishing technique could be made. It would also depend on whether there are adequate fish stocks in the off-shore deep waters of the lake to sustain commercial trawl fishing in economic terms. 65
2.4.9 Fish processing plants
Very recently, a number of processing plants have been coming up in Entebbe, Kampala and Jinja. The development of the processing plants has been encouraged by the increased levels of catches of Nile perch and Nile tilapia from Lake Victoria and by the existence of numerous export markets abroad. Apart from the Kampala Ice Plant, there are four fish processing plants now in operation (see below). Two others are expected to be operational very soon, the Nge-ge Ltd. in Port Bell, Kampala (28 tonnes/day capacity and the Samaki Industries Ltd. in the Industrial Area, Kampala (20 tonnes/day capacity). Six other investors have been authorized to establish their processing plants and several others have already submitted their application (mAAIF, 1991; Ssali & Ssewankambo, 1991). All depend on the artisanal commercial landing for the needed wet fish for processing. The artisanal fishermen are, therefore, assured of ready markets for their catch. The four presently operational plants are the following (Reynolds & Ssali, 1990):
Quality Foods (U) Ltd.
This is a private firm situated near Entebbe. It was established in 1987 with an installed capacity of at least 5 tons of raw materials per day. It has been involved in the supply of fresh chilled fish for export markets since 1989. Frames are also sold locally while dried swim bladders are exported.
Gomba Fishing Industries Ltd.
Thisis another private firm located in Jinja. With an installed capacity of25tons of wet fish per day,the plant started its trial operations during the latter half of1990. The fish is delivered by the artisanal fishing community either to the plant or at selected landing centres from where it is collected by Goma transport boats.
The processing plant is rigged to produce cold and hot-smoked fillets or split whole fish (Nile tilapia and Nile perch) for both export and local urban markets. In addition, Nile perch swim bladders are dried and the skin tanned for export while the offals and frames are processed into fishmeal for the local markets.
Uganda Fisheries Enterprises Ltd.
The Uganda Fisheries Enterprises Ltd. (UFEL) is a Government parastatal based at Masesefish landing which is on the outskirts of Jinja town. UFEL is a component of the Italian-funded Integrated Fisheries DevelopmentProject which aims at improvements in fish handling, storage and processing in Uganda.
The Masese processing plant has an installed capacity of 6 tons of wet fish per day. The infrastructure of the enterprise has provisions for three fish collecting centres elsewhere and three distribution centres for marketing of the products for local consumption. Insulated trucks transport thefish to the desired destinations.
Tests on the operations of the plant were carried out during thefirst half of 1990 and trial processing was conducted towards the end of the year. The plant produces cold smoked and vacuum-packed fillets of Nileperch and Nile tilapia for both export and domestic markets. Small Nile tilapia are split or processed whole. 66
iv) Victoria Fresh Foods Ltd.
Victoria Fresh Foods Ltd. is another private enterprise and is situated on the shores of Lake Victoria at Gaba near Kampala. Construction work of the plant was completed at the end of 1990 with an installed capacity of 25 tons of wet fish per day. The plant is designed to process the fish into chilled and frozen fillets and other similar products aimed mostly at the export markets overseas.
Although there are four (4) processing plants (five if Kampala Ice Plant is counted) already in operation and two more are about ready to start, interest is still growing to put up more fish processing plants (see above) ) also based on Nile perch and Nile tilapia. In addition, some other interest groups are investigating opportunities for the exploitation and export of Rastrineobola argentea (Mukene). These interests need to be weighed carefully in the context of future, sustainable fishery development.
2.5 Recent Trends in the Catch
During the last 30 years, annual fish catches from the Uganda part of Lake Victoria have increased Nore than five-fold: from an estimate of 25,500 tons in 1961 to maximum of 132,400 tons in 1989 (Table 1). Dramatic increases in the annual catch occurred from 1983 onwards' when most of the traditional fish species had declined to insignificant levels. The bulk of the growing tonnage has been contributed by the increasing catches of the introduced Nile perch and Nile Tilapia. In 1983, for instance, Nile perch contributed 60% of total commercial landings at Masese followed by Nile tilapia at 15%. The statistics of the Uganda Fisheries Department show a sudden increase in Nile perch catches as from 1983, contributing up to 1990 for 70 - 80% of the recorded catches. For the same period, the records show a steady increase in the contribution of Tilapia in the recorded catches, from 2% in 1983 up to 21% in 1990, and a steady decline of Bagrus, before an important commercial species. Based on the results of the Lake Victoria FISHIN market survey (Kirema-Mukasa & Reynolds,1990), carried out in 1990, the (year by year increasing) total catch of Rastrineobola argentea in 1990 for the Uganda part of Lake Victoria is estimated at around 8,500 tonnes.
It is very important to re-emphasize that while the diversity of the fish species caught was drastically declining, the total annual yields were increasing dramatically.
Available stock assessment data have indicated that Lake Victoria, which traditionally was a multispecies fishery, has now developed into a three species fishery (namely Nile perch, Nile tilapia and Rastrineobola argentea). Most other fish species have declined to insignificant proportions. For instance, the once preponderant haplochromines have declined from the orginal 80% of the total inchtyomass (see 2.4.5) to only 1%, at least for the Kenya waters of Lake Victoria (Achieng, 1990).
With regard to the fishing pressure which is estimated in terms of the total number of fishing canoes, there has been a significant increase between 1971, when an aerial survey was conducted by EAFFRO/FAO (Wetherall, 1972) and 1990 when an on-water Frame Survey (FS) was carried out by UF0/FAO (UGA/87/007 Biostat Group, 1991). Data presented in Table 2 show the extent of the increases in the estimated total number on landings, fishing canoes and the average catch per canoe/day, and the decline in the average number of canoes 67
per landing. The apparent decline in the average number of canoes per landing suggests that new landings have been created faster than new fishing canoes and, therefore, that there has been a tendency for fishermen (canoes) to move from old landings to new ones. The overall picture that by 1990 more than 100,000 people were engaged either directly or indrectly and either on full- time or part-time basis, in the fishing industry on Lake Victoria (Uganda). However, a disturbing statistic is the decline in the average size of the fish caught. Five years ago the average size of the Nile perch landed was about 9 kg and by 1990 the size of the Nile perch landed was about 9 kg and by 1990 the size had declined to only 2 kg (Okaronon, Pers. Comm., 1991). This means that the larger size classes of the Nile perch have almost been substantially reduced. This is one of the signs of over-fishing.
3. BOTTLENECKS FOR NATIONAL FISHERY DEVELOPMENT
Fisheries development is not alaissez-faire undertaking. Itis a strategyinvolving active processes of checks and balancesleading to improvements in the social, economic and nutritional status of the community whileallowing the perpetuation of the fishery resources for future generations. Numerous bottlenecks may interfere with the development strategy.
3.1 Non-use of Scientific Informatioh
Sustainable fisheries exploitation must always go hand-in-hand with fisheries research.In a number of cases, fishery exploitation plans are implemented where scientificinformation is eithercompletely lacking, inadequate or available but not applied (see examples under 2.4).
The Uganda part of Lake Victoria has experienced this problem in the following fishery development ventures:
Deep water gill-net fishery for Mormyrus (1949-1951), The Uganda Development corporation Trawl Fishery (1953-1955), Masese ice-making plant (1968-1971), Kampala ice plant and, Pair-trawling venture (1989-Present).
These experiences strongly suggest that fishery management and development decision makers should avoid implementing exploitation ventures without the necessary backing from scientific data. Therefore, collaboration between the Fisheries Department and Fisheries Research Institutions should be strengthened.
3.2 Lack of Stock Assessment Data
Itis virtually impossible to determine the appropriate levels of fishery exploitation in the absence of biological stock assessment data, complemented by information on economic and social aspects of the fishery. This lack arises from the limited available means and facilities for research, statistical data processing (collection, compilation, analysis and dissemination), and man-power training for both research and extension services. It is unfortunate that even large scale development ventures,such as the establishment of processing plants andmechanized fishing in deep waters, have been structured and implemented without any stock assesment/socio-economic data and little or nothing in the way of preliminary feasibility studies. 68
There is strong need to support and strengthen research and other relevant services and their mutual collaboration/co-ordination in order to develop fishery exploitation strategies suitable for the available stocks. As a short-term solution, the EEC is likely to finance a project for assessing the stocks of Lake Victoria in the near future.
3.3 Lack of Fishing Gear
Without suitable fishing gear, the exploitation of fish stocks cannot be developed. The Uganda Fishnet Manufacturers Ltd.(UFM) was brought into existence as a Government parastatal in order to manufacture the required nets for the Uganda fishing industry. Due to logistical and management problems, the fishnet factory is not able to supply nets in the desired quantities. It produces only 50 thousand instead of the required 1.2 million pieces per year of assorted sizes (Biribonwoha, 1991). As a remedy, nets have continued to be imported in order to supplement the locally produced materials.
A rehabilitation project of UFM, valued at about 5 million US dollars and to be financed by the African Development Bank (ADB), was recently proposed. In order to avoid bad experiences as those happening in the past (see 2.4),a detailed feasibility study (to see if nets can be produced cheaper locally,with imported raw, materials and machinery,rather than importing the nets fromabroad) hopefullywill be undertakenbefore implementing this undertaking.
3.4 The Changing Limnology of Lake Victoria
Changes in the fish stocks of Lake Victoria have been accompanied by changes in the limnology of the lake. Recent studies by UFFRO, under Lake Productivity Project being financed by IDRC,show that there has been increased turbidity in the offshore waters due to increased phytoplankton biomass (Drs. Heck and Bugenyi, pers. Comm., 1990). The excess phytoplankton which cannot be consumed simply decays, leading to deoxygenation of the water. It has been further observed that the thermocline, particularly in the offshore waters, has been rising so that both the pelagic and demersal fish stocks are threatened. Raising the thermocline reduces the volume of the epilimniotic water which is properly oxygenated, through mixing, and increases the volume of the water below the thermocline (hypolimnion) which does not freely mix and is poor in oxygen. This is affecting more than 50% of the lake and is responsible for the more periodic massive fish kills in recent years.
Lake Victoria core studies have suggested that eutrophication could have started around 1970 and changes in phytoplankton community around 1980 (Dr. Hecky, pers. Comm., 1991). Since the changes in lake limnology have not yet reached a stable state, it is not yet clear how extensively the lake would be affected and, therefore, the net fish biomass that could be supported by the changed ecosystem_ This uncertainty calls for a very cautious approach when considering additional investments aimed at the Lake Victoria fisheries.
3.5 Other Developments Affecting the Lake Victoria Environment
There are numerous development activities which may affect the lake environment either directly or indirectly. These include urban and industrial developments, increasing agricultural and deforestation activities, soil erosion, etc. These mayleadtofurther eutrophicationandturbidity, sil':ation or other forms of water pollution. 69
Within the objective of sustaining the water environment for fisheries and other uses, there is strong need to monitor and harmonize the different activities that may affect the lake water system.
3.6 Lake Victoria as a Shared Resource
The shared nature of. Lake Victoria by three countries,each with different economic approaches, makesit difficultto implement uniform strategies for the exploitation, management and development of the resource. Unfortunately, fish stocks do not respect political boundries while significant events in one' part of the.lake may eventually spread to other parts with time.
The solution to this bottleneck is the development of sound cooperation among the riparian states in research and management activities.
3.7 Water Hyacinth in Lake Victoria
The water hyacinth (Eichhorniacrassipes) invaded the north-western part of Lake Victoria around 1989. The weed is believed to have entered the lake from the Kagera Riyer and it is rapidly spreading towards the East and South.
The implications of the water hyacinth to water transport on the lake, to the hydroelectric dam at Jinja, juvenile fish, fishing operations, etc. are quite serious. It is both essential and urgent that necessary measures are taken to eliminate the weed from both Lake Victoria and Kagera River as a cooperative undertaking by the riparian states.
Through the initiative of Project UGA/87/007, an emergency proposal on water hyacinth surveillance and control/eradication (Reynolds & Coenen, 1991) was channeled to FAO Headquarters, Rome with a request from the Government of Uganda for urgent assistance. The proposal has been approved and has now realized as Project TCP/UGA/9153 (A) with the main objectives being the formulation of a nationalplan for the surveillance, control and/or eradication of the weed infestation and, if necessary, the formulation of a long-term project proposal.
3.8 Post-harvest Losses
It has been estimated that between 10% and 20% of the total fish landed by the artisanal fishermen is not availble for consumption due to post-harvest losses(Dr. Ssali, pers. comm., 1990).If this loss was saved,it would constitute a significant increase in marketable fish.
The artisanal fishery needs to solve the wide-spread post-harvest losses through effective extension services on how to prevent/reduce these losses and on the use of ice for handing and storage of fish.
3.9 Lack of effective Management Measures
Since 1956,when the 127 mm(5 inch) stretched gill-net mesh-size restriction was repealed,there has been no other effectively enforced management measure for the exploitation ofthe Lake Victoria resources. Although there still exists a "theoretical" ban on beach seining and night fishing, prolonged unrestricted fishing practices led to the increase in undesirable fishing methods which may have caused the dramatic decline in the 70
stocks of the traditional fish species (Kudhongania et al., 1988).
4. FUTURE PROSPECTS FOR THE LAKE VICTORIA (UGANDA) FISHERIES
The future prospects for any exploited fishery depend on a number of factors. These include (i) the magnitude and nature of the available stocks, (ii) the characteristics,of the water environment, (iii) mode and tempo of exploitation, (iv) the levelofresearch and (v) effectiveness ofthe management strategies.
While the magnitude of the Lake Victotia fish stocks is not known, it is almost certain that some stocks are being exploited at or beyond their maximum sustainable yield levels. The existing stocks are dominated by Nile perch/Nile tilapia/Rastrineobola in a clear predator/prey relationship. But the delicate nature of exploited predator/prey systems must be appreciated. The current commercial fishery is heavily dependent on the Nile perch and Nile tilapia, while the Nile perch stocks are greatly supported by Rastrineobola as a prey species. Heavy, industrial exploitation of the Rastrineobola stocks as well could endanger the future prosperity of the Nile perch fishery.
However, the existence of commercially sustainable fisheries based on predator/prey sytems in Lake Tanganyika (Bayona, 1988; Roest, 1988), Albert, Turkana and elsewhere, suggests that the Lake Victoria current fish stocks could coexist at certain equilibrium levels.
Tropical fish stocks are easily over-fished (Crowley,1983) as has already been demonstrated by the stocks of Lakes George, Wamala, Kyoga and Victoria. The prospects to sustain the new Lake Victoria fishery will depend on whether the fishing pressure does not exceed the resilience of the fishable stocks. It is quite clear that the recent ventures in fish processing plants for the export markets have developed in the absence of any scientific and socio-economic data to define appropriate levels of exploitation. Management will have to strike a balance between the artisanal fishing activities for the local market needs and the growing industrial pressure forthe export interests.
In addition, changes in the limnology leading to the deoxygenation of a large part of the lake, urban effluents, increasing agricultural run-offs, atmospheric fall-out, etc., will influence the magnitude of the fish stocks that could be supported by Lake Victoria. It follows that an understanding of these factors and the development of appropriate means to control them would contribute positively to the future prospects for the Lake Victoria fisheries.
5. RECOMMENDATIONS
From the information presented above, the following recommendations could be made
5.1 Research Information
Research information is always needed to guide fishery exploitation, management and development strategies within the magniture and characteristics of the available stocks. Therefore,the level of commitment for evolving effective research, management and extension services should be improved. For this reason cooperation between the research and management organs need to be clearly defined and strengthened, e.g. by installing a Permanent Fishery 71
Committee (consisting of UFD/UFFRO/other research institutions delegates) that should pre-study and give advice on the possible feasibility of any national fishery development proposal.
5.2 Fishing Gear Restriction and Law Enforcement
The apparent signs of over-exploitation strongly suggest the need for management measures in order to sustain the commercial viability of the fishery. In this regard, the setting up of the minimum stretched gill-net mesh size at 127 mm for the exploitation of Nile tilapia and Nile perch and at 10 mm for the seine-nets to exploit Rastrineobola, as recommended by Ogutu-Ohwayo et al 1989), should be considered for immediate implementation. Another aspect that could be considered is the prohibition of selling, transporting and possessing illegal gear.
At the same time, however, the law enforcement procedures for these proposed measuresshould be strengthened. The present law enforcement capacities of the fisheries officers in the field, who are data collectors and extension workers supposedly operating in an atmosphere of mutual trust and understanding with the fishermen, are extemely limited. The only solution for effective fisheries regulation law enforcement is probably the creation of an independant Law Enforcement Unit within the UFD.
5.3 Industrial Exploitation of Rastrineobola
Rastrineobola is a major prey for the Nile perch which has become an important fish species for both export and local market. Presently, even with a ban on night fishing in place, it seems that the artisanal lightfishing for this species around the islands is increasing. This ban should now be lifted and the artisanal exploitation of this species, with a rapid turnover, should be encouraged. However, industrial exploitation of Rastrineobola should not be authorized before the results of the planned stock assessment for Lake Victoria are known.
5.4 Artisanal vs Industrial Processing Ventures
The development of theindustrialprocessing enterprises on Lake Victoria has been too rapid, particularly in the absence of scientific data to justify the increasing levels of exploitation. The artisanal fishery and local market requirements should not be jeopardized by the export market incentives. Moreover, the plants currently operating are not even working at their full capacities. They are running at 25 tons per day instead of their installed capacity of 61tons daily (Borel de Bitche, pers. comm., 1991). Therefore, until it has been justified by stock assessment data, no further industrial processing plants should be allowed. A simple oriterion is whether the existingprocessing plantsare operatingat their full installed capacities while the local market demands are also being met.
5.5 Trawl Fishing in Lake Victoria
On socio-economic as well as biological grounds,commercial trawl fishing in waters shallower than 20 m should be completely prohibited. And if there are no economically trawlable fish stocks in the deep off-shore waters, trawling as a commercial fishing technique has to be reconsidered. 72
5.6 Co-ordination and Monitoring in the Management of the Lake Victoria Environment
The changing limnology of Lake Victoria and its possible consequences on the future of the fish stocks are rather testing. Within the objectives to sustain and enhance the water environment for both fish production and other uses, there is the need to co-ordinateand monitor all activities (agricultural,industrial, etc.) which may either directly or indirectly affect the LakeVictoriawater environment. This should involve the cooperation of Agriculture, Urban Development, Industry, Transport, Forestry and Fisheries with UFFRO as the possible co-ordinating and monitoring agent.
5.7 Improvements in Fish Handling and Storage
Improvements in fish handling to minimize post-harvest losses could increase the quantity of marketable fish by 10%-20% as compared to the current levels without any additional fishing effort. It is, therefore, desirable to improve the present handling and storage methods, inclusive of the use of ice and cold facilities, in order to achieve maximum utilization of the landed catches. The success of the use of ice and cold storage facilities would depend on adequate campaign to educate the fishmongers and consumers on the advantages of chilling or freezing fish.
5.8 Cooperative Management Strategy
The shared nature ofthe Lake Victoria resources requires shared responsibilities for effective management. The spirit of cooperation in management of the Lake Victoria fishery resources should be cultivated and encouragedamong the three riparian states, most preferably by the establishment of a Regional Lake Victoria management body.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
we are thankful to Dr. T. Twang° and Dr. J.E. Reynolds for their useful comments on the manuscript. We are also grateful to IDRC for financing the Nile perch and Lake Productivity studies and to UNDP/FAO for the funding/execution of the UGA/87/007 Project. However, findings and views expressed in this paper are completely our own. 73
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Achieng A.P., The impact of the introduction of Nile perch, Lates Niloticus 1990 (L.) on the fisheries of Lake Victoria. Journal of Fish Biology, Vol. 37, Supplement A: 17 - 23.
Bayona J.D.R., A review of the biology, productivity and fish predation in 1988 Lake Tanganyika. CIFA Occ. Paper No.15: 1-17
Beverton R.J.H., Report on the state of the Lake Victoria Fisheries (Mimeo). 1959 Fisheries Laboratory, Lowestoft.
Biribonwoha A.R., A Review of Fisheries Inputs in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. 1991 UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP). RAF/87/099-TD/20/91 (En):51 p.
Bugenyi F.W.B., Mystery in Lake Victoria water explained. Weekly Topic 3: 1-2 1986
CIFA, Report of the 5th Session of CIFA Sub-Committee for Lake Victoria, 1989 Mwanza, Tanzania, 12-14 Sept. 1989.
Crowly M., Management plan still at limbo as red snapper landings drop. Natl. 1983 Fisherman (U.S.A.), 63(2): 10 - 11.
Crutchfield J.A., Report on fish marketing in Uganda. Rome, FAO (Mimeo). 1959 EAFFRO (1964) EAFFRO Annual Report, 1964.
EAFFRO,The history and research results of the East African Freshwater 1967 Research Organisation from 1946-1966. EAFFRO Occ. Paper No. 2.
FAO, Fish for Food and Development. Strategy and Action Programmes for
1991 Fisheries. FAO, Rome: 1 - 48.
Game Department, Annual Report of the Game Department for the year ended 31st 1931 December, 1930. Entebbe, Government Printer, Uganda, 1931: 24 p.
Gerrod D.J., The fisheries of Lake Victoria, 1954-1959. E. Afr. Agric. For. 1960 J., 26: 42-48.
Gee J.M., Nile perch investigations. EAFFRO Ann. Rept: 14 - 24. 1964
Gee J.M. & M.P. Gilbert, The establishment of a commercial fishery for 1968 Haplochromis in the Uganda waters of Lake Victoria. Part II of 1967. EAFFRO Occ. Paper No. 8.
Graham M., The Victoria Nyanza and its fisheries. A Report on the fishery 1929 survey of Lake Victoria 1927-1928. Crown Agents, London.
Greenwood P.H., The Fisheries of Uganda. The Uganda Society. 1966
Jackson P.B.N., The need for a trawl fishery on Lake Victoria. Occasional 1972 Paper No.4, Fisheries Dept. Entebbe, Government Printer: 8 - 10. 74
Kirema-Mukasa C.T. & J.E. Reynolds, Marketing and Distribution aspects of Lake 1990 Victoria Fisheries in Uganda. FISHIN Notes and Records. Fisheries Statistics and Information Systems, FAO/UNDP Project UGA/87/007,
SEC Field Report 16: 1 - 15.
Kitaka G.E.B., The relevance of limnological information in the development 1972 and management of inland fisheries. Afr. Trop. Hydrobiol. Fish., Special Issue II: 77 - 84.
Kudhongania A.W.& A.J. Cordone, Batho-spatial distribution patterns and 1974 biomass estimates of the major demersal fishes in Lake Victoria. Afr. J. Trop. Hydrobiol. Fish.: 167 - 181.
Kudhongania A.W., R. Ogutu-Ohwayo & T. Twongo, The Nile perch in Lakes 1988 Victoria and Kyoga: An asset or Liability? UFFRO Occ. Paper No 15.
Mann M., A Resume of the Evolution of the Tilapia Fisheries of Lake Victoria
1970 up to the year 1960. In : EAFFRO, Annual Report 1969, Jinja, Uganda, App. B:21 - 27.
MAAIF, Brief to the Minister of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries on 1991 the Livestock and Fisheries Sector. MAAIF, Planning Unit, July 1991.
MPED, The Rehabilitation and Development Plan (RDP) 1987/88-1990/91. 1987 Government of Uganda, Ministry of Planning and Economic Development.
MPED, The Rehabilitation and Development Plan 1988/89 - 1991/92. Republic of 1989 Uganda, Ministry of Planning and Economic Development, Volume 1,
Second Edition, December 1989: 1 - 91.
Ochumba P.B.O., Periodic massive fish kills in the Kenyan portion of Lake 1967 Victoria. FAO Fisheries Report No. 388: 47 - 60.
Ogutu-Ohwayo R., T. Twongo, S.B. Wandera & J.S. Balirwa, Fishing gear 1989 selectivity in relation to their manufacture and to the management of fisheries of the Nile perch, the Nile tilapia and Rastrineobola argentea (Mukene)in Lakes Victoria and Kyoga. UFFRO Occ. Paper no. 16.
Okaronon J., T. Acere & D. Ocenodongo, The current state of the fisheries in 1985 the Northern portion of Lake Victoria. FAO Fish. Rept No. 335: 89 - 98.
Okaronon J.O. & J. Kamanyi, Catch Assessment Survey of Uganda waters. 1985 AFRP/UFFRO Joint Fisheries Surveys Report No. 2, Sept. 1989: 10 pp., 3 app.,7 tabls.
Reynolds J.E. & W.M. Ssali, Lake Victoria fisheries industrialization: Recent 1990 Developments in Uganda.FISHIN Notes and Records.Fisheries Statistics and Information Systems, FAO/UNDP Project UGA/87/007, SEC Field Report 13: 1-43. 75
Reynolds J.E. & E.J. Coenen, Emergency Formulation project on Water Hyacinth 1991 Surveillance and Control/Eradication in Lakes Victoria and Kyoga and the RiverNile. FISHINNotes and Records. Fisheries Statistics and Information Systems, FAO.UNDP Project UGA/87/007,
Project Profiles, No. 3, Preliminary Draft: 1 - 6.
Roest F.C., Predator-prey relations in Lake Tanganyika and fluctuation in the 1988 pelagic fish stocks. CIFA Occ. Paper No. 15: 104 - 129.
Ssali W. & F. Ssewankambo, An assessment of the present levels of investment 1991 in the fisheries sector in Uganda with a view to recommending on future development (Mimeo).
Ssemakula S.N., Survey of the present status of fish handling, preservation 1967 and marketing in Uganda. Occasional Paper No. 1, Fisheries Dept., Entebbe, Government Printer: 16 - 24.
UGA/87/007 Biostat Group, Report on the Frame Survey conducted in the Uganda 1991 part of Lake Victoria(3th September - 20th December 1990). Edited by Tumwebaze E. and Coenen E.J., FISHIN Notes and Records. Fisheries Statistics and Information Systems, FAO/UNDP Project
UGA/87/007, Biostat Reports Series, Volume 3, Report 22: 1 - 13.
UFD, Uganda Fisheries Department Annual Report. Entebbe Government Printer. 1971
Wetherall J.A., Catch assessment Survey (CAS) of Lake Victoria. EAFFRO Occ. 1972 Paper No. 14.
Whitehead P.J.P., The anadromous fishes of Lakes Victoria. Rev. Zool. Bot. 1959 Afr. 59: 329 - 63. 76
Table 1 : Estimated annual fish landingsfor the Ugandan sector of Lake Victoria (1961 - 1990)
Year Catch (tons) 1961 25,500 1962 23,400 1963 24,400 1964 24,400 1965 24,400 1966 28,000 1967 38,200 1968 40,500 1969 46,300 1970 41,700 1971 38,800 1972 35,300 1973 32,500 1974 25,500 1975 13,700 1976 11,100 1977 15,600 1978 15,600 1979 16,800 1980 10,000 1981 17,000 1982 13,000 1983 17,000 1984 44,800 1985 54,600 1986 56,800 1987 93,200 1988 107,100 1989 132,400 1990 119,900
(Source: Uganda Fisheries Department)
Table 2: Fish landing and fishing canoes characteristics on Lake Victoria (Uganda).
Year Frame Survey Total TotalNo. Average Average No. by Number Fishing catch/ Fish.canoes Landings Canoes canoe/day per Landing
1971 EAFFRO/FAO 197 3,264 26 kg 16.6
1990 UFD/FAO 715 8,000 44 kg 11.2
(Data from Wetherall, 1972; Okaronon& Kamanyi, 1989; UGA/87/007 Biostat Group, 1991). 77
Appendix 3.4 EXISTING FISHERY LEGISLATION AND MECHANISMS FOR SURVEILLANCE AND CONTROL ON LAKE VICTORIA
BY
F.L. Orach Meza Fisheries Department, Entebbe
INTRODUCTION
The basic policy underlying our existing fisheries regulations contained in the Fish and Crocodiles Act 1964 of the Laws of Uganda may be summarised as follows: "to manage the fishery resources so that we can obtain the maximum net benefits from them." This implies an obligation on the part of Government to manage the fisheries for the common benefit of the citizenry. The common benefit referred to here which is reckoned largely in economic, social and nutritional terms accrue at different levels:to the fishermen, the fish processor, the fish trader, the consumer, the producer of fishing and fish Processing inputs, and to the public treasury. In general terms, then, the management may restrict the fishing effort to limit costs and increase catch per fishermen; it may impose high fees so that the benefits accrue to the country as a whole; it may restrict exports in order to maintain supplies and reduce prices to consumers; and/or it may even remove barriers to fishing in order to increase social benefits through employment.
Any regulatory measures must therefore provide a framework for defining and modifying objectives for different situations and must take account of enforcement. It should, however, be noted that mortality in a fishery is functionally related to four factors: the number of operating economic units, their catching power, their total fishing time and their spatial distribution during the fishing period (Gulland,1977).So effective controls based on reducing fishing mortality must operate through one or more of these factors. Control of access to the fishery, imposition of restrictive access fees and a host of other management measures such as mesh size regulations, gear restrictions, minimum legal size regulations, etc. are employed in fisheries legislation. Management of fisheries can,therefore, be considered as the direct or indirect regulations of effective fishing effort in order to achieve an overall objective that reflects societal priorities (Greboval, 1990).
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FISHERY RESOURCES
2.1 The Fisheries Industry
Slightly over 31,000 square kilometres or 45% of Lake victoria is within the boundary of Uganda. Its estimated annual production is between 300,000 and 400,000 tonnes (Lyimo et. al. 1990) although this has not yet been precisely determined. The total commercial catch in 1990 was estimated at 120,000 tonnes which was an increase of over 1000% over the catches prevailing twenty years ago. The substantial increase in the catch levels inthe recent years owes in large part to the upsurge of the introduced Nile Perch, (Lates niloticus) and Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) populations in the lake. The predetermined trend of these fisheries has been a remarkable success story in terms of employment, nutrition, earnings and other production withinthe 78
industry.
Open-access into the fisheries prevails on the lake. However, as the fishing effort continues to increase, many important in-shore stocks are noticeably becoming heavily exploited. The undesirable consequences of heavy fishing are occasionally reflected in production loss per unit of effort, diminishing revenues, tendenciestofish farther offshore, the use of redundant inputs and decreasing profitability.
Knowledge of the ecology of fish stocks, the various aspects of the artisanal fisheries and their socio-economic characteristics is vital to management. This facilitates the determination of the regulatory measures most appropriate in terms of probable impact and applicability.
The fishing industry on Lake Victoria is characterised by being primarily artisanal in nature, featuring legions of small-scale operators working with gill nets. Most of the fishing crafts are planked canoes. A lake-wide total of 8674 active canoes was recorded during a recent frame survey (Tumwebaze and Coenen (ed.), 1990) with about 20% of the units being equipped with outboard engines.Industrial trawling operations are just beginning as pilot schemes. This isin the form of a arge-scale pair trawling on the lake. Other characteristics of the dominaiat artisanal fisheries include limited fishing range, composite ownership of fishingunits; relative lack of development resources available to fisherfolk, extensive social and financial linkages between the harvesting sector and the post-harvest sector, resistance to change, pamperization of fishermen and the suspicion and fear of government authorities as these are often identified with law enforcement and tax collection.
2.2 The Basis for Fisheries Regulations
It is the primary goal of the Government of Uganda to ensure that an optimal sustainable economic yield of fish is obtained from the available water bodies through scientific management of the fisheries resources. In order to achieve this biological and economic management policy objective, it should be understood that many of the problems in fisheries management arise from the nature ofthefisheries resources itselfas compared to land resources and the exploitation of these resources. Two characteristicsof fisheries resources and fisheries exploitation are especially important:
2.2.1 The uncertain and limited yields
The amount of fish available for catch depends on the growth of fish stocks; but a fish stock is a living resource which itself reacts to two factors -(i) the human fishing effort which has the effect of raising the mortality rate of fish and, therefore, of decreasing the stock size of the fish; (ii) the environment which may increase, maintain or decrease thegrowth of the stocks. The human fishing effort can be regulated by legislationsince it is an act of man. The latter can, however, only be partiallycontrolled through legislation such as in the case of pollution; but the rest isnormally left at the mercy of natural environmental regulations.
2.2.2 The free and open-access mode of exploitation
The natural movement of fish and the tendency of fishermen tofollow it preclude the placing of boundaries around it. This lack of propertyrights in 79
fishing, or the free and open-access to Lake Victoria fishery resources has the tendency to attract more capacity than required for efficient exploitation and management of the resources.
Both of these are implied by Government control over the resources; which basically implies an obligation on the part of Government to manage the fisheries resources for the common benefit (which is reckoned in economic terms).
FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT POLICY
The current development policy of the Government with respect to food production is to ensure the supply of adequate and balanced food through the attainment of self-sufficiency, diversification of marketable products, and the reduction of post-harvest losses. In the case of fisheries, this includes (i) maximisation of fish production to increase animal protein production and percapitaconsumption; (ii) reductionof post-harvest losses; (iii) maximisation of net earnings from fisheries over and above what it costs society to produce;(iv) maximisation of employment opportunities in the sector, and (v) maximisation offoreign exchange earnings from surplus production offish and fish products traded internationally.Fisheries regulations, fisheries research and monitoring of the exploitation througlt routine collection of fish catch and marketing statistics are, therefore, essential if the above objectives are to be realised.
THE FISH AND CROCODILES ACT, 1964
The concept of fisheries regulation was contemplated long before the commencement of some semblance of commercial artisanal fisheries. Several fisheries legislations have been passed, revised and/or amended over the years since 1950. An Ordinance No.47 of 1950 was introduced in 1951 as Chapter 161 of the Laws of the then Uganda Protectorate. The associated Fishing Rules came into force through Legal Notice No.59 of 1951. Besides the general provisions of the Law, the Fishing Rules specifically provided for the types of nets and methods of fishing that were prohibited, the use of long lines, landing and disposal of fish, the purchase and processing of fish by non-natives, licences and fees, and the type of fishing vessels. In addition, specific legislation was introduced for Lake Victoria - The Lake Victoria Fisheries Act 1950, Act No.3 of 1950. The Act which was enacted by the then East African High Commission made provisions for the development, control and regulation of Lake Victoria fisheries by the Lake Victoria Fisheries Board. Later on, Act No.3 of 1953 which amended the L.V. Fisheries Act, 1950, introduced a set of Subsidiary Legislations on registration of boats, licensing of fishermen, use of nets and penalties for offences.
Since 1964, the fisheries of Uganda including that of Lake Victoria, are provided for under the existing Laws of Uganda through the Fish and Crocodiles Act, Chapter 228 of the Laws, Revised Edition, 1964. The latest Amendment Act, 1967 simply re-defined some terms and strengthened the provisions on fishing and processing of fish and crocodiles, on introduction and transfer of fish or their eggs and on issuing of licences.
The Fish and Crocodiles Act, 1964, makes provision generally for "the control of fishing, the conservation of fish, the purchase, sale, marketing and processing of fish, the catching and processing of crocodiles, the sale and control of the movement of the skins thereof, and matters connected 80
therewith."The Act also provides for the making of "Fishing Rules generally for the better carrying out of the purposes of this Act."
The Act is currently being applied by the Fisheries Department in the implementation of fisheries management policy of this country - that is to ensure that an optimal sustainable economic yield of fish is obtained from the national bodies of water through scientific management of the fisheries resources. The Act is therefore one of the tools to ensure the success of the management plan.
Basically all the Laws and Regulations are aimed at controlling either the quantitative or the qualitative dimensions of fishing effort. The rules have, however, seldom been introduced in the context of an explicitly elaborated management plan. Furthermore, the application of some of the rules has generally been quite in-effective due to verylimited enforcement capabilities.
Sinceindustrialcommercialfisheries have never been extensively developed on Lake Victoria, the prevailing regulations deal with control of effortin the small-scale fisheries. Even here, very little effective control is presently exerted. A draft Amendment Act is in the process of being enacted to cater for trawl fishery on Lake Victoria.
Pollution is another area which has a direct impact on fisheries. The population growth in Uganda, as elsewhere, is being accompanied by a steady increase in urbanisation, industrial and agricultural land use. This entails a tremendous increasein discharge ofa wide variety of pollutants to receiving water bodies, and may already be causing undesirable effects on the different components of the aquatic environment and on fisheries.
In general, variable management measures can be imposed by regulations or as conditions for licence. The Act provides for both. For LakeVictoria, provisions have been made at one time or another for gear ban, mesh size regulations, closed seasons and areas, places and time for landing of fish, licensing, taxes on effort, access fees, fishing and fish processing, transfer of fish and eggs, pollution, immature fish, buoying of set nets, obstruction to navigation, and for private marks. Section 43 of the Act (Chap.228 of the Laws) empowers the Minister concerned to gazette Statutory Instruments to amend or strengthen the Fishing Rules.
5. SPECIFIC PROVISIONS OF THE ACT, AS APPLIED TO LAKE VICTORIA
5.1 Control of Access
The Act grants access to the fisheries through the provision of fishing vessel licences to nationals; non-Ugandans are required by the Act to obtain specific or special licences before being permitted access and the use of any fishing vessel licensed under the Act (Sec. 7 and 13). Similar procedure is followed in granting access to fish processing and marketing; i.e. through the issue of specific licences (Sec. 8 of the Act).
An amendment has been proposed to reinstate Section 5 ofthe1951 Ordinance which required every fishermen to be licensed.
Anadhoc CommitteeonFisheriesExploitation has recentlybeen established to assess and ensure that access to fishing, fish processingand 81
fish marketing is related to sustained availability of the resources and to an optimal level and distribution of returns to social resources, to the industry and to the national economy.
5.2 Access Fees
Since fisheries are valuable national economic resources like forest or a mine, it is only fair to charge for the economic benefit conferred on the user. It is already a requirement under the Act (Sec. 15) for a fisherman to obtain a fishing vessel licence on the basis of a calendar year. The Act, in Sec.16 to 24, contains a number of special conditions for licences. They restrict the duration of the licencesandprohibit their transfers, assignments and borrowing; they specify procedures to follow on loss etc., of a licence. Production of licences on demand by authorised officers, punishment for false statements and the powers to restrict number of licences are additional conditions.
It is now being proposed that the conditions should also restrict a fishing vessel to specified areas, require landing in a specific location, restrict fishing from any vessel with more specified gears than may be authorised and prevent the sale.of fish on water and during forbidden period. The proposal shall also require that the unit to licence should extend to the types and number of gears in use on the vessel:. Where gear alone, such as seines and traps, is employed, it should also be licensed. Fishermen should also be licensed particularly for activities that do not require a vessel.
The amount of fees charged should be reviewed from time to time to cater for inflation; and since they also serve both to raise revenue and to ration access to the fisheries.
5.3 Management Measures
5.3.1 Restrictions on fishing gear and methods
The Act has general restrictions on types, mesh-sizes and dimensions of fishing gears and methods of fishing which are considered destructive to the fish stocks.The responsible Minister as well as the Commissioner for Fisheries are empowered to limit the number of licences which may be issued under the Act either generally or in respect of any particular waters or area of Uganda. The Fishing Rules provides for specific numbers, dimensions, mesh- sizes and methods in respect of controlled lakes but not for Lake Victoria.
This section is now being strengthened by adding mesh size regulations, limited entry and licensing,and closed seasons aswellas a ban on destructive fishing methods. The Rules are also being amended to provide for closed areas in identified breeding places and stiff punishment for violations of any of the rules.
5.3.2 Minimum size regulations
The Act as amended by Statutory Instrument No.15 of 1981 sets out minimum legal size at which fish are to be taken in accordance with Section 35 of the Act. But the current rules refer to Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and Nile Perch (Lates niloticus) only. It has been proposed to extend this rule to bear on the other commercially important fish species such as Hydrocynus,Alestes,Protopterus, Bagrus,Clarias,Barbus,and other 82
Tilapine species as well as Rastrineobola.
5.3.3 Prohibited fishing methods and gear
Use of other destructive methods such as poisons, explosives, noxious substances, lamp, light, fluorescence torch or electrical device for fishing is forbidden under the Act (Sec. 9) except in cases where permission is granted in writing by the Commissioner for Fisheries, such as in the case of light fishing for Rastrineobola. It is important that the use of these other devices remains illegal under the Act.
5.3.4 Closed areas and seasons
These measures which aim at improving the productivity of the resource by ensuring the uninterrupted spawning and growth of juvenile fish have not yet been introduced on Lake Victoria. They can also be used to control total effort and catch. Despite the inconveniences these methods provide, they are being proposed for Lake Victoria, particularly with respect to closed areas.
5.3.5 Fish introductions
The prohibition a4ainst introduction or transfer of fish or eggs without prior consent in writing of the CommiSsioner for Fisheries will be extended to include other fisheries resources such as aquatic animals and plants. Section 14 of the Act should be strengthened against illegal diversion of waters of any lake, river, stream, pond or private waters in which fish has been introduced.
5.3.6 Regulations on fish processing and fish trade
Restriction on fish processing and marketing as specified in Section 8 of the Act is being further strengthened to take into account fish product standards which should include legal authority to certify the quality of fish products destined to both local and export consumer markets.
In the case of industrial processing and marketing,which are now mushrooming in Uganda, the law is being strengthened to require that the installation of processing capacity must be related to sustained availability of the resources. This implies that expansion of production capacities should not occur without obtaining advice on the situation of fish stocks and on the national policy on accessto the exploitation ofthe nation's natural resources.
5.3.7 Additional rules and regulations
Laws regarding the collection of fisheries statistics, fisheries research, and pollution are being strengthened in the Act. Section 38 (a) and 39 of the Act which provided for the collection of statistics is being reinforced through providing for stiffer punishment for obstructions and misinformation. It is also being proposed that industrial fishermen (trawlers and purse seinets) be required to fill out statistical survey forms and submit monthly returns on catch, effort, costs and prices.
While researchers and their vessels, on application, may be exempted by the Commissioner for Fisheries from management measures, it is being proposed that they be required by laws to file approved research plans and to report 83
results in raw data and analysed forms to the Commissioner for Fisheries. Where foreigners are involved, provisions are being made for the use of local crew and researchers on board.
The discharge of industrial and domestic effluents directly into the waters of Lake Victoria to such an extent as to cause any waters thereof to be poisonous or injurious to fish, or to the spawning grounds, spawn, or food of fish was prohibited under the Lake Victoria Fisheries Act,1950. This is being revived in the proposed Amendment Act. Installation of waste treatment plants by industries discharging liquid pollutants shall also be a requirement.
5.3.8 Law enforcement
In the Act "Authorised Officers includes a Fisheries Officer, a Chief Magistrate, a Magistrate of any grade, a Police Officer of or above the rank of corporal or any employee of the Fisheries Department authorised in writing inthat behalf bythe Chief Fisheries Officer -The Commissionerfor Fisheries." These officers are, under the Act, authorised to enforce the content of the Act and the Rules thereof. This role, however, more often than not conflicts with the role of fisheries personnel as extension workers. Police and other peronnel could be used, but they usually lack the necessary knowledge of fisheries. Who ever doeS it, it is important that law enforcement be cost-effective.
But no matter how easy conditions are to comply with, certain legal powers are necessary. Many are found in general police and criminal procedure laws, but some are peculiar to fisheries. The most important, and those which have been included in the Act are the powers to stop and search vessels (necessary on large lakes) and inspect fish, gear and documents routinely with any suspicion of an infraction. Where crime is discovered aboard vessel, powers of seizure and arrest are required in order to prevent the culprit and his catch from sailing away. The same powers shall apply for the routine inspection of establishments for fish processing routinely. The need for other powers such as stopping and searching vehicles and buildings which are no different for fisheries than for other sectors have also been proposed for enaction. The Act currently empowers authorised officers to enforce fisheries regulations as provided for in Sections 31to 40 of the Act. But since the police and other personnel usually lack the necessary knowledge of fisheries, it has been suggested that the law should require them to always operate side by side with fisheries personnel. The law should also encourage the fisheries communities and the public to work closely with the authorised officers in enforcing fisheries regulations. Joint participation in law enforcement wou=d greatly reduce incidences of infringements.
6. REGIONAL COLLABORATION
6.1 Need for the Harmonisation of Fisheries Regulation
Lake victoria is shared by Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. These countries have obviously recognised the importance of es-tablishing a regional mechanis:-.-.s for co-ordinated or joint management.A mechanism for Lake Victoria is therefore required for effective collaboration.
Under the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations Sub- Committee of the Committee for the Inland Fisheries of Africa established 84
1968 for the Management and Development of the Fisheries of Lake Victoria, the three countries are formulating an integrated fisheries policy with a single regulatory code that is applicable within the internal legislations of each nation. With the assistance from UNDP/FAO Regional Project based in Bujumbura, Burundi, the riparian states are involved in (a) the formulation of common regulations or general conventions accompanied by detailed enforcemith the aim of reducing the burden of fisheries management while creating its effectiveness. Note is taken of whether a requirement can be complied with and enforced, whether itenforces or weakens other provisions,whetherit contributes to fishermen's acceptance of the law or induces them to evade it. Fees, for example, are viewed in terms of their collectability, of their effects on collection of statistics and of their effects on fishing effort.
The powers granted by the law are also considered to be sufficient to sustain the enforcement programme required for the management measures foreseen. It is believed that they do not exceed the requirements and risk making enforcement even more difficult by alienating fishermen.
Regional collaboration through harmonization of fisheries legislation is obviously desirable,although the ideais only beginning to receive attention. The working group, with the assistance of the CIFA Sub-Committee for Lake Victoria and of the UNDP/FAO Regional Project (IFIP), should be advised to expedite the formulation ofa draft text of the harmonised regulationsto be introduced ineach State'snationallegislationin accordance with its legal system and its distribution of responsibilities between the proposed Joint Commission and the national Governments.
Finally,whatever the fisheries law, the ultimate effectiveness of fisheries management depends on the programmes and hard work of the fisheries administration. The law will succeedto theextent that it supports appropriate programmes and their implementation. 85
8. LITERATURE CITED
Fish and Crocodiles, Chap. 161, Laws of Uganda Protectorate p. 2135 -2152. 1951
Greboval D., Principles of Fisheries Management and Legislation of Relevance 1990 to the Great Lakes of East Africa: Introduction and Case Studies. RAF/87/099 - TD/90, IFIP. 41p.
Gulland J.A., Fish Population Dynamics, (Ed). John Wiley & Sons, N.Y. 372p. 1977
Lyimo E., Nhwani L.B., and Mkisi M., The Fisheries Statistics of Lake 1990 Victoria, Tanzania Sector. In Report of the First Workshop on Fisheries Statistics and Information Systems for L.V. ed. by G.W. Ssentongo, IFIP Project. 72p.
Orach-Meza F.L., The Basis for Fisheries Legislation and Regulations Relevant 1991 to Uganda. A paper prepared for COFE, MAIF. 23p.
The Fish and Crocodiles Act, 1964. Chap. 228 Laws of Uganda, Revised Edition, 1964. p.3149 - 3163.
The Fish and Crocodiles (Amendment) Act, 1967. Act No. 3 of 1967. p. 5 - 14.
The Fish and Crocodiles (Immature Fish) Instrument No. 15 of 1981. Statutory Inst. No. 15 of 1981. p. 24.
The Fish and Crocodiles Ordinance, 1950. Uganda Protectorate, Entebbe. 12 p.
The Fishing Rules, 1951. Fish and Crocodiles Ordinance, 1950. Legal Notice No. 59 of 1951. 7 p.
The Lake Victoria Fisheries Act, 1950. Act No. 3 of 1950 p. 1-9.
The Lake Victoria Fisheries (Amendment) Act, 1953. Act No. 3 of 1953. p. 10 - 20.
Tumwebaze R. and Coenen E. (eds.), Report on the Frame Survey Conducted in the 1991 Ugandan Part of L.Victoria (3rd Sept.to 20th Dec., 1990). UGA/87/007 - FISHIN Project. 13 p. 86_
Appendix 3.5 : INDUSTRIAL PROCESSING INVESTMENT AND DEVELOPMENT FOR THE FISHERIES OF LAKE VICTORIA: PRESENT AND FUTURE CONCERNS
by
W.M. Ssali, Fisheries Department, Entebbe J.E. Reynolds, FAO/UNDP Project UGA/87/007, Entebbe R. Ogutu-Ohwayo, UFFRO, Jinja
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this paper is to call attention to recent developments in the industrial fish processing sector linked to Lake Victoria, and to consider their implications for the present and future state of the fisheries in both techno-environmental and socio-economic terms. The paper begins with a review highlighting earlier experiences with fisheries commercialisation in and around the Lake. It concludes with some specific proposals for actions aimed at averting or at least minimising the negative impacts of, and encouraging or at least consolidating the benefits associated with, the current proliferation of industrial processing enterprises.
BACKGROUND: THE EARLY FISHERIES REGIME
2.1 Subsistence and Artisanal Fishing
The evolution of the Lake Victoria fisheries from the early years of this century to the late 1970s, when radical changes in species composition began to be witnessed, is well documented in a number of sources (Reynolds and Ssali, 1990). For most of its recorded history the fisheries have featured the activities of myriad small-scale local operators, processors, and traders. Following the introduction of the gillnet (as early as 1905 in Kisumu District of Kenya, and around 1910 in the Ugandan part of the Lake), developments in all the territorial sectors of the Lake (Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda) more or less followed a common course of development. There was rapid commercialisation of effort by small canoe fishing units comprised of from two to five crew, and widespread adoption of the new nets (first made of flax and cotton and later of synthetic fibre)for use mostly in inshore waters. Although a wide variety of species were fished, most effort concentrated on the native tilapia Oreochromis esculenta, and from thelate1950s the introduced Oreochromis niloticus.Even the earliest reports on the Lake comment on localities in which serious to critical over-exploitation of the resource was occurring.
2.2 Traditional Handling, Processing and Marketing
Methods of local fish handling, processing and marketing have undergone little transformation over the years. Movement of fresh fish away from landing centres has always been restricted by high ambient temperatures compounded by slow transit times from net to beach to consumer, though the situation has improved dramatically with the development of road and rail infrastructure and the increasing use of bicycles and motor vehicles.
By far the greatest volume of fish harvested from the Lake was preserved in some form to allow storage over longer periods, and delivery over longer distances. Most of the tilapia catch was cured either by simple hot-smoking over open fires, or by being split and dried in the sun. Smoking and sun- 87
drying remain the principal means of processing fish at local landing centres to this day. Various attempts to improve the efficiency of traditional smoking kilns have been made through projects conducted under the auspices of the Uganda Fisheries Department (UFD), but the basic process remains the same: fish are placed on wire mesh or other types of grills over a slow fire and allowed to cure in the heat and smoke for varying lengths of time, usually one to three days. The resulting product can last without spoilage for a period of from a few days up to several weeks, depending on how much moisture content has been removed.
2.3 Mechanised/Industrial Fishing
The idea of a mechanised trawl fishery on Lake Victoria reportedly goes back as early as1950, when scientists at the East African Freshwater Fisheries Research Organization (EUFRO) suggested that the large stocks of Haplochromis spp. could be exploited in this way (Jackson 1972). In 1953, the Uganda Development Corporation attempted a trawling operation to exploit Bagrus, Mormyrus, and Haplochromis in the waters around Dagusi Island, off South Busoga in what is now the Tororo Fisheries Region. The scheme proved a complete failure for a combination ofreasons, including: lower than anticipatedcatches of important species; delays in obtaining needed equipment; spoilage of cured product before reaching mainland markets; and poor market for the main part of the output, i.e. sun-dried Haplochromis.
Various subsequent efforts at research and development for a trawling and processing industry in Uganda based on haplochromines also came to nought. It should be noted, however, that a major project along these lines was implemented in Tanzania. Based on exploratory work conducted at the Nyegezi Fisheries Institute, a fish meal plant of 60 tonnes wet fish/day capacity was erected near Mwanza. The Nyanza Fishing and Processing Company, as it was known, began operations in 1975 with raw product being supplied by a small fleet of trawlers. But the enterprise proved tobe a great disappointment, as haplochromine stocks soon collapsed under the combined pressure of heavy trawl fishing and predation by the Nile perch, then rapidly colonising the waters around Mwanza.
2.4 Industrial Handling, Processing, and Marketing
2.4.1 Early developments
During his field investigations of the Lake Victoria fishery in 1927, Graham (1929) noted that consignments of ice-chilled tilapia were being shipped to points along the rail line from Kisumu in Kenya. Ford (1955) reported that the shipping of gutted and iced fresh tilapia by rail from Kisumu was still being practiced in the early 1950s.
Nothing similar to the Kisumu system of chilling and shipping catches on a commercial basis existed in the Uganda sector of Lake Victoria until around the late 1960s, when the UFD installed a pilot ice-making plant at Masese, near Jinja.Asister plant was installed in Soroti to serve the Lake Kyoga fishery. The plan was for local fishmongers to draw supplies of ice from the plants to keep their shipments chilled and fresh until reaching markets. Neither plant operated for more than a few years. The system proved unworkable due to frequent mechanical breakdowns, the reluctance on the part of traders to use the facilities, and the lack of suitable packing containers to carry iced fish.(UFD Annual Report 1971). 88
2.4.2 Western Uganda fish processing plants
The main pioneering venture in fish processing on an industrial scale within Uganda actually took place at some remove from Lake Victoria. This was in the form of the well-known TUFMAC (The Uganda Fish Marketing Corporation) plant located in the western part of Uganda at Lake George, within the Kichwamba Fisheries Region.The plant was started in1950, and received supplies of fresh fish from Lake George and the Kazinga Channel-Lake Edward fisheries. TUFMAC became best known for its frozen fillets of tilapia, though it also carried out a substantial trade in whole frozen fish and salted and smoked products,and produced limited quantities offish meal as well. Following the precedent set by TUFMAC, two other fish processing plants were established in the Kichwamba Region. Like the older concern, they produced essentially for the East African market. One company started to develop contacts in the United States and sent frozen tilapia fillets on a trial basis as far as Chicago. However, both concerns had ceased business by the end of 1972 due to the deteriorating economic and political situation in Uganda.
In the meantime, TUFMAC had been experiencing mixed fortunes over the years. The plant closed down for good in 1977. Its failure can be attributed to a variety of reasons, including an overly ambitious scheme of operations at the outset, the imposition of its buyer's monopoly for Lake George catches which caused friction between the company and local fisherfolk, and episodes of outright mismanagement.
2.4.3 Tilapia fillet plants in Kampala
It was not until around 1973-74 that industrial type processing of fish got underway around Kampala.Frozen FoodsLtd. was established in the industrial area of the city and operated with equipment transferred from one of the old plants in the west. Tilapia were obtained from nearby landings on Lake Victoria, and frozen fillets were produced for the local supermarket and hotel trade and, to a limited extent, for export to Nairobi. Another and much smaller-scale concern, Afro-Fish, was also launched around this time. Afro- Fish also produced frozen fillets of tilapia for the local supermarket trade, but obtained its supplies of fresh fish from Lake Wamala. A third company, FishCo, reportedly was also engaged in the frozen tilapia fillet trade on a small scale during this period.
None of these Kampala-based concerns was able to continue in business for very long, given the worsening situation of misrule and economic disarray plaguing the country. All operations had ceased by around 1976 or so. The ensuing period of strife and insecurity which lasted up until the mid-1980s was characterised by a virtual collapse of the national economy and activity in terms of fisheries industrialisation was nil.
3. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS: THE NILE PERCH SUCCESSION
3.1 Trends in Catch Levels and Species Composition
The late 1970s and early 1980s witnessed some remarkable transformations in the fisheries of Lake Victoria, attendant upon the flourishing stocks of the introduced predator fish Nile perch,Lates niloticus, ashas been documented in some detail by Reynolds and Greboval (1988). In general the pattern has been the same for all the territorial sectors of the Lake, with 89
Nile perch beginning to show in the catches at very low and inconsistent levels initially, and then within the course of a few years becoming quite a significant part of the annual harvest and soon establishing itself as the predominant commercial species. This process took place somewhat earlier in the Kenyan (late 1970s) and Tanzanian (early 1980s) portions of the Lake than it did in Ugandan portion (mid-1980s), even though it was along the Uganda shoreline that Lates was first introduced in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The delayed appearance of Nile perch in Ugandan catches may have been due at least in part to the shortage of fishing gear within the country during the late 1970s and early 1980s.
Despite the predictions of ecological and economic disaster raised by some observers over the Nile perch introduction, the new fishery regime has brought immense benefits to the fisherfolk and consumer populations of the Lake Victoria region. This last point warrants particular emphasis in the case of Uganda. From a human nutrition point of view, the sudden availability of vast quantities of high quality animal protein from Lake Victoria must be seen as one of the more fortunate events in the recent history of the country -- a history that has otherwise been marked by widespread instability and severe disruption in food production both at the farm and processing/manufacturing levels. The bounty of the new fishery for Nile perch proved so great that it could partly compensate not only for setbacks in the crop and livestock sectors, but also for the temporary displacement ofor decline in the contribution from other major national fisheries.
Although stocks of certain species, especially amongst the haplochromines, have been seriously affected by Nile perch predation, those of some other commercially valuable fish have been able to thrive. Catches of the small pelagic Rastrineobola argentea ormukeneand the introducted tilapia Oreochromis niloticus have both shown substantial increases in all parts of the Lake within recent years. It is still an open question though if other species stocks will be able to recover to some extent,if at all, as the lacustrine system continues to adjust itself. Of overriding importance for commercial fisheries interests, however, is the sustained presence of strong stocks of Nile perch, tilapia, andmukene.This is also very much an open question.
3.2 New Industrial/Mechanised Fishing Ventures
The Nile perch boom has stimulated renewed interest in mechanised trawling in all sectors of Lake Victoria, though operations have so far been minimal in the Ugandan waters. Trawling for perch got underway in Tanzanian waters fairly early on,using units of the Nyanza Fishing and Processing Company that had been rendered idle after the collapse of the Haplochromis fishery. Also a number of wooden and steel-hulled trawlers have been built in Government and private boatyards sincethe mid-1970s, so that Tanzania currently has the largest trawling fleet on the Lake. In Kenya, the modern trawler fleet developed on a much smaller scale, amounting only to three or four units. Thus far, the only development in Ugandan waters has been in the form of a pair trawl operation mounted by the Sino-Uganda Fisheries Joint Venture Co. Ltd. Two sets of pair trawlers run from the base at Entebbe Pier.
Trawling unit operators, whatever their stated intentions, tend to fish the same shallow inshore and nearshore grounds used by artisanal canoe fishers -- grounds that are familiar and known to produce catches. Theincompatibility of these two fisheries is obvious, and it should come as no surprise that in 90
every sector of Lake Victoria where trawling has been permitted, an outcry has been raised by local fisherfolk. Immediately the Sino-Uganda operations began in September 1989, for example, complaints began to be registered from irate individuals who claimed that the trawlers were pulling through their sets and destroying large quantities of gillnets. These complaints have continued almost without pause from every area the trawlers have visited.
It is difficult to see how the coexistence of mechanised trawling and artisanal operations can be managed.The artisanal sector,it must be remembered, constitutes the primaryproductive force in the industry -- its very core. Moreover, evidence from elsewhere on the Lake shows that. trawling units, even if financially viable, are greatly outperformed by the established canoe-based gillnet fishery in terms of the wider economic benefits which accrue. Fundamental doubts about the wisdom of these mechanised operations therefore remain (Reynolds and Greboval 1988).
3.3 New Industrial Handling and Processing Ventures
Soaring production levels for the Lake have offered new commercial opportunities within the post-harvest sector, and there has been no lack of response trom various private interests and public agencies. Just as in the case ofthe!new mechanised trawling ventures, there has been very little consultation or cooperation between the riparian states with regard to the way large-scale commercialisation of fish processing ought to be dealt with at the policy level, and planned and managed in practice. Each country has instead tended to keep its own counsel as to how developments should be allowed to proceed. This is most unfortunate, as crucial shared resources are at stake. It is moreover unwarranted, since a consultative mechanism has been in place for some years, in the form of the Committee for Inland Fisheries of Africa (CIFA), Sub-Committee for the Development and Management of the Fisheries of Lake Victoria.
The growth of fish processing plants has been most apparent in Kenya, which enjoys the advantage of good communications and easy product evacuation routes from the lakeshore to Nairobi and the port of Kilindini, Mombasa. In the early 1980s there were only a few industrial fish handling and processing houses in that country. Now, a decade later, they number around 20. Many are situated in the Kisumu area, but there are some in Nairobi and Mombasa as well. All are dealing in Nile perch fillets as a primary or secondary item of production (Greboval 1989). Aconsequence of this rapidexpansion of industrial processing capacity is that demand for raw product has skyrocketed. This may well have an adverse effect on local processors and traders, who are also seeking fresh fish from landings around the rather limited zone that constitutes Kenya's Lake Victoria fishery (only about 6% of the total Lake surface lies in Kenya). It is also a circumstance which is encouraging rampant smuggling of catches from Uganda waters to nearby landing sites in Kenya (Reynolds, Wadanya and Nyeko 1989; Kirema-Mukasa and Reynolds 1991).
In the.Tanzanian sector of the Lake, recent industrial processing initiatives have been slower to take off, largely for reasons of geographical remoteness and infrastructural problems. As ofthe late1980s, however, several entrepreneurs were known to be active in shipping out consignments of chilled and frozen Nile perch fillets and whole fish from the Mwanza and Musoma areas via road, rail, and air routes to Dar es Salaam. One firm had started canning operations on a pilot basis (Reynolds and Greboval 1988; Reynolds, pers.obs. 1989). 91
Current industrial-level fish processing activity in Uganda is mainly directed towards production of high-quality, high-value table fish products for export, though there is some use of small-sized fish in the manufacture of cereal meal supplements and animal feeds. By the first quarter of 1990 a total of five fish processing plants were operating with a maximum installed processing capacity of more or less 20,000 tonnes of raw material per annum. (Reynolds and Ssali, 1990). By the end of 1991 there will be more plants, bringing the total potential capacity to about 40,000 tonnes of wet fish per annum. Even more are pending. If all applications for additional processing plants were to be allowed, the total raw material requirement could amount to 60,000 tonnes or more p.a. (UFD Records 1991). It is significant to note that all these plants are or would be based on L. Victoria-Uganda, seeking only Nile perch and Nile tilapia as raw input.
The establishment of this high level of processing plant capacity has multiple techno-environmental and socio-economic implications. These will now be considered in turn.
4. TECHNO-ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS
4.1. Increased Demands on Fish Stocks
The establishment of processing plants has caused increased demand for fish over and above the domestic requirements. This has in turn resulted in increasing fishing effort which easily leads to a situation of overexploitation of available stocks. There are already indications that this is a real and present danger, and it is worth appreciating the technical details involved.
Mesh size selectivity in relation to size at first maturity for Nile perch, Nile tilapia, andmukeneon Lakes Victoria and Kyoga has been the subject of recent investigations by UFFRO scientists (Ogutu-Ohwayo et al. 1989). As illustrated in Figure 1, a strong linear correlation obtains between the mesh size and the length of Nile perch retained by the gillnet. The same applies in the case of the Nile tilapia, as shown in Figure 2.
Formukene,commonly fished with very small-meshed seine nets, the same relationship between mesh size and length of fish retained holds true. This is demonstrated by Figure 3, which shows the frequency distribution of fish retained in the commercial mosquito seine nets of 5 mm and 10 mm in common use on Lake Victoria.
In all cases, it is obvious that the use of smaller-meshed nets will ultimately have a most detrimental impact since they select far more heavily for immature fish than do those of a larger mesh.Yet this practice is becoming increasingly widespread in both the Lake Victoria and Lake Kyoga fisheries (Ogutu-Ohwayo 1991), as is apparent from the prodigious quantities of undersized fish being landed and marketed around the shorelines. This is particularly worrisome for the two major commercial species,Oreochromis niloticus and Lates niloticus, which between them account for upwards of 90% of the catch on these two lakes. The legally permitted minimum size limit for Nile tilapia is 28 cm or 11 inches, while that for Nile perch is 46 cm or 18 inches. These lengths of fish would require a minimum mesh size of 127 mm or 5 inches, although the law currently says nothing about permissible net mesh sizes per se. It is obvious that urgent action should be taken to rectify this deficiency. 92
Yet in a situation in which processing plant operators or their agents are now regular customers at several of the major landing points on Lake Victoria,and are bidding for fish right alongside local processors and traders, it is difficult to see how pressures towards recruitment overfishing will subside. Local fish traders, finding themselves in a poor competitive position vis-a-vis the better capitalised large-scale operators,can be expected increasingly to seek out fish of poorer quality and less market value (includingmukene),and/or undersized fish. Ifthe latter,then further fishingdownof the stocks through the use of small-mesh nets and other destructive practices such as beach seines and cast nets will certainly follow (Reynolds and Kirema-Mukasa 1991).
4.2 Water Pollution
Fish processing plants require large quantities of water in their daily routine operations. After use this water contains solid material, dissolved solids (soluble proteins) and detergents, all of which could ultimately find their way into Lake Victoria.If plant effluents do not receive proper treatment, severe localised pollution of the lake will be the result. Although no cases have yet been reported,the situation clearly calls for close monitoring.
4.3 Fish Quality and Reduction of Post-harvest Losses
One of the positive outcomes of the increase in fish processing plants around the Lake is the encouragement that has been given to improved handling practices within the industry overall.In order to successfully compete, particularly in world markets, fish processing plants have to pay particular attention to quality of the raw material. This is the only way to ensure good presentation and acceptance of the final product. As the factories continue to demand high standards for fresh fish and demonstrate willingness to pay premium prices for the same, local fisherfolk will continue to improve their handling practices. This not only benefits the quality of fish available in the country generally, but also will promote a net reduction in post-harvest losses.
4.4 Conservation of Forests
A further positive contribution made by the growth of the industrial processing sector is that it is likely to encourage greater proportions of landed catches to be marketed in fresh form rather than being subjected to some form of traditional processing. As this latter mostly comprises hot- smoking of products to various degrees of moisture loss, significant gains in terms of fuelwood conservation for the country are in prospect (cf. Ssali, Reynolds, and Ward 1990).
5. SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS
5.1 Generation of Enhanced Earnings
As in the case of the other riparian states, the new fisheries of Lake Victoria have generated huge and unprecedented financial rewards for local fishing operators in Uganda (Reynolds and Greboval 1988; Greboval 1989). This must be regarded as one of the most significant contributions that the introduced species have made: the resource rents that have accrued in a period of less than a decade dwarfs the value of the earlier fisheries regime. It has 93
certainly been a welcome development as Lar as local fisherfolk and the Uganda Department of Fisheries are concerned. In fact one of the functions of the Fisheries Department is to "formulate and implement integrated programmes aimed at improving the quality of life in the fishing industry" and one of the objectives of the UFD Development Programmes is "to raise the income and standard of living of fishermen who are among the least favoured groups in the country" (MAIF, 1983).
Although fish processing plant investors may be acting more from the motive of private gain than public service, the fact that their businesses are significantly contributing to the attainment of the Department's objectives should not go unremarked or unappreciated.
5.2 Generation of Employment
All fish processing plants need experienced managers,engineers, technicians and technologists as well as a team of less highly trained manual and service workers. In addition to the several hundred direct jobs available in the plants at the present time all of the secondary and tertiary employment they generate must also be taken into account. Far greater numbers of people are either wholly or partly employed in support services the plants need to stay in operation, whether in landing site porterage, waterborne transport, packaging, insurance, clearing and forwarding, or other activities.
5.3 Contribution to Forex Earnings
Current Government policy places high priority on the diversification of the country's export commodity base as a means to earn greater amounts of foreign exchange and also to lessen the dependency on traditional items that cannot always be counted on to perform well in volatile world markets. As virtually all the fish processing plants are geared towards exporting most of their products, they are clearly contributing to the realisation of policy goals. The extent of this contribution is still of fairly modest proportions, judging from what is known. For 1990 the value of premium fish product exports to overseas markets was in the neighbourhood of USD .75 million (BOU 1991). As industry capacity gears up to higher levels, this figure can be expected to show a substantial increase.
5.4 Effect on Nutritional Welfare
Fish has historically made an extremely significant contribution to the nation's nutritional welfare. In the Lake Victoria Crescent zone, where the majorityof the national population resides, fish is easilythemost abundantly available source of animal protein.But it is enthusiastically consumed in nearly every corner ofthe country because people findit palatableand relatively cheap. Theattraction of low price has been particularly strong in past years in the case of Nile perch. Kirema-Mukasa and Reynolds (1991) calculated protein cost indices for major food items in the Kampala area effective during the last quarter of 1990, and showed that fish and especially the perch performed extremely well against all other forms of animalprotein and even againstsome protein-rich non-meatfoods. The situation may now be changing rather dramatically in the reverse direction, however. In the last part of 1990, respective prices for one kilogram of beef, goat meat, chicken, and fish (Nile perch) were Shs.600/=, 700/=, 1200/=, and 3007=. But by the end of the second quarter of 1991, the per kilogram pricesfor beef, goat meat and chicken had increased respectively to 94
Shs.700/=, 900/= and 25001. whereas the price of Nile perch had increased to Shs.700/= in Owino Market (Financial Times,27 June 1991). Such a steep increase in the price of perch may have put it out of reach for lower income households -- a development that would by no means be welcome given the still precarious food security situation among the rural and urban poor of the country.
Several factors may have contributed to the recent hike in the price of Nile perch, but a very likely candidate for a major role is heightened demand for the product at the ex-canoe level, fueled by competition between fish processing plants as each seeks adequate supplies of raw material. Assuming a more or less constant level of production, this sort of competition can only provoke an upward spiral in landing site prices. Aside from small-scale local traders, who stand to be marginalised by this sort of bidding process, it is the local consumer who will ultimately have to cope up with the situation-- and probably not very happily.
6. CONCLUSION: CONCERNS FOR THE FUTURE AND PROPOSALS FOR ACTION
In principle, the establishment of fish processing plants in the country over recent yearsis a positive development. However, it is extremely important that future plans be mounted with *extreme caution due to the fact that the factories are relying on a resource which, though renewable, could easily be depleted.Then the whole purpose of the investments would be defeated and the country would find itself worse off with the factories than it ever would have been without them. "Sustainability," as always in such contexts as this, is the key word.
6.1 Relations Between Fisheries Agencies and Interests
In order to foster sustained development it is absolutely crucial that good working relationships be cultivated between the different agencies and interests that play various roles in fisheries stewardship and exploitation. A suggested delineation of these roles is set out below.
6.1.1 The Fisheries Department
The Department should continue playing a central role in the administration of the fisheriessector. Fundamental to thisroleare responsibilities for ensuring that policy guidelines are being respected, legal regulations enforced, statistics and other vital information properly collected,compiled and made available to all agencies and parties with fisheries related interests, and effective extension services pr:ovided.
6.1.2 Research Institutions
Research is a vital part of the management process for the fisheries industry and the Department must make every effort to fosterclose collaboration between the various agencies concerned with it, notably UFFRO, the Kajansi Station and the Fish Technology Laboratory. Obviously, there must be regular meetings between the heads of research institutions and senior staff in the Department to decide on research priority issues. Similarly, the research institutions should encourage the holding of seminars, symposia, and workshops on a regular basis so that the results of work being carried out can be given an airing and researchers themselves given a chance to learn about developments and needs in the administration and extension sectors. 95
An ideal situation would seem to be for the three national fisheries research institutions to achieve a balancebetweencertain areas of specialisation.
Lake and River Fisheries -- UFFRO.The basic role of UFFRO should be consistent with its well-recognised position asthe foremostfisheries research establishment in the country.Its remit should remain that of conducting research and monitoring work pertaining to aquatic biology and ecology, fisheries socio-economics,fishing gear development,and stock assessment.
Aquaculture -- Kaiansi Research Station.As the principle aquaculture research institution in Uganda, the Kajansi Station should carry out research on all aspects of fish rearing techniques, pond management, fish nutrition, and fish pathology. Its research should be aimed at increasing fish production through fish farming. It should also play a strong extension role by working through out-stations to deal directly with fish farmers on technical matters affecting their enterprises; at the same time it should hold a brief to constantly advise the Department on latest developments in the sector.
Fish Technology -- The Fish Technology Laboratory. The principle tasks of the Laboratory should be to conduet research on all aspects of post-harvest fish technology,quality assurance, fish chemiitry/biochemistry, and product development. Theinstitution shouldwork closely withfish processing factories particularly with regard to quality improvements and product development. The institution should also assist the Department in setting up standards and codes of practice for fish and fishery products.
6.1.3 The User Sector
Private and parastatal interests are the end users of services provided by the administration, extension, and research arms of the national fisheries agencies. They include fish farmers, lake and river fishers, artisanal and industrial fish processors, and local and export traders. The user interests should demand much more in the way of support and technical backstopping from the service agencies, but at the same time offer cooperation in devising ways and means of looking after their upkeep.
6.2 Other Outstanding Issues
6.2.1 Proliferation of processing plants
The Nile perch "boom" in Lake victoria along with recent Government emphasis on fish as a potential source of foreign exchange has generated intense interest in the fisheries sector among investors. Unfortunately early development started on the wrong footing in that investors sought only industrial licences without first being referred to the Fisheries Department. Consequently, a number of processing plants were built without guidelines from the relevant authorities. In most instances, plants were constructed first and technical advice sought later on.
Some attempt was made to halt the uncontrolled exploitation of the fisheries resource by the ministerial decision that all future candidates for industrial processing of fish had to be cleared by the fisheries authorities before being issued with industrial licences. In addition, an ad hoc Committee on Fisheries Exploitation was appointed to look into a wide range of issues 96
affecting the industry (UFD Records, 1989). Through the course of its work the Committee has found that there are so many potential investors interested in setting up fish processing factories along the shores of Lake Victoria that the future sustainability of the fishery has become problematical if not threatened outright (UFD Records,1990; 1991). Considering that presently there is no systematic mechanism to deal with applications for industrial exploitation of the Lake Victoria resources or any other fisheries resources of Uganda, it is suggested that a permanent body be established to serve precisely this function.
6.2.2 "Undocumented" export of fish
The smuggling of fish from Uganda, sometimes referred to euphemistically as "informal border trade" or "undocumented export" has reached truly alarming proportions, particularly along and across the waters of Lake Victoria into Kenya. Various estimates place the amount of fresh fish smuggled out of this country between a low of 40 and a high of 200 tonnes every day (BOU 1991; UFD Reports 1991). The loss of official export revenues and value-added benefits to the national economy must amount to hundreds of thousands of dollars.
While the reasons for smuggling fish may be varied the cash incentive is always closely to hand. The Port Victoria (Kenya) ex-canoe pricefor fresh Nile perch is now said to stand at KShs. 151. per kilogram, or roughly the equivalent of UShs 450-500/=. It is believed that other inducements such as the provision of fuel and perhaps even engines by fish buyers on the Kenya side also play a role in keeping this traffic alive and well. And it must be recognised too that any canoe carrying fish across the border to the other shore has space for a full load of any sort of cargo on the way back. Measures aimed at reversing this pattern of "duty-free" trade must therefore seriously address an array of issues. It is proposed that the matter be dealt with from three several angles (cf. Kirema-Mukasa and Reynolds 1991):
Ugandan fish processors (or local fishmongers) should not only continue to strive to offer fisherfolk competitive prices, consistent with the need not to overheat landing site bidding. But they should also strive to provide fishing operators in the eastern sector of the Lake with the kind of technical "backstopping" services that seem to be so effectively used by their Kenyan counterparts, such as advances of fuel, loans or use arrangements for engines,good collection boat contacts, and the like.
The idea of freeing petty consumer commodities, so popular in cross- border transactions, from possibly overly-burdensome customs' procedures and excise obligations should be thoroughly explored.
Obviously better on-water surveillance and/or law enforcement by the relevant Government agencies is called for.
Those inclined towards the fish smuggling business either as suppliers to the fish runners or as the runners themselves should beeducated about the losses the nation incurs as a result of this kind oftraffic. It seems that few people really understand what stakes are ultimately involved; and indeed there are those who argue that if fisherfolk can reap more reward by selling "there" instead of"here", then so much the better for them as a class of people who have traditionally been under- 97
remunerated and poorly served by the wider national society. It follows that Government should make every effort to demonstrate to the fisherfolk that their general welfare is a matter of foremost concern. Such commitment must be shown by establishing development programmes relevant to people's daily needs.
An additional but more extreme measure might be considered in the event that other steps fail to curb the problem, and only if the current mechanised trawling operation will be allowed to continue. The idea would be to create a special trawling zone in the off-shore waters of the eastern part of the lake and transfer the Sino-Uganda Fisheries Company operations solely to that area, with all catches to be landed and sold only to licensed traders and plant agents at Uganda ports of call. While much weight of argument can and perhaps should be mobilised against such a scheme, it could conceivably be an effective means to discourage the artificially induced "migration" of fish across the water to collection vans waiting on the other side.
6.2.3 Towards sectoral development
Underdevelopment in the fisheries sector is not only limited to the persons involved in the industry but extends to its supportive infrastructure. For example: one finds that those feeder roads to landings are amongst the least maintained of all; fish landings usually lack basic amenities such as clean water supplies and toilets; and local and urban markets are rarely equipped to handle such a perishable product as fish. It is clear that not enough financial resources are allocated to fisheries development particularly in the rural areas. Yet the sector generates substantial amounts of revenue particularly for the local authorities. If some of the revenue were ploughed back directly into the industry considerable development potential would be released. Furthermore, as emphasised earlier on, there is a strong need to build better ties of service and support between the different parties to fisheries management, on both the official agency and user sides.
It is therefore proposed that some sort of mechanism be considered for pooling and disbursing funds to finance fisheries research and development activities. Such a "National "Fisheries Development Fund" could be administered by a Board of Trustees composed of persons from both the public and private sectors. Contributions to the fund could come from industrial processors, artisanal fisherfolk and fisheries-related businessesthrough various service-user fees or levies. The heads of research institutions could be responsible for ensuring that research funds are properly utilised and for reporting on the same to the Board of Trustees. In a like manner, District Development Committees could be responsible for utilisation of infrastructure development funds in liaison with District and Regional Fisheries Officers and the Board. 98
7. REFERENCES CITED
BOU(Bank of Uganda), The fishing industry in Uganda - with emphasis on export 1991 performance. Report of the Task Force set up by the Minister of Finance. Kampala.
Financial Times, 27 June 1991, p.4 Ford V.C.R., The trade of Lake Victoria; a geographical study. East African 1955 Studies No. 3. EastAfrican Institute ofSocial Research. Kampala, Uganda: 66pp.
Graham, M., 1929. The Victoria Nyanza and its fisheries. London, Crown Agents for the Colonies: 255pp.
Greboval D.F., Socio-economic issues for planning in support of fisheries 1989 management. Report prepared for the Fifth Session of the CIFA Sub-Committee for the Development and Management of the Fisheries of Lake Victoria. Mwanza, Tanzania, 12-14 Sept. 1989.
Jackson P.B.N., The need for a trawl fishery on Lake Victoria. In Occasional 1972 Paper No.4. Fisheries Department, Ministry of Animal Resources. Entebbe, Government Printer: 8-10.
Kirema-Mukasa C.T. and J.E. Reynolds, Marketing and distribution aspects of 1990 Lake Victoria fisheriesinUganda. (Paper presented atthe Symposium on Socio-Economic Aspects of Lake Victoria Fisheries, Kisumu, Kenya, 24-27 April 1990.) SEC Field Report No. 16. FISHIN Notes and Records. Fisheries Statistics and Information Systems. FAO/UNDP Project UGA/87/007.
, Marketing and Consumption of fish in Uganda. Occasional Paper No.4 1991 FISHIN Notes and Records. Fisheries Statistics and Information Systems, FAO/UNDP Project UGA/87/007
MAIF (Ministry of Animal Industry and Fisheries), Blueprint for FiSheries 1983 Development in Uganda. Kampala: MAIF.
Ogutu-Ohwayo R., Suggestions to set mesh size limits and restrict the type of 1991 fishing gear on Lakes Victoria and Kyoga.
, T. Twongo,S.B.Wandera & J.S. Balirwa, Gillnet selectivity in 1989 relationto their manufacture and to the management of the fisheries of Nile perch, Nile tilapia, and Rastrineobola argentea in Lakes Victoria and Kyoga. UFFRO Occasional Paper No. 16. Jinja: UFFRO.
Orach-Meza F.L., E.J. Coenen and J.E. Reynolds, Past and recent trends in the 1989 exploitation of the Great Lakes fisheries of Uganda. In Fisheries of the African Great Lakes. Occasional Paper No. 3. Fisheries and Aquaculture Unit, International Agricultural Centre, Wageningen, The Netherlands.(Also available as: Occasional Paper No. 1. FISHIN Notes and Records. Fisheries Statistics and Information Systems. FAO/UNDP Project UGA/87/007.) 99
Reynolds J.E. and D.F. Greboval, Socio-economic effects of the evolution of 1988 Nile perch fisheries in Lake Victoria: a review. CIFA Tech.Pap., (17):148pp.
, & W.M. Ssali, Lake Victoria fisheries industrialisation: recent 1990 developments in Uganda. SEC Field Report No. 13. FISHIN Notes and Records. Fisheries Statistics and Information Systems, FAO/UNDP Project UGA/87/007.
, J. Wandanya and D. Nyeko (eds.), Fisheries statistics and 1989 information management in Uganda: pastapproaches, current status, and future prospects. Field Document No.1, FISHIN Notes and Records. Fisheries StatisticsandInformation Systems. FAO/UNDP Project UGA/87/007.
Ssali W.M., J.E. Reynolds and A.R. Ward, Fish and fuel, food and forests: 1990 perspectives on post-harvest losses in Uganda. (Paper to be presented at the Symposium on Post-Harvest Fish Technology. CIFA, Eighth Session,Cairo, Egypt,21-25 October 1990.) SEC Field Report No. 17. FISHIN Notes and Records. Ffsheries Statistics and Information Systems, FAO/UNDP Project UGA/87/007.
UFD (Uganda Fisheries Department), 1971 Annual Report. 100
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OTAL LENGTH OFNILE PE H
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100 % MIXTURE N.:,26 10 (8") 203 mm -^
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Appendix 3.6 : MANAGEMENT ISSUES, OPTIONS AND STRATEGIES FOR LAKE VICTORIA FISHERIES
BY
T. TWONGO, Senior Principal Research Officer, UFFRO, Jinja J.E. Reynolds, Socio-Economist, FISHIN Project, FAO/UNDP Project UGA/87/007, Entebbe P. Mwene-Beyanga, Fisheries Officer, Fisheries Department, Entebbe
1. INTRODUCTION
The task set for this final paper is to provide, on the basis of the points raised in the previous papers and in the context of past experience, an appreciation of management issues, options, and strategies for the Lake Victoria fisheries of Uganda. Its purpose is to stimulate further discussion and, hopefully,some agreement on appropriate measùres to formulate and implementin order for thesefisheriesto be adequately utilised and developed.
But perhaps such a statement as "adequately utilised and developed" already takes too much for granted. Just what should be meant by our use of the term "fisheries management"? Very often itis taken to refer to the administration of fisheries regulations and the provision of extension work - - tasks usually assumed by a Fisheries Department type of agency. But this understanding of the term is rather narrow and restrictive. A living and renewable yet fragile and finite resource system such as the Lake fisheries involves a diverse, complicated, and not always compatible mix of elements and events, and any meaningful approach to "management" must comprehend all of them. It is precisely these varied yet interconhected qualities. of the resource-base/resource-use complex that occasions the need for management -- that gives rise to what might indeed be called the "management imperative". Thefisheries resource base is limited and fragile, beingsubjectto perturbations that emanate from the "natural environment" as well as those that are more directly anthropogenic. Human involvement with the resource base is almost invariably aimed at deriving maximilm benefits in terms of sustenance and/or profit. Sometimes, more rarely, other concerns may play a role. Different individuals or groups commonly have divergent and even contradictory ideas about the nature and extent cf any exploitation to be pursued. Sustenance or the direct food value of :he resource to a local population may loom as a more important considerat:cn in some minds than the cash or foreign exchange the resource might be able to generate for the national economy. What represents "maximum" use for cne might be "minimal" for another, depending upon the motives involved.The prospect of immediate benefit accumulation can prove far more attractive than one of lower-order but sustained accumulation in the longer term. Moreover, from certain perspectives 'benefits' may be hard to express in simple hard currency or protein-energy unit terms,as when high valuation is placed on the maintenance of bio- diversity within a natural aquatic system and the need for conservation rather than wholesale exploitation is stressed.
Fisheries management in its full sense is a zrocess that involves this whole complex of resource conditions and the influences and interests that can 104
act upon them ans so determine their relative stability or instability through time. Management must be based on policy -- a code that should clearly set out the priorities in terms of which the different influences and interests are to be allowed to exert their effects. Policy that guides the way benefits are extracted from a renewable resource base is normally expected to conform to the principle of utilising the "dividends" that the resource base can yield rather than squandering the standing stock or "capital" that it represents. It is for the sake of "good policy," or at least the pretence of such, that such phrases as "rational exploitation, "sustained yields," "sound planning," "resource stewardship," and the like, have become part of the vocabularly of fisheries management.
The previous papers presented to this seminar have dealt with a diverse set of issues and themes, yet all have been taken to relate to aspects of fishereis management. In other words, the concept of management has been implicitly treated in its fuller and more meaningful sense. In this paper too such a usage is adopted and indeed is explicitly affirmed: management is not somethingthat is confinedto the narrow"departmental"functions of administration and extension service supervision. Thus fisheries management is seen as a process that involves several interacting components, namely:
knowledge about the staté of fisheries resources, regularly updated through continual monitoring and research;
knowledge about the mode and intensity of exploitation and end-use of the resources,and of the associated interests and socio-economic effects, again as derived from continual monitoring and research;
the educational and administrative guidelines on resource exploitation which usually involve extension services for fisherfolk and regulation of effort and post-harvest practices,and which ideally should be elaborated on the basis of consultation and consensus between all parties concerned; and
a policy context that provides for the rational use and development of fisheries resources, and which itself is formulated and held open for timely review on the basis of the information acquired and evaluated through monitoring, research, and consultation.
2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The local peoples living around the shores of Lake Victoria at the beginning of the twentieth century depended a great deal on their fishery. Using simple gear like spears, basket traps and seines made out of papyrus stalks, they had subsisted on the inshore fish stocks of the lake from ancient times. One may assume that "how to catch fish" was the major preoccupation or issue in their "management planning" because at the time the stocks were predominantly virgin hence plentiful. However, the introduction of the much more efficient flax gillnets into the Lake Victoria fisheries in 1905, followed by their widespread use in Uganda waters by 1916, and by a general rise in fish consumption, soon led to increased fishing pressure. Localised overfishing had set in by the early 1920s. 105
2.1 The Origins of Scientific Management
It would seem that the drive to "manage" fisheries is often triggered by the perception of some form of overexploitation of the resource. This certainly was the case for the Lake Victoria resources. Although considerable advances had been made earlier on the taxonomy of the fishes of Lake Victoria (e.g. Boulenger, 1909; Cunnington, 1920; Regan, 1922), the real impetus to the development of scientific knowledge on the fisheries'of Lake Victoria appears to have come from the results of the brief fishing survey of Lake Victoria by M. Graham in 1927-1928 (Graham, 1929). A lakewide study of the fishes of Lake Victoria was made and useful preliminary information on species composition, distribution, and aspects of relative abundance compiled. Based on survey observations, four principal recommendations were made with regard to the future management of Lake Victoria. These were to:
prohibit the use of gillnets with a mesh size of less than 127 mm stretched;
institute sustained research on the fisheries resources;
set up fishery statistics collection to monitor the fishery; and
establish a lake-wide authority to oversee collection of statistics and enf orce fishery regulations.
The above recommendations focussed attention on several pertinent issues for the fisheries of Lake Victoria,namely: overfishing - though localised at the time; lack of scientific knowledge on the resources; lack of information on exploitation; and the need to regulate and control the fishery. Fishery management strategy for Lake Victoria-Uganda essentially developed around these issues.
2.2 Development of fisheries research
Graham's recommendations were accepted by the Governments of the states riparian to Lake Victoria, and were subsequently implemented. The mesh size limit of 127mm for the tilapia gillnet fishery was enacted in 1933 by Uganda, and the East African Fisheries Research Organisation (EAFRO) started work in 1949, with headquarters located at Jinja-Uganda. Its mandate was to carry out hydrobiological and fisheries research whose results were expected to guide fisheriesmanagement planning allover East Africa. The Lake Victoria Fisheries Service (LVFS) was also formed in 1947, to consolidate fisheries development over the whole of Lake Victoria particularly with respect to experimental fishing, processing,the collection of catch statistics and marketing data, plus enforcing fishery regulations.
Considerable success was achieved by EAFRO on hydrobiological and fisheries research during the next two decades. However, lack of suitable vessels for off-shore work, and for extended field research, confined most of the studies by EAFRO to the bays and gulfs around Jinja. Hence the Uganda sector of Lake Victoria was comparatively better studied. Results obtained in hydrobiological/limnological studies (e.g. Beauchamp, 1953; Fish, 1952; 1956; 1957, Talling, 1961) contributed greatly to the understanding of the behaviour and functioning of tropical aquatic ecosystems. Similarly investigations into the food and feeding of the major fish species (e.g. Fish, 1951; 1955; Corbet, 1961) and on their reproductive biology (e.g. Greenwood 1955; Lowe,1955; 106
1956), have been very important to the understanding of the lake ecosystem and to the evaluation of fishery management options.
However, up to the close of the 1950s available scientific knowledge on the fisheries resources still fell short of what was required to guide management planning for expanded fishery exploitation. Hardly any scientific studies had been conducted for the open waters of Lake Victoria due to lack of suitable craft. Therefore, the composition, distribution and abundance of commercial fish stocks offshore remained unknown. Attempts by EAFRO in collaboration with LVFS at experimental fishing were not very successful (EAFFRO, 1967). For instance one study to establish the viability of a mechanised fishery for BacTrus and Mormyrus in the northern waters of Lake Victoria (Uganda) produced unreliable predictions.
A breakthrough to lakewide fish stock investigations was made in a joint stock assessment survey by FAO/UNDP and EAFFRO. This was when the MV Ibis, a deepwatertrawler, was purchased for useat the renamed East African Freshwater Fisheries Research Organisation (EAFFRO). The most extensive bottom trawling survey of Lake Victoria thus far undertaken was mounted between 1969 and 1971. The results of the survey (Kudhongania Cordone, 1974) though preliminary, gave the first meaningful insight into the fish stock situation of Lake Victoria since the pioneering study by Graham (1929), forty years earlier.
But the political and economic problems in Uganda in the 1970s and early 1980s and the differences that emerged in regional political relations greatly affected progress at EAFFRO. Co-operation with and sùpport from international aid agencies was slowly phased out, leading EAFFRO to scientific isolation. Even the access to international professional publications was terminated due to failure by the Organisation to meet the exchange requirements. Research activity slowed down considerably. Then came the breakup of the East African Community in 1977 with the attendant renaming of EAFFRO to become the Uganda Freshwater Fisheries Research Organisation (UFFRO)in line with the new national character of the institution. After the breakup of the community and with Uganda's political and economic turmoil continuing to compromise the operating capabilities of UFFRO, only limited studies confined to the fish stocks of the northern portion of the lake near Jinja, (Okaronon et al., 1985; Mbahinzireki, 1985) were made into the 1980s.
On the whole the 1980s were years of slow but steady recovery for UFFRO during whiCh contacts with international support and co-operation were gradually re-established. A notable example is the financial support by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) - Canada, which funds two research projects studying the primary productivity of Lake Victoria-Uganda, and the biology and ecology and population dynamics of the Nile perch and of the predator's impact on other fisheries in the same environment. These projects cover Lake Kyoga and Lake Albert as well. However, perhaps the most important positive development for UFFRO during the years of isolation has been the recruiting and training of a team of Ugandan research personnel who, if availedinputs, operational support, andinternationalprofessional orientation to methods in modern aquatic science are capable of undertaking the daunting problems of studying the fisheries resources of Lake Victoria. 107
2.3 Trends in Fisheries Administration and Exploitation
Like fisheries research, organised administration of fisheries activities on Lake Victoria-Uganda seems to have had its origins in the recommendations by Graham (1929). Staff of the Game Department of Uganda had overseen and made reports to the Game Warden on fishing activities in Uganda before the fishing survey of Lake Victoria. After the survey the role of fishguards, as they became known, was specified to include compilation-of catch statistics, general control and limited experimentalinvestigations involving the use of gillnets (Uganda Game Dept. Ann. Report, 1937,1938, 1940,1946). The Lake Victoria Fisheries Board (LVFB) - the administrative body of LVFS - was headed by a Chief Fisheries Officer who co-ordinated activities in the three riparian states, while the work of the LVFS in each riparian country was supervised by a resident Senior Fisheries Officer. When the LVFS started operations in 1949 Uganda handed over to the LVFB all responsibilities regarding fisheries administration in her portion of Lake Victoria. Canoe licensing however remained the responsibility of the local Sleeping Sickness Inspectorates (Uganda Game and Fisheries Dept. Annual Report 1950; LVFS Annual Report 1950; Sastry 1957).
The Lake Victoria Fisheries Board thus consolidated administration of the fisheries of Lake Victoria, recruiting Fisheries Assistants'»acquiring a patrol vessel in each riparian state to ease transportation problems, and forging what appears to have been a close collaborative relationship with EAFRO particularly in the field of experimental investigations on fish stocks (E.A. High Commission. Ann. Rep., 1964). Success in the collaboration with EAFRO was apparently limited by lack of suitable vessels to facilitate prolonged investigations in the open water.
Fishery exploitation on Lake Victoria continued to expand and intensify after the imposition of the minimum mesh size limit at 127 mm in 1933. Attempts to start mechanised fishing enterprises after the Second World War failed, leaving all fishing activities to the artisanal fisherman. Expanding markets forfish, introduction into thefishery ofthe more efficient synthetic gillnets in 1952,and availability of outboard engines shortly afterwards intensified fish capture and extended fishing grounds farther off- shore, while facilitating faster transport of the catch to markets. Fishing became a very attractive enterprise and the tilapia fishery becameso intensive that by the mid-1950s the catch per net had dropped to quite low levels. The temptation to use gillnets with lower mesh sizes in order to catch smaller tilapias which were then abundant, became irresistable. Such gear would also harvest other members of the multispecies fishery including those of Labeo, Bagrus and Clarias, as well as the smaller O. variabilis. Uganda and Tanzania (then Tanganyika) repealed the minimum meshsize law in 1956, against the advice of EAFFRO scientists. Kenya followed this move in1961. The scientists had earlier lost the policy "debate" on the proposal to introduce non-endemicfishes intoLake Victoriaand Lake Kyoga (EAFFRO, 1967). Introductions of four tilapiine species (Oreochromis niloticus, Q. leucostictus, Tilapia zillii,and T.melanopleura) into these lakes had started in 1953 (Welcomme, 1966). Although EAFRO scientists had even stronger reservations aboutthe introduction ofthe predatory Nile perch Lates Niloticus (EAFFRO,1967) the fish was introduced into Lake Kyoga in 1957. Following its unexpected appearance near Jinja in the early 1960s, the perch was also formally introduced into Lake victoria (Reynolds andGr6boval, 1988).
The LVFS wound up its activities on Lake Victoria at the end of 1959 and 108
handed over the duties offishery administration and statistical data collection to the respective governments. The Uganda Fisheries Department (UFD), formed in 1961, assumed all administrative responsibilities for the fisheries of Lake Victoria-Uganda.
Reynolds et al.(1989) have traced the series of efforts to put the Department's statistical recording and information management procedures for the national fisheries on a sound footing. Many observers have commented on the deficiencies of existing approaches over the years and have suggested ways in which they might be improved.Attempts to strengthen collection and analysis procedures have been mounted through various agencies, missions, and projects (Sastry 1957; Stoneman 1969; Bazigos 1971, 1972). They include the abortive effort to standardise procedures lakewide under the Lake Victoria Fisheries Commission, which was set up in1973 but failed to function effectively and was eventually disbanded in 1977 with the collapse of the East African Community.
A common set of themes emerges from the earlier commentaries on fisheries data management, to wit: there are problems of inadequate numbers of field staff and of staff performance; of lack of uniformity in the mode of data collection; of insufficient quality controls; and of limited coverage of fishing and post-harvest factors in time and space as well'as in terms of the range of items measured. Fundamental to all of these problems is the lack'of resources necessary to run an efficient,standardised, and comprehensive system of monitoring and information management. Just as in the case of UFFRO's experience, the situation for the UFD became particularly acute as a result of the political and economic disruptions of recent years. Steps are now being taken through the FAO/UNDP FISHIN Project to improve UFD data collection and processing capabilities, but if this project is not to become just another in the series of failed attempts to upgrade and rehabilitate operations, Government will have to begin committing budgetary support to the Department commensurate with the fishing industry's exceedingly important role in the national economy and as a major source of nutritional securitY.
3. CURRENT MANAGEMENT ISSUES
It is now generally believed that the Lake Victoria environment is in a state of ecological flux. Profound changes are taking place inthe structure and functioning of this ecosystem, possibly being driven by the gradual reduction in the diversity of the fish fauna as initiated by overfishing, and accelerated by the introduction of non-indigenous fish species and environmental changes in the watershed of the lake. Whatever the causes of the, changes, it is certain that what was known about the limnology and fisheries of Lake Victoria has to be re-assessed.
3.1. Issues Related to the Resource Base
3.1.1. The aquatic environment
Preliminary results of limnological studies underway at UFFRO and elsewhere indicate important changes in the physical, chemical, as well as biological limnology of Lake Victoria. For instance some of the nutrientslike solublereactivesiliconnowoccur inmuchlower concentrations; the thermocline has significantly been elevated thereby reducing the volumeof the mixed layer (epilimnion); and there is a big increase, in the densityof phytoplankton and some zooplankton.Allthese changes are apparent through 109
comparison with the records of the 1960s (Tailing, 1966; Hecky & Bugenyi 1990; Bugenyi & Magumba 1990). The observed elevation of the thermocline during the period of stratification implies increase in the volume of water whose oxygen concentration declines with depth.Such an environment is most probably unfavourable to fish. The full extent of these and similar limnological changesin Lake Victoria,their causes,and their implications to the functioning of the lake ecosystem are yet to be studied.
There is also the fairly recent appearance of the notorious water weed, Eichhornia crassipes, commonly known as the water hyacinth, on Lakes Victoria and Kyoga. On Lake Victoria-Uganda the weed is currently wide-spread among the Ssese Islands, along parts of the western shoreline, and in parts of the northern portion of the lake near Jinja. Where it is fully established, this weed is known to impede navigation, invade and cover fishing grounds, smother breeding and nursery areas of some fish species, as well as destroy fishing gear that may lie in the path of huge highly bouyant and hence mobile mats of the weed. Apart from diverting large quantities of nutrients from the water into its rapidly accumulated biomass, the weed depletes dissolved oxygen in areas under its mats, using it for respiration and decay and thus hindering normal gaseous exchange at the water surface. Such'areas are unlikely to shelter .fishes like the Nile perch and the Nile tilapia that require high oxygen cohcentration.
While the water hyacinth could spread to cover much of the open water on shallow Lake Kyoga, the weed will most probably remain concentrated along the shoreline and around islands in Lake Victoria, forming huge mats in bays. The hyacinth is, therefore, likely to have considerable impact on the stocks of the Nile tilapia and the Nile perch whose nursery grounds lie inshore. The Nile tilapia which spawns in relatively shallow water and depends on the shoreline macrophytes for juvenile as well as adult shelter, and on resident invertebrates and algae for food, would be particularly affected by extensive spread of the water hyacinth in-shore.
3.1.2. The fish resources
The multispecies fisheries of Lake Victoria gradually collapsed in the 1980s such that although the stock assessment survey of the lake done between 1969 and 1971 (Kudhongania and Cordone, 1974) is still of immense scientific value, its results are currently of marginal utility as a basis for decision- making on resource exploitation. The commercial fishery of Lake Victoria- Uganda now largely consists of two introduced fish species, namely the Nile perch and the Nile tilapia, plus one indigenous pelagic species, Rastrineobola argentea, known locally as mukene. It is most likely that these three fishes are the only major species with widespread commercial viability in the Uganda waters of, and quite possibly all over, Lake Victoria (Ssentongo and Welcomme, 1985; Reynolds and Greboval 1988; Kudhongania, 1990). The introduced species, though they have only been present in Lake Victoria for less than forty years, have produced the highest catches ever known for these waters. In terms of greater availability of food, employment opportunities, and financial return to the industry, the new fisheries regime has proved to be of tremendous value to lakeside populations and fish consumers within the three riparian states and the neighbouring region.
But it must be borne in mind that the introduced species are still undergoing a process of adjustment in the context of an ecosystem that is itself in a state of flux. Moreover, available knowledge on the biology and 110
ecology of the above three commercial fish species is insufficient for long term management planning. For instance far too little is known about the current spatial and temporal distribution, size structure, and stock sizes of the Nile perch, the Nile tilapia and themukeneof Lake Victoria-Uganda; nor have the dynamics of their populations been studied. Yet knowledge on these and other aspects especially as influenced by the changes occurring in the lake ecosystem is vital for management planning.
A further point is that the Nile perch preys on Nile tilapia andmukene, as well as on its own progeny. In a severely restricted fish species array situation like that in Lake Victoria and Kyoga knowledge about predation pressure and its impact on the prey species would be essential while assessing the viability of the fishery, especially in view of the current intense exploitation for commercial purposes. This information is lacking although Ogutu-Ohwayo (1984) has made some relevant preliminary studies on Lake Kyoga. The recently observed regular appearence of severely emaciated specimens of Nile perch at Masese and Kiyindi fishlandings on Lake Victoria-Uganda by scientists at UFFRO may herald on-set of starvation due to lack of prey availability on the lake. Yet it has also been suggested for other parts of the lake that stocks of R. argentea have increased over:their previous levels in recent years,as has the abundance of the freshwater benthic shrimp Caridina niloticus (Wanink, Ligtvoet, and Witte 1988; AUW 1989; kéynolds and Orach-Meza 1989). These developments, if of significant and enduring effect, could obviously have a bearing on the long-term prospects for the perch fishery.
In view of the uncertainties that exist, any attempt to guess at the sustainable exploitation levels on Lake Victoria at the moment would amount to little more than guesswork. Three things are clear above all else, however. One is that there is an urgent need to conduct further studies of the sort referred to above and to use them as foundations for planning out the further exploitation of fish resources. The second is that, in the meantime, there is also an urgent needto avoidthe danger of overexploitation and the dissipation of the prodigious benefits that have accrued under the new fisheries regime (Reynolds and Greboval 1988; Greboval 1989). The third is that there is a further urgent need to conduct research and development efforts aimed at establishing alternative ways tc ensure continuity and growth of the country's fisheries production base. In this regard, attention should be paid to "enhanced production systems" such as artificial reefs and pen culture in protected bays, the promotion of a viable aquaculture sector, and the possibilities of making use of non-traditional aquatic resources such as shrimp, molluscs, and lake flies.
3.2. Fisheries Exploitation Issues
In the context of fisheries management fcr Lake Victoria or any other fishery, the term "exploitation" in its full sense embraces the whole sequence fishcapture, processing, marketingandconsumption-- i.ethe total mobilisation of resources for the nutritional and/or financial benefits of the nation.
3.2.1. Fisherfolk, fishing gear, and equipment
The current fisheries on Lake Victoria-Uganda are dominated by artisanal operators using a large number of traditional 'Ssese' planked canoes and some 'dugouts' fashioned, as the name suggests, from large tree trunks. A variety 111 of fishing gear are utilised. The most abundant and by far the most important is the synthetic gillnet. A large number of seines (prohibited by 'Administrative Order' in Uganda), and some longlines and castnets are also used. Mechanisation of the commercial fishery has recently been attempted by one company - the Sino-Uganda Fisheries Joint Venture Co.Ltd., operating two pair-trawling units.
The choice of gear allows for some degree of species specialisation. On Lake Victoria, gillnets capture mainly the Nile tilapia and the Nileperch. They are generally set to stay in the water overnight. Castnets capturealmost entirely Nile tilapia. On the other hand, the beach seine as operated onLake Victoria-Uganda catches mostly Nile perch, although Nile tilapia may alsobe caught particularly at night.Mukene (R.argentea) is currently fished using light attraction during dark, moonless nights with seines of 10 mmand 5 mm meshes, either dragged to the shore or in combination with net-lifting or dipnetting mechanisms offshore. While fishing of whatever sort is mostlydone at night, seine nets and castnets are fished during the dayalso. Fishers usually operate in twos or threes when using gillnets, in twosfor castnets, and in groups of four or more for seines, depending on their size. A canoeis often an individual fishing unit but several canoesMay combine operations when fishing formukene.Longlines and basket traps are usually tended by one and sometimes two fishermen.
Until the most recent inventory survey of Lake Victoria-Ugandaby the FAO/UNDP FISHIN Project, the total fishing effort in terms of activefishing canoes on the lake was not accurately known. Preliminaryresults of the above survey turned up a total of 715 landing siteshosting a total of 8674 active canoes (6432 planked, 2242 dugout; 8000fishing and 674 transport), of which 1250 are equipped with outboard engines (Tumwebaze and Coenen,1991). Clearly a great deal of effort is being directedtowards exploitation of the lake's resources.
Although the gillnet has evolved as the most suitable fishing gear so far on Lake Victoria, various circumstances including scarcity,high prices, and rampant theft in certain areas have led to innovativevariations to the normal use of the nets as passive gear, and have alsocontributed to the upsurge in the use of the illegal seinesand castnets. In some places the gillnet is no longer used as a passive gear but is set andimmediately lifted after fish have been chased into the meshes by beatingthe water with a long stick (the "Mwoko") or a special club (the "Tycoon"). Somefishermen use the gillnet as an enclosure net, setting and lifting it beforemoving to the next fishing ground. These active methods of fishing allow forthe use of only a few (four up to ten cr twelve) gillnets in a fleet, oftenmaking catches which are comparable to, and sometimes betterthan, those made with many nets set passively.
The main advantage of active fishing with gillnets,and seine nets is that the risk of gear theft on the lake isvirtually eliminated. Secondly, in the case of gillnets and castnets, the initialcapital input for the gear is also greatly reduced. Although constructionof the beach seine requires very high capital input the gear is not easilystolen at "sea"(because it is actively operated), is cheap to maintain, and may lastfor years depending on the strength of the twine used.
However, active fishing methods involvingthe use of gillnets, castnets, and beach seines are widely regarded as destructive.For instance, apart from 112
physical destruction of the beach environment the seine is notorious for the captureof immature fish, particularly the Nileperch. Twongo (1986) attributes the collapse of the Nile perch stocks in Lake Kyoga after 1983 to the rampant use of seines off-shore. The seine has become particularly popular in the Nile perch fishery in Uganda mainly because the codend can be adjusted to catch both the large and very small (illegal) sizes of fish. An important market for the small Nile perch (down to 10 cm total length!) exists in the rural areas (see, e.g. Reynolds and Odongkara 1990), making the use of seines with small meshes in the codend very attractive.
Discussion on fishing gear and equipment on Lake Victoria-Uganda remains incomplete without comments on mechanised fishing. This subject has been reviewed by Reynolds and Ssali (1990), who point out that such fishing has been practised much more in the other two states riparian to Lake Victoria than it has in Uganda. Two unsuccessful attempts were made in Ugandan waters in the past. One was a commercial industrial venture level in the northern part of the lake and the other an experimental fishing operation around Entebbe. Currently, one company operates trawlers on Lake Victoria-Uganda, and two major lessons are beginning to emerge. First, the off-shore waters may not be 'teeming with trawlable fish', contrary to optimistiO predictions from some quarters. This disclosure would surprise few informed observers, because no recent study has been made to establish their presence in the first place; and the current limnological trends towards a diminished epilimnion during the period of stratification suggest that the Lake Victoria environment may be hostile to demersal fish stocks offshore. However, presence or absence of commercially viable fish in the open waters of Lake Victoria will only be established by systematic experimental fishing.
A second lesson, also not very surprising, is that a clash of interests occurs between artisanal fishersandthe mechanised investor over the exploitation of the inshore waters and shallow banks where fish are known to gather. Mechanised fishing is not compatible with artisanal fishing techniques and gear and hence can never co-exist with the interestof artisanal operations. Besides, it is not known how resilient tilapia stocks -- comprising one of the two major inshore commercial fisheries in Lake Victoria -- would be to mechanised fishing.The reproductive strategies and life history patterns of the Nile tilapia are such that intense trawling would likely prove to be extremely disruptive, just as it did for the haplochromine stocks of southern Lake Victoria (Witte and Godswaard, 1985).
3.2.2. Fish processing and marketing
Fresh fish: A recent survey conducted by the FISHIN Project established that the proportion of fish marketed fresh (i.e. improcessed) in the districts fringing the Uganda sector of Lake Victoria is around 47% (Kirema-Mukasaand Reynolds 1991). At the same time it is recognised that a considerable amount of fish is smuggled across the border with Kenya. The amount offish marketed fresh on the shores of Lake Victoria is often influenced by the distance between the fishing ground and the markets, and by the modeof water transport used. These two factors will determine delivery of the fish in a fresh or stale condition. In this respect use of outboard engines to transportfish from fishing grounds has greatly added to the total quantityand quality of fish marketed fresh at the lakeshore. Similarly, improved roadtransport has enabled movement of fresh fish considerable distances to the urbanand rural centres inland. The advent of large Nile perch wlfri a relativelylonger shelf- lifein the fresh state than the tilapias has also contributed tothe 113
increased range of fresh fish distribution to the rural areas. However, lack of outboard engine spares and bad, at times impassable roads to fishlandings often frustrates this commendable effort to distribute fresh fish to local consumers.
Traditional fish processing: Two traditional methods, namely curing of fish over heat and smoke, and sun-drying, remain the most important means of processing fish on Lake Victoria-Uganda, and indeed for the entire fishing industry of the country(Semakula 1961; Reynolds and Ssali 1990;Ssali, Reynolds, and Ward 1990). The smoke curing technique has been slightly been modified in some places mainly to control heat losses and hence reduce waste of fuel wood. It is currently used for both Nile tilapia and Nile perch, with the final product having a shelf life of up to several weeks, depending on the residual moisture content. Sun-drying is used on Lake Victoria-Uganda mainly to preserve Nile tilapia split along the dorsal profile before it is spread out in the sun. Very often it is juvenile fish that is cured in this way. The final product when thoroughly dried is believed to have a longer shelf life than fire cured fish. Split Nile tilapia may be dry-salted or dipped into brine before drying.The salting increases the shelf life ofthe fish significantly. However, while the use of salt to piocess fish has gained considerable popularity on Lake Albert and at some landings of Lake Kyoga, the method is.apparently not common on Lake Victoria-Uganda. On the other hand sun-drying on rOck or sand is currently the only traditional method of processingmukene,whose fishery has assumed considerable importance on Lake Victoria-Uganda over the last ten years. However,mukenedried over sand remains grittytoeat. Indeed, improved processing isa challenging development problem that should be addressed in the likely event that the R. argentea fishery continues to expand on Lake Victoria-Uganda.
The largest quantity of fish distributed to distant rural areas is traditionally processed, and consists of smoked Nile tilapia, Nile perch and sun-driedmukene.The fish is distributed by fishmongers who move them mainly by public transport and sell the fish to resident retailers. Some fishmongers time the major market days for the retailing of their consignments. One of the major issues connected with the traditionally processed fish is the need to reduce or eliminate post-harvest losses. Some of the losses are introduced even before the processing itself when decomposing fish arediverted to the fire or for sun-drying. Ofcourse, the processed product will be poor. However, most post-harvest losses are due to inadequate processing methods, and losses are also incurred during transport and during storage under poor conditions.
Industrial processing: Icing and freezing was used in the industrial processing and marketing of fish at the now defunct TUFMAC (The Uganda Fish Marketing Corporation) plant sited on Lake George, and at several other fish processing plants in western Uganda, between the early 1950s and early 1970s (Reynolds and Ssali, 1990). These industries, which processed fish from Lake George, Lake Edward, and the Kazinga Channel, produced Nile tilapiafillets plus quantities of whole frozen, salted, and smoked fish, mainly for export but also for a limited local market. At the moment, ice-chillingand freezing are used by several industrial processing operations onLake Victoria. Ice is used to preserve fish during transit to processing plants and in storage,and both fresh chilled and frozen products are marketed. The currentkeen interest to industrialise processing in Kenya and Uganda was triggered inthe mid-1980s by the upsurge in fish production from Lake Victoria, based onthe introduced Nile perch and Nile tilapia. Uganda lagged somewhat in this new venturebehind 114
Kenya, where it is believed that around 20 plants have been established in recent years, although some have subsequently had to curtail or even cease operations because of supply and competition problems. At least seven plants with a combined installed capacity of over 100 tons of fresh fish per day have started or nearly started production in Uganda. Investors are said to be ready to construct many more plants if permitted. So far most of these industries get their supplies of fresh fish from the artisanal fishery. Some have started to operate fish collection boats, and some would wish to invest in trawlers to fish for themselves. Most of the processed fish products are for the export market. A very small percentage goes to local hotels and to some homes with the purchasing power for these relatively expensive items. There is however a vigorous local market for the frames or carcasses left over from filleting operations, as can be verified by the many buyers who congregate outside of the plants whenever fish consignments are being processed. These leftovers can be smoked or cooked into sauces for market sale.
3.2.3. Fish export
The export of fish from Lake Victoria-Uganda now covers all forms of traditionally processed Nile tilapia, Nile perch, and ¥mukene,and these are sent mainly to neighbouring countries. On the other hand, the export of industrially processed table fish products is to both neighbouring anel;distant markets. However, while the main aim of the export trade in fish is to earn Uganda convertible currency from a diversified export commodity base,the usefulness and desirability of fish export as currently conducted in Uganda requires urgent review.
It is now generallyknownthat a large quantity of fresh fish from Uganda waters of Lake Victoria regularly crosses the border via the lake into Kenya, destined mainly for the sizeable fish processing industry in that country. Naturally there are no records of this trafficking, and the revenue in foreign exchange that it generates is completely lost to Uganda's national coffers. At the same time, there is the contrary argument which appeared in the Uganda press, to the effect that in some parts of the border zone such as Majanji, buyers of fish smuggled to Kenya provide the only avenue for local fisherfolk to sell their catch. Whatever the case,those engaged in this business appear to offer extremely competitive prices for Ugandan fish. Also, since fish only .has to be transported in one direction, there is always the possibility of returning with backloads of various consumer goods from Kenya to sell 'duty-free' in Uganda markets (Kirema-Mukasa and Reynolds 1991).
A further point about export is that even though large quantities of smoked and sundried fish pass through the Busia customs post every week, there are no facilities to weigh the bulky and heavy loads. Thus their weights are often simply estimated, or probably underestimated. This introduces a curious loophole which likely leads to serious loss of export revenue.
The declared policy of the Government of Uganda regarding utilisation of fishery resources is to "encourage industrial fishing and the export of fish, provided it does not jeopardise the resource base and upset domestic supply" (MAIF,1989). The situation with regard to industrial fishing has already been commented upon above. As for increasing fish export, and the growth of industrial processing plant capacity which this would entail, there is genuine cause for concern not only about its negative effects on the local consumer, but on fisheries resources as well. 115
Sooner or later, the combined effect of the extremely active smuggling of fresh fish, the vibrant export trade in traditionally processed fish to neighbouring countries, plus the rapidly expanding industrial fish processing capability almost exclusively for export, will almost certainly be to 'upset' supplies of fish to local consumers. Given the status of fish as the least expensive and probably most important source of animal protein in Uganda (Kirema-Mukasa and Reynolds 1991), this is hardly a trivial prospect. Nor is ita remote prospect.For example, early this year during a period of particularly severe smuggling of fresh fish from northern Lake Victoria- Uganda, only about three tons of fresh fish arrived daily at the Masese fish landing in Jinja instead of the usual average of at least seven tons. For several weeks the fishmongers who supply up-country centres from Masese had to share the landed catch with one of the fish processing plants in Jinja town. The supply of fish from Masese to Mbale town 160 km away (via Budaka), and to parts of Iganga District and Pallisa sub-district, en-route, had to be suspended, to the obvious dismay of the local people who had become used to the availability of fresh Nile perch at their local evening markets.
The proliferation of fish processing plants in Uganda could contribute directly to the shortage of fish to the local consumer because their products are almost exclusively for the export market. Supposing that the seven plants currently or almost in operation Were to attain the estimated 100+ ton daily installed processing capacity for raw material, then their annual fresh fish requirement would at least be 36,500 tons. This is fully 30% of the estimated 119,940 tonnes production from Lake Victoria-Uganda for 1990 (UFD Records; cf. Reynolds and Ssali 1990).
It is quite likely that the main impact of the current fish export drive on the Lake Victoria will be to encourage the capture of undersize fish using mainly beach seines and gillnets with small meshes. Such undersize fish would go to fill a widening demand in the local market created by the diversion of table fish to external markets. This has in fact been going on for years on Lake Kyoga and has resulted in the depletion of Nile perch stocks since 1984 (Twongo 1986; Marriott et al. 1988). Large numbers of seines are currently sweeping the beaches of the Uganda portion (and also the Kenya portion) of Lake Victoria capturing even the very small immature Nile perch to supply the demands of the ordinary Ugandan (and Kenyan), who must be able to eat. It is also of course true that preference for small (immature) fish is further induced by socio-economic factors particularly in rural communities. Many rural families can afford to buy several small fish as opposed to one or two of the more expensive, larger fish. There has also recently been a marked increase in the exploitation and export of immature whole split sundried Nile tilapia through Busia (Ogutu-Ohwayo, personal communication; Reynolds and Odongkara 1989). Considering that this fish first matures at about 500 gm (50% maturity) in Lake Victoria and Kyoga, there is every reason to fear that recruitment overfishing is occurring, with its inevitable disastrous effects on stocks. This tendency has to be countered as a matter of the utmost urgency.
4. THE MANAGEMENT PROCESS: OPTIONS AND STRATEGIES
4.1 The Policy Context
Aswas pointed outinthe Introductionto this paper, fisheries management in order to be coherent must be set within a context of policy. And policy itself should be held open for timely review and revision in light of 116
new information and perspectives which derive from the other component activities of the management process -- monitoring, research, and consultation between the agencies and interests involved with fisheries exploitation. The process as it has evolved in Uganda conforms to this ideal pattern to some extent, but still stands in need of considerable improvement. Specifically with regard to Lake Victoria, it would seem that the enunciation of Government policy, while strong on recognising the conventional expectations relating to "rational exploitation," and "sustainability," and while subscribing to the objective of "balanced development" between the provision of domestic supplies and the development of industry to produce for export and foreign exchange, is rather weak on the specifics of how all of this is to be accomplished. A broad statement of current Government fisheries policy is to be found in the Blueprint for Fisheries Development, a document that was prepared some years ago (MAIF 1983). General policy guidelines have been reaffirmed more recently, in the statement on Livestock and Fisheries Policy Towards the Year 2000 (MAIF 1989). Given the various developments and threats to the future well-being of the Lake fisheries and the local and commercial interests who depend upon them for sustenance and profit, it is high time that more concrete and clear-cut policy measures be formulated. On the basis of the present reading of the situation, as reviewed in this and the previous paPers presented in the seminar, and until the state of the fisheries can be more accurately known through comprehensive stock assessment survey work, it is proposed that the following measures be adopted forthwith:
For mechanised trawling: Imposition of a ban on any further expansion of trawling activityinthe Uganda sector ofLake Victoria, and diversion of current operations to strictly specified zones.
For processing plants: Restriction on the number of processing plants to those which are already operating, and a moratorium on the opening of any new plants. Restriction also on the creation of any new capacity within existing plants, such that, unless there is a reversal of the trend towards diminution in the domestic supply of fish, the production of fish for export purposes be confined to its present level -- presumably about 25% of the total estimated annual production from the Uganda portion of the Lake.
For sustained resource use: In order to discourage present tendencies towards recruitment overfishing in the artisanal sector, serious and meaningful attention must be given to:
extension/education campaigns within fisherfolk communities;
an overhaul of the legal framework through which management is supposed to be effected; and
the creditable enforcement of existing legal provisions and any new ones deemed appropriate to create.
These guidelines to action, subject to further consultations that should be undertaken without delay between the various parties and agencies involved in fisheries exploitation, research, extension, and administration, should be promulgated in an updated "Blueprint" for fisheries policy and planning. 117
4.2 The Legal Context
ThefisheriesofLake Victoria-Uganda,along with allthe other fisheries of the country, are provided for under the Laws of Uganda through the Fish and Crocodiles Act (Chapter 228, Revised Edition, 1964) and the Trout Protection Act (Chapter 229, Revised Edition, 1964). The Law (Cap. 228, Sect. 43) empowers the Ministry concerned to gazette Statutory Instruments to strengthen or amend Fishing Rules for the better carrying out of the purposes of the Fish and Crocodiles Act. "Administrative Orders" are also issued on an ad hocbasis by the Ministry concerned either to encourage or discourage various activities by fisherfolk and traders, but these do not carry the force of law and are thus not actionable in court. In practice compliance to an Administrative Order can only be fostered through the application of indirect sanctions, like the refusal to renew someone's annual license.
Insofar as its legal framework is concerned, Lake Victoria is still largely an uncontrolled (open access) fishery, such that very few restrictions apply to canoes and fishing gear used on the Lake. Formerly the law prohibited gillnets with meshes less than 127 mm, but this was both widely unpopular and widely ignored, and was repealed in 1956. It seems likely that the commonly held misconception of the huge Lake's resources as being virtually inexhaustible played a role in this décision. Now, of course, it is well known that even the much more diverse and vast fisheries resources of the oceans can be depleted.
Removal of the restriction on net size left fisheries administrators with few other tools for direct control offishing effort.The Law as presently constituted stipulates that the only prohibited gear for Lake Victoria are gillnets with a stretched length of greater than 100 yards, and a depth exceeding 30 meshes. There is however no limitation on the number of nets than can be used, when set separately. The Law also prohibits the use of seine nets of a length greater than 250 yards, unless specifically authorised by the Chief Fisheries Officer (the Commissioner for Fisheries) in writing, and only for specifically designated waters. There are no restrictions placed on the number of canoes allowed to fish Lake Victoria-Uganda. It is only required that each canoe be licensed by the Department of Fisheries.
Two additional legal restrictions affecting the Lake Victoria fisheries have been put in place since the 1964 revision of the Fish and Crocodiles Act. First, the Fish and Crocodiles (Amendment) Act of 1967 specifically forbade the use of any "lamp, light, flare or torch" for the capture of fish, adding these items to the list of techniques which are prohibited unless authorised in writing by the Chief Fisheries Officer. The list otherwise includes the use of "any poison, noxious substance, explosive or electrical device" (Cap. 228, Section 9, Amended 1967). This obviously has a bearing on themukenefishery, normally conducted with the aid of lamps.
Secondly, by Statutory Instrument No. 15 of 1981, it was laid down that the legal minimum size in Lake Victoria for Nile tilapia be 280 mm (11 inches) and for Nile perch 440 mm (18 inches). Provision therefore exists in law to discourage the possession of small-sized fish of these species (Fish and Crocodiles (Immature Fish) Instrument, 1981).
In terms of the landing and disposal of fish, there are no special "authorised places" for Lake Victoria, such as are found with the gazetted landings in the controlled fisheries of Lakes George and Edward and the Kazinga Channel. However,in order to facilitate the collection of catch 118
statistics, the Fishing Rules (No. 8, 1964) require that fish only be landed between sunrise and sunset on all national waters as specified within the Schedule of the Rules.
Although it is commonly supposed that the use of beach seines and fishing at night are prohibited in Lake Victoria-Uganda, such is not actually the case in law. Seines and night fishing, along with the use of cast nets and beating on the water to scare fish into nets, were only "prohibited" by Administrative Order issued in 1986. Any "offenders" against the Order thus cannot be taken to court, so that the prohibition is in fact an empty one in legal terms.
It is understood that steps are now being taken within the UFD to update and revise the Fish and Crocodiles Act so that it is more appropriate to contemporary circumstances (Orach-Meza, pers. comm. 1991). AStatutory Instrument is being drafted which would specifically prohibit the use of beach seines unless specially authorised.Fairly sweeping proposals for other amendments to existing legislation and the Fishing Rules include tightening control of access through the extension of licensing requirements from the present coverage of vessels alone to include individual fishing operators and their gear (including gear operated from land or without a canoe). Further regulation of fishing pressure is proposed through measures to restrict operations of vessels to certain designated areas,to officially gazette certain sites as the only places where fish can be landed, and to establish limits on the maximum number of gear that any one vessel may carry. Other suggestionsare to introduceclosed seasons and closedfishing areas (specifically known fish breeding areas), and minimum sized regulations for other fish that are targets of subsistence and commercial exploitation including species of Bagrus, Clarias, and Barbus. It is additionally proposed that some legal provision be made to relate industrial processing plant capacity to sustained availability of resources, to strengthen the hand of Fisheries Officers in collecting necessary statistical information by imposing greater penalties for misinformation or obstruction, and to require industrial fishing concerns to file survey forms and monthly reports on landings and other aspects of their operations (Orach-Meza 1991).
In fine, the stage is now being set to thoroughly overhaul existing legislation and the Fishing Rules to achieve the following major effects:
Aformal (legal) prohibition on beach seines.
Regulation of access through the extension of licensing requirements to cover individual operators and their gear.
Regulation of pressure through the establishment of localfishing areas, authorised landings, closed seasons, and closed fishing zones.
Limitations, so far unspecified,on expansion of processing plant capacity_
Enhancement of authority forfisheriesofficials to monitor the industry.
While these proposals are all appropriate in terms of revising what has become an obsolete legal foundation for fisheries management in the country generally, and in terms of filling out the kit of administrative tools needed to cope with the changed realities of Lake Victoria in particular, several 119
observations should yet be made. To begin with, it must be emphasised that although these sorts of measures are long overdue and in principle should be implemented with urgency, full opportunity must still be availed for other industry interests (researchers, fisherfolk, commercial operators) to play a meaningful role in deliberating onandshaping thecharacter of any restructuredregulatoryregime. Secondly, further stepsremain to be considered in completing this all-important task. These include the following:
Formal prohibition on the use of cast nets, known to have damaging effects on the tilapia fishery.
Elaboration of a legal framework for themukenefishery, so that, for example, theuse of lamps for thisparticularcasebe clearly sanctioned, and the specifications for its gear spelled out. Small- meshed beach seines are sometimes used to harvestmukene,and these would presumably have to be outlawed under the general prohibition for such gear. Lift-nets, scoop nets, and purse-seine nets, on the other hand, as operated from vessels away from the shore, would presumably all be given a legally defined status.
Restoration of minimum mesh size to the old standard of127 mm (5 inches) for Lake Victoria-Uganda, and the establishment of a minimum of 10 mm formukenenets of any description.
Extension of access control to include the local fish processing and trading sector. Legal measures governing small-scale processors and traders are vague as presently constituted, and licensing requirements needto be both enlarged in scope and made more rigorous insofar as provisions for their enforcement are concerned. Although some licensing of "wholesale" traders is carried out, the entire post-harvest sector is basically a free-access arena in practice.
4.3 The Institutional Context
Several interrelated questions must be addressed in considering the institutional context of management for the Lake Victoria fisheries. Which agencies are involved in management and in what capacities? How are their activities best co-ordinated? What is the basis of funding for management agencies and how efficiently are these resources utilised?
4.3.1 The agencies and activities of management
The present institutional arrangement broadly divides research and administration responibilities between UFFRO and the Fisheries Department, respectively.UFFRO'smandate is a legacy from the earlyEAFROdays, except that activities are now national rather than regional in scope. ThusUFFRO scientists are expected to conduct hydrobiological and fisheries research and to use the results to help guide management planning. TheUFDserves as the sole administrator of policy including the tasks of ensuring that there is compliance with fisheries regulations, that statistics relating to catch, fishing effort, and marketing are collected and analysed, and that fisherfolk are provided with extension service supportfor the benefit of their enterprises and the industry in general. But theUFDis also involved in various research activities, e.g. fish technology and basic aquaculture research. Theoretically, UFD officersare alsoexpected tocarryout experimental and exploratory fishing, besides collecting other hydrobiological 120
and ichthyological information from the field.
Present arrangements would appear deficient in several respects, and these will now be discussed in turn.
4.3.2 Co-ordination and consultation between agencies
It is the authors' observation that far too little co-ordination and consultation takes place between UFFRO and the UFD -- the two principal fisheries agencies in the country. This weakness is noticeable in connection with policy decision-making,the organisation and conduct ofresearch, administration,and information management,and in the generallack of professional contact between UFD and UFFRO personnel.
Fisheries policy-making for Lake Victoria and all other national water bodies seems to have been assumed as a more or less exclusive responsibility of the UFD. There is no compelling reason why this should be so; indeed, there is every reason why it should not be so. For instance, until very recently, UFFRO scientists were never involved in policy discussions regarding the industrialisation of fish processing on Lake Victoria-Uganda; and it is not uncommon for high level discussions including those on aspects of fisheries research to be held at policy formulation level without the participation of UFFRO. This omission seriously compromises the whole management.process.
Perhaps the present state of affairs is due at least in part to the somewhatinconsistent wayin which fisheries managementinterests have developed in the country. As has been shown in the earlier review, the establishment of a fisheries administration came comparatively late, and at first only as an adjunct to Game Department operations. For Lake Victoria specifically, both research and administrative functions have been overseen by a number of different agencies over the years. Even after the breakup of the East African Community, when management responsibilities for the fisheries were assumed by the relevant authorities in each of the three riparian states, the state of political and economic uncertainty which was afflicting Uganda at the time made it extremely difficult for UFFRO and the UFD to even maintain some basic level of operation,far less to embark on a major effort to refashion approaches to management.
However,it would seem that an excellent opportunity now exists to accomplish this all-important task:conditionshave stabilised and the country is rapidly recovering from its earlier setbacks; there is heightened interest in the fisheries and appreciation of their importance to the national economy and welfare; and the recent merger which combined the former Ministry of Agriculture, and Ministry of Animal Industry and Fisheries into one ministry (MAAIF), may offer new possibilities for institutional adjustment.
The starting point must be a serious self-examination on the part of all of those concerned with the fisheries and their future, guided perhaps by the following set of questions:
How should projects infisheries research,primarily expected to generate information for the rational management of the resources of Lake victoria and other national water bodies, be initiated?
How should research results reach the end-users of the fisheries? Do results actually reach the end-users at the present time? 121
How arelong-term research strategies forthe fisheries ofLake Victoria-Uganda planned/reviewed?
Are there adequate means to effect the co-ordination of views and other inputs relating to fisheries management, including its policy foundations, from the major interested parties?
The issues raised by these questions are crucial and warrant careful deliberation by all seminar participants. Several general observations can be made here to initiate this process of consideration and discussion.
First of all, there is clearly a need for policy formulation and review to be put on a more consultative and consensual footing,such that the important inputs from researchers as well as administrators be formally accomodated. And other relevant agencies and parties to the management process must be similarly accomodated. These latter include fisherfolk and industrial investors, the parties directly involved with resource exploitation and use. They also include other relevant ministries, such as: Planning and Economic Development (export promotion); Commerce, Cooperatives and Marketing (export procedures);Finance (customs and income tax formalities);Industry and Technology (industrial processing); and Environmental Protection (wetlands concerns). One mechanism for ensuring the formal accomodat ion of all agencies and parties with an interest in the management process could be a "National Fisheries Council" or "National Fisheries Policy Review Committee" type of arrangement, constituted as a standing body with a remit to meet on, say, an annualbasis. Representives of the various fisheries interests would devote such occasions to a review of the state of the industry and to formulate such major policy and planning decisions as are warranted by developments.
Some provision should also be made for better contact and collaboration on a more routine basis between fisheries personnel operating in the various agencies and stations -- researchers, administrators and extension agents. This might be accomplished through a couple of different avenues. As was remarked upon above,some officers attached to the UFD are involved in research activities on aspects of fish technology and aquaculture. In the past thisworkhas beencarried outlargely withoutany co-ordination or collaboration with UFFRO scientists. Thus national fisheries research overall has not been exactly a unitary effort. This is likely to change soon as the result of the ministerial reshuffling that led, among other things, to the merger of Agriculture with Animal Industry and Fisheries, thus creating MAAIF. The old Ministry of Agriculture was structured such that there was a Secretary for Research (SR) in addition to a Permanent Secretary. It appears that this arrangment will beretained in the newministry and that research establishments in livestock and fisheries will also report to the SR, who will likely oversee administration, finance, and programming responsibilities through deputies (Under-Secretaries?) assigned tocrop, livestock, and fisheries "desks" respectively. On the face of it,this seems a promising development that should reduce the chance of duplication in fisheries research staff establishments, inputs, and activities.
But direct UFFRO-UFD linkages need to be encouraged as well. One means could be through joint "Fisheries Workshops" convened on a semi-annual or quarterly schedule.These fora would serve to give researchers and UFD Headquarters and field staff a chance to update one another on the progress of ongoing projects, problems that need to be resolved, and any other news and views that deserve attention. They would also serve as a way to exchange ideas 122
about research needs and priorities for the fisheries sector. There are some precedents for this idea. A national fishery workshop was held in Jinja in 1986 which brought together UFD and UFFRO personnel for a general exchange of information and assessment of activity in progress. Also, between 1987 and 1989 monthly review meetings were held at UFD Headquarters, attended by all senior field staff in the Department but also by a representative from UFFRO. Both the earlier workshop and the regular monthly meetings were thought to be very worthwhile by those who participated.A point that should not be overlooked is that such meetings not only foster better communication at an inter-agency level, but at an intra-agency level as well. It is surprising how reserved and compartmentalised fellow colleagues can become in their dealings with one another as they pursue various assignments and projects. Such a situation is not conducive to effective teamwork for the best possible performance of resource stewardship -- a public trust.
A further means to promotecommunicationcould bethrough the establishment of a monthly or quarterly "Fisheries Newsletter" or "Notes and Records" type of publication. The idea would be to provide a forum through which research, administrative, and extension personnel as well as those representing other fisheries interests could learn abolit recent developments, new ideas,experience.s in the field, upcoming events, and so on. Such a publication need not be elaborate and expensive to produce, but it would certainly serve a role in helping staff identify with their institutions and the industry they serve, and in helping to inform a broader audience about problems and prospects in the fisheries sector. In this connection it should be noted that commercial operators and would-be investors make a disappointingly poor effort to seek out information from readily available sources at UFFRO and the UFD. Many research and activity reports relating to the changing fisheries of Lake Victoria (and other national waters) have been written in the last few years, and these are bound to be of interest to a wider public.
4.3.3 Funding arrangements
One of the most severe constraints to management planning and the execution of management strategies is lack of funds. Limited budgets obviously restrict the ability of fisheries institutions to carry out their mandates. The problem is exacerbated by irregular and/or unreliable fund disbursement (Reynolds et al.1989). The funding constraint is no doubt as old as the history of management activities on Lake Victoria and the other national water bodies. Many examples of the frustrations that it has caused over the years could be cited, but it suffices to mention only a few.
Although EAFRO was formed way back in 1947 with the study of the off- shore fishery resources of the Lake high on the priority agenda, lack of funds to purchase a suitable craft, hindered action in this area until the MV Ibis was purchased some 20 years later.
Lack of funds is often cited as responsible not only for scarcity of weighing scales (a vital tool in statistical data gathering) at many fishlandings of Lake Victoria-Uganda. It is also responsible for the inability by the law enforcement officers to mount effective patrols to check the illegal fishing and smuggling of fish across the long borders on Lake Victoria.
(e) Quite often at UFFRO data collections on aset schedule has been 123
abandoned due to irregularly released funding or to diversion of research funds to more pressing government commitments. Exactly the same problem is encountered within the UFD.In both institutions employee morale is damaged by delayed payrolls and poor levels of remuneration and allowances.
Inview ofthe factthat allGovernmentservices have suffered especially in recent years because of the politico-economic disruptions that have plagued the country, it must be admitted that the national fisheries authorities could probably have mounted a stronger case for claiming a fair share ofannualGovernment budgets on behalf of their agencies. But the fault lies too with the central budgeting authorities, who have consistently failed to recognise the crucial role fisheries play in the national economy. That a strong case for heftier budget allocations can be made is beyond doubt. For 1990/91, for example, the total operating budget granted to all the major fisheries agencies in the country, i.e. to the UFD, UFFRO, and the Fisheries Training Institute taken together, amounted to UShs.104 million. Yet the industry was estimated to have produced financial returns to the country to the tune of UShs. 34 billion. Fisheries officers and researchers certainly have every reason to feel that their interests are'being neglected to an almost shocking degree.
International donor agencies have often assisted the national fisheries authorities with grants and loans, and this has to some extent saved the situation. For instance the first research effort on Lake Victoria to be sustained for some years was the stock assessment project funded by UNDP and executed by FAO in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Similarly, current research effort in Lake Victoria-Uganda and on other lakes in the country to study the biology, ecology and population dynamics of the Nile perch is funded by a grant from IDRC - Canada. On the side of the UFO, there has been recent external aid in the form of the EEC-funded Artisanal Fisheries Rehabilitation Project and the UNDP-funded, FAO-executed FISHIN Project. Externally funded projects are, however, usually specifically focussed and of limited duration (normally afew years at most). Often they are mounted without adequate provision for follow-up. It is a great pity, for example, thatIbiswas not available to help monitor the fish stocks of Lake Victoria through the 1970s and 1980s when species diversity drastically declined. This was simply due to lack of maintenance and operating funds.Ibiscontinued to deteriorate until it ground to a halt. Thanks to financial input by the EEC,it should be rehabilitated soon for return service in the study of the fishery resources of Lake Victoria.
Sometimes foreign aid has a condition that includes recipient government contribution. This can jeopardise project success by making it dependent once again on the state of the national economy. It is for this reason suggested that loans or grants be negotiated such that they are self-sufficient in terms of cash, leaving the recipient government to contribute only in kind. This kind of financial arrangement would facilitate uninterrupted investigations on various aspects of fisheries management for the desired period of time and according tO schedule.
A further way to ease the chronic problems of insufficient funding for management work on Lake Victoria-Uganda would be to turn to the fishery resources themselves. There is no doubt that the fishing industry on the Lake is currently doing lucrative business,much of it in foreign exchange. Increasing fees and ploughing back a fraction of the revenue collected from 124
licensing and as market dues to improve local infrastructural facilities, and meetsome administrative costs would not only go a long waytowards alleviating routine funding problems, but would also increase the efficiency of revenue collection. This money could be administered by the Fisheries Department possibly at regional level. An additional modest source of revenue that should not be overlooked in this connection is the sports fishery. Nile perchespeciallyhave becomethe object of keeninterestby angling enthusiasts, yet so far nothing has been done to revise outdated licensing fee schedules for sports fishing.
Funding for research presents a different set of problems, since it is relatively more expensive and requires a considerable foreign exchange component. This could perhaps be met in part from the fish export sector through a levy arrangement,as has already been suggested to industrial processors at the recent Fish Export and Quality Assurance Seminar convened in May 1991 by the Fisheries Department and sponsored by the Export Policy Analysis and Development Unit (EPADU) of the Ministry of Planning and Economic Development. The proposition appears quite viable and should be taken seriously by fisheries authorities and fish exporters alike. There should be no doubt that research is essential for a fishery resOurce under intense and still increasing exploitation pressure like that on Lake Victoria. The fact that the entire lacustrine ecosystem is undergoing changes greafly adds to the urgency for study. The direction and magnitude of these changes on the fishery resources can only betracked by continuous and vigorous research and monitoring.
4.3.4 Productivity
Closely related to funding is theissue of productivity, or the efficiency with which the management process utilises the available inputs. Several factors that tend to hinder productivity of management for the fisheries of Lake Victoria-Uganda need to be considered.
Combination of fisheries low enforcement and extension functions: First there is the question of the contradictory nature of the roles that UFD personnel are expected to serve. On the one hand, as administrators they are supposed to be agents of control, i.e. to ensure compliance with fishery regulations. They are thus called upon to act strictly and do often take steps, in the interests of the fisheries, whIch tend to make them unpopular with fishers and traders. On the other hand the same personnel are supposed to serve as extension agents, and are thus expected to establish good rapport with fisherfolk so as to communicate effectively with them. These two roles appear fundamentally incompatible. Their combination reduces the productivity of the fieldstaffbecause in practice they tend to concentrateon administration. Hence extension messages fail :o reach fisherfolk who in turn are deprived of a major avenue for discussing their ideas and problems with the other parties to fisheries management.
This gap in communication is a very serious hindrance to the entire management process.The co-operation oflocal operators and traders is absolutely vital if the goals of rational exploitation and quality control are to be achieved. But co-operation can hardly be ensured without an active and effective extension service. Very few fishing operators on Lake Victoria- Uganda know and appreciate the importance of fishing gear control. They tend to regard gear regulations simply as UFD impositions on their free enterprise. Their compliance to the regulations, such as it is, requires strict policing 125
and will in any case break down as catch rates decline. Control should, therefore, also be based on education about the need for regulations and this calls for genuine extension efforts.
Hence there is a strong need to separate the practice of fisheries law enforcement and extension in the field. The modalities for effecting the separation is a matter for further deliberation, though the creation of a special, uniformed fisheries enforcement arm of the Department would appear to be the most logical solution. This could be something to co-ordinate with the Uganda Police. Fisheries extension should then be accorded due emphasis in the administrative hierarchy of the Fisheries Department, and in courses at the Fisheries Training Institute.
Problems of centralisation, workers' morale, and staffing: Although the administration of the Fisheries Department is broken down into Regions and Districts, most administrative decisionsand directivesoriginatefrom Entebbe. Similarly the chain of communication from say Fisheries Assistants posted at landings to the office of the Commissioner where decisions are taken is rather too long, having to pass through three stages(i.e. Assistant FisheriesDevelopment Officer - DistrictFisherieg Officer - Regional Fisheries Officer) to reach Entebbe. These two factors are likely to render communication-inefficient, stifle initiative and hence delay action. Confusion may arisewhere decisionsmade at thetop (such as issuing certain fishmongers' licences) become effective at the local level before information about decision filters through to the local administration.
A further point here is that successful execution of programmes is quite often influenced by workers' morale which in turn tends to be linked to the levels of renumeration and work-related allowances, opportunities availed for career development or training courses,and the quality and nature of supervision. For instance, Fisheries Assistants at remote postings on Lake Victoria who do not get their salaries regularly and spend years without seeing their superiors are likely to be more apathetic and unproductive on duty than those who, though still subject to delayed payment of salary, at least receive regular visits from colleagues to explain problems relating to pay disbursement and to give encouragement and guidance.
At the same time, it seems likely that there are problems of inadequate deployment and over-staffing within the various national fisheries institutionsand stations. Staff who have not been deployed to posts for which they have been trained and where they are needed, as well as those who are simply superfluous to requirements, have the same effect as staff who are simply unproductive: they all use up scarce funding resources, obviously without making meaningful contributions to the collective management effort. Job tenure should be tied to a far greater extent than is found at present to performance and duty commitment,with aview towardsincreasing staff efficiency of service and freeing resources to ensure, among other things, adequate deployment of personnel and the availability of suitable levels of service-related allowances.
4.3.5 The institutional context: Proposals
The various proposals for action made in the course of the preceding discussion of the institutional context of management may be summarised in the following way. 126
For better co-ordination and consultation between agencies:
Ensure that policy formulation and review is conducted on a more consultative and consensual basis, such that the important inputs from researchers and other relevant agecies and parties to the management process as well as administrators be formally accomodated. Therefore constitute a national standing body to meet for example on an annual basis, with the mandate to evaluate the state of the fisheries industry and to formulate such major policy and planning decisions as are warranted by developments.
Support the move to have all fisheries researchers, whether UFFRO- or UFD-based, report to the Secretary for Research under the new MAAIF structure,in order to make more effective use of research staff establishments, inputs, and activities.
Promote better direct UFFRO-UFD linkages by convening joint 'Fisheries Workshops' on a semi-annual or quarterly schedule.
Also promote communication between all fiSheries personnel and fisheries-related agencies and parties through a modest newsletter type of publication. o For Funding:
Campaign for more meaningful annual budget allocations from the Central Government, proportional to fisheries' real contributions to the national economy and nutritional welfare.
Negotiate loans or grants in such a way that the projects they support are self-sufficient in terms of cash, leaving the recipient government tocontribute only inkind, thusavoiding the almost inevitable delays that dependence on host country funds involves.
Seek an increase in revenue for direct support offisheries institutions and fisheries-related infrastructure development through raising fees for licensing and market dues, with the justification that Lake Victoria-Uganda has been generating rather immense rents for fisherfolk over the last several years. Consider also possibilities for raising modest amounts of revenue from the sports fishery. Develop a system through which the additional revenue could be more readily accessible at the district level for its intended purposes.
Also develop a scheme for the more adequate funding of research, through a levy arrangement with the fish export sector.
For enhanced management productivity:
Separate thefunctions offisheries enforcement and fisheries extension as conducted by field officers,by setting up a special enforcement arm within the UFD.
Renew the dedication to effective fisheries extension serviceand strengthen this service in the administrative hierarchy of the UFDand in courses at the Fisheries Training Institute. 127
For better staff performance:
Devolve greater authority to the Regional and District levels of administration, thereby shortening lines of communication, fostering more initiative among out-posted staff, and reducing the delay in implementing administrative measures.
Provide far higher levels of support in terms of work-related allowances and opportunities for career development/training courses, and in terms of backstopping by supervisory staff, for personnel posted in the field.
Consider ways and means of paring back on superfluous staff within the fisheries administrative hierarchy, using as criteria job performance and dedication to duty. At the same time, expedite efforts to correct the inadequate deployment of staff who are currently unable to fill the posts for which they are intended.
4.4 The Regional Context
Lake Victoria is a shared resource base administered by Tanzania (49%), Uganda (45%), and Kenya (6%). Clearly its fisheries must depend crucially on close co-operation between the three East African states for their maintenance and future development. This imperative has long been recognised by the many administrators and researchers who have been associated with the Lake in one way or another from the time of Graham's early study in the 1920s. Lakewide co-ordination was highlighted on the research side during the era of the East African Fisheries Research Organisation and its successor, the East African Freshwater Fisheries Research Organisation, and on the administration side during the time of the Lake Victoria Fisheries Service and the Lake Victoria Fisheries Commission. Within the last decade, it has been the underlying theme of the CIFA (Committee on Inland Fisheries for Africa) Sub-Committee for the Development and Management of the Fisheries of Lake Victoria.The Sub- Committee convenes every two years with the FAO serving as the secretariat. At each meeting delegates from the fisheries authorities of the riparian states have the opportunity to update one another on developments within their respective territorial sectors, to consider pertinent biological and socio- economic issues, and to agree through resolutions on measures for collective action. The CIFA meetings might be faulted in that the resolutions they yield are not followed up with enough vigour. Yet they are of the utmost importance as avenues for deliberation and the creation of some consensus on matters of mutual interest. Rather than dwell on the shortcomings, every effort should be made by the three member states to strengthen the role of these essential fora.
On another front, it is encouraging that practical steps towards lakewide co-ordination of research work are now being taken through the EEC- funded Lake Victoria Regional Project.This was alluded to earlier when mention was made of work being undertaken to rehabilitate theMVIbis at UFFRO. Similar work is underway at the other national fisheries research stations on the Lake -- the Kenya Marine and Freshwater Researh Institute at Kisumu and the Tanzania Fisheries Research Institute at Nyegezi (Mwanza). When preparations are complete, it is intended to conduct a comprehensive stock assessment of the Lake -- the first since the major EAFFRO-UNDP/FAO effort mounted some thirty years ago. 1 28
It may also be observed that the present seminar is itself a promotion of regional integration of purpose and practice vis-a-vis the Lake fisheries, since it is one of three national meetings being convened in the respective riparian states at the initiative of the FAO/UNDP Inland Fisheries Project (IFIP) based in Bujumbura. The national meetings are intended to prepare the ground for a tripartite seminar to be held in the near future, and IFIP is certainly to be commended for putting all of these arrangements in train.
As far as the present seminar is concerned, it is recommended here that strong endorsement be given to the view that the regional context of the management process be cultivated and otherwise encouraged as much as possible. Thus, as a general proposition, it is submitted that:
Uganda fisheries agencies, in seekingcloser co-ordination and collaboration between their own policy-making, research, administration, and extension activities, should at the same time seek to harmonise such activities with those of the other states riparian to Lake Victoria. This can best be done through full commitment to and participation in the CIFA Sub-Committee for the Lake and equally to the other projects now being implemented to foster'regional orientations towards management of the resource.
5. CONCLUSION
This paper has tried to draw together a number of salient points raised in the previous seminar presentations and in other contexts pertaining to management issues, options, and strategies for the management of the Lake Victoria-Uganda fisheries. Even though the discussion has beenfairly extensive,much remains to be considered. Perhaps enough has been said, however, to set the stage for the final working sessions of the seminar that are intended to debate and draft out resolutions for eventual deliberation by all participants.
It has been stressed that management should be regarded as a process that involves a number of interacting components. It is not only about enforcement and extension; there are also the crucial components ofmonitoring and research,and consultation between the various parties involved in resource stewardship and exploitation.And all ofthese components are structured by and at the same time feed back into, a code of policy.
Keeping this orientation in mind, and after a review of the historical background of fisheries research,administration,and exploitation for Lake Victoria, and of current management issues in terms of the resource base and its use and users, options and strategies were considered with reference to their multiple contexts. A number of proposals were also set forward.
In fine, with regard to the context of policy, it was proposed that a new "blueprint" for fisheries development be compiled which should include specific provisions restricting mechanised trawling and industrial processing plant expansion, and encouraging sustained resource use through more effective extension work and improved laws and enforcement mechanisms. It was recognised that steps are now being taken to provide a more adequate legal context for management, but that further specific restrictions on gear and effort are called for. In terms of the institutional context, ratherextensive improvements were identified as necessary to achieve adequate levels of co- ordination and consultation between national fisheries research and 129 administrative-extension agencies, and of the funding and staff productivity elements that are the critical driving forces behind the routine tasks of management. Last but of equal importance, taking into account the shared nature of Lake Victoria fisheries resources,it was proposed thatthe regional context of management must be duly recognised and every effort therefore made to encourage co-operation between the three riparian states.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Several colleagues at the Uganda Freshwater Fisheries Research Organisation (UFFRO) and the Uganda Fisheries Department (FISHIN Project) read through and made suggestions on the original draft of this paper. Their contributions are gratefully acknowledged.Sincere thanks also go to Ms Florence Kakayi who assisted with typing work. REFERENCES
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LIST OF IFIP REPORTS - LISTE DES RAPPORTS PPEC
I. TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS / DOCUMENTS TECHNIOUES
Gréboval D., A. Bonzon, M. Giudicelli and E. Chondoma, Baseline Survey Report 1989 (1987) on inland fisheries planning, development and management in Eastern/Central/Southern Africa. UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP). RAF/87/099-TD/01/89 (En): 104p.
Gréboval D., A. Bonzon, M. Giudicelli et E. Chondoma, Rapport de l'étude de 1989 base (1987) sur la planification, le développement et l'aménagement des pêches continentales en Afrique Orientale/ Centrale/Australe. Projet Régional PNUD/FAO pour la Planification des Pêches Continentales (PPEC). RAF/87/099-TD/01/89 (Fr): 110p.
Gréboval D., and B. Horemans (eds), Selected Papers presented at the SADCC/FAO 1989 Training Wórkshop on Fisheries Planning, Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe,15-24 Novembre 1988.UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP). RAF/87/099-TD/02/89 (En): 138p.
Horemans B., et Maes M.(éds), Rapport de la Consultation technique sur les 1989 lacs Cohoha et Rweru partagés entre le Burundi et le Rwanda (Bujumbura,13 et 14 Décembre 1989). Projet Régional PNUD/FAO pour la Planification des Péches Continentales (PPEC). RAF/87/099-TD/03/89 (Fr): 94p.
Gréboval D., Management of the New Fisheries of Lake Victoria: Major socio- 1989 economic issues. UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP), RAF/87/099-TD/04/89 (En): 25p.
Gréboval D. (ed), Principles of fisheries management and legislation of 1990 relevance to the Great Lakes of East Africa: Introduction and case studies.UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP), RAF/87/099-TD/05/90 (En): 41p.
Report of the IFIP/SWIOP Workshop on Economic Aspects of Fisheries Development 1990 and Management. UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries
Planning (IFIP), RAF/87/099-TD/07/90 (En): 22p .
Corsi F., Evaluation des pêcheries zairoises des lacs Idi Amin/Edouard et 1990 Mobutu Sese Seko. Projet Régional PNUD/FAO pour la Planification des Péches Continentales (PPEC). RAF/87/099-TD/08/90 (Fr): 64p.
Corsi F., Evaluation of the Zairian Fisheries of Lakes Edward and Mobutu. 1990 UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP),
RAF/87/099-TD/08/90 (En): 60p .
Rapport de la première réunion du Comité consultatif du projet régional pour 1990 la planificationdespêchescontinentales. Projet Régional PNUD/FAO pour la Planification des Pêches Continentales (PPEC). RAF/87/099-TD/09/90 (Fr): 24p. 134
Report of the First Meeting of the Advisory Committee of the Regional Project 1990 for Inland Fisheries Planning. UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP), RAF/87/099-TD/09190 (En): 22p.
Report of the Symposium on Socio-economic aspects of Lake Victoria Fisheries. 1990 A Symposium organized by the IFIP Project under the framework of the CIFA Sub-comittee for Lake Victoria, 24-27 April, Kisumu, Kenya, UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP), RAF/87/099-TD/10/90 (En): 24p.
Maes M.(ed), Report on the Technical Consultation on Lake Mweru shared by 1990 Zaire and Zambia, 08-10 August, Lusaka, Zambia, UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP), RAF/87/099-TD/11/90 (En): 44p.
Maes M. (6d), Rapport de la Consultation technique sur le lac Mweru partagé 1990 entre le Zaire et la Zambie, 08-10 aoat, Lusaka, Zambie, Projet Régional PNUD/FAO pour la Planification des Pêches Continentales (PPEC). RAF/87/099-TD/11/90 (Fr): 45p.
Papers presented at the IFIP/SWIOP Workshop on Economic Aspects ofFisheries 1990 Development and Management. UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland FisheriesPlanning(IFIP), RAF/87/099-TD/12/90 (En): 122p.
Case studies presented at the IFIP/SWIOP Workshop on Economic Aspects of 1990 Fisheries Development and Management. UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP), RAF/87/099-TD/13/90 (En): 115p.
Report of the Workshop on Fisheries Statistics and Information Systems for 1990 LakeVictoria, 26-29 June 1990, Kampala, Uganda, UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP), RAF/87/099-TD/14/90 (En): 72p.
Rapport de la consultation Technique sur l'aménagement des pêcheries des lacs 1990 Edouard et Mobutu, 17-21 septembre 1990, Kampala, Ouganda, Projet Régional PNUD/FAO pour la Planification des Pêches Continentales (PPEC). RAF/87/099-TD/15/90 (Fr): 30p.
Report of Technical Consultation on Management of the Fisheries of Lakes 1990 Edwardand Mobutu, 17-21 September 1990, Kampala, Uganda, UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP), RAF/87/099-TD/15/90 (En): 26p.
Report of the National Workshop on Fishery Statistics and InformationSystems, 1990 22-26 October 1990,Addis Ababa,Ethiopia, UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP),RAF/87/099-TD/16/90 (En): 33p.
Machena C. and V. Kanondo, A Review of the Fisheries of Lake Kariba andtheir 1991 Management. UNDP/FAORegional Project for InlandFisheries Planning (IFIP). RAF/87/099-TD/17/91 (En): 58p. 135
Rapport de la deuxième réunion du Comité consultatif du projet régional pour 1991 laplanification despêchescontinentales. Projet Régional PNUD/FAO pour la Planification des Pêches Continentales (PPEC). RAF/87/099-TD/18/91 (Fr): 25p.
Report of the Second Meeting of the Advisory Committee of the Regional Project 1991 for Inland Fisheries Planning.UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP). RAF/87/099-TD/18/91 (En): 23p.
Prado J., Beare R.J., Siwo Mbuga J., Oluka L.E. A catalogue of fishing methods 1991 and gear used in Lake Victoria. UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP). RAF/87/099-TD/19/91 (En): 104p.
Biribonwoha A.R. A Review of Fisheries Inputs in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. 1991 UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP). RAF/87/099-TD/20/91 (En): 65p.
Rapport de la deuxième Consultation technique sur l'aménagement des pêcheries 1991 des lacs Edouard et Mobutu Sese Seko. Projet Régional PNUD/FAO pour la Planification des Pêches Continentales (PPEC). RAF/87/099-TD/21/91 (Fr): 27p.
Report of the Second Technical Consultation on the Management of the Fisheries 1991 of lakes Edward and Mobutu, 27-29 May 1991, Kinshasa,Zaire. UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP). RAF/87/099-TD/21/91 (En): 28p.
Leendertse K. and B. Horemans. Socio Economic Characteristics of 1991 the Artisanal Fishery in Kigoma region, Tanzania. UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP), RAF/87/099-TD/22/91 (En): 104p.
Hanek G, K. Leendertse and B. Farhani. Socio-Economic Investigations of Lake 1991 Kivu Fisheries. UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP), RAF/87/099-TD/23/91 (En): 55p.
Report on the Regional Training Course on Fish Stock Assessment, 21 January-15 1991 February 1991, Kariba, Zimbabwe. Denmark funds-in-trustFI: GCP/INT/392/DEN-Act. Rep. No 29 and UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP), RAF/87/099-TD/24/91 (En): 29p.
Bellemans M., Structural characteristics of the Burundi Fisheries in 1990 and 1991 Historical Review. UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP), RAF/87/099-TD125/91 (En): 26p.
Hoekstra T.M.,A. Asila,C. Rabuor, O.Rambiri. Report on the census of 1991 fishing boats and gear in the Kenyan waters of Lake Victoria. UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP), RAF/87/099-TD/26/91 (En): 36p.
Ssentongo G.W. and J.D. Nfamara (eds.) Report of a National Seminar on the 1991 Development and Management ofthe Kenyan Fisheries ofLake Victoria. UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP), RAF/87/099-TD/27/91 (En): 124p. 136
Reynolds J.E., P. Mannini and D. F. Gréboval. Obscure Waters: The Fisheries 1991 of the Mweru/Luapula Complex, Zambia - Report of an IFIP Review Mission. UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP), RAF/87/099-TD/28/91 (En): 87p.
Maes M., G. Ntakimazi et J. Ruremesha. Situation générale des lacs Cohoha et 1991 Rweru et propositions d'aménagement. Projet Régional PNUD/FAO pour la Planification des Pêches Continentales (PPEC). RAF/87/099-TD/29/91 (Fr): 61p.
Rapport de la deuxième Consultation technique portant sur l'aménagement des 1991 pêcheries des lacs Cohoha et Rweru. Projet Régional PNUD/FAO pour la Planification des Pêches Continentales (PPEC). RAF/87/099-TD/30/91 (Fr): 47p.
Ssentongo G.W. and F.L. Orach-Meza (eds.), Report of a National Seminar on the 1991 Development and Management of Ugandan fisheries of Lake Victoria. UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP). RAF/87/099-TD/31/91 (En): 137p.
Gréboval D. et M. Maes, Caractéristiques et évolution des p6cheries des lacs 1991 partagés d'Afrique centrale. Projet R'égional PNUD/FAO pour la Planification des Pêches Continentales (PPEC). RAF/87/099-
TD/32/91 (Fr) : 35p.
Ssentongo G.W. and N. Dampha (eds.), Report of the Technical Consultation 1992 between Malawi and Mozambique on Lakes Malawi, Chilwa and Chiuta. UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP). RAF/87/099-TD/33/92 (En): In preparation.
Leendertse K. et M. Bellemans, Caract6ristiques socio-économiques des patrons 1991 de pêche artisanale et coutumière dans la partie burundaise du lac Tanganyika. Projet Régional PNUD/FAO pour la planification des pêches continentales (PPEC). RAF/87/099-TD/34/91 (Fr): 87p.
Ssentongo G.W. (ed.), Report on the National Seminar on the Development and 1992 Management of the Tanzanian Fisheries of Lake Victoria. UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP), RAF/87/099-TD/35/92.(En): In preparation.
II. WORKING PAPERS / DOCUMENTS DE TRAVAIL
Bean C.E., Selected abstracts of basic references and current literaturein 1989 fisheries economics. UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP), RAF/87/099-WP/01/89 (En): 51p.
Ssentongo G.W., Fish and fisheries of shared lakes of Eastern/Central/ 1990 Southern Africa. UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP), RAF/87/099-WP/02/90 (En): 19p.
Nfamara J.D., Recent observations on the fisheries of lake Tanganyika.UNDP/ 1990 FAORegionalProject for Inland FisheriesPlanning (IFIP), RAF/87/099-WP/03/90 (En): 16p. 137
Proceedings of the Symposium on Socio-economic aspects of Lake Victoria
1990 Fisheries.Volume 1 (unedited papers 1-7). UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP), RAF/87/099-WP/05/90 (En): 114p.
Nfamara J.D., Improved method for smoking fish in the Kigoma region of Lake 1990 Tanganyika, Tanzania. UNDP/FAORegional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP), RAF/87/099-WP/06/90 (En): 23p.
Proceedings of the Symposium on Socio-economic aspects of Lake Victoria 1991 Fisheries. Volume 2(unedited papers 8-12). UNDP/FAO Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning (IFIP), RAF/87/099-WP/07/91 (En): 88p.
Gréboval D. et Diquelou J., Expérimentation de la senne tournante 1991 et coulissante dans les eaux burundaises du lac Tanganyika: Etude de pré-faisabilité. Projet Régional PNUD/FAO pour la Planification des Pêches Continentales (PPEC). RAF/87/099- WP/08/91 (Fr): 20p.
Maes M., Leendertse K. et Mambona Wa Bazolana, Recensement des unités de pêche 1991 zairoise dans la partie nord du lac Tanganyika. Projet Régional PNUD/FAO pour la Planification des Péches Continentales (PPEC). RAF/87/099-WP/09/91 (Fr): 61p.
MaesM. (ed.),Recueil de documents présentés à la Consultation technique des 1991 lacs Edouard et Mobutu partagés entre le Zaire et l'Ouganda. ProjetRégional PNUD/FAOpour la Planificationdes Pêches Continentales (PPEC). RAF/87/099-WP/10/91 (Fr): 112p.