Esma¨Il Fasih and His War Novel, the Winter of 1983

ESMA¨IL FASIH AND HIS WAR NOVEL, THE WINTER OF 1983

Saeedeh Shahnapour

INTRODUCTION

With the inception of the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) came a new chapter in Persian literature from a thematic standpoint. This period has been characterised as “the War Lite- rature” (Adabiyyat-e Jang), “the Literature of Holy Defense” (Adabiyyat-e Defa¨ Moqad- das) and “the Literature of Perseverance and Resistance” (Adabiyyat-e Paydari va Moqavemat), and focuses on the war and the issues stemming from it. Persian authors during this time opted to write long and short stories, as well as novels and memoirs about the event. Many of these writers reveal the profound impact of the conflict in their work, regardless of literary perspectives. Alternatively, others chose to combine more traditional, amorous and domestic melodramas with the aspects of the war to create their war novels.1 Martyrdom (shahadat), captivity (esarat), self-sacrifice (janbazi), bombardments (bom- baran) and “shellshock” syndrome (mouj-gereftegi) rank among the most prominent motifs described in this section of Persian fiction. The main goal of these writers was to inspire people to join the front lines and augment sentiments of military spirit. Esm¨ail Fasih (1935-2009) is considered to be one of the best Persian War novelists of the late twentieth century. With twenty-one published novels, five collections of short stories and eleven translations, he is the most prolific writer of his generation. Fasih wrote both before and after the Islamic Revolution (1978-79). His post-revolutionary works number more than those in the pre-revolutionary period. Most of his post-revolutionary novels engage with the theme of war and its related aspects. Sorayya dar Eghma (Sorayya in a Coma, 1984), Asir-e Zaman (The Captive of Time, 1994), Zemestan-e shast o do (The Winter of 1983, 1986), Bade-ye Kohan (Old Wine, 1994), Koshte-ye Eshq (Killed for Love, 1997) and Name-yi be Donya (A Letter to the World, 2000) are Fasih’s war novels. He also authored a collection of short stories titled Namadha-ye Dasht-e Moshavash (The Symbols of Turbulent Desert, 1990), which also depict war. Among these works, The Winter of 1983 has acquired a sublime place in Persian fiction, because it is only the second novel written about the Iran-Iraq War, the first being Ahmad Mahmud’s Zamin-e

1 Hassan Anushe, “Adabiyyat-e Jang,” in Daneshnama -e Adab-e Farsi dar Afghanistan, Vol. 2, Tehran, Sazman-e Chap va Entesharat-e Daneshnameh, 1378/1999, pp. 48-51.

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Sukhte (The Scorched Earth, 1982). This article is divided into two parts. The first part focuses on Fasih’s life and on his work as an author, as well as on the position of his works in modern Persian literature. I intend to give a short as well as an insightful- intro- duction regarding his works. The second part deals with analysing Fasih’s well-known war novel Zemestan-e shast o do, particularly its use of narratological tools and theories. It is important to do this in order to get a coherent account of the novel as well as to offer an intuitive approach about the Iran-Iraq War and its impact on Iranians lives.

FASIH’S LIFE

Fasih was born on the 21st of February 1935 in Bazarche-ye Darkhungah, which lies in the southern precincts of Tehran. His family and friends called him Naser (or Nazi). His father Arbab Hassan, an illiterate grocery store owner, died when Fasih was only two years old. Fasih was the youngest child in the family. He grew up in overcrowded home along with his nine other siblings.2 In 1941, at the age of six, Fasih started his schooling at ¨Onsori Elementary School. During this period, he demonstrated an interest in novels and stories. He continued his education at Rahnema High School in 1947 where he earned his diploma.3 This period in Fasih’s life coincided with the coup d’état on the 28th Mordad 1332 (17 August 1953), which resulted in the fall of Mossadeq’s nationalist government and the entrance of the Eisenhower Administration in Iran, the latter leading to American influence in the region until the Islamic Revolution in 1979.4 For nearly two years between 1954 and 1956, Fasih taught in one of Tehran’s schools. Under Mossadeq’s regime, the government had announced that whoever wanted to be exempt from conscription would be required to pay 100 Tomans, the Iranian currency at the time. After paying this sum and obtaining his exemption certificate, Fasih intended to go abroad to continue his education. Because of his low teaching income, however, Fasih was forced to apply to one of the cheaper colleges in the United States.5 By 1956, 22-year old Fasih had left Iran and eventually ended up at Montana State College in Bozeman, Montana. He studied Chemistry there for four years. In order to pay his expenses, Fasih worked in the laboratory of the University in his free time. In his third year, he was accepted at the University of Montana in Missoula to study English Litera- ture. Missoula enjoyed a reputation as an important centre for American writers, and gave Fasih direct access to American fiction. The overall influence of this experience on his work is hard to deny. Whilst in Missoula, he wrote his first short story Khale Turi (Auntie Turi), which was published by the University press.6 He placed second in his class, earning

2 Ëmad Badi¨, Asl-e Asar-e Fasih, Tehran, Alborz, 1379/2000, p. 1. 3 Badi¨, “Negahi be Zendegi-ye Esmäil Fasih,” in Kelk 55-56, 1373/1994, pp. 198-203. 4 Esmäil Fasih, “A Day in the Life of a Contemporary Iranian Writer,” in Third World Quarterly, Vol. 9, No. 3, 1987, pp. 825-47. 5 “Fasih-Esma’il,” in Mehr-e Hormoz, no. 4, 1388/2009, at http://sibegazzade.com/main/?p=224 (accessed 23 September 2011). 6 Saeed Kamali Dehqan, “Fasih be Revayat-e Fasih,” in E¨temad, no. 2016, 2 August 2009; Ali Ferdowsi, in Encyclopaedia Iranica, under Esma'il Fasih.

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him a 100-dollar award. One of his professors once said of Fasih, “I think we have a writer on our hand,” a phrase that left a lasting impression on him.7 In 1960, Fasih earned his B.S. in Chemistry and B.A. in English Literature. Imme- diately after he moved to San Francisco, California, where he fell in love and married a Norwegian named Annabel Campbell. They lived in San Francisco only for a year, since Fasih was offered a good job in Washington, where he and his pregnant wife would then move. Sadly, however, his wife and child died due to complications in 1962. Fasih was devastated. This tragedy made America so unbearable for him that he came home to Iran shortly thereafter.8 Upon returning, Fasih became a translator at the Franklin Publishing Institute in Tehran, which was under the management of a talented translator, theatre critic and author named Najaf Daryabandari.9 He meanwhile became acquainted with a number of Iranian writers, such as Sadeq Chubak and Gholam Hussein Sa¨edi. In 1963, Fasih concurrently took on a job at the National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) in Ahvaz, south Iran. He started there as a teacher in the Industrial Vocational High School (Honarestan-e Sana¨ti). During his stay in Ahvaz, a period regarded as the years of solitude and gloom for the writer, Fasih started writing. In 1964, a year after moving to Ahvaz, Fasih married Parichehr ¨Edalat, in Ahvaz. They had two children: a daughter, Salumeh (b. 1965) and a son Shahriyar (b. 1970).10 In 1968, the Oil Company sent Fasih to the University of Michigan as a researcher. After a year, he completed a M.A. degree in English Literature. Subsequent to his homecoming in 1969, his company transferred him to Abadan to teach at the Institute of Technology (A.I.T), a post he held until the siege of Abadan at the start of Iraq’s invasion of Iran in 1980. As a result, he was forced to retire as an Assistant Professor. He went back to Teh- ran and settled in Ekbatan, which is located in one of the city’s western precincts.11 After his compulsory retirement, Fasih devoted the remaining years of his life almost entirely to writing. Besides fiction, he also wrote some reports for the National Iranian Oil Company.12 On the 5th of July 2009, he was admitted to the National Iranian Oil Company Hospital in Tehran due to brain haemorrhaging and passed away ten days later on the 15th of July at the age of seventy-five. Fasih was buried in the artists’ section of Behesht-e Zahra cemetery.13

7 “Fasih-Esma’il,” in Aftab 1, Aban1384/October- November 2005, at http://aftab.ir/articles/art_ culture/literature_verse/c5c1130073769p1.php (accessed 23 September 2011). 8 Ferdowsi, in Encyclopaedia Iranica under Esmäil Fasih, at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ fasih-esmail, (accessed 22 September 2011). 9 Najaf Daryabandari, “Daryabandari Darbare-ye Fasih: Part-o Pala Miguyand ke Mesl-e Hemingway Minevisad,” at http://sibegazzade.com/main/?p=1120 (accessed 22 September 2011); Dehqan, “Realism-e Irani, Teragedy-e Amricayi: Revayat-i az Ruzegar-e Esmäil Fasih,” in Sharvand-e Emruz, Ordibehesht 1386/April-May 2007, at http://sibegazzade.com/main/?p=98 (accessed 23 September 2011). 10 Idem, “Goft-e Gu ba Esmäil Fasih,” in E¨temad, part 2, 28 Farvardin 1386/17 April 2007, at http://sibegazzade.com/main/?p=92 (accessed 23 September 2011). 11 Ferdowsi, in Elr under Esmäil Fasih; “Fasih-Esma’il,” in Aftab1, October-November 2005. 12 Suriyye Kabiri, “Foqdan-e Esmäil Fasih,” at http://www.english.washingtonprism.org/showarticle. cfm?id=1217 (accessed 27 September 2011). 13 Ferdowsi, in Elr under Esmäil Fasih.

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HIS WORKS

Fasih’s works are divided into novels, short stories and translations. He is known primarily for his novels, which have struck a sensitive chord with Iranians. In a 2007 symposium held in Tehran, Fasih received a Certificate of Appreciation for his novels that focus on society and Iranian civilizations in particular.14 His birthplace Darkhungah, as well as his family and friends have frequently been the subjects of Fasih’s novels and short stories. Fasih attempts to portray ordinary life in different eras in order to reveal changes in Iranian society, lifestyle and thoughts throughout the history. The following section will consequently enumerate and analyze Fasih’s novels so as to more thoroughly convey his authorship art and style.

A. Novels

1. Sharab-e Kham (Raw Wine, 1968) is Fasih’s first novel, in which he introduces Jalal Ariyan, the narrator of his forthcoming books and the protagonist of the vast majority of his stories. Fasih’s views about how to construct an ideal world are evident throughout the novel. Tajaddod (meaning literally, ‘supporter of modernity’), an aspiring writer, appears as Fasih’s avatar through which he projects his thoughts, concerns and ambitions. Namely Tajaddod desires to create a novel that will lead to the glorification of Persian literature. Jalal and Tajaddod’s literary conversations show Fasih’s ambition to elevate his work to a more superior level of literature. Undertones of mysticism are also apparent and generally invoked by the book’s character Yusef. He falls in love with the natural world and believes that human’s contentment is based upon annihilation and returning to Paradise.15 Exploitation of symbols and metaphors is another characteristic of the novel. Cor- respondingly, the name of the village ‘mirage’ where Tajaddod was buried alive by well- intentioned villagers is symbolic to illiterate people who do not grasp the value of art (i.e. literature). The title of Tajaddod’s book Az Khakestarha (From Ashes) serves also a metaphoric meaning referring to the writer’s endeavor in fabricating a novel frame in Persian literature. 2. Del Kur (Blind-Hearted, 1972): is perceived as Fasih’s most marvellous novel due to its success in recreating the concrete and tangible atmosphere of Darkhungah. The novel has been praised for its intricate and accurate depiction of life in Tehran from the 1930s to 1960s. The story begins when Sadeq Ariyan, the youngest son of Arbab Hassan, wakes up to the sound of a phone call informing his family that his eldest brother Mokhtar has died of a heart attack. It ends before dawn the next morning. In just these few hours, Sadeq takes a long internal journey and reconstructs the events of his family chronologically.

14 Ladan Niknam, “Ruzi az Ruzegar Neveshtan,” in Ferdowsi 52-3, 1386/2007, pp. 8-9. 15 Hassan Mir-¨Abedini, Sad Sal Dastan Nevisi, Vol. 2, Tehran, Tondar, 1369/1990, p. 253; Anahid Ojakians, “Nazari Ejmali be Asar-e Esm¨ail Fasih (1), in Name-ye Farhangestan, no. 14, 1378/1999, pp. 101-117; Ehsan Yarshater, “Sharab-e Kham va Bade-ye Kohan,” in Iranshenasi, 1:3, 1989, pp. 472-81.

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The novel recounts the routine life of Iranian citizens in the midst of the fall of the Qajar Empire. Darkhungah is depicted as a place ripe with strife and contrasts: intoxication, murder, poverty and wealth, love, aggression and violence.16 The character depictions are constructed in such a way that each of them implies a particular personality cluster and concurrently the moral reflection of each of these different masses.17 Implications of passionate and humanness constitute the main message of the story and are revealed through Rasoul. As the protagonist, he intends to publicize love and humanity throughout society. By giving the novel the title of Del Kur, Fasih further indicates humanity’s cruelty and malice, as exemplified by the character of Mokhtar. 3. Dastan-e Javid (The Story of Javid, 1980) narrates the real life of a Zoroastrian in the first decades of Qajar dominance in the region.18 Fasih claims in the introduction of the book that “he was inspired by one of his Zoroastrian friends, who acquainted with him in the last few years of Fasih’s stay aboard. The main body of the story consists of autocracy and injustice of the Iranian prince towards to a Zoroastrian boy in Iran.”19 In this novel, Fasih criticizes the autocracy of the Qajarian prince Malek Ara, who pretends to be a Muslim, while his actions and beliefs is in contrast with the Islamic principles. Javid as the protagonist is abide to Zoroaster’s teachings. He tries to follow honesty and integrity in his life in order to overcome problems and shortcomings in his life. 4. Sorayya dar Eghma (Sorayya in a Coma, 1984): is one of the few Persian novels in which Fasih addresses the clash between tradition and westernization. Post-revolutionary Iran, the war itself and its consequences are described as isolated incidents. Chronological fragments of the lives of Iranian intellectuals in Paris constitute the main body of the story. Through this novel, Fasih seeks to describe and convey his observations and experiences as well as the Iranian elite’s self-estrangement in Paris. Jalal Ariyan embodies the author’s leanings as a moderate humanist and a western educated intellectual deeply rooted in Iranian traditions. As Reza Navvabpur remarks the title Sorayya in a Coma “generally implies the plight of Iranian intellectual in the modern world and particularly shows their further confusion and bewilderment, due to the depar- ture of their society from secular modernism to religious traditionalism.”20 According to Fasih, the exiled Iranian intellectuals have gone into a coma due to their isolation from the home country. Faish’s own preference is clearly for those who stayed in or returned to Iran. And rather poignantly, he describes the exiled Iranian intellectuals as the “Lost Generation.” 5. Dard-e Siyavash (The Pain of Siyavash, 1985): is an outstanding detective novel, which revolves around the ominous destiny of an Iranian idealist during the Pahlavi Regime. Siyavash, the story’s latent protagonist, rises against egotism, hostility and the

16 Ojakians, “Nazari Ejmali be Asar-e Esm¨ail Fasih (1), in Name-ye Farhangestan, no. 14, 1999. 17 Mir-¨Abedini, Sad Sal Dastan Nevisi, Vol. 2, pp. 254-56. 18 Qajar dynasty ruled in Iran for more than a century from 1785 to 1925. 19 Fasih, Dastan-e Javid, Tehran, Moallef, 1371/1992, Introduction. 20 Reza Navvabpur, “Sorayya in a Coma,” in Iranian Studies, Vol. 18, No. 2/4, 1985, pp. 427-432; Yarshater, “Sharab-e Kham va Bade-ye Kohan,” in Iranhenasi, 1:3, 1989.

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animosity of his family. Honesty and justice are key themes of this story and are exemplified through the character of Siyavash who was suffered from great injustice. In Dard-e Siyavash, Fasih attempts to correlate the life of his protagonist here with that of Siyavash in Shahnameh, a Persian epic. Siyavash was a legendary Persian prince from the early Persian Empire. Due to treasonous actions of his stepmother Sudabeh, Siyavash went into exile in Turan, (Persian for ‘Central Asia’) where he was unjustifiably killed by order of the Turanian king Afrasiyab. He was later avenged by his son Kai Khosrow.21 6. Shahbaz va Joghdan (Hawk and the Owls, 1990) describes the events of Jalal Ariyan’s life prior to Sorayya dar Eghma and Dard-e Siyavash. Akin to Fasih’s first novel Sharab-e Kham, the focal point of the story is the miserable life of an artist. The contrasts between good and evil, honesty and dishonesty, which often appear as prominent themes of Fasih’s works, reach their zenith in this piece. The inner conflict of an idealistic man in a society that is less so constitutes the main body of the story. The title Shahbaz va Joghdan and its content is likewise symbolic of this struggle. Shahbaz (hawk in a single form) represents Sirus whose soul transcended the materialistic world and its afflictions. In contrast, Joghdan (owls in a plural figure) stand for ill-mannered, ignorant and fraudulent humans in the novel. 7. Fasih’s interest in Zoroaster’s teachings and principles reaches its climax in Farar-e Foruhar (Foruhar’s Escape, 1993). Similar to Fasih’s last two works, this one revolves around the disappearing of an idealistic man influenced by Zoroaster’s teachings. Farar-e Foruhar can, at times, be a difficult read due to the inaccessibility of Foruhar’s writings derived from his disheveled mind. According to Ali Ferdowsi, Farar-e Foruhar is “particularly suggestive of the “mystical” annihilation of the protagonist into the entirety of his nation, its land and its history.”22 The external layer of the story outlines the disturbance and self-alienation of the protagonist, whilst Foruhar’s paranoia and delirium constitute its internal layer. The layers move parallel to each other until Khomeini’s death brings them to intersect.23 Foruhar, a practicing Muslim by the hybrid name (Shi¨a/ Zoroastrian) of Ja¨far Foruhar, mystically experiences his individual life as fully intertwined with the historical one of the nation. His name Ja¨far, referring to sixth Shi¨a Imam, indicates his commitment to Islam. Alternatively Foruhar (pronounced ‘Fara-vahar’ by Zoroastrians) is one of the primary Zoroastrian symbols and is believed to be the depiction of a Fravashi (guardian spirit). Fasih underlines this combination of Islam and Zoroastrianism. 8. Bade-ye Kohan (Old Wine, 1994) is considered to be the most mystical novel of Fasih. In it he focuses on a famous Persian Sufi of the eleventh century named Khaj-e Abdullah Ansari and his book Khashf al-Asrar (“Exploration of the Secret”). This book contains interpretations of the Quran and mystical doctrines. The novel has a metaphoric language: The title of the story Bade-ye Kohan refers to the old wine of Kousar in Paradise, as well

21 See Abolqasem Ferdowsi, Shahnameh, trans., D. Davis, New York, Vinking, 1997, pp. 215-80. 22 Ferdowsi, in Elr under Esm¨ail Fasih. 23 Ojakians, “Nazari Ejmali be Asar-e Esm¨ail Fasih (6), in Name-ye Farhangestan, no. 19, 1381/2002, pp. 126-142.

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as human love and mystical intoxication with God. Pari Kamal, a symbol of Kousar’s cupbearer, stands for the metaphorical sparkle that exists in every human’s nature. Kiumarth Adamiyyat is a symbol of a man who fights against his inner demons, lust and materialism. The grave of Khodadad Jannat-Makan signifies Adamiyyat’s mystical annihilation, while the pendent of Allah emphases his perfection and ascension.24 9. Asir-e Zaman (Captive of Time, 1994) is a novel with a profound viewpoint, as Fasih chronologically demonstrates the development of the revolution since the 1960s up until the end of the Iran-Iraq War. Savak’s deeds, demonstrations and riots by Iranians, as well as the war and its devastating effect on people’s lives have all been portrayed.25 Fasih explicitly depicts how a person can be completely bound by time, space and destiny. According to him, time hold us all captive which however, could be conquered by love and passion. Throughout the course of the story, characters are somehow held captive by destiny. For instance, Ali Vaysi is a captive, because he is deprived from being with his love. His imprisonment ends with the death of Nafisi, the man responsible for his punish- ment. The zenith of Vaysi’s intention is social justice. He believes that by instilling justice in society, he will be liberated from captivity. 10. Panah bar Hafez (Asylum to Hafez, 1996) is yet another mystical novel in which Fasih focuses on several themes, such as “the death of love, constraint of time and space, shortcomings and suffering from observation of evilness abomination.”26 According to Sadegh Chubak, this novel is a turning point in Fasih’s works.27 The story takes place during the life of Hafez, the poet, in the fourteen century. The protagonist Seyed Khodadad Zarin- Neghar, a ragamuffin man, is lonely, so he goes to Shiraz to take refuge in Hafez’s house. The title of the novel encompasses the message of the story; Hafez and his mysticism is the best shelter for one who has obtained the divine love. 11. Koshte-ye Eshq (Killed for Love, 1997) contains two novelettes: Koshte-ye Eshq and Mah (Moon). The former is considered to be a plaintive war novel, crammed with realities. The events of the story occur during the first week of the 1980 Iraq assault of Iran. Koshte- ye Eshq was translated into English by Fasih. In it, Jalal Ariyan is admitted to a hospital in Abadan. He gets acquainted with Ahmad ¨Adnan, a nine year-old boy waiting for his mother to come for him. Ariyan tries to help Ahmad find his mother. It comes to Ariyan’s attention that Iraqi forces have killed Ahmad’s mother. Alternatively Mah tells the story of Ali, a young missioner boy who takes an old intoxicated man to his house. This nov- elette is regarded as one of Fasih’s more common works and is therefore perhaps not as fascinating as his others.

24 Ibid; Baha al-Din Khorramshahi, “Bade-ye Kohan,” in Kelk 55-56, 1373/ 1994, pp. 249-253. 25 Savak (Sazman-e Ettela¨at va Amniyyate Keshvar, the National Intelligence and Security Organi- zation) was the secret police and internal security service established by Mohammad Reza Shah in 1957. The American CIA played a vital role in operating Savak in Iran. One part of Savak was involved in the jailing, beatings and tortures that became notorious in the years before the revolution. 26 Ojakians, “Nazari Ejmali be Asar-e Esm¨ail Fasih (6), in Name-ye Farhangestan, no. 19, 2002. 27 Badi¨, Asl-e Asar-e Fasih, p. 5.

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12. Tasht-e Khun (Tray of Blood, 1997) is another Fasih’s novella in which a one hundred and seven year-old woman named Malek Taj recounts the story of Kamal, her artist brother, and his suicide. The story takes place in the region of Naser al Din Shah, the Qajarian monarch. The Qajarian rulers destroy Kamal’s paintings, because they contain “anti-religious” themes. His father, who was an artist as well, drinks Kamal’s blood in order to internalize the eternity of his son and his art. Fasih moreover dramatizes the brutally and wickedness of the reigning Qajarians who have mistreated civilians and their artistic endeavors. While they call themselves Muslims, their actions contrast with their creed as such. 13. Bazgasht be Darkhungah (Return to Darkhungah, 1998) is crammed with metaphors and symbols, making it perhaps Fasih’s most fascinating novel. ‘Death for love’ lies at the heart of this tragic novel, a theme also dramatically depicted in his other work Zemes- tan-e 62. In Bazgasht be Darkhungah, the protagonist Khosrow Iranfar commits suicide to pave the way for his lover to go abroad. Fasih outlines a mystical framework for this book, using a number of Rumi’s poems to this end. Concurrently the narrator Jalal Ariyan reads Kafka’s short story Metamorphosis in which the protagonist morphs into a type of vermin and eventually disappears. Fasih likens Khosrow’s life to that of Kafka’s protagonist insofar as they met identical ends and shared a common destiny. 14. In Teragedy- Komedi-e Pars (Tragedy-Comedy of Pars, 1998), Fasih weaves a tale of motherhood love, revolving around Layla Saleh, a woman who has lost her son and wants to find him. He addresses, moreover, love and death in ancient Iran. This novel elaborates on the Iranian collective past and the dim, brutal world associated with it, as described in Forouhar’s Escape. Fasih further draws our attention to the major themes of kinship, animosity and prejudice, as well as friction between Arabs and Persians in Iran. He shows how lovers Layla and her husband Iraj Abtin are killed due to such tribal animosities and hatred. In terms of the space and characterizations of the novel, as well as allegorical language and usage of the Persian epic Shahnameh’s heroes, this work is identical to Fasih’s previous ones.28 15. Laleh bar Afrukht (Tulip Glowing, 1998) is Fasih’s first novel after the Islamic Revo- lution in which he describes the history of pre-revolutionary Iran from 1971 to 1978.29 In it Fasih opposes the bourgeoisie in favor of the proletariat, particularly the latter’s role in the revolutionaries’ triumph. His orientation to the revolution is optimistic and positive here, whereas in Zemestan-e shast o do, he satirizes and condemns this historical event. As an inevitable theme in Fasih’s works, however, love again appears in this work in the form of a tormented romantic relationship between Naser and Mitra, two people from different social classes. 16. Name-yi be Donya (A Letter to the World, 2000) explores the theme of war and its devastating effect on people’s lives. This novel depicts the motherhood love of a young

28 Ojakians, “Nazari Ejmali be Asar-e Esm¨ail Fasih (6), in Name-ye Farhangestan, no. 19, 2002. 29 It should be taken into account that this novel was published for the first time in 1377/1998 but Fasih had written it within two years after the revolution, see Badi¨, Asl-e Asar-e Fasih, p. 4.

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American college professor named Angela Gosinsky who comes to Iran at the height of the Iran-Iraq War. She intends to find and save the life of her son Mehdi. He is martyred, and she also becomes a martyr whilst rescuing a small boy. The ultimate message of this tragic novel is “Angela’s life-long search and plea for love and understanding between human beings.”30 Fasih more profoundly underlines the theme of martyrdom and tries to make it tangible for the reader. In Angela, the framework of martyrdom, as well as the oppression of Iranian masses as a result of the war, are mirrored and announced in the form of a letter to the world. However, akin to Emily Dickson’s letter which remained without reply, Angela never writes such a letter: “This is my letter to the world that never wrote to me.” 17. Fasih discusses love and waiting for death in yet another tragic novel titled Dar Entezar (In Waiting, 2000). From his perspective, love and death are highly connected to each other insofar as death is the next reward in life, if someone cannot obtain love. In Dar Entezar readers encounter a limited number of characters, one of which is the protagonist Mas¨ud Eghbal who commits suicide, because he fails to unite with his love. Further, the novel contains numerous poems from Hafez, Khayyam and Jalal al din Rumi, as well as poems of unknown composers and has derivatively become a collection of poems in which love, death and waiting constitute the prominent subject matter. In doing so, perhaps Fasih has intended to stress his skill in recalling a wide range of important poems; otherwise referring to such a large number of poems in one novel is laughable. 18. Gerdabi Chenin Hayel (A Whirlpool so Horrific, 2002) recounts the hardships and calamities of Khodadad Bahrami, an Arab-Iranian boy who has lost his love. He kills himself in order to go to Paradise where his love awaits. The novel takes its title from one of the renowned couplets found in Hafez’s first ghazal. It is furthermore metaphor for the protagonist’s catastrophic time in life, which eventually leads him towards the whirlpool of death. 19. Contrary to Fasih’s other novels, Eshq o Marg (Love and Death, 2004) is the story of Jalal Ariyan’s life in America, his marriage to Annabel and her death. It is here where the theme of love reaches its zenith and flows through most of the narrative. For the first time, the story takes place somewhere outside Iran. It is said that Love and Death is based on Fasih’s real life, a speculation, to which the writer gives credence.31 20. Talkh Kam (Bitter End Desire, 2007) is Fasih’s last published novel. In it, we encounter Javid, the protagonist of Dastan-e Javid, as a ninety-one year-old man who has been admitted to a sanatorium in London. Fasih’s interest in Zoroastrian creed and doctrines falls within a new framework in the work. He additionally promotes Zoroastrianism as the best creed in terms of salvation. Fasih therefore decides to finish his career as a writer with this novel in order to convey his sincerity to the Zoroastrian boy of the Story of Javid.

30 Fasih, Namey-i be Donya, Maryland, Iranbooks, 1995. 31 Dehqan, “Goft-e Gu ba Esm¨ail Fasih,” part 2, in E¨temad, 2007, at http://sibegazzade.com/ main/?p=92 (accessed 23 September 2011).

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B. Short Stories

Fasih has written five short story collections. They are as follows: ¨Aqd va dastanha-ye digar (Wedding and other Stories, 1978), Bargozide-ye dastanha (Selected Stories, 1987), Khak-e Ashena (Familiar Soil, 1970), Didar dar Hend (Encounter in India, 1974), and Namadha-ye Dasht-e Moshavash (The Symbols of Turbulent Desert, 1990).

C. Translations

Fasih has made eleven translations, all of which have been from English into accessible Persian. His translations can be divided into three major groups: psychology, literature, and politics. Most of his translations fall under psychology, and they are as follows: Baziha: Ravanshenasi-e ravabet-e Ensani (Eric Berne, Games People Play: the Psychol- ogy of Human Relations1964), Khodshenashi be Ravesh-e Jung: teknik-e Ramz vaze (Michael Daniels, Self-Discovery: the Jungian Way, 1991), Mandan dar Vaziyyat-e Akhar, (Amy Harris and Thomas Harris, Staying Ok, 1985), Vaziyyat-e Akhar, (Thomas Harris, I’m OK, You’re OK, 1969) and Tahlil-e raftar-e motaqabel dar ravan-darmani, (Eric Berne, Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy: A Systematic Individual and Social Psy- chiatry, 1971). Other of his translations focus on literature and well-known literary texts, mostly by Shakespeare: Shakespeare: Zendegi, Kholase-ye Asar: Hamlet, (Homer Andrew Watt, Outlines of Shakespeare’s Plays, 1934), Ostadan-e Dastan, (Great Short Stories: Fiction from the Masters of World Literature, 1989), Rostam Nameh 1994, (Ethel Mary Wilmot- Buxton, The Book of Rustem Retold from the Shah Nameh of Firdausi, 1907) and Khahar kuchike (Raymond Chandler’s “The Little Sister” in Later Novels ad Other Writings, ed., Francis MacShane, 1995). And, yet another grouping deal primarily with politics. He has two books in this area: Jang-e Espaniya- Kuba-Amrica va Peydayesh-e Amperyalism-e Amrica (Philip Sheldon Foner, The Spanish-Cuban-American War and the Birth of American Imperial- ism, 1972) and Tarikh-e Kuba va ravabet-e an ba Amrica, (Philip Sheldon Foner, A His- tory of Cuba and Its Relations with the United States, 2 vols. 1962-1963).

AN ANALYSIS OF ZEMESTAN-E SHAST O DO (THE WINTER OF 1983) AS A DRAMATIC PORTRAIT OF THE IRAN-IRAQ WAR FROM A NARRATOLOGICAL STANDPOINT

Significance of the Novel

Zemestan-e shast o do (The Winter of 1983) is Fasih’s second novel written after the Islamic Revolution. Namely this work portrays Iran’s social and political stances after the Revolu- tion and at the beginning of the Iran-Iraq War. The events of the story take place during the three winter months from the 21st of December to the 21st of March, 1983. Zemestan-e

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shast o do could be considered to be a turning point in Persian war literature due to its unique outlook on the War and its resulting issues. This novel looks at the conflict pragmati- cally and characterizes it as one of the most devastating phenomenon of the century. It is worth mentioning that the novel has been reprinted several times since 1985 by a number of publishers based both inside and outside Iran. In the autumn of 1364/1985, nashr-e nou (New Publication, Tehran) published the first edition of the novel.32 It was reprinted in 1987 and 2000, yet it was still out-of-print within a very short time.33 In 1989, the book was brought out by Iranian publisher Sina in Cologne with Fasih’s permission.34 The third edition of the book was reprinted in 2003 by Paykan publishing in Tehran. Other publishers, such as Asim and Zehn-Awiz, have published the book as well. Zemestane 62 has been translated into German by Mohammad H. Allafi and Sabina Allafi as Winter ‘83: Roman (Frankfurt, 1998), and into Arabic by Mohammad ¨Ala al-Din Mansur as ‘Sheta 84’ (Cairo, 2000). Perhaps the numerous reprints and translations of this work indicate the book’s popularity and high repute amongst its readers in Iran, as well as abroad. The Winter of 1983 was banned for nearly seven years between 1987 and 2003 in Iran due to its anti-government slant. Rather conspicuously, for instance, the novel does not conform to Islamic doctrine regarding martyrdom. According to Islamic teachings, if an individual is killed while on a path in keeping with God and Islam, then he should be considered a martyr. On the other hand, instead of becoming a martyr because of his devotion to God, the novel’s protagonist garners this status as a result of his intensive love for a girl. The Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance (Vezarat-e Farhang va Irshad-e Islami) subsequently ordered Fasih to rephrase, omit or rethink certain passages, sentences and words that can be interpreted as in conflict with Islamic principle. Fasih, however, did not do as the government asked, and so only after seven years the book suddenly went into reprint again without any censors.35 As one of the main issues in Iran following the Islamic Revolution, censorship must be addressed in any discussion of Fasih’s work. During the 1980 crackdown on academic and intellectual life, the government used a wide variety of strategies to silence the oppo- sition.36 Writers were prohibited from expressing opinions contrary to the foundation of Islam and the Islamic Republic. During the Iran-Iraq War writers’ concerns about such censors intensified, because of the additional restrictions placed on freedom of speech by the government. The harshness and arbitrary nature of the Iranian government’s censorship gravely concerned publishers and authors. As the sole authority in Iran regarding these matters, only the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance could grant licenses for

32 http://aftab.ir/articles/art_culture/literature_verse/c5c1130073769p1.php (accessed 23 September 2011) 33 R. Haag-Higuchi, “The Theme of War in Esma’il Fasih’s Novel: Zemestan-e shast-o-do,” in Proceedings of the Second European Conference of Iranian Studies, Bamberg, 30th September-4th October, 1991, eds., B.G. Fragner, G. Gnoli, R. Haag-Higuchi, M. Maggi and P. Orsatti, 1995, pp. 255-62. 34 Dehqan, “Goft-e Gu ba Esm¨ail Fasih,” part 2, in E¨temad, 2007. 35 “Dar Goft-e Gu ba Esm¨ail Fasih; Ru-ye Ketabhayam Telesm-e Nahsi Khorde ast,” in Arman, 06/07/2005. 36 See A. Karimi-Hakkak in Elr under Censorship; K. Motazed, “Sayr-e Sansur va Momayezi dar Iran,” in Iran Book New Agency (IBNA), 15 June, 2008 at http://www.ibna.ir/vdci3var.t1arv2bcct.html (accessed 8 June 2012).

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book publications.37 When Fasih attempted to publish The Winter of 1983, the country was facing a critical situation born out of the ongoing Iran-Iraq War. Therefore, to prevent the dissemination of any anti-Islamic thoughts among the Iranian people, the organization banned his book. Esm¨ail Fasih prefaces his novel with the following passage: “All events, scenes and persons, in this novel, including the narrator, are fictitious. As far as the present writer knows there is no such a center so-called “The Center of Learning Computer Technology” in any offices. Yet it is fabricated from illusion and imagination. Any possible resemblance to actual persons or events is merely coincidental.”38 This opening statement indicates Fasih’s commitment to his job as a writer, as well as his exclusive and innovative style in writing, which is seldom seen in the work of other Persian writers.

Plot

The title and content of The Winter of 1983 dictate the temporal limitations of the plot. The story itself is simple and divided into three narrative blocks, which are titled respec- tively First, Second and Third Journey. Each represents a different trip of the narrator Jalal Ariyan to the war-torn areas of Iran’s southwest city Ahvaz, which took the brunt of Iraq’s devastating invasion.

The First Trip

On the first of his travels in December 1983, Jalal Ariyan and his incidental companion Dr. Mansur Farjam drive from Tehran to Ahvaz. Ariyan is in search of the son of his former gardener Matrud who has been wounded on the battlefield. And Farjam, a twenty- five year-old computer engineer and legal resident of the United States who returns to Iran after an absence of twelve years in order to build up the computer-training center for the National Iranian Oil Company. He further seeks respite from and to overcome the memory of his fiancée’s the tragic death. Farjam strives hard to make the computer center operational. Yet, due to the chaotic circumstances of the city during wartime, as well as the neglect of some of the Company’s clients, the project never takes off. In the meantime, he becomes acquainted with a number of Ariyan’s friends, one of whom he falls in love with named Laleh. She is, however, deeply in love with Farshad who is drafted for a military service. In his search for Edris, Ariyan encounters Maryam Jazayeri, a woman barred from leaving the country because of her husband’s function in the Shah’s Rastakhiz Party.39

37 Arash Hejazi, “You Don’t Deserve to be Published: Book Censorship in Iran,” in Logos 22, March 2011, pp. 53-62. 38 Fasih, Zemestan-e 62, Koln, Sina, 1989. 39 Rastakhiz (‘Resurgent Party’) was founded on 2 March 1975 by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi in order to abolish the multi-party system in Iran. For a more extensive discussion on the Rastakhiz, see P. Amini, “A Single-Party State in Iran, 1975-78: The Rastakhiz Party-the Final Attempt by the Shah to Consolidate his Political Base,” in Middle Eastern Studies, 38:1, 2002, pp. 131-168.

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The Second Trip

On the way back to Ahvaz to fulfill his teaching consignment, Ariyan recognizes that Frajam’s love for Laleh has intensified. With his project not going anywhere, Frajam spends his nights glued to the war footage playing incessantly on the television. Ariyan agrees to aid Maryam in her plan to leave the country. He gives in to Maryam and con- sents to a paper marriage with her so she can acquire a passport. Ariyan’s attempt to locate Edris eventually pays off, and he finds the young man in Abadan, missing an arm and a leg, and half of his face burnt.

The Third Trip

Maryam and Laleh are ready to go to Tehran so they can then fly to Europe. Due to Ariyan’s intercession, Farjam agrees to go with them. The story reaches its climax when Ariyan learns about Farjam’s martyrdom. In a letter to Ariyan, Farjam recounts his intention of going to the battlefront. Conveniently bearing some resemblance to Farshad, Farj am exchanges his passport, permanent U.S. Residency Card and a plane ticket for Farshad’s uniform and military pass. Farshad joins Laleh and Maryam in Tehran, and Farjam goes to the front where he is killed a few days later during ‘Operation Khaybar.’ Since his body is unrecognizable, it is placed in the tomb as that of Farshad.

Themes of the Novel

War Contrary to other narratives that focus on a specific theme, The Winter of 1983 addresses many themes among which war takes center stage. Haag-Higuchi writes: “The theme of war, though it may be embedded in a fictional plot, it always marked by documentary, not analytical style….Documentation is achieved in this novel by gathering details of the sur- rounding and the behavior of people in this extreme situation.”40 Fasih characterizes war “as cholera and pestilence that had come over people’s children’s lives. They fall like leaves during the autumn (p. 106).” The significance of war is highlighted particularly in the Third Journey when Fasih focuses on the historical dimension of the War. Fasih’s skill in describing how the War impacts different ranks of society is outstanding. Chronologically speaking, the novel encompasses Iraq’s attack on Susangerd, a city located in Kuzestan province, as well as the two major Iranian offensives of 1984, known as Operations Wa ‘l-Fajr-e 5 and Khaybar.41 The first was unsuccessful in achieving its objectives, whereas the second resulted in modest gains. Operation Wa ‘l-Fajr-e 5 took

40 Haag-Higuchi, “The Theme of War in Esma’il Fasih’s Novel: Zemestan-e shast-o-do.” 41 Khaybar is the name of a famous oasis, located in the north of Medina. The district is well known for the battle, which took place between Muhammad the prophet and the Jews living in Khaybar during the seventh century A.H. This battle is called the Battle of Khaybar in which Muslims were victorious. Imam Ali played a vital role in this victory. With his vigor, he managed to break into the Jews’ fortress where their

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place on Iran’s western border with Iraq between Dehloran and Mehran over the course of two days on the 15th and 16th of February. The attack was intended to either cut off Baqubah’s troops on the road between Basra and Baghdad, or attack them on a key road connecting Tehran and Baghdad. Operation Khaybar, on the other hand, succeeded in that Iranian forces captured Majnun Island in southern Iraq.42 There are also a number of war subthemes, such as martyrdom, bombardment, migration and fear, all of which the novel reflects on. Fasih’s attitudes toward the War are significant, as well as different from other Persian war novels. There are no scenes of bravery featuring Iranian warriors in the midst of various military engagements or on the front lines. Rather he tries to convey the dogmatic perspectives of the Iranian people and authoritative bodies, as well as Islamic tenets relevant to the War. Manifestations of war rhetoric in combination with spirituality form one of the main dimensions of the Iran-Iraq War, which Fasih dramatizes in the novel.

The Combination of War Rhetoric with Spirituality

The theme of war in The Winter of 1983, when compared to Persian novels more generally, differs in its association with Shi¨a traditions. In other words, the utilization of theo- logical principles represents a major criterion isolating Persian war narratives from others. Because of its emotional appeal deriving from the martyrdom and sacrifice of Imam Hussein, his companions and kinsmen, the Karbala Paradigm played a fundamental role in the dominant rhetoric during the War.43 Imam Hussein and his supporters became martyrs in Karbala on the tenth day of Muharram (¨Ashura) 680 A.D. Throughout the Iran-Iraq War, this paradigm was used extensively in order to strengthen the spirit and military tenacity of the Iranian forces. The Iranian warfronts had derivatively become the warfronts of Imam Hussein. The life of Iranian warriors on the frontlines was replete with love and passion for Imam Hussein insofar as repeating the name of Imam Hussein (zekr) prior to any attack or offensive did not fade from their mouths.44 A very revealing connection between the death of Iranian soldiers and that of Imam Hussein at Karbala is apparent through accounts of beheadings. This shows to what extent, Iranian forces used Shiite history to justify their war on the Iraq. One of the most important functions of these religious ideas was their ‘soteriological’ use. These ideas served as expression of piety.45

weapons were kept, and the Muslim armies were subsequently able to conquer it. For a detailed study of this battle, see L.V. Vaglieri, in Encyclopaedia of Islam under Khaybar. 42 A.H. Cordesman and R.W. Abraham, The Lessons of Modern War: The Iran-Iraq War, Vol. 2, Boulder, West View Press, 1990, pp. 179-180. 43 S. Geiling, Religion and War in Revolutionary Iran, London, Tauris, 1999, p. 113. 44 “Zekr” is the act of remembering, followed by oral mention of the memory, especially the tireless repetition of an ejaculatory litany, and finally the very technique of this mention. Zekr can be committed either by the tongue, or by the heart. See L. Gardet, in El under Dhikr; G. Böwering and M. Momen in Elr under Δekr; B.D. Macdonald, The Religious Attitude and Life in Islam, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1909, pp. 259-60. 45 K.S. Aghaie, The Martyrs of Karbala: Shi¨i Symbols and Rituals in modern Iran, Washington, The University Press, 2004, p. 146.

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Chants, posters, slogans, dirges (nowha) and martyrs’ testaments are the most prominent means of communication used in The Winter of 1983, which are incorporated into the Karbala paradigm. These models were used to mobilize the masses to participate on the frontlines, give meaning to resulting deaths and justify the violence. Fasih relays this war rhetoric to his readers in order to more fully sketch out the character of the Iran-Iraq War and how the masses tackled this devastating phenomenon. For instance, “War, war until victory” (jang, jang ta piruzi) was one of the most prominent slogans used during the War, and it is frequently mentioned throughout the story. On the other hand, Fasih focuses on the effect of these models on his protagonist Farjam. The latter does not involve himself in the War, because he intends to return to the United States to live in peace. Meanwhile, influenced by his encounters with people who have observed the War first-hand and its representation in the Iranian media, he becomes determined to leave his love Laleh and goes to the frontline. It should also be pointed out that since the War’s inception, the state promoted religious culture in a number of ways. Religious programs on radio and television were expanded. More importantly, religious broadcasts were infused with war content, such as recitation of war chants and poetry, as well as documentary clips from the frontlines and interviews with Iranian volunteers and forces. They grew to perfect this method of combining religious rituals with the narrative of the War. Farjam’s scattered notes suggest his portrayals of Iranian forces at the front, defending their country from the brutality of their enemy, were directly influenced by these media productions. In the following passage, Farjam describes how Iranian broadcasts drew upon war rhetoric with the intention of mobilizing the masses:

“Every night, I see those (paramilitary volunteers) on the roads and on the television. They are worn the dusty war-uniforms. They are fastened either the blood color or the green color (which symbolizes Islam) lace on their foreheads. They are chanted the following slogans with the kinky hand on the air: “The path of Karbala” and “In thy service, Khomeini!” They are volunteers for war and martyrdom. Their age differ from thirteen to eighty. The youngsters will not be captured by the enemy and the old men will not return. There is no luster, neither order nor beauty. Only the Lord knows what is in their minds? What is their intention and demand? What kind of past each of them must have? What did motivate them? They are in love; they love to sacrifice their lives and become a martyr (p. 214).”46

The Significance of Martyr and Martyrdom

The theme of war has a symbolic function, serving to illuminate abstract concepts like sacrifice or martyrdom. During the Iran-Iraq War, martyrdom for the ideals of Islam was aggressively encouraged. The Iranian fighting forces exhibited great dedication and commitment to their task, enabling Iran to overcome many of Iraq’s technological and other material advantages. The essence of the high morale that infused the Iranian war effort is

46 This is my own translation unless otherwise stated.

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contained in the words jihad and Shahadat. Jihad, the sacred struggle, is a powerful force in promoting group solidarity and esprit within the community. From the point of view of Iranian leaders, the war against Iraq, a war referred to as the “Imposed War” (Jang-e tahmili), was indeed a jihad. The symbolic language of jihad and martyrdom was used extensively and effectively to mobilize civilians to fight against the Iraq invasion, because Iraq and its supporters severely ‘outgunned’ Iran, Iranian casualties ran particularly high, and martyrdom was especially commonplace.47 In his novel The Winter of 1983, Fasih underscores the significance of a martyr (Shahid) and martyrdom (Shahadat). Fasih divides martyrs into three categories, the first being martyrs of willpower and action who fight, suffer and die for their objective and faith (shahidan-e erade va ämal). Examples of this type are Imam Hussein and most of the present martyrs of Iran. The second category is martyrs who are determined but do not in the end do the deed (shahidan-e erade vali bedun-e ämal). These are not fighters, but they are considered martyrs due to the sheer voracity of their determination and belief. Lastly the third type is martyrs who have neither the willpower, nor the intention to act on their beliefs, yet become martyrs unintentionally (shahidan-e bedun-e erade va ämal) (pp. 214-15). Fasih’s protagonist in The Winter of 1983 becomes fascinated by what it means to be a martyr, a sentiment, which eventually prefaces his martyrdom. Determined to protect his love, he does in the end achieve this end; however, he belongs to the first category.48 Perhaps the martyrdom of his protagonist is a pretext for Fasih to exhibit how these concepts play an extensive role in exhorting people to go to the frontlines.

Love

Love is another dominant theme in the novel. During the Iran-Iraq War, love for God and defense of the country was the main pretext for the Iranian forces to offer their lives. In taking a mystical approach, there are two distinct types of love: “metaphorical love” (ishq-e majazi or zamini), and “‘real’ or ‘heavenly love’” (ishq-e haghighi). Ishq-e majazi usually refers to romantic relationships between two people, whereas ishq-e haghighi applies only to a man’s love for his creator. ‘Allegorical love’ is typically considered to be a bridge in a man’s journey between earthly love and real or divine love. Fasih touches upon both metaphorical and divine love in The Winter of 1983. In order to elaborate on the significance of earthly love, Fasih briefly draws upon the story of Layli and Majnun, a masterpiece from classical Persian love poetry written by Nezami of Ganja (d. 1209). To connote mystical love, Fasih likens his protagonist to Mansur Hallaj, an eminent mystic, a comparison, which will be elaborated on later in the article. Fasih uses Farjam’s passion for Laleh as a means of depicting an experience of sacred and mystical love. Notably the story portrays earthly love as preparation for spiritual love. In the final chap- ters of the novel, Farjam’s earthly love transforms into a divine love, an occurrence, which

47 Aghaie, The Martyrs of Karbala: Shi¨i Symbols and Rituals in modern Iran, p. 133. 48 Reza Baraheni, a well-know literary critic claims that Farjam committed suicide and is therefore not a martyr, because he goes to the front in order to give Laleh a new life, see Baraheni, Tala dar Mes, Vol. 3, Teheran, Zar-yab, 1380/2001, p. 1951.

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consequently leads to his martyrdom. Again in his notes, Farjam stresses the association of love and martyrdom:

“When love or the pain of love is carved in your mind, how will you be able to remove it? […] When you are fallen into marshes of love, everything is finished. Vagrancy is ended. You do not have any choice. There is no war, no missile, no bomb, and no fear. There is no life and death. There is only love. It is written on your forehead (p.318).”

There are two points to be taken into account here. Firstly, this transformation occurs because of various elements, such as Shi¨a symbols and religious broadcasts, which have been elaborated on previously. Second of all, Farjam’s fate and destiny brings him to the warzone. Regarding Farjam’s first question in particular, one might interpret the protagonist’s ‘metaphoric love’ as paving his path to martyrdom, the provenance of eternal love. In his article “Ashiyani dar Tufan: Neveshtari Piramun-e Zemestan 62” (‘A Nest in A Storm: An Analysis of The Winter of 1983’), Ali Ferdowsi refers to Farjam’s notion of mystical love, explaining that when life becomes worthless and martyrdom the only way of announcing one’s existence, mysticism will appear as a medium to reach to the upper world.49

Waiting

The Winter of 1983 describes a society in which civilians concern themselves mainly with ‘waiting’: “They (the civilians) are waiting for the war to come to an end. They are waiting for the state to become into normal stance. They are waiting for the youngsters to get relived. They are waiting for the prisoners to be released (p.88).” Fasih also emphasizes this theme of waiting by employing Samuel Beckett’s absurdist play Waiting of Godot. Vladimir and Estragon, the sole two characters in the production, eternally wait in vain for someone named Godot to arrive. The life of Beckett’s protagonists, who are waiting for the liberation turns into a tragic situation, is identical to Ariyan and Frajam as the two wanderers in Ahvaz. This ‘waiting’ reaches its end when Ariyan’s trip to Ahvaz con- cludes, and he decides to return to Tehran. He states, “The journey is over, so also is the anticipation” (p.377).

Loneliness

‘Loneliness’ (tanhayi) is another theme implicitly referred throughout the novel. This theme is highlighted in the first and third chapter (or ‘trip’) of the novel where Fasih begins with the following sentence: ‘We are solitude. Together, but indeed we all are alone.’ Although all of the characters communicate with each other, they are in the end alone in their own routine lives.

49 Ferdowsi, “Ashiyani dar Tufan: Neveshtari Piramun-e Zemestan-e shast o do,” in Kelk 55-56, 1373/1994, pp. 254-67.

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Casting a final glance on the novel’s themes, they may further be understood as corresponding to one of two distinct types: main themes, which the entire story revolves around (i.e. love and war), and secondary subjects, which parallel the main themes (i.e. waiting and loneliness). Fasih draws from all of these themes to magnify the importance of the book. His way of combining the prominent themes of, for instance, love and war in one work is representative of his artful and skillful authorship.

The Narrator and His Role

As an omniscient narrator, Jalal Ariyan sets the scene of the novel, and witnesses the events and actions of the characters. He significantly indicates the characters’ mental states. Often Ariyan quotes the characters’ diaries and journals. These materials, in many cases, help the narrator solve the characters’ individual problems. For instance, he finds Farjam’s frantic notes from when he is informed of the protagonist’s notions about love and martyrdom. Reporting the historical events of the Iran-Iraq War is Ariyan’s other major role. As mentioned previously, the novel accounts for only three months of the conflict. Fasih sends his narrator on a journey to Ahvaz, an area heavily affected by the War, in order to report the first hand news. Subsequently the question arises: why is Fasih so interested in this specific part of the War? As a starting point, one must consider an element, which plays a central role in historical novels: eclecticism. It is not possible for a novelist to address the history of the conflict in its entirety in his or her work. Therefore, citing reasons of more realistic chorological time framing, he chooses to stress one specific period. If Fasih had discussed the full eight years of the War, then his work would have been more like a history book than a novel. Fasih moreover selected this particular segment in light of his own experiences as an observant of the situation in Ahvaz and other war torn locales. Ariyan stands between history and his readers. Not only does he illustrate the devastating nature of the War. He meaningfully highlights the contact between individuals and the key developments of the conflict. Ariyan shows how changes in the War situation affected everyday life, namely the effects of material and psychological change on people. He takes news and information about the War from different radio and television net- works, such as Radio Iran, Radio Iraq, Radio Israel and the BBC. The historical framework of the narrative is apparent in instances when Ariyan relays important aspects of the conflict: cities ravaged by war and its casualties, the civilians’ fear of Iraqi missiles and bombs, how citizens protected themselves from air raids by hiding in their basements, Saddam Hussein’s threats to attack a number of southern Iranian cities, Iran’s counterat- tack on Iraqi’s borders, the civilian evacuation of certain cities, the military situation in general and so forth. Furthermore, the narrator emphasizes patriotism and national sentiment as main themes by sketching out these historical events in the novel.

His Name

The name Jalal Ariyan (‘Splendor Aryan’) paints an ironic picture of the grandeur of Islamic teachings, as well as ancient Iranian culture and civilization. Jalal derives from

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one of the ninety-nine names or attributes of Allah which is called Dhu al-Jalal va al- Ikram (‘The Lord of Majesty and Generosity’). Likewise, the surname Ariyan evidently encompasses a somewhat incongruous allusion to ancient Iranian histories of Aryan tribes in Persia. Iranians conventionally believe they belong to the Aryan race and as such, regard themselves as the superior race. Stavrianos perceives Aryans to be “very conscious of their physical features” and describes them as “tall, blue-eyed, fair-skinned.”50 Ariyan can thus be interpreted as a blatant reference to Iranian hegemony over Arabs, as justified by the supremacy of the Aryan race, in addition to ancient Iran’s glorious history.

Characters and Characterization

The Winter of 1983 tells the story of a number of characters. They can be divided into two categories: main and marginal. Marginal characters are abundant, whereas one can easily count the main characters. The latter play a significant role in elaborating on the book’s themes and are correspondingly subject to more extensive character development throughout the course of the novel. All characters are chosen from different walks of life, with each of them representing a specific section of society and ideology. For instance, Farjam, one of the main characters, hails from the bourgeoisie, the social class of the intellectuals. As reiterated in the novel, some members of the bourgeoisie leave Ahvaz during the War and flee to other cities in Iran. In contrast, Edris, a paramilitary volunteer boy, and Asghar Bande-Khodayi, identify with the proletariat and readily offer their lives to defend the country. Perhaps Fasih posits these two classes in his novel in order to emphasize their distinct experiences of and outlooks on the War.

Naming

Naming is one of the most direct means of characterization. As a significant component of characterization by naming, baptism plays a precarious role in The Winter of 1983. The symbolic significance of names in Fasih’s works in general errs on the side of ambiguity, and The Winter of 1983 is no different. Choosing a proper name for any character in fiction, especially in a war novel, serves to incite contemplation over character’s existence.51 For instance, why does Fasih designate figurative names for his characters? It is persua- sive to consider censorship as one of the main factors that led the author to employ symbolic names. Due to the direct supervision of the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance over Iranian publications, self-censorship was highly encouraged amongst modern writers in the country. Fasih’s style of self-censorship in The Winter of 1983 manifests in the form of symbolic naming of a number of the book’s main characters.

50 P. Manian, “Harappans and Aryans: Old and New Perspectives of Ancient Indian History,” in The History Teacher 1, Vol. 32, 1998, pp. 17-32. 51 For a more comprehensive overview of naming in novels, see P.W. Nesselroth, “Naming Names in Telling Tales” in Fiction Updated: Theories of Fictionality, Narratology, and Poetics, eds., C.A. Mihailescu and W. Hamerneh, Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1996, pp. 133-143; T.G. Pavel, “Fiction and the Casual theory of Names,” in Poetics 8, 1979, pp. 179-191.

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Mansur Farjam

Mansur Farjam is the main protagonist in the novel. He has a close relationship with the narrator. The narrator introduces Farjam as a tourist who comes to Ahvaz in order to visit the southern parts of the country. He intends to gather first-hand news and photographs of the War in Iran and take them back with him to the United States. Originally from Shushtar, a city in the Khusestan province, Farjam concurrently strives to prove his loyalty by tutoring computer skills to Ahvazian youngsters. One of the prominent markers of this patriotism is his commitment and loyalty to Iranian culture and traditions. Even though he was brought up in America, he has not lost touch with Iranian roots. In creating this character, perhaps Fasih intends to demonstrate the contradictions between Iranian intellectuals in this novel and his previous one Sorrayya in a Coma. The intellectuals in his more recent book inhabit a modern world, cut off from Iranian culture and customs. War ravages the country, and their fellow countrymen are fighting on the warfront, as they busy themselves with their own petty interests.

His Physical Representation

As a central figure in the novel, Farjam is more or less complex. He is a dynamic character in the manner of his presentation, a highly developed or conscious one. Farjam’s physical and temporal attributes are essential to understanding his character in this respect. In the book, there are a few descriptions of his physical appearance, and they hold the key to his nature. Uri Margoli, who devoted most of his research on narratology designates that the physical portrayal of a character signifies his or her mental representation.52 However, in this case, the narrator merely depicts Farjam’s clothing and facial features. Notably, he is described as fair and having oaken-colored hair. He is very chic. As a lover, Farjam moreover reveals several physiological traits. It should be noted that the symptoms of a lover have been described in numerous treatises on love, as well as in celebrated Persian romances, such as Layli and Majnun, and Wis and Ramin. The lack of appetite and sleep, as well as the avoidance of community rank among the most prominent symptoms of love.53 In The Winter of 1983, the writer depicts Farjam in keeping with these attributes of a stereotypical lover. Despite the absence of a substantial description of Farjam’s physical appearance, Fasih does so vividly enough that Farjam acquires an ontological status, which lives in the minds of the novel’s readers.

Mental Representation

The protagonist’s state of consciousness, as made apparent in Farjam’s written soliloquies, is central to examining his psychological attributes. The narrator quotes these

52 U. Margolin, in Routledge Encyclopaedia of Narrative Theory under Character. 53 A.A. Seyed Gohrab, Layli and Majnun: Love, Madness and Mystic longing in Nizami’s Epic Romance, Leiden, Brill, 2003, p. 79.

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soliloquies, which are found in Farjam’s diary and scattered notes. They are divided into two autonomous parts of the story. The overall sentiment of these messages in his monologues invokes love, the instability of the world and the inevitability of both fate and the course of events in general. Moreover, the contradictions within his personality can be compared in the first and second parts of his interior monologues. In the first part of Farjam’s notations, we encounter a discouraged man, afflicted by his earthly love for Laleh and his nostalgic feelings towards his birthplace. The cult of Farjam’s love is based on his personal experiences. He struggles to erase his past in regards to love and the dreadful moments after the death of his beloved in America. In order to come to terms with this tragedy, he chooses to occupy himself with war rhetoric. In the second part, Farjam’s mystical love is pervasively mirrored. The writer posits his protagonist between the two distinct world and concept, with one being earthly and the other divine. He chooses martyrdom, which he believes is the reward of paramount lovers. Earthly emotion is sublimated into a higher state of spirit. Therefore, throughout the novel, Farjam’s earthly love paves the way for his martyrdom in order to reach to the pinnacle of spirituality. As Farjam claims, there are several similarities between him and the poet Hafez regarding the concept of love. Both initially perceive love to be something simple, which then turns out to be more complicated and difficult. Hafez claims love seems to be easy in the beginning, but it brings hardship later. What one calls love turns out to be more often suffering and sorrow. Advocates of love praise suffering as a necessary evil on the path to true love as such: “Suffering is a token of the maturation of love and of the abso- lute devotion of the lover towards the beloved.”54 Farjam seeks to eliminate these difficul- ties and distressful aspects of love. Eventually he reaches the point that for the sake of his love, he considers death to be the best solution to dissipate his pain. In Fasih’s novels death often signifies self-sacrifice. In other words, someone must die in order to render his or her life to another.55 Moreover, Farjam insists that he orients his love towards death, or more precisely, the death of love (marg-e eshq). Therefore, he willingly sacrifices his own desires, happiness, and even life itself to pass on beloved happiness and life: “Death of love was a hallmark of ideal love, and it described as martyrdom in holy war.”56 Additionally Farjam conceals his love from other fictional characters in the novel much like Hafez, who believes love should remain a secret. Concealed love is one of the most significant threads running through Islamic mysticism. In keeping this secret “the ultimate experience [that] is communicable through the silent language of martyrdom, for in the martyr God has his true witness.”57 Renown mystics like Masur Hallaj in the

54 Ibid, p. 129. 55 Parviz Shishegaran, Mo¨arefi-e Tousifi-e Chehel Dastan-e Defa¨-e Moqaddas, Tehran, Golgasht, 1386/1998, p. 132. 56 Seyed Gohrab, “Martydom as Piety: Mysticism and National Identity in Iran-Iraq War Poetry,” in DerIslam 87:1-2, 2010, pp. 248-273. 57 S. Sharma, “The Sufi Poet-Lover as Martyr: ¨Attar and Hafiz in Persian Poetic Traditions,” in Martyrdom in Literature: Visions of Death and Meaningful Suffering in Europe and the Middle East from Antiquity of Modernity, ed., F. Pannewick, Wiesbaden, Reichert Verlag, 2004, pp. 237-243.

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ninth century and Ibn ¨Arabi in the thirteenth propagated the idea that “love is the central secret, they very substance of any religion, manifesting itself not only in then love of God or an earthly relection of it, but in social behavior, human relations in general.”58 This matter is important insofar that Hallaj was executed because he disclosed spiritual secrets of love by his dictum ana’l Haqq ‘I am the Truth’. He was also accused of having revealed the name of his beloved. He became a model martyr of love.59 Furthermore, on the basis of the famous hadith, or hadith al-ishq (‘tradition of love’) it is written that “he who loves passionately, remains chaste, conceals his secret and dies, dies a martyr.”60 Significantly, however, this hadith correlates with the life of Farjam who conceals his love.

His Fate

In his monologue, Farjam further explores the issue of fate, or bakht in Persian. To believe in fate means one accepts that higher forces affect the destinies of people. It suggests man’s will and efforts mean nothing in the face of fate. In theology, fortune, or nasib, is a divine grace distributed to each human according to his aptitude level.61 In The Winter of 1983, the character of Farjam strongly elucidates fatalist notions. According to others in the novel, Farjam has suffered a number of grave misfortunes in his life. His older brother treated Farjam harshly in their youth, only to die of cancer sometime after. Later Farjam would fall in love with an American girl, whose demise in a tragic accident caused him profound sadness. The Oil Company does not end up developing his project in Ahwaz. Despite these events that befall the protagonist, Farjam writes in a letter to Ariyan that he considers himself a fortunate man:

“Jalal! in my final analysis, I am a lucky man who could come here in the present condition (of the country) and take part in the war or what Dr. (Yar-Naser) calls “mas- sive experience.” One side of the story is simple: living abroad, being in a corner of your apartment either in Paris or in Saint Paul to repose on a sofa and pull the curtains. You could either drink whisky and feel warm or abuse Iran in “Radio America”. But here the young soldiers as well as the ordinary people beat the head of the enemy by stones, while mud, blood, tear, sweat, artillery, missile, oppression, fear, inevitability and love are surrounded them. This is a different story. Do you remember, that night when we were discussing about the sublime fate (bakht-e wala), and you said some have, while others do not? I have or I had on these last few days. Necessity or giant madness, or whatever you wish to call it. But I am glad (p.365).”

58 J.C. Bürgel, “Ambiguity: A Study in the Use of Religious Terminology on the Poetry of Hafiz,” in Intoxication, Earthly and Heavenly; Seven Studies on the Poet Hafiz of Shiraz, eds., M. Glünz and J.C. Bürgel, Bern, Peter Lang, 1991, pp. 7-39. 59 See Murtaza Mutahari, Understanding Islamic Sciences, London, ICAS Press, 2002, p. 109; Jawid Mojaddedi, in Elr, under Hallaj. 60 Seyed Gohrab, Layli and Majnun: Love, Madness and Mystic longing in Nizami’s Epic Romance, p. 128. 61 W. Eilers and S. Shaked, in EIr, under Bakht, at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bakt-fate- destiny (accessed 29 May 2012).

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The Protagonist’s Name

Mansur Farjam’s name has allegorical significance insofar as its association with the historical figure Mansur Hallaj, an eminent Persian mystic in the ninth century. Interpreted literally as ‘triumphant end’ and a metaphor for his martyrdom, Mansur Farjam embodies welfare. The unfolding ideologies of both the historical and the fictional figures are identical. Both become martyrs on their paths to love. Hallaj was executed because of his deep devotion to God, and likewise, Farjam chooses martyrdom because of his love to Laleh. Having sacrificed himself for love, Hallaj’s example suggests boundless passion and represents a model of ecstatic behavior.62 Also of significance, Farjam was martyred during “Operation Khaybar” on Majnun Island (jazire-ye Majnun), which was where most of the fighting took place during the Iran-Iraq War in 1984. Jazire-ye Majnun literally means ‘Lunatic Island’ and also has a semiotic effect in the novel. This place is chosen to exhibit the parallel situation of Farjam and Majnun in regards to the extremities of their love. Since Majnun cannot unite with Layli, who has wed another, he wanders in the wilderness and lives among animals. Upon hearing of Layli’s death, Majnun rushes to her tomb and after several days of weeping, he too dies. Likewise, in order to convey his protagonist’s madening love for Laleh, Fasih refers to Manjun Island as the place of his martyrdom.

Edris

Edris is the son of Ariyan’s former gardener Matrud. He is introduced to readers as an Arab-Iranian boy belonging to the proletariat. During the War, he joins the Basij (Mobi- lization Force) and often participates in military parades. Edris is sent to the front as a paramilitary volunteer (basij). Matrud, is notified about his wounded son. As a result, Ariyan volunteers to go to southern Iran in search of Edris. Although Edris does not end up playing a particularly pervasive role in the novel, he does figure prominently in Ariyan’s preoccupations as the narrator. In other words, he is merely the pretext for Ariyan to come to Ahvaz and become involved in the other characters’ lives. Despite losing a hand and a leg, Edris bears his disabilities with good humor and is keen on returning to the heat of the battle. He makes it his major goal in life to become a martyr and go to Paradise. As he declares, “a martyr goes to Paradise in the next world (p. 300).”63 It is further possible to examine Edris’ temporal development (which is inter- estingly enough reflected in his physical condition) through his written testament. It is worthwhile to point out here that prior to participation in any operation during the War,

62 R. Zipoli, “Poetic Imagery,” in A History of Persian Literature: General Introduction to Persian Literature, ed., J.T.P. Bruijn, Vol. 1, New York, Tauris,, 2009, pp. 172-232. 63 This statement derives from the Islamic principle regarding martyrs and martyrdom (shahid va shahadat). In Nahj al Balagheh (‘Peak of Eloquence’), a compilation of Imam Ali’s sermons, letters and sayings, the concept of jihad and its association to Paradise is clearly explained: “No doubt jihad is an entrance to Paradise which Allah has opened for his chosen friends. It is the garment of piety, Allah’s impenetrable amour and trustworthy shield.” Mutahhari, The Martyr, Karachi, Islamic Seminary Publications, 1984, pp. 53-4.

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will writing was quite an important task among the Iranian forces. As underlined in Islamic teachings, arranging and writing a testament before death is essential for every Muslim. Of thematic significance, martyr testaments often contain homiletic and didactic context, as well as political and religious elements. The focal themes of Edris’ testament are martyrdom and receiving Paradise as a reward. His testament indicates another significant topic: the humility of the body and its separation from the soul. The connection between soul and body is one of the most con- troversial issues amongst Islamic philosophers and mystics. They consider the corporal body to be the major obstacle in purifying the soul. The Sufis predominantly believe in a strong spirit. If an individual makes his or her spirit strong through the teachings of Islam, then he or she will find the way to Allah. Death temporarily liberates Ruh — the spirit — from body. Death does not mean ‘the End’ per se. However, it does represent a turn to entering a new life, which is entirely different from the one already, lived. The character of Edris is similar to Farjam from psychological standpoint. Both consider martyrdom a lofty reward from God, which is bestowed to a particular quality of lover. Contrary to the beliefs of other fictional characters waiting for the War to end soon, these two figures eagerly await traveling to the frontlines. Farjam and Edris believe offering their lives in defense of their country is an essential aspiration for every on of their fellow countrymen. In this sense, they can be regarded as representative of those who abandon their desires and intend instead to participate in military parades.

Maryam Jazayeri

Maryam Jazayeri appears to be an intellectual woman whose emotional and temporal attributes are remarkably highlighted by the story. She represents the Iranian women who have suffered from the oppression of men like Abu Ghaleb. She laments the destructive limitations imposed on women. She strongly identifies with the religious and spiritual values of the Revolutions and never takes off her veil in public gatherings. As Ariyan indicates, “According to her, being simple, having a slight veil and being faithful to the tradition and conventions are tokens of the glorious Iranian-oriental culture (p. 92).” Maryam Jazayeri has an intensive interest in Forough Farrokhzad’s poems. This interest derives from their nearly identical beliefs about life and major issues of the day. They are both lonely women, adventuresses of both body and mind. They are disappointed by and pessimistic about life and the future, looking regretfully back at the good days in their pasts. By contrast, their approach towards marriage and men are completely diver- gent. Forough’s poems exude an exclusively negative attitude towards male characters. She describes men as “unfaithful,” “egoistical,” “oppressor[s]” and “warden[s],” whereas Maryam views women as being in need of support from men in order to fulfill their desires and ambitions. She furthermore considers her marriage to Ariyan as “another birth” in her life.64

64 “Another Birth” (tavallodi digar) is the title of Forough’s last collection of poetry, as well as one of his poems in the same collection. For a detailed study on Forough’s poems, refer to Sirus Shamisa, Neghahi be Forough, Tehran, Morvarid, 1374/1995; Mahmud Nikbakht, Az Gomshodegi ta Raha¨i: Sh’eir va

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Laleh Jahanshahi

Laleh is an Iranian young girl whose life is affected by the War. Fear is subsequently an inevitable part of her life. She looks forward to the end of the War so she can live with Farshad happily ever after. Rather symbolically, Laleh’s name refers to her intensive love to Farshad. Laleh, which means “tulip” in English, is both a symbol of love and martyrdom. In Persia, giving someone a red tulip is synonymous with a declaration of love. The black center of the red tulip, according to folklore, represents the lover’s heart burned to coal by passion, with the first tulip being born out of Farhad’s blood or tears.65 In his poem, Hafiz mentions the significance of this tulip growing in this fashion:

From longing for the lips of Shirin, still I see Tulips growing from the blood of Farhad’s eyes.66

Farshad Kiyanzad

Farshad is a young boy compelled to fight at the front despite his drive to simply stay alive. While Farshad wishes to escape from joining the army, his counterpart Edris eagerly looks forward to going back to the frontlines. Farshad’s attachment to Laleh does not allow him to leave her alone in the catastrophic state of the country. From outward appearances, Farjam and Farshad are regarded as “synonymous characters” due to their similar visages.67 The narrator describes, “If Farshad had mustache, he would look like Mansur Farjam and people could not distinguish them (p.81).” Although this resemblance is extremely improb- able in real life, for the purposes of the story, it enables their identity exchange.

Abu Ghaleb

Abu Ghaleb is the antagonist of the novel while he does not appear throughout the novel. Abu Ghaleb was Maryam’s proposal, after receiving a negative response, roots her

Zahdeghi-e Forough Farrokhazad, Esfahan, Mash’al, 1374/1994; F. Farrokhzad, Poet of Modern Iran: Iconic Woman and Feminine Pioneer of New Persian Poetry, eds., D.P. Brookshaw and N. Rahimieh, London, Tauris, 2010. 65 The story of Farhad and Shirin is well known in Persian romance. Farhad is the true lover of Shirin, the wife of the Sassanid king Khosrow. Farhad wanders through the deserts and mountains of Persia calling her name. Khosrow sends for him and proposes that if he cuts through the rock of Mount Bistun and causes a stream to flow through it, he will relinquish Shirin. To prove his love, Farhad takes on this mission, hoping to see Shirin. Having almost accomplished his mission, a messenger from the king falsely tells Farhad that Shirin is dead. On hearing these words, Farhad kills himself. After his death, the blood-soaked fields of Bistun are covered in red tulips, see Zipoli, “Poetic Imagery,” in A History of Persian Literature, pp. 172-232. 66 Shams al Din Mohammad Hafez, Diwan, ed., P. Natil Khanlari, Vol. 1, Tehran, Sihami, 1363/1983, p. 210, ghazal 97: 6, the translation is taken from M.L. Caton, Hafez, ¨Erfan and Music as Interpereted by Ostad Morteza Verzi, Costa Mesa, Mazda, 2008, p. 142. 67 M. Bal remarks, “if a number of characters are marked by the same axes with the same values (positive or negative), they can be regarded as synonymous characters: characters with the same content.” See Bal, Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of Narrative, Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 2009, p. 128.

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abhorrence in his heart. He seeks to take revenge on Maryam. He further abuses his power and position after the Revolution and orders Kurosh, Maryam's husband to be executed. Abu Ghaleb is also a symbolic name. In Arabic, it literally means ‘The Father of Domi- nance.’ Metaphorically it refers to a man who looks for an opportunity to misuse his power to benefit himself. By choosing this Arabic name, Fasih attempts to focus on two main points. First of all, Abu Ghaleb represents the rivalry between the Arabs and the Persians, including their hatred towards each other. He secondly highlights the barbarism and sav- agery of the Arabs. From this review of the characters in The Winter of 1983, several conclusions may be drawn. Firstly, each character has a psychological conflict within himself or herself, as well as with society; loneliness is therefore one of the central characteristics shared by all of them. Second of all, Fasih separates his fictional characters into two groups — the bourgeoisie and the proletariat — in order to stress the social discrepancies between classes after the Revolution and during the Iran-Iraq War in particular.

CONCLUSION

Fasih is one of the most distinguished Persian writers of the late twentieth century. When observing the varied themes of his works, it must be said that Fasih is a writer of great range. The same can be said about his translations-and as also mentioned above- his novels can be classified into war, Zoroastrianism and romantic genres of the narrative. There are several points that should be taken into account when trying to understand Fasih’s corpus. First of all, the ways in which he weaves a singular style in modern Persian fiction — as conveyed through his characters, narrative stands, plot and themes — must be appreciated. Love, death, mysticism, the invariable clash between good and evil are the most significant themes in Fasih’s novels and stories. In his works written after the revolutions, we also encounter other themes, such as war and martyrdom.68 Secondly, Fasih was a pioneer in specifically focusing on civilians of the middle class, as it brought an innovation in the Persian fiction genre. Tulip Glowing and The Winter of 1983 are two instances where this section of society is vividly depicted. Third of all, Fasih’s diction is another characteristic that made him unique from other writers. His Persian is accessible and very fluent.69 This smoothness of language is due perhaps to commitment as a Persian writer to avoid using inaccessible language. And, even though he was educated in the United States, he hardly uses the English words in his novel. Finally, his special style in prefacing his books is significant. He opens most of his works with selected distichs of Persian poems, through which he alludes to the main idea of the entire book. Fasih’s interest in Zoroastrian creed and doctrines further differentiates the perspective connoted by his work. He explicitly refers to Zoroaster’s teachings in almost every one of his novels, especially those written before the revolution. According to Fasih, as a

68 Ojakians, “Nazari Ejmali be Asar-e Esm¨ail Fasih (6), in Name-ye Farhangestan, no. 19, 2002. 69 Ali Dehbashi, “Az Inja va Anja: Yadi Az Esma¨il Fasih,” in Bokhara 71, 2009, pp. 427-81.

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consequence of accepting Islam in the seventh century, Iranians have lost sight of their origins and are more prone to be drawn into betrayal and disloyalty. He suggests that by returning to the previous creed of Zoroastrian, Iranians can reach salvation, the ultimate goal in life.70 Of all of his books, The Winter of 1983 perhaps most strongly conveys Fasih’s negative approach to the war. He depicts the war here as a devastating phenomenon, whereas in other more positive novels in Persian (e.g. Qasim Ferasat’s Headless Palm) war is treated as a gift from God in order to reevaluate one’s faith. The Winter of 1983 also satirizes the Iranian government in relation to their strategy: A fourteen-year-old boy is forced into exile; employers must give an religious exam as part of the job application process; and women are restricted from working in governmental ministries.71 The novel is similar to a travelogue in that it contains elaborate descriptions of public life, as well as of locations, such as Tehran, Ahvaz and other places touched by the war.72 Fasih’s imagined society in The Winter of 1983 is strained and afflicted by pain, suffering, loneliness, fear and martyrdom. The people who inhabit this society can be thought of as several categories. Some are wounded or martyred due to the war (Edris- Farjam), whereas others do not involve themselves in it (Ariyan). Some find that they are not ‘qualified’ enough to obtain a job (Baradar Nakhl-e Shalamcheyi), while others resort to flattery and look for any opportunity (Ta¨atiyan) to reinforce their positions in society. According to Fasih, it is this society, which has lost all of its potential for flourishing and prosperity.73

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources (Fasih’s Novels)

Asir-e Zaman, Tehran, Alborz, 1374/ 1995. Bade-ye Kohan, Tehran, Alborz, 1373/1994. Bazgasht be Darkhungah, Tehran, Safi-Alishah, 1377/1998. Dar Entezar, Tehran, Paykan, 1389/2010. Dard-e Siyavash, Tehran, Safi-Alishah, 1364/1385. Dastan-e Javid, Tehran, Moallef, 1371/1992. Del Kur, Tehran, Moallef, 1351/1972. Eshq o Marg, Tehran, Asim, 1389/2010. Farar-e Foruhar, Tehran, Alborz, 1373/1994. Gerdabi Chenin Hayel, Tehran, Paykan, 1389/2010. Koshte-ye Eshq, Tehran, Alborz, 1376/1997. Laleh bar Afrukht, Tehran, Janan, 1377/1998.

70 Samira Aslanpur, “Nazari Ejmali be Asar-e Esm¨ail Fasih,” in Sureh, no. 28, 1370/1991, pp. 33-5. 71 See Reza Rahgozar, Vorud-e Nevisande be Sahat-e Dastan va Khoruj-e Shakhsiyyatha az An, Mashhad, Astan-e Qods-e Razavi, 1387/1999, pp. 209-213. 72 Mohammad Hanif, “Dah Sal Roman va Dastane Boland-e Jang,” in Adabiyyat-e Dastani, no. 51, 1378/1999, pp. 84-113. 73 Idem, Jang az Se Didgah: Naqd va Barresi-ye Bist Roman-e Jang, Tehran, Sarir, 1386/2007, pp. 85-7.

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Namey-i be Donya, Maryland, Iranbooks, 1995. Panah bar Hafez, Tehran, Alborz, 1375/1996. Shahbaz va Joghdan, Tehran, Safi-Alishah, 1371/1992. Sharab-e Kham, Tehran, Alborz, 1347/1968. Sorayya dar Eghma, Tehran, Nashr-e Nou, 1369/1990. Talkh Kam, Tehran, Zehn-Aviz, 1389/2010. Tasht-e Khun, Tehran, Alborz, 1376/1997. Teragedy- Komedi-e Pars, Tehran, Alborz, 1377/1998. Zemestan-e 62, Cologne, Sina, 1368/1989.

Secondary Sources

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Interviews

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