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STRIDE TOWARD FREEDOM
The Montgomery Story
MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.
In the INDEPENDENT VOICES series SOUVENIR PRESS
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Published by agreement with Beacon Press. Copyright © 1958 by Martin Luther King, Jr. Copyright © renewed STRIDE TOWARD1986 by FREEDOMCoretta Scott Copyright King, Martin © 1958 Luther by KingMartin III, Luther Yolanda King, Jr. CopyrightKing, Bernice © renewed King. 1986 Introduction by Coretta © Scott2010 King,by Clayborne Dexter King, Carson Martin Luther King III, Yolanda King, Bernice King. All rights reserved. Published by arrangement with Beacon Press Introduction copyright © 2010 Clayborne Carson — THE— IPM KING In Association With INTELLECTUAL PROPERTIES LEGACY MANAGEMENT, INC.
This editionThis of Stride edition Toward of Stride Freedom Toward is basedFreedom on isthe based 1958 on edition the 1958 published edition in the Unitedpublished States by inHarper the United & Brothers. States bySome Harper spellings & Brothers. and punctuation Some spellings have been and punctuationadjusted, have beenand obvious adjusted, errors and obvioushave been errors corrected. have been corrected. This edition published in Great Britain in 2011 by Souvenir Press Ltd 43 GreatThis Russell paperback Street, edition London published WC1B in 3PD 2021
First published in Great Britain in 2011 by Souvenir Press, an imprint of Profile Books Ltd The right of Martin Luther King,29 Cloth Jr. to Fair be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by himLondon in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and EC1APatents 7JQ Act, 1988
All rights reserved. No part of thiswww.profilebooks.co.uk publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Copyright owner. The right of Martin Luther King, Jr. to be identified as the author of this workISBN has 9780285639010 been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988
Text Alldesign rights by reserved.Yvonne Tsang No part at Wilstedof this publication & Taylor Publishing may be reproduced, Services. stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means,Printed electronic, and mechanical, bound in Great photocopying, Britain or otherwise, withoutCPI Antony the prior Rowe, permission Chippenham, of the CopyrightWiltshire owner.
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Among the first to ride a Montgomery bus after the Supreme Court’s integration order went into effect on December 21st, 1956, are (front row) Rev. Ralph Abernathy and an unidentified woman, and (second row) Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr., and Rev. Glenn Smiley of New York, “who said he was in Montgomery as an observer.” AP/WIDE WORLD PHOTOS To Coretta NZCFMPWFEXJGFBOEDPXPSLFS Contents
Introduction by Clayborne Carson JY Preface YYJY
I Return to the South II Montgomery Before the Protest III The Decisive Arrest IV 4HE $AY OF $AYS $ECEMBER V The Movement Gathers Momentum VI Pilgrimage to Nonviolence VII Methods of the Opposition VIII The Violence of Desperate Men ix Desegregation at Last X Montgomery Today XI Where Do We Go from Here?
Appendix Index Introduction
8IFOUIFIJTUPSZCPPLTBSFXSJUUFOJOUIFGVUVSF TPNFCPEZXJMM IBWFUPTBZ i5IFSFMJWFEBSBDFPGQFPQMF BCMBDLQFPQMF BQFPQMFXIPIBEUIFNPSBMDPVSBHFUPTUBOEVQGPSUIFJSSJHIUT "OEUIFSFCZUIFZJOKFDUFEBOFXNFBOJOHJOUPUIFWFJOTPGIJTUPSZ BOEPGDJWJMJ[BUJPOw $ELIVERED AT -ONTGOMERYS (OLT 3TREET "APTIST #HURCH ON $ECEMBER
7ITH NO CERTAINTY THAT THE ONE DAY BUS BOYCOTT ON $ECEMBER COULD BE SUSTAINED LONG ENOUGH TO SUCCEED TWENTY SIX YEAR OLD -ARTIN ,UTHER +ING *R PREDICTED THAT THE PROTEST SPARKED BY 2OSA 0ARKSS ARREST WOULD HAVE LASTING HISTORICAL SIGNIlCANCE 4HE BOYCOTTS INITIAL GOALS WERE MODESThCOURTEOUS TREATMENT BY BUS DRIVERSv AND hlRST COME lRST SERVEv SEATING WITH BLACK RIDERS TAKING SEATS hFROM THE REAR TO THE FRONT OF THE BUSv .ONETHELESS +ING SENSED THAT -ONTGOMERYS BLACK RESIDENTS HAD JOINED A MOMENTOUS NATIONAL AND EVEN INTERNATIONAL MOVEMENT SEEKING GOALS BEYOND FAIR TREATMENT ON BUSES )N THE AFTER MATH OF 7ORLD 7AR )) LONG ESTABLISHED SYSTEMS OF RACIAL DOMINATION WERE BEING CHALLENGED THROUGHOUT THE WORLD )N THE NEWLY FORMED 5NITED .ATIONS HAD REFUSED TO TAKE A lRM STAND AGAINST COLONIALISM BUT THREE YEARS LATER APPROVED THE 5NIVERSAL $ECLARATION OF (UMAN 2IGHTS GIVING MORAL SUPPORT TO STRUGGLES AGAINST COLONIALISM AND ALL FORMS OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION "Y THEN THE DECADES LONG PROTEST CAMPAIGN IN )NDIA INSPIRED BY -AHATMA 'ANDHI HAD ACHIEVED INDEPENDENCE FROM "RITISH CONTROL 0AKISTAN "URMA NOW -YANMAR AND #EYLON 3RI ,ANKA ALSO BECAME INDEPENDENT NATIONS %LSEWHERE IN !SIA !F
JY Y | introduction
RICA AND THE #ARIBBEAN ANTICOLONIAL MOVEMENTS GAINED STRENGTH AS MORE THAN FOUR DOZEN NATIONS DECLARED THEIR INDEPENDENCE DURING THE NEXT TWO DECADES )N THE 5NITED 3TATES !FRICAN !MERICANS INTENSIlED THEIR LONG STRUGGLE AGAINST RACIAL BARRIERS INSISTING THAT THE NATION LIVE UP TO THE DEMOCRATIC IDEALS IT AFlRMED IN THE WAR AGAINST FASCISM AND .AZISM AS WELL AS THE SUBSEQUENT #OLD 7AR AGAINST COMMUNISM 4HE .!!#0S ,EGAL $EFENSE &UND LED BY 4HURGOOD -ARSHALL WON MAJOR LEGAL VICTORIES THAT WEAK ENED THE PREVAILING hSEPARATE BUT EQUALv DOCTRINE ESTAB LISHED BY THE 3UPREME #OURTS 1MFTTZW'FSHVTPODECISION OF 4HE 3UPREME #OURT OVERTURNED THIS DOCTRINE WHEN IT UNANIMOUSLY DECLARED PUBLIC SCHOOL SEGREGATION UNCON STITUTIONAL IN THE LANDMARK #SPXOW#PBSEPG&EVDBUJPODECI SION OF -AY !LTHOUGH #SPXOHAD LITTLE IMMEDIATE IMPACT ON SCHOOL SEGREGATION IT ENCOURAGED !FRICAN !MERICANS TO BELIEVE THAT THE ENTIRE SOUTHERN *IM #ROW SYSTEM OF ENFORCED RACIAL SEGREGATION AND DISCRIMINATION COULD BE OVERCOME "EFORE THE DECISION WAS ANNOUNCED +ING AND HIS WIFE #ORETTA HAD DECIDED TO RETURN FROM THEIR STUDIES IN "OSTON TO THEIR NATIVE 3OUTH AFTER CONCLUDING hTHAT SOMETHING REMARKABLE WAS UNFOLDING IN THE 3OUTH AND WE WANTED TO BE ON HAND TO WITNESS ITv 4HE SON AND GRANDSON OF "APTIST PREACH ERS WHO HAD ALSO BEEN !TLANTA CIVIL RIGHTS LEADERS +ING HAD BEEN AN ORDAINED MINISTER SINCE (E ATTENDED -OREHOUSE #OLLEGE WHERE HE BECAME INSPIRED BY THE SER VICE ETHIC OF 0RESIDENT "ENJAMIN % -AYShONE OF THE GREAT INmUENCES OF MY LIFE v +ING ENTHUSED IN 4USJEF +ING THEN PREPARED FOR THE MINISTRY BY CONTINUING HIS STUDIES AT 0ENNSYLVANIAS #ROZER 4HEOLOGICAL 3EMINARY AND AT "OS TON 5NIVERSITYS 3CHOOL OF 4HEOLOGY WHERE HE RECEIVED introduction | YJ
HIS DOCTORAL DEGREE IN *UNE +INGS #ROZER APPLICATION EXPLAINED THAT hAN INESCAPABLE URGE TO SERVE SOCIETYv HAD SPURRED HIS CALL TO THE MINISTRY AND HIS SEMINARY AND GRAD UATE STUDIES DEEPENED HIS UNDERSTANDING OF THE PEACE AND JUSTICE MESSAGE OF #HRISTIANITY )N HIS SERMON ACCEPTING THE OFFER TO BECOME PASTOR OF -ONTGOMERYS $EXTER !VENUE "APTIST #HURCH +ING INFORMED HIS CONGREGATION THAT HE WAS COMMITTED TO A SOCIAL GOSPEL MINISTRY h) HAVE FELT WITH *ESUS THAT THE SPIRIT OF ;THE= ,ORD IS UPON ME BECAUSE HE HATH ANOINTED ME TO PREACH THE GOSPEL TO THE POOR TO HEAL THE BROKENHEARTED TO PREACH DELIVERANCE TO THE CAPTIVES AND TO SET AT LIBERTY THEM THAT ARE BRUISEDv %VEN BEFORE THE +INGS SETTLED IN -ONTGOMERY DURING THE FALL OF LOCAL CIVIL RIGHTS ACTIVISTS WERE MOBILIZING THEIR OWN CAM PAIGN AGAINST THE SOUTHERN *IM #ROW SYSTEM *UST DAYS AFTER LEARNING ABOUT THE #SPXOdecision, Jo Ann Robinson, head of Montgomery’s Women’s Political Council, wrote to the city’s mayor criticizing mistreatment of black bus riders. When King was formally installed as Dexter’s pastor, he named Robinson as cochair of the church’s Social and Po- litical Action Committee, with a mandate to encourage voter registration by members and to keep “the congrega- tion intelligently informed concerning the social, politi- cal and economic situation.” King soon became involved in civil rights activities, speaking at meetings of NAACP branches in Birmingham and Montgomery. When fifteen- year-old high school student Claudette Colvin was arrested in March 1955 for violating Montgomery’s bus segregation ordinance, King joined Robinson, Parks, and other black residents to meet with city and bus company officials. By the time of Parks’s arrest on December 1, black residents were prepared to resist degrading treatment. Even though YJJ | introduction other local leaders were more responsible for organizing the initial boycott, King enthusiastically assisted the effort and quickly gained the respect of Robinson and NAACP stalwarts such as Parks and Pullman car porter and labor activist E. D. Nixon. Thus, it was not entirely surprising that local leaders turned to the youthful newcomer to the city to head the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) that they had formed to carry on the boycott. !LTHOUGH HE DID NOT EXPECT TO BECOME HEAD OF THE -)! +ING UNDERSTOOD THE BOYCOTTS BROADER IMPLICATIONS (IS HASTILY PREPARED SPEECH THAT EVENING AUDACIOUSLY LINKED THE -)!S MODEST INITIAL OBJECTIVES TO !MERICAN POLITICAL PRINCIPLESh)F WE ARE WRONG THE 3UPREME #OURT OF THIS NATION IS WRONGvAND #HRISTIAN IDEALSh)F WE ARE WRONG *ESUS OF .AZARETH WAS MERELY A UTOPIAN DREAMER THAT NEVER CAME TO EARTH )F WE ARE WRONG JUSTICE IS A LIEv 4HE BOY COTTS GOAL SOON BECAME THE DESEGREGATION OF THE CITYS BUSES AND THE DAY CAMPAIGN IN -ONTGOMERY SPURRED A SUS TAINED MASS MOVEMENT TO OVERCOME THE ENTIRE SOUTHERN SYSTEM OF LEGALIZED SEGREGATION AND RACIAL DISCRIMINATION +INGS SUBSEQUENT SPEECHES PUBLIC STATEMENTS AND PUB LISHED WRITINGS WOULD TRANSFORM THE -ONTGOMERY MOVE MENT INTO A MILESTONE OF THE !FRICAN !MERICAN FREEDOM STRUGGLE AND CONlRM HIS PREDICTION OF ITS PLACE IN HISTORY
7RITTEN LESS THAN TWO YEARS AFTER THE SUCCESSFUL COMPLETION OF THE BOYCOTT 4USJEFIS BOTH THE lRST BOOK LENGTH HISTORY OF THE -ONTGOMERY MOVEMENT AND THE lRST OF +INGS TRILOGY OF POLITICAL AUTOBIOGRAPHIESIT WOULD BE FOLLOWED BY 8IZ 8F$BOU8BJU AND 8IFSF%P8F(PGSPN)FSF$IBPT PS$PNNVOJUZ 3OON AFTER THE SUCCESSFUL COMPLETION OF THE BOYCOTT 7ILLIAM 2OBERT -ILLER ASSISTANT EDITOR OF introduction | YJJJ
'FMMPXTIJQ THE PACIlST JOURNAL PUBLISHED BY THE &ELLOWSHIP OF 2ECONCILIATION &/2 ENCOURAGED +ING TO WRITE HIS ACCOUNT OF THE BOYCOTTh9OU HAVE A VITAL MESSAGE FOR THIS COUNTRY AND THE WORLDv )N ADDITION TO HIS ACADEMIC WRIT INGS +ING HAD PUBLISHED A NUMBER OF ARTICLES SINCE CALLING FOR EQUAL RIGHTS IN A LETTER TO THE EDITOR OF THE "UMBOUB $POTUJ UVUJPOWHILE HE WAS A SIXTEEN YEAR OLD -OREHOUSE #OLLEGE STUDENT $URING THE BOYCOTT HE GAVE NUMEROUS SPEECHES BOTH IN -ONTGOMERY AND ELSEWHERE INCLUDING MAJOR AD DRESSES OUTLINING THE BASIC NARRATIVE OF 4USJEFAT THE ANNUAL CONVENTION OF THE .!!#0 AND OF HIS FRATERNITY !LPHA 0HI !LPHA 7ITH CONSIDERABLE EDITORIAL HELP FROM HIS INFORMAL NETWORK OF ADVISORS HE ALSO PUBLISHED ARTICLES BASED ON HIS SPEECHES IN -JCFSBUJPO!PRIL AND 5IF4PDJBMJTU$BMM *UNE /NCE THE BOYCOTTS SUCCESS WAS ASSURED BOOK PUBLISHERS BEGAN CONTACTING +ING WHO THEN WORKED WITH LITERARY AGENTS -ARIE 2ODELL AND *OAN $AVES TO NEGOTIATE A CONTRACT IN /CTOBER WITH (ARPER "ROTHERS 0ROM ISING TO PRODUCE A PUBLISHABLE MANUSCRIPT WITHIN ONE YEAR +ING STRUGGLED TO BALANCE HIS WRITING COMMITMENT AGAINST HIS RESPONSIBILITIES TO THE -)! AND TO HIS $EXTER CONGRE GATION "Y EARLY HE RECOGNIZED THAT IT WAS NECESSARY TO SECURE EDITORIAL HELP lRST FROM !LABAMA 3TATE PROFESSOR ,AWRENCE 2EDDICK WHO WAS ALREADY WORKING ON HIS OWN BOOK $SVTBEFS8JUIPVU7JPMFODF"#JPHSBQIZPG.BSUJO-V UIFS,JOH +S PUBLISHED IN AND THEN FREELANCE EDITOR (ERMINE 0OPPER WHO HELPED REVISE +INGS DRAFTS INTO THE lNAL MANUSCRIPT By the time of 4USJEFSPUBLICATION LATE IN THE SUMMER OF +ING HAD ALREADY BECOME AN INTERNATIONALLY PROMI NENT !FRICAN !MERICAN LEADERFEATURED ON THE COVER OF 5JNFMAGAZINE AWARDED THE .!!#0S PRESTIGIOUS 3PIN YJW | introduction
GARN -EDAL AS WELL AS HONORARY DEGREES INCLUDED AMONG THE !MERICAN DELEGATES TO THE INDEPENDENCE CEREMONY OF 'HANA AND INVITED TO ADDRESS NUMEROUS ACADEMIC AND RE LIGIOUS GATHERINGS THROUGHOUT THE 5NITED 3TATES 4USJEFBE CAME +INGS PRINCIPAL VEHICLE FOR PRESENTING HIMSELF TO AN AUDIENCE THAT INCLUDED WHITE READERS AS WELL AS BLACK READ ERS NORTHERNERS AS WELL AS SOUTHERNERS )N ADDITION TO OFFER ING A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE BOYCOTT THE BOOK EXPLAINED THE VIEWS OF THE PROMINENT PROTEST LEADER WHO HAD SUDDENLY BECOME THE NATIONS BEST KNOWN CIVIL RIGHTS ADVOCATE 4USJEF IS MORE A POLITICAL MEMOIR THAN AN INTIMATE AUTOBIOGRAPHY #ORETTA 3COTT +INGS .Z-JGFXJUI.BSUJO-VUIFS,JOH +S REVEALS MORE ABOUT HER HUSBANDS STRUGGLE TO BREAK FREE OF +ING 3RS OVERBEARING INmUENCE AND %BEEZ,JOH "O"VUPCJPHSBQIZIS MORE CANDID ABOUT FATHER SON THEOLOGI CAL AND POLITICAL DIFFERENCES BUT 4USJEFNONETHELESS PROVIDES REVEALING DETAILS REGARDING THE SHAPING OF +INGS IDENTITY AND WORLDVIEW )N THE YEARS SINCE ITS PUBLICATION SCHOLARS HAVE LEARNED MUCH MORE ABOUT +INGS FORMATIVE EXPERI ENCES AND HIS EVOLVING BELIEFS BUT +INGS lRST BOOK RE MAINS AN ESSENTIAL STARTING POINT FOR ANYONE INTERESTED IN UNDERSTAND THE SOURCES OF HIS LEADERSHIP 4USJEF BRIEmY DESCRIBES +INGS CHILDHOOD AND TEEN AGE YEARS DRAWING ATTENTION TO THE CRUCIAL INmUENCE OF HIS MOTHER !LBERTA 7ILLIAMS +INGhTHE DAUGHTER OF A SUCCESSFUL MINISTERv WHO hHAD GROWN UP IN COMPARATIVE COMFORTvAND HIS STRONG WILLED FATHERhA SHARECROP PERS SONv WHO ENDURED hTHE WORST BLIGHTS OF DISCRIMINA TIONv AND hHAD BEGUN TO STRIKE BACK AT AN EARLY AGEv (E MENTIONS THAT HIS hQUEST FOR A METHOD TO ELIMINATE SOCIAL EVILv BEGAN DURING HIS TEENAGE YEARS WHEN HE hSAW ECO NOMIC INJUSTICE lRSTHAND AND REALIZED THAT THE POOR WHITE introduction | YW
WAS EXPLOITED JUST AS MUCH AS THE .EGROv +ING DEVOTES LITTLE ATTENTION TO HIS UNDERGRADUATE STUDIES AT !TLANTAS -OREHOUSE #OLLEGE MENTIONING ONLY THAT HE WAS hDEEPLY MOVEDv BY (ENRY $AVID 4HOREAUS ESSAYh#IVIL $ISOBEDI ENCEv 0ERHAPS DECIDING THAT 4USJEFSAUDIENCE WOULD NOT BE INTERESTED IN OR FAMILIAR WITH !FRICAN !MERICAN INTELLECTU ALS OR RELIGIOUS LEADERS APART FROM HIS FATHER HE DOES NOT MENTION HIS ADMIRATION FOR ACTIVIST !TLANTA MINISTERS SUCH AS 7ILLIAM (OLMES "ORDERS 3IMILARLY HE NEGLECTS 'EORGE +ELSEY HIS RELIGION PROFESSOR AT -OREHOUSE * 0IUS "AR BOUR THE OUTSPOKEN MINISTER WHO WAS HIS INFORMAL MENTOR AT #ROZER OR (OWARD 4HURMAN THE AUTHOR OF +FTVTBOE UIF%JTJOIFSJUFE WHO BECAME ACQUAINTED WITH +ING AFTER BECOMING THE lRST !FRICAN !MERICAN DEAN AT "OS TON 5NIVERSITYS -ARSH #HAPEL +ING ALSO DOES NOT MEN TION HIS WIFE AS A POSSIBLE INmUENCE ON HIS POLITICAL IDEAS DESPITE HER YOUTHFUL INVOLVEMENT IN THE LEFTIST 0ROGRESSIVE 0ARTY OF THE S OR OF HER PACIlST ACTIVISM WHILE A COLLEGE STUDENT 2ATHER THAN CITING THESE !FRICAN !MERICAN INmUENCES +ING PRESENTED HIMSELF IN 4USJEFAS A BLACK LEADER FAMILIAR WITH %UROPEAN !MERICAN INTELLECTUAL TRENDS TRACING THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIS IDEAS MAINLY THROUGH HIS ACADEMIC EX PERIENCES AT PREDOMINANTLY WHITE NORTHERN INSTITUTIONS h.OT UNTIL ) ENTERED #ROZER DID ) BEGIN A SERIOUS IN TELLECTUAL QUEST FOR A METHOD TO ELIMINATE SOCIAL EVIL v HE WRITES IN 4USJEF (IS hPILGRIMAGE TO NONVIOLENCEv BEGINS WITH THE hINDELIBLE IMPRINTv LEFT ON HIS THINKING BY HIS READING OF 7ALTER 2AUSCHENBUSCHS MANIFESTO $ISJT UJBOJUZBOEUIF4PDJBM$SJTJT!LTHOUGH +INGS IDEAS WERE GREATLY AFFECTED BY THE INTELLECTUAL FERMENT ASSOCIATED WITH THE -ONTGOMERY MOVEMENT +ING TRACED HIS INTELLECTUAL YWJ | introduction
MATURITY MAINLY THROUGH A DISCUSSION OF HIS GRADUATE STUD IES AT #ROZER 4HEOLOGICAL 3EMINARY IN 0ENNSYLVANIA AND AT "OSTON 5NIVERSITY (E DESCRIBES HIS ATTEMPT TO hUNDERSTAND THE APPEAL OF COMMUNISMv BY READING -ARXIAN WRITINGS THAT CONVINCED HIM COMMUNISM hSHOULD CHALLENGE EVERY #HRISTIANAS IT CHALLENGED METO A GROWING CONCERN ABOUT SOCIAL JUSTICE 7ITH ALL OF ITS FALSE ASSUMPTIONS AND EVIL METHODS COMMUNISM GREW AS A PROTEST AGAINST THE HARDSHIPS OF THE UNDERPRIVILEGEDv +ING CONDEMNS -ARX FOR POSITING hA METAPHYSICAL MATERIALISM AN ETHICAL RELA TIVISM AND A STRANGULATING TOTALITARIANISM v BUT CONCLUDES hTHAT TRUTH IS FOUND NEITHER IN -ARXISM NOR IN TRADITIONAL CAPITALISM %ACH REPRESENTS A PARTIAL TRUTHv $URING AN ERA OF -C#ARTHYISM AND RED BAITING WHEN HE WAS SOMETIMES LABELED A COMMUNIST +ING RECOGNIZED THAT ANY HONEST DISCUSSION OF -ARXISM ENTAILED SOME RISKS )NDEED +INGS EDITOR AT (ARPER 2OW -ELVIN !RNOLD CONVINCED HIM TO CHANGE LANGUAGE IN THE 4USJEFMANUSCRIPT TO AVOID AT TACKS FROM hTHE ENEMIES OF FREEDOM AND OF LIBERALISMv &OR EXAMPLE !RNOLD ASKED +ING TO CLARIFY THAT HIS RESPONSE TO COMMUNISM hWAS AND IS NEGATIVEv RATHER THAN MERELY INITIALLY NEGATIVE !RNOLD ALSO SUGGESTED THAT +ING AMEND HIS STATEMENT THAT WAR hMIGHT BE PREFERABLE TO SURRENDER TO A TOTALITARIAN SYSTEMv BY ADDING THE PHRASE h.AZI &ASCIST OR COMMUNISTv )N HIS DISCUSSION OF NONVIOLENCE +ING ACKNOWLEDGES THAT HIS lRST EXPOSURE TO PACIlSM DURING A LECTURE BY ! * -USTE LEFT HIM hDEEPLY MOVEDv hBUT FAR FROM CONVINCED OF THE PRACTICABILITY OF HIS POSITIONv (E RECALLS THAT HE hHAD ABOUT DESPAIRED OF THE POWER OF LOVE IN SOLVING SOCIAL PROB LEMSv (E lNALLY hDISCOVERED THE METHOD FOR SOCIAL REFORM THAT ) HAD BEEN SEEKINGv WHEN HE HEARD (OWARD 5NIVER introduction | YWJJ
SITY PRESIDENT -ORDECAI *OHNSON LECTURE ABOUT 'ANDHI h) CAME TO FEEL THAT THIS WAS THE ONLY MORALLY AND PRACTICALLY SOUND METHOD OPEN TO OPPRESSED PEOPLE IN THEIR STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOMv +ING ADDS HOWEVER THAT THEOLOGIAN 2E INHOLD .IEBUHRS CRITIQUE OF PACIlSM LEFT HIM TEMPORAR ILY hIN A STATE OF CONFUSIONv .IEBUHR HEIGHTENED +INGS AWARENESS OF hTHE ILLUSIONS OF A SUPERlCIAL OPTIMISM CON CERNING HUMAN NATURE AND THE DANGERS OF A FALSE IDEALISM v LEADING HIM hTO SEE THE PACIlST POSITION NOT AS SINLESS BUT AS THE LESSER EVIL IN THE CIRCUMSTANCESv +ING WRITES THAT HIS hFORMAL TRAININGv LED HIM TO hA POSITIVE SOCIAL PHILOSO PHYv BASED ON hTHE CONVICTION THAT NONVIOLENT RESISTANCE WAS ONE OF THE MOST POTENT WEAPONS AVAILABLE TO OPPRESSED PEOPLE IN THEIR QUEST FOR SOCIAL JUSTICEv "UT HE ADMITS THAT BEFORE HE ARRIVED IN -ONTGOMERY HE hHAD MERELY AN IN TELLECTUAL UNDERSTANDING AND APPRECIATION OF THE POSITION WITH NO lRM DETERMINATION TO ORGANIZE IT IN A SOCIALLY EF FECTIVE SITUATIONv 4HE CONTEMPORANEOUS DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE FROM THE BOYCOTT REINFORCES +INGS SUGGESTION THAT HIS 'ANDHIAN CON VICTIONS COALESCED IN -ONTGOMERY RATHER THAN AT #ROZER OR "OSTON 7HEN HE SPOKE ON THE lRST DAY OF THE PROTEST HIS REJECTION OF VIOLENCE WAS ROOTED IN #HRISTIAN RATHER THAN 'ANDHIAN PRECEPTS h7E BELIEVE IN THE TEACHINGS OF *ESUS 4HE ONLY WEAPON THAT WE HAVE IN OUR HANDS THIS EVENING IS THE WEAPON OF PROTEST 4HATS ALLv !S +ING ACKNOWLEDGED IN 4USJEF BOYCOTT PARTICIPANTS WERE AT lRST UNFAMILIAR WITH EXPRESSIONS SUCH AS hNONVIOLENT RESISTANCE NONCOOPERATION AND PASSIVE RESISTANCEv )NSTEAD HE WROTE hTHE PHRASE MOST OFTEN HEARD WAS @#HRISTIAN LOVE )T WAS THE 3ERMON ON THE -OUNT RATHER THAN A DOCTRINE OF PASSIVE RESISTANCE THAT INITIALLY INSPIRED THE .EGROES OF -ONTGOMERY TO DIGNIlED YWJJJ | introduction
SOCIAL ACTIONv )T IS PROBABLE THAT +INGS EVOLVING 'ANDHIAN BELIEFS WERE INmUENCED BY THE SUGGESTIONS AND ADVICE HE RECEIVED FROM MORE EXPERIENCED PACIlSTS AND 'ANDHIANS SUCH AS "AYARD 2USTIN THEN AFlLIATED WITH THE 7AR 2ESIST ERS ,EAGUE AND 'LENN 3MILEY WHO WAS SENT BY THE &ELLOW SHIP OF 2ECONCILIATION &/2 TO -ONTGOMERY !LTHOUGH +ING RECALLED BUYING hA HALF DOZEN BOOKS ON 'ANDHIS LIFE AND WORKSv AFTER HEARING -ORDECAI *OHNSONS LECTURE BOTH 2USTIN AND 3MILEY WERE UNIMPRESSED BY +INGS 'ANDHIAN BACKGROUND WHICH DID NOT PREVENT HIM FROM APPLYING FOR A GUN PERMIT FOR HIS BODYGUARDS "Y THE TIME OF 4USJEFS PUBLICATION +INGS UNDERSTANDING OF 'ANDHIAN IDEAS HAD BEEN FURTHER STRENGTHENED BY HIS EXTENSIVE CONTACTS WITH NUMEROUS OTHER 'ANDHIANS 4USJEFSDISCUSSION OF NONVIO LENCE WAS INmUENCED BY +INGS CONVERSATIONS WITH (ARRIS 7OFFORD A WHITE RECENT GRADUATE OF (OWARD 5NIVERSITYS ,AW 3CHOOL WHO WITH HIS WIFE #LARE 7OFFORD HAD WRIT TEN *OEJB"mSF AFTER MEETING WITH 'ANDHIANS DUR ING THEIR TRAVELS TO )NDIA +ING INCORPORATED IN 4USJEF WITH ONLY MINOR REVISION PASSAGES FROM A SPEECH 7OFFORD DE LIVERED AT A (OWARD 5NIVERSITY CONFERENCE THAT +ING HAD ALSO ATTENDED +ING SIMILARLY INCORPORATED SUGGESTIONS FROM OTHER FRIENDS AND ASSOCIATES AS HE PREPARED SECTIONS OF 4USJEFTHAT DISCUSSED OTHER MATTERS SUCH AS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE CIVIL RIGHTS STRUGGLE AND THE LABOR MOVEMENT AND THE IMPACT OF SEGREGATION ON !FRICAN !MERICANS !N INDICATION OF +INGS EVOLVING VIEWS REGARDING PACIlSM WAS HIS DECISION TO JOIN THE &/2 LATE IN 7HILE +ING STRENGTHENED HIS 'ANDHIAN CONVICTIONS DURING THE BOYCOTT HIS CIVIL RIGHTS LEADERSHIP ROLE PROMPTED HIM TO DOWNPLAY THE ANTICAPITALIST PERSPECTIVE EVIDENT IN HIS STUDENT WRITINGS (E NOTES IN 4USJEFTHAT HIS DEEP introduction | YJY
CONCERN hABOUT THE GULF BETWEEN SUPERmUOUS WEALTH AND ABJECT POVERTYv DATED TO HIS hEARLY TEEN DAYS v AND IN A #ROZER ESSAY WRITTEN WHEN HE WAS TWENTY ONE HE ATTRIB UTED HIS hPRESENT ANTI CAPITALISTIC FEELINGSv TO HIS CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCE OF SEEING hNUMEROUS PEOPLE STANDING IN BREAD LINESv !LTHOUGH PUBLIC EXPRESSION OF ANTICAPITALIST ATTI TUDES WOULD HAVE UNDERMINED +INGS STATURE IN THE #OLD 7AR POLITICAL CLIMATE HIS PRIVATE VIEWS WERE CLEARLY EVI DENT IN A LETTER THANKING HIS FUTURE WIFE FOR A GIFT OF %DWARD "ELLAMYS SOCIALIST UTOPIAN NOVEL -PPLJOH#BDLXBSE o +ING DESCRIBED HIMSELF AS hMUCH MORE SOCIAL ISTIC IN MY ECONOMIC THEORY THAN CAPITALISTIC v ALTHOUGH HE ADDED THAT HE WAS hRADICALLY OPPOSED TO COMMUNISMv BECAUSE OF ITS MORAL RELATIVISM AND MATERIALISM h) WOULD CERTAINLY WELCOME THE DAY TO COME WHEN THERE WILL BE A NATIONALIZATION OF INDUSTRY v HE INFORMED #ORETTA h,ET US CONTINUE TO HOPE WORK AND PRAY THAT IN THE FUTURE WE WILL LIVE TO SEE A WARLESS WORLD A BETTER DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH AND A BROTHERHOOD THAT TRANSCENDS RACE OR COLORv +ING WAS WILLING TO SOFTEN IN PUBLIC HIS SOCIAL GOSPEL CRITIQUE OF CAPITALISM BUT HE WAS SOMEWHAT MORE OUTSPO KEN ABOUT EXPRESSING HIS ANTICOLONIAL VIEWS +ING SAW A CONNECTION BETWEEN THE STRUGGLE OF !FRICAN !MERICANS FOR CITIZENSHIP RIGHTS AND THE STRUGGLES OF !FRICANS AND !SIANS FOR NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE (OWEVER HE DID NOT IDENTIFY HIMSELF WITH LEFTISTS SUCH 7 % " $U "OIS AND 0AUL 2OBE SON WHO HAD FACED POLITICAL REPRESSION AFTER CONDEMNING CONTINUED !MERICAN ALLIANCES WITH %NGLAND &RANCE AND OTHER NATIONS THAT HELD ON TO THEIR COLONIAL EMPIRES AF TER 7ORLD 7AR )) "UT WHEN +ING ADDRESSED THE ANNUAL .!!#0 CONVENTION HELD IN 3AN &RANCISCO IN *UNE HE USED THE #OLD 7AR AS LEVERAGE TO ARGUE FOR A SHIFT IN !MER YY | introduction
ICAN POLICIES IN !FRICA AND !SIA (E WARNED THAT THE hCOL ORED PEOPLE OF THE WORLDv WHO hLIVED UNDER THE YOKE OF COLONIALISM AND IMPERIALISMv WOULD TURN AWAY FROM hANY NATION THAT WILL SUBJECT CITIZENS TO SECOND CLASS CITIZENSHIP v ADDING hIF !MERICA DOESNT WAKE UP SHE WILL DISCOVER THAT THE UNCOMMITTED PEOPLES OF THE WORLD ARE IN THE HANDS OF A COMMUNIST IDEOLOGYv "Y THE END OF THE BOYCOTT +INGS LINKAGE OF THE !FRICAN !MERICAN FREEDOM STRUGGLE AND THE ANTICOLONIAL STRUGGLES OF !FRICA AND !SIA HAD BECOME MORE FORCEFUL !DDRESSING THE -)!S lRST )NSTITUTE ON .ONVIO LENCE AND 3OCIAL #HANGE WHILE WAITING FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF THE 3UPREME #OURTS DESEGREGATION RULING +ING TOLD BLACK RESIDENTS THAT THEY SHOULD FEEL hPRIVILEGED TO LIVE IN ONE OF THE MOST MOMENTOUS PERIODS OF HUMAN HISTORYv IN WHICH A hNEW WORLD ORDER IS BEING BORN AND AN OLD ORDER IS PASSING AWAYv 2EFERRING TO THE WORLDS hCOLOREDv MA JORITY +ING COMMENTED THAT MOST HAD ONCE LIVED hUNDER THE PRESSING YOKE OF "RITISH $UTCH AND &RENCH RULE &OR YEARS ALL OF THESE PEOPLE WERE DOMINATED POLITICALLY EXPLOITED ECONOMICALLY SEGREGATED AND HUMILIATEDv !LTHOUGH 4USJEF WAS CAREFULLY CRAFTED TO BE PROVOCA TIVE WHILE STILL AVOIDING MAJOR CONTROVERSY THE BOOKS CENTRAL MESSAGE WAS SINCERE AND CONSISTENT WITH THE VIEWS HE WOULD EXPRESS FOR THE REST OF HIS LIFE 3EEKING TO BUILD HIS SUPPORT AMONG WHITES AS WELL AS BLACKS +ING STRESSED THAT HIS hPILGRIMAGE TO NONVIOLENCEv HAD CULMINATED IN hA POSITIVE SOCIAL PHILOSOPHYv EMPHASIZING hTHAT NONVIOLENT RESISTANCE WAS ONE OF THE MOST POTENT WEAPONS AVAILABLE TO OPPRESSED PEOPLE IN THEIR QUEST FOR SOCIAL JUSTICEv (E AFlRMED THAT HIS POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY WAS NOT ROOTED IN -ARXIAN IDEAS BUT IN hTHE 3ERMON ON THE -OUNT WITH ITS SUBLIME TEACHINGS ON LOVE AND THE 'ANDHIAN METHOD OF introduction | YYJ
NONVIOLENT RESISTANCEv +ING MADE CLEAR IN 4USJEFTHAT HIS INTELLECTUAL EVOLUTION WAS DRIVEN BY RELIGIOUS CONVICTIONS THAT DEEPENED DURING THE BOYCOTT (E RECALLED MOVING BE YOND THE ABSTRACT CONCEPTIONS OF DIVINITY THAT HE DERIVED FROM THEOLOGICAL TEXTS 4HE MOST EMOTIONALLY TELLING MO MENT IN 4USJEFOCCURS WHEN +ING RECALLS A CRISIS OF CONl DENCE AFTER RECEIVING A PARTICULARLY THREATENING LATE NIGHT PHONE CALL ON *ANUARY %XHAUSTED DISCOURAGED SEEKING hA WAY TO MOVE OUT OF THE PICTURE WITHOUT APPEAR ING A COWARD v HE TURNED TO 'OD FOR HELP !FTER PRAYING ALOUD IN HIS KITCHEN HE
EXPERIENCED THE PRESENCE OF THE $IVINE AS ) HAD NEVER EXPERIENCED (IM BEFORE )T SEEMED AS THOUGH ) COULD HEAR THE QUIET ASSURANCE OF AN INNER VOICE SAYING h3TAND UP FOR RIGHTEOUSNESS STAND UP FOR TRUTH AND 'OD WILL BE AT YOUR SIDE FOREVERv !LMOST AT ONCE MY FEARS BEGAN TO GO -Y UNCERTAINTY DISAP PEARED ) WAS READY TO FACE ANYTHING
King not only revealed his uncertainties in 4USJEF BUT WAS ALSO GENEROUS IN HIS TREATMENT OF THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF ALL THOSE WHO MADE POSSIBLE THE BOYCOTTS SUCCESS )N THE PREFACE +ING STRESSES THE COLLECTIVE NATURE OF THE -ONT GOMERY MOVEMENT h7HILE THE NATURE OF THIS ACCOUNT CAUSES ME TO MAKE FREQUENT USE OF THE PRONOUN @) IN EVERY IMPORTANT PART OF THE STORY IT SHOULD BE @WE v 4HERE CAN BE LITTLE DOUBT OF +INGS SINCERITY IN DOWNPLAYING HIS ROLE SINCE -)! RECORDS REVEAL THAT HIS LEADERSHIP WAS TENUOUS PARTICULARLY DURING THE EARLY MONTHS OF THE BOYCOTT (AV ING LIVED IN -ONTGOMERY LITTLE MORE THAN A YEAR BEFORE THE BOYCOTT BEGAN HE HAD TO ASSUAGE THE RESENTMENTS OF MORE YYJJ | introduction
EXPERIENCED LEADERS WHILE GAINING THE CONlDENCE OF -)! MEMBERS (E FOUND IT NECESSARY TO CONSULT REGULARLY WITH OTHER -)! LEADERS BRIDGE INTERNAL DIFFERENCES AND RELY ON THE ASSISTANCE OF MANY DEDICATED COWORKERS 4HUS EVEN AS HE TRACES HIS OWN EVOLUTION AS A PROTEST LEADER +ING ALSO DESCRIBES HIS COMPLEX RELATIONSHIP WITH A MASS MOVEMENT BEYOND THE CONTROL OF ANY SINGLE INDIVIDUAL h) NEITHER STARTED THE PROTEST NOR SUGGESTED IT v HE INSISTS IN 4USJEF h) SIMPLY RESPONDED TO THE CALL OF THE PEOPLE FOR A SPOKES MANv +INGS ACCOUNT ALLOWS READERS TO APPRECIATE THE CRU CIAL ROLES OF HIS -)! ASSOCIATES AND THEREBY REALIZE THAT THE -)! RELIED ON ORGANIZED COLLECTIVE EFFORT AS WELL AS INDIVIDUAL CHARISMA +ING DRAWS ATTENTION TO THE -)!S EXTENSIVE NATIONWIDE FUNDRAISING EFFORTS THAT SECURED SUP PORT FROM CHURCHES LABOR GROUPS .!!#0 BRANCHES AND INDIVIDUALS OF ALL RACES 7HILE CANDIDLY DISCUSSING THE -)!S INTERNAL TENSIONS AND ORGANIZATIONAL WEAKNESSES HE HIGHLIGHTS THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF STRONG WILLED LOCAL LEAD ERS SUCH AS 0ARKS AND 2OBINSONhSHE PERHAPS MORE THAN ANY OTHER PERSON WAS ACTIVE ON EVERY LEVEL OF THE PROTESTv (E ALSO CREDITS THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE hINDISPENSABLEv .!!#0 VETERAN % $ .IXON HIS hCLOSEST ASSOCIATE AND MOST TRUSTED FRIEND v 2ALPH !BERNATHY hOUR BRILLIANT LEGAL STRATEGISTv &RED 'RAY AND THE VETERAN VOTING RIGHTS ACTIVIST 2UFUS ,EWIS -OREOVER +ING MENTIONS THE VITAL EFFORTS OF THE -)!S TRANSPORTATION COMMITTEE TO DESIGN A MOTOR POOL PROVIDING ALTERNATIVE MEANS FOR BOYCOTTING RESIDENTS TO GET TO WORK 0ERHAPS CONCERNED THAT SOME KEY ACTIVISTS WOULD BE LEFT OUT OF HIS ACCOUNT +ING APPENDS A LIST OF ALMOST ONE HUNDRED -)! MEMBERS !LTHOUGH 4USJEFEMPHASIZES THE EXTENT OF UNITY AMONG introduction | YYJJJ
BLACK -ONTGOMERY RESIDENTS +ING DISCUSSES THE EFFORTS BY WHITE LEADERS TO EXACERBATE DIVISIONS EVEN TO THE POINT OF CLAIMING A SETTLEMENT DURING *ANUARY WITH AN UNAU THORIZED GROUP OF BLACK MINISTERS +INGS GREATEST ASSET AS A LEADER MAY HAVE BEEN HIS CONlDENT ABILITY TO EXPRESS THE SENTIMENTS OF THE -)!S CORE SUPPORTERS DESPITE HIS RECOG NITION THAT HE WAS ONLY ONE OF MANY STRONG WILLED BLACK COMMUNITY LEADERS (E NOTES THAT AT ONE POINT HE OFFERED HIS RESIGNATION ONLY TO BE DISSUADED BY hA UNANIMOUS VOTE OF CONlDENCEv FROM HIS -)! COLLEAGUES !S WHITE OPPOSI TION AND INTERNAL DISSENTION INCREASED HE INSISTED THAT THE MOVEMENTS FOOT SOLDIERS WERE DETERMINED TO PERSEVERE EVEN IF SOME LEADERS GREW WEARY h&ROM MY LIMITED CON TACT v HE REMARKED AT A *ANUARY EXECUTIVE BOARD MEET ING hIF WE WENT TONIGHT AND ASKED THE PEOPLE TO GET BACK ON THE BUS WE WOULD BE OSTRACIZED 4HEY WOULDNT GET BACKv ;ON THE BUSES= 3PEAKING AT AN -)! MASS MEETING HE COMMENTED h) WANT YOU TO KNOW THAT IF - , +ING HAD NEVER BEEN BORN THIS MOVEMENT WOULD HAVE TAKEN PLACE ) JUST HAPPENED TO BE HEREv +ING WOULD CONTINUE TO EXPRESS THIS THEME AFTER THE BOYCOTT ENDED BUT MODESTY BECAME MORE DIFlCULT AS +ING BECAME BETTER KNOWN THAN THE BOYCOTT HE HAD ONCE LED h(ELP ME / 'OD TO SEE THAT )M JUST A SYMBOL OF A MOVEMENT v HE PLEADED IN A SERMON h(ELP ME TO REALIZE THAT )M WHERE ) AM BECAUSE OF THE FORCES OF HISTORY AND BECAUSE OF THE lFTY THOUSAND .EGROES OF !LABAMA WHO WILL NEVER GET THEIR NAMES IN THE PAPERS AND IN THE HEADLINESv +INGS GENEROSITY IN CREDITING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF OTH ERS WAS CERTAINLY CONSTRAINED BY HIS PERSPECTIVE AS A MALE CLERGYMAN WHO GUIDED THE -)!S STRATEGY WHILE DELEGATING IMPLEMENTATION (E WAS PARTICULARLY CAREFUL TO MENTION