Chapter 1 The World of the New Testament

Image 6: This scene from the Arch of Titus in the Roman Forum celebrates the Emperor Titus’s capture of Jerusalem in a.d. 70. The victorious Romans triumphantly bear the sacred objects of the Jerusalem temple, including the menorah, or seven-branched lampstand, symbolizing the presence of God. (Image by users Tetraktys, Steerpike, and Yonidebest, courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.)

One cannot understand the New Testament without a working knowledge of the culture from which it arose. Students who ignore this chapter do so at their peril.

11 anatomy of the new testament 12 A Persistent Obedience A Persistent ofTragedy Renewal A History and T sisted not in original orunique ideasbutinthe sisted notinoriginal withinJudaism.thing new con- This novelty Yet Jesusandhisdisciplesrepresented some- religionbers ofanew from separate Judaism. did not consider mem - themselves Christians (cf. 2Sam. 7:12-15andPs. 89:3-4). The earliest Messiah, theanointedkingofDavidiclineage Jesus call Jesus wasaJew. were So hisfirstdisciples. To W The Jewish Religion Empire Roman the under Life Culture and Language T An Abiding Hope he he G J ewish T T T Diaspora Judaism Popular Religion Religion Traditional andOfficial Domestic Life Life Civic Communication Roman Peace T theGreat Alexander reco he Essenes he Sadducees he Pharisees he Greek Language he Greek istoidentifyhimwithIsrael’sChrist F G M rom nosticism ystery -R W P hilosophy R oman orld eligions orld

W to A orld strology been officially definedinthetime ofJesusand been officially Jewish. generally naturally, Christian, isdistinctly than rather it to a culmination.and bring That culmination, oftheOld Testament takeupthestory writers anddeliberately,sciously theNew Testament the future for of humanity.importance Con- thatare ofutmost wondrous deedsinhistory in the convictionevents that God has wrought oftime, period shorter ofpeopleand ittootells Testament andcovers amuch ismuch briefer sand years ofIsrael’s history. AlthoughtheNew work. athou- product ofnearly Itistheliterary - frame setinahistorical and narrative material is a vast collection of legal, cultic, devotional, Old Hebrew Bible (the Christian Testament) testimonies toGod’s revelations. historical The accounts.torical speaking, Broadly are they narratives ofthepast: legends, sagas, andhis- scripturesofbothreligionsholy are largely events.or hasbeenrevealedinhistorical The to bothreligions istheideathatGodreveals God’s inhistory. bediscerned can will Crucial andcollectively,individually away insuch that faith inaGodwhodealswithhumanbeings, continuity.of bothtoemphasize shareThey a religions,torical and it belongs to the nature ofthatancientfaith. to thecharacter have wrought. clue isinitselfa This continuity despite thechangesthatsucceedingcenturies Judaism oftoday andthat ofthefirstcentury, existsbetween the orsimilarity able continuity Judaism.tament wasfirst-century A remark- of Jesus, Christianity, early andtheNew Tes - that helpedtoproduce it. setting The historical antecedentsandthefactorsfrom itshistorical were takenup, reinterpreted, andemphasized. aspects ofancienttraditions andhopesthat The limitsoftheHebrew Biblehad not are his- Both JudaismandChristianity be understood apart No movement can new The World of the New Testament 13 70, the temple servedtemple the the as 70, a.d. The other major Jewish religious institution The other major Jewishreligious institution in first- role a large played factor Another God. The center of this worship in the time of the time worship in of this The center God. The heart of the temple in Jerusalem. Jesus was priests where was the sacrificialthe temple altar, by Until its destruction sacrifice to God. offered in Romans the importance Its focal point of Jewish worship. to the life of first-century Judaism scarcelycan only was the temple Not be overestimated. and the center of the universe as the regarded - consum be to daysthe last were where place it also servedmated; for as a means structuring daily both through sacrifices and seasonal time, the of the temple by violation Any festivals. authoritiesRoman to or others was sufficient the Jew - Further, cause a major Jewish revolt. ish sect of Qumran to originated in reaction the corruption of considered its members what of try Jesus was accused - Later, temple worship. of Jewish institution this sacred ing to destroy piety 14:58 par.). (Mark one Jerusa was but - There was the synagogue. synagogues. many were but there lem temple, but especiallyin the Dias- in Palestine, Even the synagogue became for most Jews the pora, Although life. practicalreligious of their center by origin obscurity, in hidden is synagogue’s the the first century a central become Jew it had - community center for a kind of ish institution: - study of the Jewish weekly wor law and regular including and commentary reading the on ship, Unlike for the congregation. and prayers Torah the which over priests presided, the temple, synagogue organization was a lay that allowed reading such as Jesus’ participation, broader in the synagogue (Luke 4:16) Torah the from synagoguesof use his in extensive Paul’s and missionary 18:4). (Acts work The smallpiece of ter- century the land. Judaism: ritory at the eastern end of the Mediterranean 90, 90, traditions that , and writings and , prophets , his- of revelation, Judaism was a religion and law, tradition and history, Revelation tory, and a book. As such, it was a religion religion a was it such, As book. a and tory, which Israel by a tradition steeped in tradition: distinct and identified and understood itself as a - More Lord. the people of the chosen people, - Testa of the Old of the literature much over, ment and the written and oral not the were although immensely important, A part of obedience to the whole of Judaism. law was the performance of worthy of worship although the main lines had been established lines had although the main churches accept Most Protestant earlier. much mostly Catholic, Other, canon. Hebrew this as canonicalchurches accept the apocryphal in the contained or deuterocanonical books Septuagint. understood as divine it were developed from response Israel’s intended to regulate directions The most influential goodness. to the Lord’s the world has known, Western law code the “I am the LORD begins: Commandments, Ten of out of the land you who brought God, your shall You house of slavery. out of the Egypt, 20:2-3; (Exod. me” before no other gods have The statement of what God has 5:6-7). Deut. to a statement of what the people leads done the basic structure ought to do in response: A principal activity of law. Testament of Old was day in Jesus’ leaders Jewishmany religious the interpretation and fulfillment of that law. (cf. Luke 24:44)—that is reflected generally Luke 24:44)—that is reflected (cf. to tradi- According Testament. in the New the rabbis the canon fixed of the Hebrew tion, a.d. around Bible at the Council of Jamnia earliest Christianity. Yet, according to the New the New to according Yet, earliestChristianity. and law “the of speaks himself Jesus Testament, from quotes and 5:17) (Matt. prophets” the Thus he 22:1). Ps. cf. 15:34; (Mark the Psalms of division the threefold known have seems to law, scripture— sacred anatomy of the new testament 14 century century looking in other directions. In the late eighth surrounding nations weak were or momentarily attack, she was secure when more only powerful, easy intheland: subjecttofrequent threat and it.defended Israel, however, rest couldnever land toher, andinthis faith sheoccupied and Yet thatGodhad Israelbelieved promised the land butdidnotpossessit(seeGen. 12:1-3). Isaac, and Jacob, whodwelt inandaround the Abraham, ofthepatriarchs intothedays back tohispeople.ise andgift The promise reached monarchy, thelandwasregarded asGod’s prom- years. At leastfrom oftheDavidic thedays three for thousand hope andfrustration Jewish of andcause or Israel—hasbeentheoccasion Land, theHoly called Palestine,Sea—variously ians; less than a century andahalflater,ians; lessthanacentury the except Judahwere bytribes - overrun theAssyr b.c., the territories of all theIsraelite ofall theterritories ministry. aspectofthe background ofJesus’an important dominionJewish underDavidic kingshipwas rial byRomans puppet-kingsandimpe- andruled it istoday, thelandwasthenoccupiedby for the inJesus’ wasquiteasimportant ernance day as The question oftheland’s possession and- gov peoples, whetherPersians, Romans, orBritish. ,exile by other thelandofIsraelhasbeenruled before thetimeofJesus. theBabylonian Since controlof Jewish ofthelandsinceshortly (created in1948)represents thefirstinstance been atroubled one. stateofIsrael The modern intoBabylonian captivity.deported toanend,came andmany ofthepeoplewere salem, it. andoverthrew The Davidickingship Babylonians invaded Judea,- laidsiege toJeru procurators. for the The hope restoration of The subsequent history ofthelandhas The subsequenthistory fortresspress.com].) [www. Press Fortress of permission U reserved. rights All College. Harvard of Fellows and President the ©2005 copyright Koester, Helmut by Paul of Image 7: Image of sacrifice. sacrifice. of ascene with Ephesus Cities Cities (From Altar in in Altar sed here by by here sed The World of the New Testament 15

alilee,

cting u , a continuous tr estament: s on ew T ec y R r o t is r fo s H h , the Seleucidsthe similar a maintained , b.c. rce Behind the N After the division of Alexander’s empire, empire, After of Alexander’s the division ou s ewi 1.1 S The concerns of postexilic Israel are reflectedTestament in the later Old books and treated directly in Ezra and Nehemiah. First and 2 Maccabees deal with the Maccabean period. Doubtless the most valuable single nonbiblical source is Josephus’ Jewish Antiquities history of the Jews to the Roman War. Josephus was (A.D. a Jewish 37–100[?]) politician,soldier, and historian.An erstwhile general of Jewish forces in G he was captured the by Romans, became a Roman citizen, and attached himself to the retinue of the emperors Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian. J the Jews found themselves caught between who the Seleucids, rivaltwo centers of power: the and Mesopotamia and Syria, controlled geographical The ruled who Egypt. Ptolemies, - pow great these two of Israel between situation struggle made over Crescent ers of the Fertile the Ptolemies By and large, inevitable. Palestine during third the Jewish Palestine controlled century with minimal interference Jewish in After defeating the Ptolemies internal affairs. 198 in After a period of changing rul- policy at first. “Epiphanes” Antiochus IV (called however, ers, “God mani- because he proclaimed himself as fest”), ascended to the Syrian in 175 b.c. throne were there Already changed. and circumstances Hellenizing Jews in Jerusalem and elsewhere

his empire disintegrated his empire ragedy and ragedy Persians replaced the Babylonians as the Babylonians replaced Persians to the time of Jesus’ death, the Jews in death, to the time of Jesus’ b.c., b.c. Shortly after the middle- of the sixth cen From the Babylonian conquest of Judea in of Judea conquest the Babylonian From tury to return allowed Jews were overlords. the Jews’ and to begin the restoration to their homeland which the Babylonians of the Jerusalem temple, of Jewish our picture Though destroyed. had conditions rule is incomplete, life under Persian than two More certainlywere improved. much came domination to an end centuries of Persian when late in the fourth century Jesus, before (northern and Alexander of Macedon Greece) everything sweeping his armies east, moved overranAlexander Jewishthe them. before he and his succes- the years over homeland; and culture Greek sors attempted to introduce as was their practice in all conquered customs, a missionary was as much Alexander territories. After as a conquering general. culture of Greek his death in 323 b.c., his suc- Although as quickly coalesced. as it had they cessors could not preserve political unity, of Helleniza the process able to continue - were culture. of Greek the spreading tion: During the Babylonian conquest, many Jews many Duringconquest, Babylonian the their captors to Mesopota- taken east by were The so-called Others south to Egypt. fled mia. of the Jews begun. had or dispersion, Diaspora, Jews in increasing time onward, this From found to be living outside their numbers were homeland. Palestinian Renewal 587 istoryA H of T early would How Christianity been have worlds affected if the Jewish and Greco-Roman never collided?had mostly- lived domina under foreign Palestine a century only relieved by or so of relative tion, the Hasmonean dynastyindependence under in 63 b.c. advent just prior to the Romans’ anatomy of the new testament 16 tion”), thoughitwasnotuntil142 b.c. even ofHanukkah (“dedica inthefeast celebrated - Judaism.it for ever sincebeen has This victory the temple and reclaimed and his men seized incombat,torious in165b.c. called is often ily assumed command oftherebel force. fam- (The son Judas, (“the hammer”), Maccabeus called Macc. 2:27). thecovenant come outwithme!”supports (1 thelawand for who iszealous everyone “Let inopenrebellion.to thehills Mattathias: Said of theking’s officers. Thenheandhis sons took sacrifice, tooffer come forward as as well one enant ofourancestors,” whohad aJew hekilled my brothers continue will tolive by- thecov his commandments . . . yet Iandmysons and him,of the king obey and have to do chosen “even thenations ifall thatlive underthe rule (1Macc.sacrifice 2:15-28). that Proclaiming pagan to enforce thecommand toperform to his town of Modein ies of Antiochuscame rose in167b.c., totheoccasion Mattathias, oftheHasmonean patriarch family, 6). withdeath. Resistancemeantflirting disgraceful conduct (2 Macc. and sacrifices 6:1- thesceneof templebecame and theJerusalem Heathen altarswere erectedtowns inJewish rule, he decided to suppress religion. the Jewish ish resistance dangerous opposition tohisown - Jew sawinsuch Antiochusprobably Because sprout aspositions hardened on bothsides. seeds were sown from conflict which would accommodation;objected tosuch quickly, the however, more (Hasidim piousJews )strongly (1Macc.would bring 1:11-15). Induecourse, other advantages assimilation believed they and dress, oftheeconomic because and inpart who were tooeager all toadopt Greek customs Soon thereafter,Soon Mattathiasdied. His In thefacedepredations ofsuch andthreats, ,Maccabean - him.) Vic after Judas Maccabeus JudasMaccabeus whenemissar- that cessful rule, Herod of accepted thenecessity who followed him. his long and suc- During the Great, indistinction from thelesserHerods Jesus’ infancy. known Heiscommonly asHerod of and figures prominently inMatthew’s story effectively,ruled ifbrutally, from 37to4b.c., his son Herod kingof theJews. This Herod a culmination by havingtheRomans declare place. helped engineer the Roman coup in the first Idumea, whohad intrigue amasterofpolitical the power behindthethrone wasAntipater of Palestine wasnow infact Roman territory, and priest andethnarch.hold theofficeofhigh But to allowed the weak II Hasmonean Hyrcanus have been.than itmightotherwise The Romans less distasteful to Jews made it seem initially inevitable, theconduct ofthelaterHasmoneans For whileRoman domination may have been tion ofPalestine asadisaster. City andtheHoly havewould regarded scarcely Roman occupa- resistance, atthetemple, particularly many Jews some ofAristobulus’s offered fierce supporters II, against the other, II. Aristobulus Although one Hasmonean claimant,ported Hyrcanus Revolt,Maccabean theirgeneral, Pompey, sup- the after onarrived thesceneaboutacentury asinterlopers.be viewed theRomans When of Zadok; family could and so they the priestly David; aspriests, were they notdescendedfrom disillusionment. Askings, were they notsons of among them, struggles as well asdeadly ledto , askingsandhighpriests themselves to style ality. ofthelaterHasmoneansThe propensity expectations, itspromise itsactu - faroutstripped relief of long-frustrated and the fulfillment welcomed asablessed wasgenerally dynasty fromdriven Jerusalem. were Hellenizers the lastremnants ofSyrian Antipater brought hisremarkable careerto orHasmoneanAlthough theMaccabean

The World of the New Testament 17

–a.d. b.c. 6, a Roman Roman a 6, a.d. 34. Herod Antipas Antipas Herod 34. en. 23:9) in Hebron, a few until a.d. reat (Matt. who 2:1-23), also rebuilt the After the death of Herod, the kingdom was kingdom the After of Herod, the death split into three parts, apportioned among three apportioned three among parts, three split into frontispiece: (See this book’s surviving sons. Testament.”) time of the New at the “Palestine Philip northeast became tetrarch of the region - Tra including and Iturea of the Sea of Galilee, that largely over Gentile and reigned chonitis, 4 b.c. from area (4 becameruler Perea and Galilee of Judea, became Archelaus rulerof Samaria, 39). deposed after was but short a reign. Idumea, and in deposition his Following was installed as ruler of or prefect, procurator, - continu in remained The procuratorship Judea. ous effect until the briefreign of Agrippa (37– Pilate Pontius thereafter. 44) and was resumed (26–36) was the fifth of these procurators, (Image by user Ooman, courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.) These massive walls around the tombs of the patriarchs of Israel (see G Image 8: miles south of Bethlehem, were originally constructed by Herod the G temple of Jerusalem (John 2:20). appealing to Jewish religious sensibilities, at the at sensibilities, to Jewishappealing religious devotingsame time task of Helle himself to the - He built and life of Palestine. culture nizing the and the Hellenistic to patterns, cities according and the- gymnasiums, he constructed stadiums, ancient Sebaste, (e.g., In non-Jewish areas aters. he also Yet Samaria) built pagan temples. he the Jerusalem magnifi- rebuilt temple in a more the Jews neither his efforts, Despite cent style. nor did he trust them. nor trustedloved Herod; wife Mariamne his Hasmonean He executed with his along and eventually of her sons, two (named for Antipater son ambitious and able married had who a Hasmo- his grandfather), Obviously that the feared Herod nean princess. memory the inspire would of the Hasmoneans Jews against him. anatomy of the new testament 18 23:2). Onthe otherhand, Jesuswasexecuted as to Caesar (Mark 12:13-17parr.; butcf. Luke oftaxes payment forbid he didnotexplicitly Matt. 4:7-10; John 6:15; 18:36). For example, not intendtolead arebellion4:5-8; (seeLuke he himselfwould become king, did heevidently dom ofGodandmay have aroused hopesthat Although Jesusspoke oftheking- frequently resistanceadvocated armed againstRoman rule. lowers would nothave encouragedany who upon them. Ontheone hand,- Jesusandhisfol there thathemade animpact islittleevidence enced by conditions thepolitical oftimes, Caiaphas. AlthoughJesuswasdoubtlessinflu- of andthehigh priesthood ofPilate ratorship pas, the procu during - and died in Jerusalem the Great, lived inGalileeunderHerod Anti- ing thelaw, or Torah. - and apply were interpreting for the authorities aslaw-courts,may have served where scribes Israel andRome. Inthevillages, synagogues governmental figure: between amiddleman Babylonian exile, Jewish the most important this group andwas, ashehad beensincethe laymen. wastheofficial head of The highpriest elders—priests,tinguished Jewish , scribes and the responsibility, wasgranted much authority coast.Mediterranean Althoughhehad final butinCaesarea,lived not in Jerusalem on the oroppressive.brutal The procurator ofJudea bilities would beanunderstatement. religious sensitive toJewish sensi- not overly amiracle.prophet perform To say thathewas who werea group a watching of Samaritans image into Jerusalem, destroyed and ruthlessly insigniawiththeemperor’sbrought military view. Hetook moneyfrom thetempletreasury, onesurely oftheworst from pointof theJewish Jesus was born during thereign during ofHerodJesus wasborn Yet wasnotunremittingly Roman rule ,Sanhedrin - dis a group of about seventy laid itwaste, destroying thetemple. years Afew along, after took Jerusalem siege and grueling against Roman power. In some initialsuccess, had they littlechance andenjoyed bravely fought Although theJews 20.200).Antiquities In a.d. recorded (an event Jews by Josephus, Jewish by other the brother ofJesuswasmartyred 3.5.23). History astical At about this time, James Pella across theJordan River (Eusebius, Ecclesi- for safety, fled imminent thoseinJerusalem to war,siasm for andwhenitsoutbreak seemed others, didnotshare thiswidespread enthu- cause.their righteous Christians, Jewish among convinced themin thatGodwould vindicate tofightanddie, willing and morebecame Jews ofsentiment. apolarization aggravated More provocations ledtoretaliation, inturn which ened. theRomans regarded asJewish What height- sion became between Roman andJew of Israel, rebel. andthusapolitical a messianicpretender, tothethrone aclaimant period with which we are concerned. weare which with period the during revolution armed advocating party organized any was there that unclear is it documented, be can uprisings Jewish A. in G the Judas that inferred usually is it 66. Josephus From A. before emerge did not party “Zealot” aspecifically that demonstrates scholarship Zealots as to referred facilely been have revolutionaries Jewish Although Zea 1.2 Gradually during thefirstcentury, during Gradually theten- D Behind the N the Behind lo 6. Nevertheless, while isolated isolated while . 6. Nevertheless, t s alilean founded the sect sect the founded alilean ew T ew a.d. estament: T 66, warbroke out. 70 the Romans , recent , recent D he . The World of the New Testament 19 ugganij, Masada, Masada, (Image by user G courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.)courtesy Wikimedia of Image 9: the Jewish fortress. The road from the bottom left to the top right is the ramp the Romans built for their assault is barely visible. The The during of Judaism character the time of Jesus and the earlythe and Jesus of affected much was church Because the Jewish in homeland. conditions by the Jews given been believed had that their land called God who had the same them to them by - in Pal who lived those be his chosen people, Even chafedestine domination. foreign under though Jews generally from for looked relief of the and the restoration oppression foreign to wait content were many Davidic monarchy, Some God forfulfillmentupon the of this hope. Others had Jews thought it was near at hand. and with Hellenistic culture their peace made rule Roman reallyprobablynot did and yearn num- large also were There for their overthrow. for whom bers of Jews outside Palestine living political was not a burning independence issue. presented homeland the in rebellion Indeed, possibility- the grim of retalia and unwelcome against Jewstion elsewhere. 132–135), the Jewsthe 132–135), later, the last Jewish resistance at the fortress Jewish the last of resistance later, the Jew then Even - was overwhelmed. Masada word Later, was not broken. ish will to resist Hadrian intended to that Emperor circulated Jerusalem to Capitolina and rebuild as Aelia ruinsthe on Jupiter to temple the a of erect middle Hadrian’s was (“Aelius” Jewish temple. Capi- recalled Rome’s “Capitoline” and name, worshiped.) were pagan gods where toline Hill, The Jews then a leader calledrallied around the whom Bar Kochba (“SonStar”), of the Rabbi as the Messiah Akiba hailed renowned (a.d. more Once Israel. of but after subdued. were a time fought fiercely, building with their went ahead The Romans they for- after the newplans; city was complete, The Jew any pain of death. bade to enter it on logicalits centuries end. many of reached trend - without a home a nation become Judaism had whichland over the Jews themselves ruled. anatomy of the new testament 20 for Israel”for 7:11), (Ezra wasthedescendantof andhisstatutes commandments oftheLord B.C.E. and scribe “scholar ofthetext andscribes.priests Ezra, the great fifth-century theprovince of tion ofthelawwashistorically , righteousness to true orintegrity.- Interpreta obligationparamount oftheJew;itisway tothe Obedience Torah is, andhasbeen, the standatthebeginning oftheBible.teuch—that consists ofthefive books ofMoses—the Penta- deeds ofkindness. speaking, Strictly thelaw Of course, thelawdefinedproper worship and deeds of personal kindness” (Pirke Aboth 1.2). three things, on theLaw, on worship, andon revelation. ofthe stability “The rests on World Moses, regarded the Jews the law as divine Notwithstanding its humanmediation through (Hebrew toJudaism, iscentral If anything itisthelaw A Persistent Obedience appeared. Christianity ence shapedthesettinginwhich existed,tions andparties andhow theirpres- posi- tounderstandwhy differing more closely time ofJesus. Onemust examinethatsituation the Jews, acomplex makingfor situation inthe ofreligious schools opinionof several among developments had already ledtotheformation dissension orviolence.was notovert Postexilic were thissolong totolerate asthere willing continued under Roman rule, and the Romans ofthought schools The development ofvarious ing ofthelawandproper worship ofGod. understand- concerned with the right primarily Jews.quences for continued Manytobe Jews conse - situation withunfortunate political its reaction toaninternational, anddomestic, the JudaismofJesus’ of interms timesolely Moreover, itwould beamistaketoview torah, connotes which “instruction”). that they usually appear as opponents of Jesus. usually that they isdoubtlesscolored by thefactthe Pharisees throughout Judaism. The Gospels’ of portrayal pointofview dissemination ofthePharisaic the councilplayed role inthe animportant its influencehassometimes beenexaggerated, study and interpretationofthelaw. Although the acenterfor Council ofJamniabecame coast atJamnia.near theMediterranean The thatwar,After councilassembled arabbinic oftheJewish Wardisastrous climax (a.d. the more even influential after became they thetimeofJesus,were during important and .Pharisees clear thatthey The Gospelsmake community ofNew Testament timeswasthe nificant religious group within the Jewish Probably thesinglemostinfluential andsig- THE PHARISEES according totheirattitudetoward it. groupsbecategorized Judaism thatsuch can sect or special group, the to law was so central were Jews membersofno most law-observant (7:1-5). family priestly an important Although the dead.’” (Acts 23:6) concerning thehopeofresurrection of Pharisee, ason ofPharisees. Iamon trial outinthecouncil,called ‘Brothers, Iama andotherswereSadducees Pharisees, he teach.” (Matt. 23:2-3) do;they donotpracticewhatthey they for teach you it, andfollow butdo notdoas Moses’ seat; therefore, they dowhatever Jewish The War 2.162) Josephus,the position of the leading sect.” ( ofthelaws,accurate interpreters andhold Pharisees “The . . . are considered the most “When Paul noticedthatsome were “When sit on Pharisees and scribes “The 70). The World of the New Testament 21 and the first decade and the 31a). Versions of the of the Versions 31a). Shabbat Two famous and important famous and Pharisaic- lead Two the Pharisees Testament, In the New concentrating instead on specific commands to to commands specific on instead concentrating which expected. obedience is contemporaries HillelShammai, and ers were and rivals who flourished in the latter part centuryof the first b.c. than Jesus. later of the following century, rival of legal them gathered houses Around school was known Shammai’s interpretation. of the harsher interpretation for its stricter, of the house the interpretations whereas law, In time Hillelites liberal. more of Hillelwere Somesayings of the attrib- came to dominate. uted to Hillel closely parallel sayings ascribed form these is the negative of Among to Jesus. Luke 6:31): 7:12; Matt. the Golden Rule(cf. “What do not do to your is hateful to yourself rest All the Torah. That is the entire neighbor. - (Baby forth go and learn” Now is commentary. Talmud, lonian found RulevariousGolden in also are Jewish Tobit apocryphal the writingsother and (e.g., 4:15 and Sirach 31:15). with the of together frequently spoken are that they is created and the impression scribes, The closelyare allied if not identical groups. but the scribes were is not false, impression authoritative custodians and interpreters of the the appearance group law before of a distinct all not Pharisees Moreover, called Pharisees. The historic scribes task of the scribes. were the Pharisees, largelytaken up by however, was, was to interpret and interest whose consuming They- con apply the law to every of life. sphere interpre tinued and expanded the traditional - Its fruition is found in the the law. of tations interpretative body of a large rabbinicliterature, the earliermaterial from centuries of our era dealing with every with of the law and phase almost every and secular life. aspect of religious Pharisee seems to be derived The history of the Pharisees and the even origin of their name is obscure. Very likely Very origintheir name is obscure. of “pious or Hasidim, the they descended from allegiance to the nation whose ferocious ones,” to the Maccabean impetus and the law gave The word revolt. Yet the representation of them as defenders of them representation the Yet Mark and interpreters (cf. the law is accurate of 10:2). 2:24; If “to separate.” verb a Hebrew meaning from appropriately it would designate the Phari- so, for God sees as those separated or chosen by Pharisees did Yet full to the law. obedience Pharisaism was society. not withdraw from and Pharisees fundamentally movement, a lay emphasized the necessity of obeying law in the The Pharisees seem of life. aspects or allareas been the originalto have custodians of the to Moses on the law revealed that is, oral law, Sinai to writing committed but not (unlike the the Pharisees In the Gospels, Torah). scriptural of Jesus of not followingaccuse the traditions and Jesus in turn accuses 7:5), the elders (Mark the preferringof to them such tradition human himself Paul, 13). of God (7:8, commandment of how speaks 3:5), a former Pharisee (Phil. in the traditions become he had far advanced These traditions 1:14). (Gal. of his forefathers eventuallyof the oral to law were committed until more though not writing in the Mishnah, than a century after the period of Christian Because they had origins. Testament and New begun to understand Judaism primar- already ily as interpretation of and obedience to the - the Pharisees situated to recon well were law, Judaism in the aftermathstitute and redefine destruction during the Roman of the temple’s Although earlier Pharisees well may War. Jewish traditional hopes for shared the have rule the land over of God’s reestablishment the Mishnah does not discuss them, of Israel, anatomy of the new testament 22 proper nameofZadok, the during ahighpriest clear. Presumably isrelated theterm tothe of their name the arederivation not entirely ofthePharisees,in thecase and theirhistory mentioned intheGospels, istheSadducees. As The Sadducees (haggadaic) in character. in (haggadaic) narrative and illustrative or (halakic) legal either interpretation biblical midrash: of awealth produced period rabbinic the addition, In century. fifth late the from dates latter the whereas century, fifth early the from dates and Babylonian the than shorter is Palestinian The Palestinian. the and Babylonian Talmuds, the two are There it. on commentary learned of akind largely is but Mishnah the Talmud The includes Mishnah. the is century, third early the from dating literature, rabbinic of document basic The The 1.3 A second majorgroup withinJudaism, also public prison.” (Acts 5:17-18) arrested theapostlesandputthemin of theSadducees), withjealousy beingfilled whowereand all withhim(thatis, thesect 18.16-17) Antiquities Jewish Josephus,men ofthehigheststanding.” ( hasbeenmade known,trine buttheseare There mento whom arethisdoc- few but from apart thelaws.vance ofany sort . . . along withthebody. They own noobser- Sadducees holdthatthesoulperishes “The R Beyond the N the Beyond “Then the high priest took the highpriest action; he “Then abbinic Tra ew T ew d iti o estament: n scripture asauthoritative. Politically, were they binding way. the wordThey accepted only of situationin a inlife law’s toevery application to extend the effort tradition and the Pharisaic to obediencethelaw, rejected they theoral established wealth andposition. regard With right. Moreover, represented theSadducees held office themselves priests by hereditary thanthePharisees.more conservative The cultic ceremony, were theSadducees rather not destroyed by theGodofIsrael. divine favor inthatheentered, met, andwas One.the Holy Onthisday, hisaction signified of thepeople, presence of intothevery came in thetempleandthere, astherepresentative entered the unapproachableof Holies Holy Day of Atonement, alone when the high priest ofthe ritual function wastheyearly this priestly people. Probably themostgraphicexample of relationshiping aright between Godandthe were dealt with, thus restoring andmaintain- the peoplemightcommune withGod. Sins the altar, had sacrifices beenoffered sothat center of Judaism. the symbolic ertheless On to live outside thelandofIsrael,- itwasnev came ofJews asthemajority importance tical inprac- ofworship had declined and itsservice to existed prior faithasit ofJewish foci sented theprincipal law andtempleworship. Assuch, repre they - tively, upon interpretationofthe authoritative thus religious brotherhoods centering, respec- appear together. were andSadducees Pharisees ofthetemple,the captain andtheSadducees areand theSadducees linked; in4:1, thepriests, aristocracy.priestly InActs 5:17, thehighpriest New Testament were timestheSadducees the ofthenameandgroup,the history by mon (1 Kgs. 1:34; 1 Chron. 12:29). Whatever time of David (1 Sam. 8:17;- 15:24) and Solo As custodiansofreligious tradition and a.d. 70. Although the temple The World of the New Testament 23 (Image by user Berthold Werner, courtesy of as a vice and regard temperance and the as a vice and regard special virtue. as a of the passions control War 2.119-20) ( The Jewish Josephus, to the PhariseesIn addition and Sadducees there existed, at the time of Jesus, a group called a group at the time of Jesus, existed, there identity whose exact and extent are Essenes, important Jewish writ - Two not entirely clear. philosopher the Philo ers of the first century, historian 50) and the Josephus, (20 B.C.–A.D. name by not mentioned they are speak of them; - how decades, In recent Testament. in the New of Essene or Essene-type our knowledge ever, the dis- has been immensely by groups enlarged covery of a monastery and an immense cache of the northwest on shore documents at Qumran, While scholarship is current Sea. of the Dead it seems likely not unanimous in its judgment, reat extensively renovated (see John 2:20). Jerusalem, facing the Western Wall, or Wailing Wall, of the temple area. In the center is the Dome The Essenes have a reputation reputation for cultivat- a The Essenes have they Jewish Of birth, ing peculiar sanctity. to each other attachment greater a show They shun pleasures than do the other sects. of the Rock, erected in the late seventh century as an Islamic shrine. Probably it stands on the site of the Second ofTemple Judaism, which Herod the G Wikimedia Commons.) Wikimedia Image 10: quietists who generally cooperated with the of the establishment it As members Romans. would have They to do so. was in their interest late doctrinenothing to do with the relatively but adhered of the resurrection of the dead, typically to the older and more instead bibli- view that death is simply Testament) cal (Old In this they the end of significant life. conscious well as from as the Pharisees, from differed Jesus and the early Christians. THE ESSENES anatomy of the new testament 24 dience was enforced under a strict discipline,dience wasenforced underastrict a more acceptable obedience to God. This obe- requirementsethical ofthelaw, thusrendering and theritual outpunctiliously sought tocarry tive task and goal. The community’s members a posi- of holiness but for of the preservation side. thesake for Itwasaseparationnotonly hadwithdrawal a positive as well as a negative monastic communities. formed often Yet this life,Jewish regarded they which as corrupt, and ducees, withdrew from they themainstream of of thisgroup.- andSad UnlikethePharisees “righteous teacher” thefounder wasapparently the only called “teacher ofrighteousness” orthe thanZadokitelineage.nean rather Afigure ofHasmo- by highpriesthood anillegitimate an erroneousandsupervised calendar festival of temple worship based onthe impropriety tury firstcen- thesecondsometime orearly during Jesus’ during atQumran munity day. oftheEsseneslived incom - that anoffshoot The Qumran movement,Qumran The began which b.c., by revulsion at wascharacterized drama,tic forces aconflict the inwhich of light - ofanapocalyp wasexpectedintheform cation community asIsrael’s remnant. true This vindi- ofIsrael,vindication oratleastoftheirown minor infractions: and severe even punishmentwasmetedoutfor In addition, looked they toward thefuture ten days. 8.14-17) Rule (Community to gesticulatedopenancefor withitshall days. thirty do penancefor days. thirty dopenancefor he shall hisnakednesshasbeenseen,his garment hishandfromthat whendrawing beneath days. thirty the Congregation dopenancefor shall so, sixmonths. dopenancefor heshall panion, withouthavingbeenobliged todo hasgone nakedbefore hiscom - Whoever Whoever has drawn out his left hand outhisleft hasdrawn Whoever shall hasguffawedfoolishly Whoever dressed has been so poorly Whoever of hasspatinanAssembly Whoever Wikimedia Commons.) of courtesy Cargill], [Robert en.wikipedia at XKV8R user by Image 11:Image copying documents. documents. copying for used been have may room this that conjecture itself, archaeologists site this of ruins the in discovered been have scrolls no Though discovered. were Scrolls Sea Dead the where Qumran, at Scriptorium The The (Image (Image The World of the New Testament 25 Because history the be of this sect has to The not purely passive were Qumraners expectation. They looked for- eschatological expectation. nearby caves. They were accidentally were They discovered caves. nearby later. thousand years about two and allu- of references the basis on reconstructed writings in its own sions in those of ancient and its Jewish such authors as Philo and Josephus, somewhat remain origins and relationships scholars some propose and then, Now obscure. Seathat the Dead Scrolls actually are Christian about facts similar and this that and documents Such been intentionallythem have suppressed. specifically No Christian baseless. are proposals and found been Qumran, at have documents the writingssect do not explicitly of the men- Jesus or other earlytion Christian figures. they Rather, in their hopes and expectations. and particularly their separat- saw themselves, as the fulfillment ist existence in the desert, 40:3 (see Community of the prophecy of Isa. in the wilderness preparing were They Rule 8). is a there In this respect of the Lord. the way striking similarity the Qumran between - com In the church. Testament munity and the New pas- Testament the same Old Testament, New the Baptist is found the lips of John sage on ( who views his task in a similar way. 1:23), John Both the desert community and Jesus and his of apocalyptic in an atmosphere disciples lived or Other similarities of God. to the coming ward Both stood apart groups. the two exist between Both prevailing forms of Jewishfrom piety. whether founder, or centrala to leader looked in teacher”; “righteous Jesus or the unnamed ways different both maintained a distinctive view both formed of the law; a community Of course, or sect of believers within Judaism. Qumranersthe society - gener from withdrew disciples and the church did while Jesus’ ally, the Qumran discoveries have Nevertheless, not. approaching king- approaching way of perceiving the worldthe perceiving of dualisticway He has created man to govern the world, the world, man to govern He has created forand has appointed spirits him two in which walk until the time of his visi- to spirits the truthof and falsehood. tation: Those born of truth a springfountain from but those born of falsehood spring of light, All children the of darkness. a source from of of righteousness ruled the Prince are by but all Light and walk in the ways of light, ruled the of falsehood are by the children walk in the ways and of of Darkness Angel (Community Rule 3.17-21) darkness. This To understand Jesus, his disciples, and early his disciples, understand Jesus, To War Rule overwhelmwould (War of darkness those because victoryThe was never in doubt, 10-19). Such the side of his elect. on fight God would the highlight andelect , terms as light, darkness Almost basic character Qumran of thought. everything choice was seen as a good between allowed: no compromise with and evil, Christianity historically, the Qumran docu- Christianity historically, reveal another They important. quite are ments Jewishperiodsame of the sect engaged was that in alternately and the the scriptures searching for signs of God’s heavens was reflected in the group’s extremely rigid in the group’s was reflected in its implacable hos- the law, attitude toward and as enemies, tility those regarded toward in its view of history’s culmination. coming the bad people good triumphThe the over of the of evil in the elimination from result would world. these hopes and expecta- Christians, For dom. although not in the way foundtions fulfillment, the Qumran For community and anticipated. but been little have may there other Essenes, Duringwar the world. in this disappointment whose the monastery, destroyed the Romans in scrolls hidden their sacred inhabitants had anatomy of the new testament 26 closer to the origins ofChristianity. totheorigins closer have ways brought significant us but inseveral ofancientJudaism, enlarged ourview not only history and noresurrection of thedead.history From end of cataclysmic Sadducees lookedforno The outlook.either tosedition ortoanapocalyptic disposed them scarcely the Roman authorities in relation and comfort to position of security elites. At the otherstood the Sadducees, whose - Isra andestablishforever therighteous wicked todestroy the inhistory matic intervention like theQumraners, wholookedGod’s for - dra future. stoodthose At one endofthespectrum in the present but also by its attitude toward the thelawofGod toobey efforts past andearnest by not only a memorable times was characterized To recapitulate: JudaisminNew Testament An AbidingHope ies intheprocess rebellion oflaunching against those whoattemptedtodissuade revolutionar- War period.cabean According toJosephus (Jewish theMac involvement- during ofpolitical tory under Roman rule. Moreover, had they ahis - Sanhedrin, ofappeal court thehighestJewish on the andSadducees alongside priests served engaged, theSadducees inwhich authority they abjured theactive cooperation with Roman revolution. may have Although thePharisees but whodidnotexpecttoinitiateitby violent “the redemption ofIsrael” (cf. 24:21) Luke were thePharisees, whomay have hopedfor munity’s comQumran - tion seemstobereflected inthe aided by divineintervention. anexpecta- (Such autonomy through resistance, armed perhaps ofnational therecovery theirhopefor realize time totime, some, liketheZealots, sought to 2.17.3), were prominent Pharisees among War extremes such Scroll.)Shunning Qumran. Qumran. Rule Community 12: Image Wikimedia Commons.) of courtesy Werner, Berthold

Fragments of the (Image by user user by (Image from from The World of the New Testament 27 Apocalyptic not the ideas were and similar of apocalyptic complex The entire ideas— resurrection (that is, of all the dead) would take take would of all the dead) (that is, resurrection Then final judgment. to God’s as a prelude place - the con to come,” “age usher in the God would which all history toward summation was mov - a single plan or to speak of It is too much ing. and of similar ideas but the existence scheme, in the if not in systematized form, expectations, - com that they suggests were Testament New day. currency Judaism of Jesus’ mon in the The only hopes. and patrioticof result interests - pro of the dead doctrine of the resurrection vided a lively hope and a means of individual as experience dictated, If, ways. justifying God’s the righteous servants law suffer in of God’s when the they expect better things may this life, resurrection The doctrine of the raised. are dead became of the Pharisees the hallmark (see Acts in time a virtual so that anathema could 23:6), against those who disbelieved it. be pronounced appears rarely in the Belief in the resurrection 26:19 and Dan. Isa. notably, Testament: Old surprisingnot is It Sadduceesthe that 12:2. Nevertheless, it. did not feel to share obliged reports that Jesus (Mark Testament the New 23:6) believed (Acts as Paul 12:26-27) as well fol- In doing so they were in the resurrection. a Pharisaiclowing Jewish tradition. of dualism the dead, the of resurrection the this between the distinction and evil, good and the destruction to come, and the age age of evil in a cataclys and the triumph of good - and judgment—cannotmic cosmic upheaval earlier, be fully the basis of Israel’s explained on whether historical, tradition, Testament Old The apocalyptic frame of or cultic. prophetic, par- Persian, with affinities marked mind has This is especially thought. ticularly Zoroastrian, and the cosmic eschatology, true of its dualism, what extent they reflect may To last judgment. the son of David, to rule ser- to your over of David, the son O to you, vant Israel in the time known God. Jerusa to purge - the unrighteous rulers, Gentiles who trample her to lem from . . . destruction. sin- and he will condemn his presence; the thoughts of their hearts. ners by 27) 24, (Psalms of 17:23, Solomon In intertestamental apocalyptic literature, In intertestamental apocalyptic literature, It is difficult to say with certainty to It is difficult how the and raise up for them their king, Lord, See, to destroy him with the strength Undergird his warning willflee from At the nations we find the expectation of a decisive culmina- of a decisive find the expectation we That hope was widely shared. of history. tion worldThis was to conclude or this age with the - fortunes and the resurrec of Israel’s restoration the inau- marking righteous of her tion dead, After a period of guration of the messianic age. the general years, to a thousand several hundred Pharisees expected Israel’s national destiny to destiny national Pharisees Israel’s expected which The documents, rabbinic be fulfilled. do generally a Pharisaic express of view, point imminent apocalypticnot anticipate an drama bringGod would ordinarywhereby history to But rabbinic fortunes. Israel’s an end and restore necessarily is not literature guide an accurate to Pharisaic during expectations the period - Testa writing the and of Jesus New the of Judaism of attitude the reflects It books. ment’s and the uprising of Bar War after the Roman Zealotdisappointed - when revolu and Kochba, tionary apocalyptic hopes made and messianic about suchspeculations matters unattractive. the Pharisees at an however, Like the Essenes, earlier cherished have time may such apocalyp- tic and messianic hopes: Rome. Unlike the Essenes, the Pharisees the were the Essenes, Unlike Rome. not monastically inclined. anatomy of the new testament 28 concept implies. discussion ofJudaism has Our thedistinctivenessall anddangersa that such andpurpose,of identity people, achosen with :of thecovenant apeoplewithunique sense else, hasbeenapeople Judaismisandalways and theland. more Butperhaps thananything son ofAbraham. the indissoluble linking of the two he was a true pretation ofbothobedience andhope, butin plifies Israelitefaith. Jesusproposed a reinter- the present tothefuture, asthekey Jesus exem- In his insistenceon obedience to God’s in will that history, beunderstood. scarcely Jesuscan faith. andtheagony of from Apart theglory sage had deep roots in his people’s and history Yet ofJesus’ thesubstanceandframework mes- “foreign” inthesenseofbeingnon-Israelite. or Amos. were oftheseviews perhaps Some that were unknown to the patriarchs, Moses, law andtheprophets, hewastheheirofideas stoodinthetradition ofthe and consciously (Gal. generally Christians did theearly 3:29), himselftobeasonbelieved ofAbraham, as judgment (cf. Daniel7). Although Jesus surely torender dead andwould come againinglory fromthat Jesus had tians risen proclaimed the - kingdom Chris ofGodinpower; andtheearly ment; Jesusannouncedtheinbreaking ofthe theimminentjudg- proclaiming Baptist came emerged. Christianity of which For John the ground out kind ofthinkingprovided fertile ideastodevelop.such Induecourse, thesame seedbedandimpetusfor vided thenecessary intheirhomeland doubtlessproof theJews - century thesixth after in theexileandDiaspora of many Jews’ exposure toforeign influences bediscounted,not simply inview especially debatable; still,can- outsideinfluences such direct borrowing ormore subtleinfluencesis Judaism ishistory, law, tradition, worship, b.c. The oppression and frustration The story of Jesus and of his first followers ofJesusandhisfirst is,The story hadnever been and would not become Jews. making mostofitsconverts among peoplewho ment spread across world, the Mediterranean its Jewishness. move - Christian But the early communitythatstrongly affirmed of thenew represented2) andapparently andledthatwing church(Acts 15;the early 21:17-26; Galatians figure in brother animportant Jamesbecame tinued toregard assuch. themselves Hisown of course, Jews; tell, asfarwe can con they - times oppressive, dominion. Hisdiscipleswere, when his people lived under foreign, and some- totheGodofIsraelatatime ing allegiance - his deathwastheconsequence ofhisunswerv way. inany other begantothinkofthemselves ally were Christians Jews,earliest gradu- andonly ofreligious superiority.claims LikeJesus, the an Israelite, a Jew, against he reacted sharply own attitude. as aware ofhisidentity Clearly the religious establishment, isreflected inJesus’ together withresistance of toward theclaims andidentity.heritage This senseofbelonging, unaware were oftheirfolk notnecessarily ridiculed, disparagedandeven frequently such ofthelawandaccursedrant (7:49). Though the GospelofJohn, are asigno- they described 7:15); many ofhisfollowers were. certainly In numbered among(seeJohn thesehumblefolk Jesus himself wasobservers. possibly Quite upon by thosewhowere more scrupulous was applied. looked downThey were often term piousamong them,the lessconscientiously the To ofthesepeople, themajority oratleastto membersofnodefinable religious group.ably Yet, aswe have noted, were mostJews prob- major religious groupings ofthefirstcentury. naturally, inevitably, perhaps on focused the Jesus lived anddiedaJew. Inareal sense people theland(Hebrew: of ) am ha-aretz The World of the New Testament 29 reat, by (Image by user Marsyas, courtesy of Head of Alexander the G the sculptor Leochares (c. B.C.), 330 housed at the Acropolis Museum in Athens. Image 13: Wikimedia Commons.) Wikimedia AT THE GRE NDER ALEXA widelyThe Jews become had in Egypt scattered exile in the of the as a result places and other largely They Greek spoke sixth century B.C. one influence of because the remarkable of individuals Few Alexander of Macedon. man, cul- the history, upon impact a greater had have of the world Alexander. than and religion ture, of he succeeded to the throne , Born b.c. in 356 years Two in 334. Philip of Macedon, his father, in Macedonia his home later he set out from Empire, Persian the of conquest the begin to and invaded menaced had which for years as and his army he swept In eight years, Greece. far south as Egypt as far east as the Indus and of India, reaches at the westernmost River ). Most New Most ). orld LXX - Medi the Gentilesthroughout Language and Culture Language of beginning the Several before years hundred century third the about in Christianthe era, translated scriptures were the Hebrew , b.c. as known important is This version Greek. into Septuagintthe (abbreviated Testament writers when translation this used Testament to an According Testament. the Oldquoting found of Arisancient legend in the Epistle - the translation was centuryteas (second B.C.), in working seventy-two by made Jewish elders, because of scholarly Egypt library, for the royal for the importanceappreciation of the books. was the translation however, In all probability, and for the benefit of the the initiative on made then could by of whom many Jews themselves, their better than and understand Greek read ancestral Hebrew tongue. Judaism provided the ingredients from which a from the ingredients provided Judaism The pilgrimage and tra- new shape. faith took its expectations, its scriptures and vail of Israel, for furnished the essential frame of reference Christian- Yet Jesus and his earliest followers. Judaism and spread from away ity broke soon rapidly among it became- a univer In a sense, terranean world. did this and why But how sal form of Judaism. in particu followers - happen to the sect of Jesus’ in partremains to this question The answer lar? can valid reasons some Nevertheless, a mystery. observingbe discerned and illuminated by the of the worldconditions into which Christianity spread. however, inextricably tied, to and rooted in, the in, and rooted to inextricably tied, however, the people of Israel. Judaism of Roman W reco- The G anatomy of the new testament 30 ably the largest andmostsuccessful ofthese ably conquest, ofGreek outposts civilization. Prob- ofGreeka string citiesacross thearea ofhis inthecities.especially heleft Ashisheritage successful, oftheEastprovedthe life highly language andculture and toembedthemin hisdeath,survive tospread Greek hisefforts establishing aMacedonian empire thatwould asithad emerged. quickly ephemeral, hisempire almostas for dissolved conquest,military althoughimmense, proved managed itapart. topull ofhis Thus thefruit control for ofhisempirestruggled andsoon ofsucceedinghim.heir capable Hislieutenants b.c. quite unexpectedly, in323 hediedofafever Babylon ashiscapital. stay, ashort Butafter tent toremain there, regarded andapparently wives. Following hisconquest heseemedcon- he andhissoldierstook women oftheEastas wasexemplifiedachievement inthefact that element asthecommon factor everywhere. This the ancientworld, (Greek) withtheHellenic created genuinemixtures cultural throughout respect wasremarkable. Alexander’s conquests the areas heconquered, andhissuccessinthis to establishGreek culture andlanguage in the great philosopher Aristotle. Heintended dier butalsoamanoflettersandstudent accomplished. asol- Alexanderwasnotonly however, revolution wasthecultural thathe leaderstime. ofall as one ofthegreat military sensitive, butattimeshumanely tality heranks not beminimized. Courageous,- ofbru capable Alexander, accomplishment should his military more homogeneous, of better-disciplinedarmy Empire proved andarmy ineffective againstthe ness haltedhisadvance. AlthoughthePersian where logisticsandhissoldiers’ only - homesick attheage ofthirty-three, leavingnolegal Although Alexander did not succeedin feats, thanmilitary Of greater importance of the ancient world three of the hundredancient world years franca common, Greek. This Greekthelingua became simplerdialectknownsomewhat askoinē, or orSophocles,of Plato butanother, newer, and common language, Greek. It was not the Greek a world der bequeathedtotheMediterranean mon language. Among other things, Alexan- communication and understanding like a com- culture thanlanguage, andnothing promotes and Nothing history for ismore important wasborn. Christianity intowhich to theworld andcharacter form Alexander gave aparticular THE GREEKLANGUAGE movement. Christian seeds thatlatermade possibletheworldwide der’s role aswell ashisaccomplishments sowed sion from theevidence. Inany event, Alexan- - aconclu such draw safely although we cannot destined tounifyhumanity. Possibly hedid, one whothought of himselfasason of God rulers.erful ItistemptingtoseeinAlexander accordedbut intheEastwere topow often - gods for inGreece, only honors were reserved received divinehonors.nection andgladly Such deeds. inthatcon- Hesoughtoutdivineoracles beinferred from only and hismission can his and its people in that way. of himself His view theworld Alexanderhimselfviewed perhaps asaunity,possible toconceive ofhumanity and aswell. world political Hisconquests made it and, far-flung cultural world for amoment, a did notthenexist. city, Cairo, after ofEgypt thesecond city which into Greek wasmade. agreat isstill Alexandria translationoftheHebrewscriptures important colony settled, ofJews andthefirstmost bore hisname. appropriately which Here alarge centerofAlexandria,was thegreat Egyptian Alexander created, thefirsttime, for one The World of the New Testament 31 The New Testament itself was composed composed itself was Testament New The lan- Despite the important that Greek role The Roman Empire Under Life a world to created not live Alexander but did Ultimately performed the Romans it. govern that the limits of of course, true, It is that task. and those of the Roman conquests Alexander’s Alex- not the same. at its height were Empire extended farther conquests east; to the ander’s orbit far beyond stretched Empire’s the Roman - how In a sense, Italy to the north and west. the worlds of Alexandrian Hellenism and ever, of conquest Through world. one were of Rome of Greek and wholesale appropriation Greece in the first centuries occurred principallycenturies first in the occurred in that fell of Alexan- the sway under those areas influence. Greek, or at least of der’s, the although entirely in Hellenistic Greek, in partmay Gospels earlier be based on Ara- in Except written either or oral. maic sources, and perhaps extent to some and Syria, Palestine was in of the gospel the preaching even there, Greek importance, any of places most In Greek. been spoken have that would was the language and hearer. preacher both by understood and to which Christianity at spread in Rome, Even a very earlygenerally and which time we associ- - was gener Greek ate with the Latin language, people. ally cultured and understood by spoken in Greek. wrote to the Romans Paul it would in its spread, played and culture guage to callbe incorrect Christianity simply a Greek Viewed the standpoint of its ori- from religion. it is also Eastern gin and original constituents, the therefore, It is not, and especially Jewish. - but precisely this com element, purely Greek East, and West and Jewish, of Greek bination that was characteristic of Christianity in the Hellenistic world. People from widely separated areas, with widely separated from areas, People The importance- Mediter of this universal vastly different backgrounds, could talk to each could vastly backgrounds, different This gift speech of common Greek. other in importancewas of considerable in encourag- and various sorts ing commerce of interchange Indeed, the Alexandrian world. throughout established by culture Greek in the centers of to made attempts were conscious Alexander, and customs the manners and spread promote especially the athletic of Hellenic civilization, worldThe that Alexander leftone was games. world never been before. had in a sense that it overarching great been had there Previously and the Persian, such as the Assyrian, empires and certainly peoples different the Egyptian, had never before Yet interacted. had and cultures a common been such an attempt to create there world civilizationand his succes- as Alexander sors actually and purposefully about. brought and Eastern of Hellenic (Greek) This mixture elements is called Hellenistic civilization. ranean civilizationfor Judaism and its offspring For Christianity can scarcely be overestimated. a challengeand a ben- Judaism it was at once because just those it threatened a challenge, efit: lifeof characterized that features distinguishing for it a benefit, the Jewish as such; community the scope of extension greater possible made especially Greek- and influence of Judaism, Christianity it was an For speaking Judaism. rapidthe Without Alexander, boon. immense Christianityof Greco- the spread throughout world Roman place. taken never might have Certainly of the Christian a power had message cannot and its impact be attributed to its own, it Nevertheless, alone. cultural favorable factors of Christianityis a striking that the spread fact before the time of Christ, much as English is English as much of Christ, the time before widelymost the language and spoken today understood. anatomy of the new testament 32 istered theirempire with firmness, occasionally lawfulness as well as peace. The Romans admin- Hebrews, and thepaxwasatimeof romana owe more totheRomans directly thantothe order. present Western Our oflaw systems tianity. There wasenforced peace and internal - ofamovement likeChris theorigin time for pax (Roman romana peace), wasafavorable emperor). This period, referred to as the often death of Marcus Aurelius, the philosopher- Augustus Caesar, toa.d. power (i.e., from 27b.c., theaccession dateof ofits whenRome was at thezenith centuries thetwo religion aboutduring a world came as anddevelopment ofChristianity The birth E ROMAN PEAC Danube. domination, asthe asdidAustria asfarnorth underRoman ofGermanycame parts ernmost outside.completely and The southern- west- outside theRoman orbit, Scandinavia andonly remained countries many and the Scandinavian Isles.the British Ofwestern Europe, Ger- only andPalestineEmpire stretched from to Syria ing theNew Testament Roman period—the of its is,greatest extent and vitality—that dur- ter word—but that it stood so long. At the time the Roman Empire fell—“crumbled” isthebet- known before orsince. isnotthat The marvel asegmentofthe and varied Western has world as continuous anddependable asany solarge stability. That unity, though notunbroken, was and unity apolitical world the Mediterranean after,a millennium theRoman Empire gave to half For and nearly before Christ a half century powerforce andpolitical ofthe Western world. empire wasemergingasthedominant military ofGreeceheir tothelegacy justwhen b.c.culture inthesecond, century Rome fell 180, theyear ofthe a workable transportation system favored system a workable the transportation government and culture aswell asanorderly ago. two centuries ifornia day thanitwastotravel from New York toCal- easier togo from toRome inPaul’s Jerusalem oftheempire waspossible, parts all anditwas easy asitistoday. Yet travel between virtually to imaginethattravel inancienttimes wasas tial harassments. bewrong Itwould certainly travel and freefor of bandits and other poten- to keep roads open intervened Roman military but whenandwhere conditions demanded, the as long could do the as job;and they localities provinces tothevarious of theroads wasleft purposes. military for largely Again, policing the Romans had andmaintained, developed work ofroads that andseatransportation alsoprofited from Christianity thenet- Early Communication beginnings. conditions thataccompanied ofRoman its rule from therelativelyerably peaceful and lawful tant, benefitedconsid- Christianity thatearly true,it isequally justasimpor- andprobably werethat Christians persecutedby Romans, that Jesus died on a Romanis true cross and removed fromselves Pilate power. Althoughit much tobedesired.left Yet theRomans them- good.universally Pontius Pilate, example, for have already noted, Roman officials were not make sure thatanarchy didnoterupt. Aswe the timeofJesus, to theRomans intervened ment broke down, ofJudeaat asinthecase administration orlawenforce local - Where officials. inthehandsoflocal tration were left bounds. lawenforcement andadminis- Local ofpeopleandcustoms withintheir the varieties with brutality, for sensitivity butwithacertain Thus favorable conditions oflanguage and The World of the New Testament 33 The conversion of the head of a house- of a of the head The conversion of a of the head the conversion Moreover, Christians declaredurban in an message their even though the origins the of Jesus and setting, much less cosmopolitan. were first disciples ic Life Domest Within the Hellenistic city times, of Roman It central a role. played the house or household modernthe than nuclear larger much was fam- ily—perhaps the extended family like more of than of more consisting several ago, generations - More of kinspeople. generations or two one and it also included employees household over, of the household was of neces- The head slaves. sity person. affluent and influential a relatively onlyresidence not The household provided a but also an important mode of social identity, forand even a number of persons a livelihood otherwise have who would lacked essentials of everyday life. hold was a major coup for the early Chris- it enormously increased thing, one For tians. members of other conversion likelihood of the was less a matter Religion of the household. choice personal in the ancient of individual, Neverthe- world than it is in modern society. Christianity its very by introduced nature less, to One had an element of individual decision. 12:3) and be 1 Cor. 10:10; confess faith (Rom. householder if one’s Even baptized 8:36). (Acts an might remain one converted, or master were the been have to case seems This unbeliever. and later converted Paul whom with Onesimus, sent back a Christian to his master Philemon 15-17). (Philem. a household meant that the church acquired speaks of several such Paul worship. of place hosts to the churches householders who were We 23). 16:3-5, he founded or knew (Rom. spread of the Christian of the Greco- in the gospel spread They the help to explain rapid world. Roman and the ways of the church in whichgrowth of the least found expression—not the gospel a collection itself, Testament which is the New cases in many and writtenof books Greek, in Christian of Chriswritten one - or group from These documents attest tians to or for another. not only a lively but also a sense of tangi- faith Christian one between church ble relationship the possible by which was made and another, they display Moreover, of the time. conditions to the inhabited sense of mission a concrete not previ- a concept ), oikoumenē world (Greek, ously particulargiven but unknown point and the of Alexander and work the vision form by and the political Great reality of the Roman Empire. Civic Life Although the classical city- of the Greek age the time of Alexander and the state preceded the form of the of his empire, establishment Hellenistic city and, persisted under Rome into the time of the rise of Chris- accordingly, This urban atmosphere, tianity beyond. and temples to which local featured political control, assemblies for discus- citizens’ the various gods, the gymnasium for instruction and debate, sion for stadiums athletic games, and men, of young the matrixprovided for the rise of the Chris- Paul and The missionary of endeavors tian faith. and politi- social, others within this religious, common possible by cal made synthesiswere and the accessibility political stability, language, of which been newlyof these cities—some had the spiritual ferment the same time, At created. religious to openness an erathis of provided includ- a varietyfrom messages sources, of early Consequently, ing the early Christians. anatomy of the new testament 34 the twentieth century. As always, the wealthy lived well, much better than the vast majority. majority. vast the than better much well, lived wealthy the always, As century. twentieth the Image 14: Image Finavon, and Crux, courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.) Wikimedia of courtesy Crux, and Finavon, Testament: HouseChurches.) nity. also Chapter 12.6, (See commu theChristian convert for - important provide aplace such ofmeeting, wasamost vate home. Thus thehouseholder, whocould - or churches was the cells pri of Christian Acts 19:9); meetingplace buttheprincipal hired even (see apublichall he occasionally synagogues, him, asActs portrays andperhaps city,a new Paul may in have preached initially Christians. theearliest able for Upon reaching ing. Butthere were buildingsavail- nosuch as a build- tend to think of a church primarily The House of the Vettii in Pompeii, near modern Naples, was excavated and restored at the turn of of turn the at restored and excavated was Naples, modern near Pompeii, in Vettii the of House The Behind theNew tury, andvigorous religion vitality didnotlack the general state of culture in the first cen- of religious decline. may have been Whatever in a time did not originate and Christianity New Testament times wasareligious world, way”are inevery (17:22). Indeed, of theworld “Athenians, Isee how religious extremely you onhis famousspeech theAreopagus by saying, it leastlike? was mostsimilar? Which Christianity was early ofGreco-Roman form which religion With Religion According to the Book of Acts, Paul began (Image by users Jan Arkesteijn, Arkesteijn, Jan users by (Image The World of the New Testament 35 reek antiquity, stands atop the acropolis of the Such that people did not mean toleration together or were interpreted termsin one of were or together another. If seriously. religion did not take and large by Only case. the was opposite the just anything, the Christian or Jewishfrom of view point a and participation in, of, this toleration would be taken as idola- cults multiplicity of religious The exclusivism and Christianity of Judaism try. as odd and even in impious was itself regarded of Christians and and the refusal ancient times, own their other than god Jews any to worship to brandled their neighbors them as atheists. The Parthenon, certainly the most famous site of G A striking characteristic of the religious city of Athens. During the fifth century B.C. it was the temple Athena.of Paul’s sermon recorded17:22-31 in Acts was delivered at the foot of the acropolis and under the shadow of this great building—which he never mentions! Image 15: (Image by user courtesy Harrieta171, of Wikimedia Commons.) situation was its variety. This too is represented represented is This too was its variety. situation of the objects for he mentions speech, in Paul’s which among is an altar inscribed their worship, were as if the Athenians god, to an unknown and therefore omitting, taking no chances on People participated in deity. any offending, to law, various according rites and ceremonies by The period also marked was or desire. taste, merged various traditions religious syncretism: manifestations. Religions were oftenwere integral Religions to manifestations. truewas this and politicaland ethnic identity, early but not of Christianity. even of Judaism, anatomy of the new testament 36 pantheon (aGreek word meaningatemple and official religions ofthe Greco-Roman lar andimportant. thetraditional These include ofreligion thatwere basictypes popu- several here.discuss fully Nevertheless, one may notice Greco-Roman are fartoonumerous world to today. lization, andJudaismsurvive Christianity only with thefact thatofthe religions ofthatcivi- world, and it may have had something to do intheancient andJews tinguished Christians dis- thefactorwas perhaps thatmostclearly This persistencein one God worshiping only Origin Bede ( Bede Passover Jewish the at Jesus of death by the determined is date holiday, whose Christian distinctly a is Easter sun. the of return and solstice ( rite Roman ancient an of version Christianized the is Christmas unknown; is birth Jesus’ of date the instance, For Christianity. in particularly and Judaism in survived have religions pagan of Elements 1.4 Fe rabbits. and eggs with associated incongruously be to came resurrection Jesus’ of celebration Christian the reason that for Perhaps Europe. Northern in tribes Saxon among Oestre from derived was “Easter” name the that suggested The specific manifestations of piety in the The specific manifestations of piety s ti Beyond the N the Beyond Dies Natalis v a . a d s . 672–735), scholar, aChristian ls with . Even so, the Venerable Venerable so, the . Even ) celebrating the winter winter the ) celebrating Co , the goddess of fertility fertility of goddess , the ew T ew mp l estament: icate d and Minerva. Moreover, Greek thepurely god fied, respectively, with the Roman Jupiter, Juno, gods, Zeus, Hera, andAthena, were identi- out. For example, the three prominent Greek pantheon withRoman gods had beenworked gods equation oftheHomeric ofthevarious gods, had ifthey different even names, andan thesame gods actually were themostpart for thattheGreek granted taken for andRoman and Roman deities had taken place. It was anamalgamation ofGreek period Christian mythology.classical Bythebeginningof known tousfrom Homer, thefountainheadof into,rated humangods thepantheon ofvery These were latersubmerged under,- orincorpo deities, oflocal variety place. eachwithaholy ofa seemstohave consistedperiod originally Ancient Greek religion ofthepre-Christian prominentmade upofseveral men of therealm. first by theking, andlater college by apontifical ment. cultwaspresidedover This stateorcity public religion wasanextension andenlarge- and the family,gods ofthehearth the ofwhich the Roman religious especially cultinvolving there era hadthe Christian beenadistinctly of bothGreek andRoman elements. Prior to a complex, combination amorphous somewhat traditional religion oftheRoman Empire was oftheNew the writing Testament books, the At emergence thetimeofChristianity’s and TRADITON of Rome. times, Christian from earliest standsinthecity the Pantheon,this day a building called dating background, emerged. Christianity early To Judaism.Hellenistic and against this Within religions,mystery , aswell asGnosticism and worship oftheruler, themore individualistic to dedicated “all thegods”), thestate-inspired AL ANDOFFICIALRELIGION The World of the New Testament 37 . Moreover, a temple of temple a Moreover, miracle. many are thy names and thine is all and thine names thy are many for ever. power rulestand with law thou all over things. offspring.thy power. will ever sing of thy earth: the around as it moveth word: all King above for art great thou, how 537.1-10) Fragment ever! (Cleanthes, Thou, O Zeus, art praised above all gods; art praisedgods; all above O Zeus, Thou, world thee; the The beginning of was from we are for all flesh speak; Unto thee may and willhymn I unto thee: raise a Therefore thy obeyeth of the heavens The whole order With together: lights mixed little and great , as have many other temples other temples many as have archaeologists, expression oftenthe form expression took and of hymns as canfrom be seen God, a personal to prayers Zeus: to Hymn famous a portion of Cleanthes’s Zeus was located near that city 14:12- (Acts city the in was great a Ephesus There of 13). the ruins temple of Artemis 19:23-27), (Acts unearthedbeen whichof have modernin times by the In addition, deities. to the Greco-Roman who was ruling at Augustus, emperor Roman a serious made effort the time Jesus was born, espe- public cult, traditional the to promote cially practices and cer- the ancient Roman priest, high the of death the Upon emonies. The ancient Greco-Roman religion survivedreligion The ancient Greco-Roman not merely in Stoic but also reinterpretation it As such, worship. popular naïve in more of the public religion the traditional remained had predecessors its as just Empire, Roman the of and Rome old of cults official the been indication some of find We city-states. Greek - Accord Testament. its survival in the New what is (in the people of Lystra ing to Acts, and Barnabas as Asia Minor) hailed Paul now their per- upon respectively, Hermes and Zeus, formancea of By the beginning of the Christian era, the Christianthe beginning of By the era, fashion for some time. That is, is, That allegoricaltime. for some fashion - was fac piety and Rome traditional of Greece especially newer religions, from ing competition gaining which were Easternthose of origin, people of Moreover, adherents. enthusiastic difficulty education intelligence had some and taking the myths told and stories that were at least insofar as they seriously, about the gods what of literal understood as accounts were of divine actually nature or of the place took especially bent, of a philosophical Folk reality. interpretingbeen mythsthe had in Stoics, the an representations they them to be narrative took which really noth- had of philosophical truths, ing to do with the stories per se and could stand got a gods Thus the old independently of them. the head Zeus, example, For new life. lease on identified could be of the Homericpantheon, which is right reason, law, “the general with Supreme of the Head . pervading. everything . Stoic 152). 162, , Fragments (Zeno, the universe” to which the logos God or according monism, pervades the “reason”) or “word” for (Greek per- as the soul or animation much universe it unity the body and gives vades and purpose, a mythology with reconciled was thereby that Espe- origin quite a different had and meaning. cially those stories consorting of the gods and cavortingwaysin another sober that one with alle- were as shameful people came to regard for the Stoic making room ethic, gorized away, in willing which conformity centered with that and universe the governs that logos or reason - how The Stoics themselves, the individual. Philosophy coldlynot were rationalistic. ever, as it was for many was for them a vital piety, Although such piety might literate Greeks. its in a philosophical pantheism, be grounded Apollo was worshiped on the Palatine Hill in the Palatine on was worshiped Apollo Rome. anatomy of the new testament 38 gion included an Egyptian religious tradition anEgyptian gion included cultureamalgam ofMediterranean andreli- the king from separated the divine,clearly the times. was notunknown inearlier subject. Moreover, worship ofthesupreme ruler regard divinehomage astoomuch toaskofany understand whydidnot we can theauthorities humankind from theemperor’s are recalled, rule 8:5), however, to andwhenthebenefits accruing and many (cf. lords oftheancient world 1Cor. seen againstthebackground ofthemany gods take.conscientiously emperor worship is When oath,loyalty onecouldnot thatmany Christians (Pliny, thispurpose” for ordered tobebrought forward incense andwine, toyour imageIhad which the gods atmydictation anddidreverence, with should bedischarged, upon called they because werethey Iconsidered orhad beenChristians to theemperor Trajan, “All whodeniedthat second century,Bithynia intheearly writes and thustotheempire. AsPliny, governor of devotion—to theemperorof allegiance—or insisted upon emperor worship asapledge young churchandRome, Christian Rome for led induecoursetoaconfrontation between the the livingemperor aswell. Not surprisingly, this emperors. Now veneration such wasrequired for divinehonors andworship ascribing todeceased the firstcentury, itwasnolonger aquestion of accorded himupon hisdeath. Bytheendof hislifetime,divine honors during were they was due. Although Augustus spurned coyly among thepantheon ofgods towhom worship the emperor asadivinefigure andtoplace him werepriesthood unitedinone man. use, according thekingshipandhigh towhich himself, revivingacustom longintodis- fallen Augustus went sofarastoassumethatoffice Even thoughHebrewreligious tradition There to wasanincreasingregard tendency Letters 10.96). Itwas, infact, of asort tices andsocietiesislimited, owing in nosmall Unfortunately, ourknowledge oftheseprac- Religions Mystery seen. bemostclearly can antiquity andstrength ofreligiongeoning variety inlater and societies, and it is in the latter that the bur- practices lic religion ofprivate totheexclusion attemptwasmade toestablishpub- systematic the Greco-Roman world. No sustainedand ofthe Roman Empire and solidarity cultural role played they in expressingand thepolitical had, dueinlarge wasprobably measure tothe continued existence, they vitality andwhatever of personal piety. form sent the principal Their era,ning of the Christian did not repre they - and Rome were by nomeansdead atthebegin- Although theofficialritesof religious Greece POULAR RELIGION were assuch cult—but Christians not. exempted from intheemperor participation nity. that context, Within were Jews ordinarily amessianiccommu themselves - who declared and Jacob, covenant andthepeopleofnew totheoneallegiance GodofAbraham, Isaac, worship: their thepeopleofIsraelwhodeclared inemperor refused toparticipate stubbornly Romans were tofind peoples who perplexed ure tohonor theemperor andtheempire. The theirfail- divine titlesbegantobepersecutedfor bearer ofsuch who understoodJesusasthetrue to of Rome.loyalty At that point Christians (A.D. 81–96)emperor worship wasmade atest ofdivinity,press claims until underDomitian god. Roman emperors were slow to actually thekingcouldbetitledsavior,in which lord, openedtheway toasynthesis world terranean immortal. Alexander’s oftheMedi- unification appeared thePharaoh asdivineand in which The World of the New Testament 39 gods celestial and the gods infernal, before before infernal, gods the and celestial gods myself and worshipped I presented whom which I told thee, have Behold now them. necessary it is yet heard, thou hast although this only wherefore it; conceal that thou be declared which may - with will I tell, out offence of the for the understanding profane. The myth of the cult varied with the differ- and of Greece religions The traditional ent mystery religions. Among others, there were were there others, Among ent mysteryreligions. of cult the mysteries Eleusinian the Greece; of originating Asia Minor; in and Cybele, Attis which its origin had Osiris, the cult of Isis and originally Most cults were based on in Egypt. fertility- rites of the grow celebrating the return meaning of the however, In time, ing season. the cult myth seen against the background was ini- so that through of human life and death, into the mysteries tiation could be assured one Scholars once death. beyond destiny of a happy confidently in asserted factor that the common - the cult myths death and resurrec a deity’s was in which the initiate participated vicari- tion, the ously the rites from rose through and thus Though 6:1-11). Rom. (cf. with the god dead - this interpretation is prob to dispute, subject though Even ably misleading. not altogether - death and res early Christian belief in Jesus’ the cult myths was not based on of urrection it found a kind of parallel the mystery religions, recognizeThus people could in Christi- there. an important dimen- as in the mysteries, anity, salvation. of personal sion focused pri- of Israel, like the religion Rome, marily the ordering of life upon in this world a glorious life the adherent and did not promise appealed however, mysteries, The after death. death of fearsand hopes face the human to in to those who becameand offered the initiates The most of the closely secrets guarded of the mystery the best account ritPerhaps - when as approached Then behold the day the sacrifice of dedication should be done; and when the sun declined and evening every arrivedon there a great coast came, their to who according of priests, multitude presents me many offered ancient order Then was all the laity and profane and gifts. and when to depart, people commanded my backthey put on a new had linen robe, me the priest brought my hand and took of the place and sacred to the most secret Thou shalt understand that I . . . temple. even to the gates near unto hell, approached and after that I was ravished of Proserpine, I returned all the elements, throughout about midnight I saw place: to my proper I saw likewise the the sun brightly shine, mystery religions were their rites of initiation, mystery their rites of initiation, were religions the received which the novitiate first through Appar- cult deitybenefits that the bestowed. or saw ently reenacted the candidate somehow story the cult myth: the god the about reenacted Through which on the cult was based. or gods the candidate participation in the cult ritual, the salvationreceived that was the very reason being. for the cult’s The Golden Ass (11.22- ual is found in Apuleius, deliberately which the following, from 26), is taken: vague description initiation of an Isis measure to the aura of secrecy that surrounded aura to the secrecy of that surrounded measure is especiallyThis true of the of them. many mystery- in prom gaining , which were religions popularityinence and of the at the beginning by the of secrecy taken vows The Christianera. meticulously were religions these of followers of the ancient materialobserved; the much on mysteries through to us secondhand comes Christian and Jewish sources. anatomy of the new testament 40 life, theone topublicorder andmorality, the applied to different they spheres of plementary; official weremysteries religions andthe com- an initiateofone ormore mysteries. In fact, the andtheemperorZeus andatthesametimebe oftheiradherents.alty Aperson mightworship loy theexclusive - didnotclaim the mysteries cult. UnlikeJudaismandChristianity, however, may have seemed to be a mystery Christianity werethey voluntary. To some outsiders, early around thefuture, for hopeandassurance and ity. That is, they were private, they were oriented and were insome respects- notunlikeChristian ferent from thatof traditional official religions dif - religions haddecidedly acharacter mystery a conscious act ofthewill, adecision. Thus the andpresumed required abeliefintheirefficacy promise life. ofeternal Membershipinthem in which aspecialknowledgein which (Greek: gnōsis ) is heresy GnosticismasaChristian whom portray the latesecond, third, andlatercenturies, of all of from writers of Gnosticismcame Christian mostofourknowledge recently Until fairly forms. places andinvarious invarious was found areligion.that Gnosticismshouldbecalled It them. We say “phenomenon,” itisnotcertain for tual phenomenon that was insomelike ways stage,- there spiri appeared anotherimportant religions moved intocenter themystery After Gnosticism initiated intotheEleusinianmysteries. Roman emperors, Augustus, including were of one’s personal beinganddestiny. Thus several ofpresentthe assurance andultimatesecurity emotionalother totheneedfor satisfaction and scene. this of depiction one is Louvre, the in displayed now relief, Roman This abull. slaying Mithras god the of image the of use frequent its for known was Mithras of cult the religions, mystery Roman the Nguyen / Wikimedia Commons.) / Wikimedia Nguyen Image 16: Image (Image © Marie-Lan ©Marie-Lan (Image Among The World of the New Testament 41 According to Gnosticism, people live in the in live people Gnosticism, to According he is from one has knowledge if Therefore he answers, he hears, If he is called, above. and he turns is calling to him who him, in what he knows And and ascends to him. he Having knowledge, manner he is called. he does the will who called of the one him, he receives wishes to be pleasing to him, He to him. name comes Each one’s rest. in this manner knowledge who is to have and where from he comes where knows hav- who one as knows He going. is he drunking become has turned from away [and] having returned his drunkenness, has set right his own. what are to himself, (Gospel of 22.3-20) Truth is nothing specificallyThere Christian and incompatible. Far from being the creation of the creation being from Far and incompatible. as in orthodox Jewish and Chris- God, the one this world best an excrescence is at tian thought, of the creation at worst the divine world, from Its very is the antithesis existence an antigod. The primary of the motive salvation. of God’s mystery human to secure was a desire religions also Gnosticism of death. existence in the face in view with it an this goal but combined had which general identi- was in of evil, abhorrence worldfied with this its history. and not of it. of them are but at least some world, same of the made bodies are while human For hid- be, or may is, there substance as the world, of the divine life. a spark den within each one Salvationspark divine the of rescuing the is its imprisonment in the material world, from The first and essen- and specifically in the flesh. is not at that one tial step is the recognition essential being one’s that in this world, home to the divine worldis related and canfind its home. way early yet Christianity was about this passage, Gnosticism was once regarded as the acute as the acute regarded Gnosticism was once can a fairly we get clear Nevertheless, Hellenization of Christianity, a distorted trans- Hellenization of Christianity, ways of the ChristianGreek lation into message research recent Yet of thinking and speaking. that Gnosticism is and discoveries shown have simply Christianity;not derived from owes it - and Babylo Persia, to Syria, to the East, more than to classi- and perhaps even to Judaism, nia, it is not unlike In this respect cal culture. Greek of which came many the mystery religions, and nature exact Gnosticism’s the East. from of and matters however, obscure, originsremain historians among of religion. controversy grasp of the thrust and meaning of Gnosti- it whatever in form, Wherever appears, it cism. is characterized dualism of God an extreme by In contrast to the Stoic monism, and the world. in which God and the world essentially are Gnos- another, one indwell indeed, and, related ticism takes God and the world to be separate made the key to salvation. Such a description is the key to salvation. made of salvationThe process not entirely inaccurate. a knowledge of all, first involves, in Gnosticism the from alienation profound of one’s or sense way out of impris find a must - one Thus world. in this worldonment into the world and above. spe- onlyby a release accomplished This can be which the by of knowledge cial dispensation heavenly home back of the way to one’s secrets Jesus In Christian Gnostic systems, divulged. are - who awakens the adher is the heavenlyrevealer reminds their stupor in this world, ents from the secrets reveals them of their heavenly home, The way them back. and also leads of the way, a backoften was as a rather road, long conceived tortuous climb the seven or more back through in each of whichshed the Gnostics heavens, another partthe divine of flesh until of the veil essence—the very quintessence of their being— arrived safely home. anatomy of the new testament 42 a pre-ChristianGnosticism witharedeemer centuries.second through the fifth Evidence of in the developed church the as orthodox they is different fromof the religion andtheology wrote aboutitinorder torefute it. Gnosticism in theaccounts Christians, oforthodox who cism, represented quiteincontrasttotheform appreciate theattractiveness Gnosti- ofsuch of theGospelJohn. Inreading it, one can It mentions Jesus, andmay reflect knowledge an attractive, Christian, ifnotspecifically piety. church.Christian TheGospel of representsTruth werethat they usedby apparently thisGnostic identifywithChristianity,thing we can except have little explicit connectionOthers with any- GnosticinterpretationsofChristianity.ently Truth (quotedabove),of as theGospel are appar- Christians.themselves ofthe books, Some such usedby peoplewhoconsideredwas obviously madi, neartheNile River Egypt. insouthern It uncovered inNag Ham- the twentieth century arelater)wasin scripts acoupleofcenturies (althoughtheactual manu- the second century large collectionofGnosticliterature datingto of the second century. in the middle Martyr A literature thatappearsfrom thetimeofJustin Epistles, aswell astheextensive anti-Gnostic Johannine letters, Colossians, and the Pastoral intheGospelofJohn butinthe cism notonly traces ofthecontact andconflict withGnosti- toGnosticism.hope seemcloser Thus we see ship, Christian aspectsofearly important ish hopesoftherestoration ofDavidicking- and sphere ofsalvation. Compared- withJew agnosticizingstatementaboutthenature tainly life” eternal for (12:25; cf. Mark 8:35)—cer- keepit will inthisworld who hatetheirlife loseit, who love theirlife “Those andthose earlier.even IntheGospelofJohn, Jesussays, throughout thesecond century, andprobably engaged withtheGnosticproblemdeeply 17:16-21). of popularphilosophybe anotherschool (Acts religion,tery to others it may have appeared to some,- seemedtobeanothermys Christianity Thess. 2:9; 1Cor. 9:4-12; 3John 6-8). If, to philosophers peripatetic (1 tosuch attributed fromsought todistinguishthemselves abuses missionaries Christian special carewithwhich literature oftheNew Testament atteststothe preachers, Christian early for tern thoughthe also establishedaprecedent andprovided apat- the Gnosticspirit. moralists These wandering plative, asceticlife. sharedThey something of ofthecontem- potential converts ofthetruth listeners ofthisworld’s andtopersuade evil accompanied by disciples, sought to convince the nature ofthegood life. teachers, Such often eled fromtocity, city discussinganddebating who - sought disciples and converts trav as they tenets, were preachers theiritinerant notedfor according tospecialphilosophical-religious life ing reorientation and spiritual of the moral Stoics. two,The latter in addition to - advocat Epicureans, Cynics, andtheaforementoned sects:sophical among others, Pythagoreans, were world thephilo Mediterranean - century Among othermajorreligious forces ofthefirst- PhilosophyFrom toAstrology theNew from Outside Sources Testament?) Testament: Do We What Know aboutJesus religion. alsoChapter6.1, (See BeyondtheNew ofthat tothedevelopment andtheology ways ofChristianity,rise indiverse andcontributed below, toJesusandthe existedprior certainly or physical) (the carnal above and the world division (ordualism)between God(thedivine) ofGnosticism,ing character withthesharp Gospel ofJohn) islacking. Yet- theworld-deny who descendsandascends(asJesusdoesinthe The World of the New Testament 43 - with the Baby AISM It is customaryis It distinguish useful to and to determine the course of people’s lives. As a As lives. to determine of people’s the course the with dealing “science” the astrology, result, - consid gained on life, of the stars influence erable popularity of as the key to the secrets peo- some same time, the At human existence. occasionally even invoking magic, on ple relied also were There and Jesus. Yahweh the names of cults dedicated been ele- to those who had hero Among or demigods. of gods vated to the status which the healing cult of Asclepius, these were claimed shrines many and spas and thousands of devotees who attributed to him miraculous no less amazing than those attributed to cures early Although Christians Jesus in the Gospels. edu- some 19:19), 8:9-24; magic (Acts rejected cated the new people dismissed faith as exactly that—magic and superstition. DIASPORA JUD of the broader picture religious In the complex - Judaism was a signifi world, Greco-Roman Most Jews in Palestine, did not live cant factor. This Diaspora but in other parts of that world. of Jewsor dispersion far corners to the of the world began as early as 587 b.c. of Judah and destruction conquest of lonians’ within the homeland As conditions Jerusalem. became difficult during the later postex- more ilic period number of Jews and the increased - of living outside Pal the prospects worldwide, estine became increasingly attractive. and Israel of land of the Judaism the between most of in shared Both diaspora. of the that at the the basic elements of Judaism mentioned outside Palestine yet beginning of this chapter; much of significant taken place, had change to Greek accommodation from which resulted Such Hellenization place also took culture. however, Outside Palestine, within Palestine. reek island (Image © Marie- (Image © A relief, in marble (c. A.D. 150), of a ). Fortune camepersonalizedto be and Fortune ). Otherbe might of belief manifestations characterized as superstition and magic. These characterized and magic. as superstition in the people Many canwe only in passing. note by oppressed fascinated or ancient world were (Greek: hē eimarmenē) or Fortune (Greek: Fate tychē thought were The stars a goddess. as venerated votive offering in an asclepium at Milos, a G in the Aegean Sea, now housed in the British Museum. Patrons of asclepia customarily presented replicas, like this of a cured leg. The inscriptions reads: “Tyche, to Asclepios and Hygieia as a thank-you gift.” Image 17: Lan Nguyen / Wikimedia Commons.) anatomy of the new testament 44 much tothedisgustofsome prophets andother outelsewhere,temple thoughsometimes carried sacrificial,Jerusalem atthe performed officially at Jerusalem, of worship was form the principal ofSolomon’sUp untilthedestruction temple the dispersion involved theirpublicworship. the handofGod(3:1). idea. Yet context: itissetinabiblical are they in dead,of therighteous Greek afundamentally ofthesouls 3:1-9oftheimmortality Solomon biblical. For example, one reads of in Wisdom ing some ideasthatwere more Greek than had already produced religious books contain- would have never dreamed. Judaism Hellenistic authors from theoriginal textsofwhich biblical of allegorizing. meanings wring Thus hecould by usingthewell-established Greek method philosophy ofHellenistic in terms andpiety theHebrew scriptures interpreted nevertheless that hallmark of Judaism,dering the law, Philo place. once whonever thoughtofsurren AJew - example ofthekindschangesthatcouldtake and Paul, affords anotable, extreme, ifperhaps ofAlexandria,Philo ofJesus acontemporary enced the wereway they in which understood. inthatlanguageinterpreted doubtlessinflu- intoGreekbeen translated andwere read and ing. The fact thattheHebrewscriptureshad Greek-speakGreco-Roman waslargely - world adjustments wasinlanguage. Judaisminthe necessary. became predominantly Gentileworld by them, and vice versa. Adjustments in a to life extent withGentiles, influenced were inevitably and places ofliving. Yet mingledtosome Jews in their ways separateness and a certain tity succeeded inmaintainingtheirethniciden- from anation. Nevertheless, people theJewish ofareligionthe characteristics asdistinguished begantotakeon some of Judaism ofnecessity Another adjustment forcedby on theJews As we have seen, one of the most important And not a few GentileswereAnd notafew attracted by the Christianity.sion andconversion as was early although Judaism uponwas not as focused mis- to convert GentilestoJudaism (Matt. 23:15), effort ofasustained andserious some evidence enterprise.not disdainthemissionary There is gospel.Christian did synagogue The Hellenistic theuniversalfor emphasis and success of the quoted from theGreek version. ment, citedintheNew, sofrequently isusually inGreek.is written Moreover, theOld Testa - inthefact thatthe New epitomized Testament is Christianity ism ofthedispersionearly for oftheGreek-speaking Juda- The importance culturethe Hellenistic oftheRoman Empire. to achurchthathad grown upinthemidstof at leastintheirpresent form, were addressed New Testament. New writings, The Testament ustoseethesealsointhe it neednotsurprise fromsynagogue the surrounding pagan culture, hadand terms already crept intotheHellenistic might by listen. chance ideas Inasmuch asnew and any otherswho Jews siah totheirfellow ofGod’snews inJesustheMes- salvation new regard asJews, themselves brought thegood Christians, who, ceasingto withoutnecessarily provided aready-made theearly for platform reading, andpreaching. world,ranean were places ofprayer, scripture inPalestinesprinkled andaround theMediter- gation. Aswe have already noted, synagogues, that ofthesynagogue, orindividualcongre- ofworship begantogainpreeminence:form deportations, andtheflightof refugees, another ofJerusalem,the fall thetemple’s destruction, worshipwith Jesussuch comes toanend.)After marker,may beanimportant suggesting that of the end of sacrficial worship in Jerusalem purists. (InJohn 4:21-24, Jesus’ announcement Diaspora JudaismalsopreparedDiaspora theway ofthedispersionThe synagogues thus The World of the New Testament 45 Jewish Antiquities monumental is a First-century diaspora was an Judaism Christ Council of Jamnia Covenant Dead Sea Scrolls Diaspora Dualism Eschatology Essenes Exile Gentiles Gnosticism Gospel Hasmonean Hellenization Holy Kingdom of God ē Koin Law LXX Maccabean Messiah Miracle Myth Oral Tradition Passover Patriarch extensive extensive effort Jewishrender history to and faith intel- a literateligible to Gentile audience. of is it but importantitself, of in and movement extraordinary significance the Christianityfor the modern- stu For times. Testament of New it illuminates path that Christianity the dent, - of Pales its beginnings as a sect from traversed the status of a worldtinian Judaism to religion. . Even where proselytism where Even . proselytes d it? learne ve you Identify three prominent groups within first- within prominent groups Identify three century their Judaism and briefly describe characteristics. the In whatdestroy did the Romans year What was its impact temple in Jerusalem? on Judaism? did Hellenization the practice ofHow affect and the Diaspora? Judaism in Palestine Describe some of typical fea - nosticism’s G expressions unlike and was it like How tures. of Ofreligion? popular Roman Christian faith? key terms Ha Comprehension esting Your 2. 3. 4. 1. Also consult the Glossary: Allegory Apocalypse Apocrypha Aramaic Archaeology Baptism Canon ◆ ◆ T and Analysis antiquitymoral and seriousness Jewishof the The technical- term for the conver religion. converts and was proselytism , of Gentiles sion called were of the the situation activelywas not pursued, Jews and potentially midst of an alien in the outward that they look required hostile culture for opinion. public respect decent a have and perspective One finds such an outward-looking in Philo noticeably and even more in the great whose first-century Jewish historian Josephus, anatomy of the new testament 46 Zealot Torah Synagogue Soul God Son of Sin Septuagint Scribes Sanhedrin Salvation Sadducees Sacrifice Righteousness Revelation Resurrection Rabbi Qumran Prophet Procurator Priest Pharisees Dead SeaScrollsare recommended: G . cal History - Ecclesiasti andEusebius’ Fathers, the Apostolic Philo, thewritingsof Press), asare of theworks (Cambridge, University MA:Harvard cal Library Classi- with English inthe Loeb translations and Antiquities Standard Version. Jewish Josephus’ Revised not always)citedaccording totheNew Old Testamentare (though usually Apocrypha, Testaments,The OldandNew aswellthe SourcesPrimary space. series titleshave beenomittedtoconserve Throughout thisandsubsequentbibliographies, ◆ Reading Suggestion forFrther w ucnt eibetasain fthe Two succinct,reliable of translations Jewish WarareJewish available inoriginalGreek . Vermes, (San Francisco: Harper& Row, 1988). , 3rd in English rev.Nag Hammadi Library ed. Doubleday, 1987),andJ. M. Robinson(ed.),The (Garden andIntroductions City,Annotations NY: GnosticScriptures:TranslationThe ANew with For Gnosticsources, consultB. Layton (ed.), York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1955),isstillserviceable. Syncretism (New Agelenistic Religions:The of Press,University 1985). RabbinicWritings(Cambridge:Early Cambridge and anthology, as isthemore recent H.Maccoby, York: Schocken, 1974),is a helpfulintroduction tefiore andH.Loew, (New ARabbinicAnthology Haven: Yale Press, University 1988).C. G Neusner, Press,don: Oxford University 1933),andJ. are now standard: H.Danby, Mishnah (Lon- The tal texts. - representative intertestamen and discussionof selection Press,phia: Fortress 1983),isabrief Judaism:TextsandDocuments(Philadel- Early Nickelsburg andPietyin andM.E.Stone,Faith ish Pseudepigrapha - theJew andcommentariesof dard translations City, NY: Doubleday, 1983–85),provides stan- andPseudepigrapha,2vols. (Garden Apocrypha Qumranmaterials, with concordances. tion of Knox, 1994–2002),isacomprehensive collec- and Louisville:Mohr-Siebeck/Westminster John TranslationsTexts withEnglish .5vols. (Tübingen Hebrew,Dead SeanScrolls: Aramaic andGreek (ed.),The Brill, 1994–96).J. H.Charlesworth , trans.in English W. G Translated:QumranDead SeaScrolls The Texts Penguin, 1995),andF. The García-Martínez, , 4thed.(London: inEnglish DeadSeaScrolls The For Greek writingsF. C.Grant(ed.),Hel- rabbinic sources Two English of versions Old Testament (ed.),The J. H.Charlesworth (New Translation Mishnah: ANew (New The lossary). G (see theGlossary). . E. Watson, 2vols.. E.Watson, (Leiden: . Mon- . W. E. The World of the New Testament 47 . - . Barclay, . Barclay, TheRoman History, Culture and Culture History, One: Volume Judaism and Hellenism Reconsidered are V. Tcherikover, Hellenistic Civilization Tcherikover, V. are is H. Koester, Introduction to the New is H. Koester, Among the standard worksAmong the standard on Hellenistic handbook on the Greco-Roman A definitive as Son of Mes- Human, and Angelic God: Divine, Related and Literature in Biblical sianic Figures also G 2008). See (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, Jewish the between Literature E. Nickelsburg, W. Historical and Liter the Mishnah: A and Bible ary Introduction, 2nd ed. (Minneapolis: Fortress and M. E. Stone (ed.), Jewish 2005), Writ- Press, ings of (Philadelphia: Period Second Temple the 1984). Fortress Press, Judaism Appelbaum (Philadelphia: and the Jews S. , trans. M. Hengel, 1959), Society, Jewish Publication Studies in TheirJudaism and Hellenism: Encoun- , during the Hellenistic Period ter in Palestine (Philadelphia: Fortress 2 vols. Bowden, J. trans. 1974), E. M. Smallwood, The Jews under Press, Roman Rule: From Pompey to Diocletian (Leiden: Athens and Between Collins, J. Brill, 1976), and J. Jerusalem: Jewish Identity in the Hellenistic Dias- recent, More Crossroad, 1983). (Newpora York: important include M. G J. investigations Jewsin the Mediterranean From Diaspora: Alex- (Berkeley: (323 BCE – 117 CE) ander to Trajan Universityof Gruen, S. E. 1996), California Press, JewsDiaspora: and Romans (Cam- amidst Greeks L. 2002), MA: Harvard Universitybridge, Press, Feldman, and McCready O. (Leiden: Brill, 2006), and W. A. Reinhartz, Common Judaism: Explorations in Judaism (Minneapolis: FortressSecond-Temple 2008). Press, World , Testament Religion of (Philadelphia: the Hellenistic Age historical 1982). The broader Fortress Press, Millar, F. landscapeF. surveyedis by MA: 337 (Cambridge, – A.D. Near East: 31 B.C. Walbank, W. 1993), F. Harvard University Press, . - Volume One: Volume King and Messiah and King (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1974–76), (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, A superior anthology, now in its fourth in its now anthology, A superior . F. Moore, Judaism in the First of Centuries Moore, . F. the revised edition, is C. K. Barrett (ed.), The New is C. K. Barrett edition, revised Background: from Writings Testament Ancient That the Roman Empire and IlluminateGreece - HarperSanFran (San Francisco: Christian Origins 1995). cisco, Modern Studies G MA: Harvard (Cambridge, , 3 vols. Christian Era worth 1927–30), remains - con University Press, The His- the updated as does E. Schürer, sulting, tory of the Jewish of in the Age People Jesus G and ed. 135), rev. A.D. – Christ (175 B.C. M. Black, and M. Goodman, 3 Millar, F. Vermes, Clark, 1973–87). More & T. T. (Edinburgh: vols. Safrai and include S. treatments standard recent, TheM. Stern Jewish in the First (eds.), People History, Political Century: Historical Geography, and Institu- and Religious Life Social, Cultural tions 63 and Belief, Sanders, Judaism: Practice E. P. Inter Press BCE – 66 CE (Philadelphia: Trinity national, Judaic Religion in 1992), L. L. Grabbe, Belief Period: the Second Temple and Practice (London: Routledge, from the Exile to Yavneh An Introduction to Early C. VanderKam, 2000), J. J. S. 2001), Judaism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, Cohen, From the Maccabees to the Mishnah D. 2006), and John Knox, (Louisville: Westminster The and Rabbinic New Testament R. Bieringer, (Leiden: Brill, 2010). ImportantLiterature stud- ies of The Jewish eschatology Collins, include J. J. Scepter and the Star: The Messiahs of the Dead (NewScrollsSea Literature Ancient Other and The Collins (ed.), J. 1995), J. Doubleday, York: Encyclopedia of Apocalypticism, The Origins of Apocalypticism in Judaism and Continuum, 1998), and Christianity (New York: Collins, J. J. and Collins, Y. A. anatomy of the new testament 48 B. McNeil (Minneapolis: Fortress Press,B. Fortress McNeil(Minneapolis: 2003).A. Christianity,trans. Early of Religious Context The Press,bridge University 1998),andH.-J. Klauck, Rome,2vols. (Cambridge: Cam- Religions of and S. Price (eds.),1985), M. Beard, J. North, Press, (Cambridge,fan University MA:Harvard ered by W. Greek, trans. Religion Burkert, J.- Raf and popularreligious expressions are consid- Press, University MA: Harvard 2011).Traditional due in R. Knapp, slaves, andprostitutes—receive soldiers, their folk—such as 2010). Ordinary MA: Hendrickson, (Peabody, Introduction Roman World: ANarrative and M. V. Hubbard, Grove, (Downers Thought IL:InterVarsity, 2009), toClassicalandChristian salem: AnIntroduction 2009), J. M.Reynolds,- WhenAthensMetJeru Haven:Christianity (New Yale Press, University Among the Gentiles: Greco-Roman Religion and Press, University Harvard 1993),L.T. Johnson, Hellenistic WorldThe , rev. ed. (Cambridge, MA: Invisible Romans (Cambridge, Christianity in the Greco- niversity Press,University 2003). , 3rd rev.Classical Dictionary ed.(Oxford: Oxford (eds.), OxfordHornblower The andA.Spaforth studies. Very usefulfor general reference isS. Francisco: Harper&Row, 1983),are important Gnosticism,trans. R.McL.Wilson (San of History 1963), andK.Rudolph, Natureand Gnosis:The Gnostic Religion , rev.The ed. (Boston: Beacon, York: Press, Oxford University 2011). intheGreco-Roman (New Mediterranean tory Unreliable Witnesses:Religion,Gender, andHis- York:(New Press, Oxford University 1992),and Jews, andChristiansintheGreco-Roman World the Blessings:Women’s ReligionsamongPagans, are explored by R.S. KraemerinHerShare of womenandgender inGreco-Roman religion of standardin its area. work dynamics The complex Press, California 1986),isa of les: University ans,, 2nded.(Berkeley Sceptics andLosAnge- A. Long, HellenisticPhilosophy: Stoics, Epicure- H. Jonas,