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Appendix 1 Properties of Fuels S. McAllister et al., Fundamentals of Combustion Processes, 243 Mechanical Engineering Series, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-7943-8, # Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011 244 a b ^0 M cpg HHV LHV hfg Dh c d e Formula Fuel (kg/kmol) Tb ( C) (kJ/kg-K) Tig ( C) (MJ/kg) (MJ/kg) (kJ/kg) AFRs Tf (K) (kJ/mol) RON MON CH4 Methane 16.04 À161 2.21 537 55.536 50.048 510 17.2 2,226 À74.4 120 120 C2H2 Acetylene 26.04 À84 1.60 305 49.923 48.225 – 13.2 2,540 8.7 50 50 C2H4 Ethylene 28.05 À104 1.54 490 50.312 47.132 – 14.7 2,380 52.4 – – C2H6 Ethane 30.07 À89 1.75 472 51.902 47.611 489 16.1 2,370 À83.8 115 99 C3H8 Propane 44.10 À42 1.62 470 50.322 46.330 432 15.7 2,334 À104.7 112 97 C4H10 n-Butane 58.12 À0.5 1.64 365 49.511 45.725 386 15.5 2,270 À146.6 94 90 C4H10 iso-Butane 58.12 À12 1.62 460 49.363 45.577 366 15.5 2,310 À153.5 102 98 C5H12 n-Pentane 72.15 36 1.62 284 49.003 45.343 357 15.3 2,270 À173.5 62 63 C5H12 iso-Pentane 72.15 28 1.60 420 48.909 45.249 342 15.3 2,310 À178.5 93 90 C6H14 n-Hexane 86.18 69 1.62 233 48.674 45.099 335 15.2 2,271 À198.7 25 26 C6H14 iso-Hexane 86.18 50 1.58 421 48.454 44.879 305 15.2 2,300 À207.4 104 94 C7H16 n-Heptane 100.20 99 1.61 215 48.438 44.925 317 15.2 2,273 À224.2 0 0 C8H18 n-Octane 114.23 126 1.61 206 48.254 44.786 301 15.1 2,275 À250.1 20 17 C8H18 iso-Octane 114.23 114 1.59 418 48.119 44.651 283 15.1 2,300 À259.2 100 100 C9H20 n-Nonane 128.6 151 1.61 – 48.119 44.688 295 15.1 2,274 À274.7 – – C10H22 n-Decane 142.28 174 1.61 210 48.002 44.599 277 15.1 2,278 À300.9 À41 À38 C10H22 iso-Decane 142.28 171 1.61 – 48.565 44.413 – 15.1 2,340 – 113 92 C12H26 n-Dodecane 170.33 216 1.61 204 47.838 44.574 256 15.0 2,276 À350.9 À88 À90 CH4O Methanol 32.04 65 1.37 385 22.663 19.915 1,099 6.5 2,183 À201.5 106 92 C2H6O Ethanol 46.07 78 1.42 365 29.668 26.803 836 9.0 2,144 À235.1 107 89 H2 Hydrogen 2.02 À253 14.47 400 141.72 119.96 451 34.3 2,345 0 – – a Gas phase specific heat evaluated at 25C b Heat of vaporization at 1 atm c Estimated equilibrium flame temperature Appendix 1 d Research octane number e Motoring octane number Appendix 2 Properties of Air at 1 atm Ratio of Thermal Kinematic Specific Specific specific Viscosity, conductivity, Prandtl viscosity, Density 5 5 5 Temp heat cp heat cv heats g, mÁ10 kÁ10 number nÁ10 r 2 3 (K) (kJ/kg-K) (kJ/kg-K) (cp/cv) (kg/m-s) (kW/m-K) n/a (m /s) (kg/m ) 175 1.0023 0.7152 1.401 1.182 1.593 0.744 0.586 2.017 200 1.0025 0.7154 1.401 1.329 1.809 0.736 0.753 1.765 225 1.0027 0.7156 1.401 1.467 2.020 0.728 0.935 1.569 250 1.0031 0.716 1.401 1.599 2.227 0.720 1.132 1.412 275 1.0038 0.7167 1.401 1.725 2.428 0.713 1.343 1.284 300 1.0049 0.7178 1.400 1.846 2.624 0.707 1.568 1.177 325 1.0063 0.7192 1.400 1.962 2.816 0.701 1.807 1.086 350 1.0082 0.7211 1.398 2.075 3.003 0.697 2.056 1.009 375 1.0106 0.7235 1.397 2.181 3.186 0.692 2.317 0.9413 400 1.0135 0.7264 1.395 2.286 3.365 0.688 2.591 0.8824 450 1.0206 0.7335 1.391 2.486 3.710 0.684 3.168 0.7844 500 1.0295 0.7424 1.387 2.670 4.041 0.680 3.782 0.706 550 1.0398 0.7527 1.381 2.849 4.357 0.680 4.439 0.6418 600 1.0511 0.7540 1.376 3.017 4.661 0.680 5.128 0.5883 650 1.0629 0.7758 1.370 3.178 4.954 0.682 5.853 0.543 700 1.0750 0.7879 1.364 3.332 5.236 0.684 6.607 0.5043 750 1.0870 0.7999 1.359 3.482 5.509 0.687 7.399 0.4706 800 1.0987 0.8116 1.354 3.624 5.774 0.690 8.214 0.4412 850 1.1101 0.8230 1.349 3.763 6.030 0.693 9.061 0.4153 900 1.1209 0.8338 1.344 3.897 6.276 0.696 9.936 0.3922 950 1.1313 0.8442 1.34 4.026 6.520 0.699 10.83 0.3716 1,000 1.1411 0.8540 1.336 4.153 6.754 0.702 11.76 0.3530 1,050 1.1502 0.8631 1.333 4.276 6.985 0.704 12.72 0.3362 1,100 1.1589 0.8718 1.329 4.396 7.209 0.707 13.70 0.3209 1,150 1.1670 0.8799 1.326 4.511 7.427 0.709 14.07 0.3069 1,200 1.1746 0.8875 1.323 4.626 7.640 0.711 15.73 0.2941 1,250 1.1817 0.8946 1.321 4.736 7.849 0.713 16.77 0.2824 1,300 1.1884 0.9013 1.319 4.846 8.054 0.715 17.85 0.2715 1,350 1.1946 0.9075 1.316 4.952 8.253 0.717 18.94 0.2615 (continued) 245 246 Appendix 2 Ratio of Thermal Kinematic Specific Specific specific Viscosity, conductivity, Prandtl viscosity, Density 5 5 5 Temp heat cp heat cv heats g, mÁ10 kÁ10 number nÁ10 r 2 3 (K) (kJ/kg-K) (kJ/kg-K) (cp/cv) (kg/m-s) (kW/m-K) n/a (m /s) (kg/m ) 1,400 1.2005 0.9134 1.314 5.057 8.450 0.719 20.06 0.2521 1,500 1.2112 0.9241 1.311 5.262 8.831 0.722 22.36 0.2353 1,600 1.2207 0.9336 1.308 5.457 9.199 0.724 24.74 0.2206 1,700 1.2293 0.9422 1.305 5.646 9.554 0.726 27.20 0.2076 1,800 1.2370 0.9499 1.302 5.829 9.899 0.728 29.72 0.1961 1,900 1.2440 0.9569 1.300 6.008 10.233 0.730 32.34 0.1858 Appendix 3 Properties of Ideal Combustion Gases Ideal gases are assumed for combustion gases. The enthalpy, h^ðTÞ, of a gaseous species consists of two parts: (1) enthalpy of formation at the standard condition (25C and 1 atm) and (2) sensible enthalpy. Enthalpy of a species is evaluated by ^ð Þ¼D^0 þð^ ð Þ^ ð ¼ o ÞÞ ¼ D^0 þð^ ð Þ ^0Þ h T h hs T hs T 25 C h hs T hs This formula can be extended to include phase change from liquid to gas by including the latent heat of vaporization. For an elementary reaction aA þ bB $ cC þ dD the equilibrium constant based on concentrations, Kc ¼ kf/kb, can be determined by thermodynamics properties as c d aþbÀcÀd k ½C ½D R^ T K ¼ f ¼ eq eq ¼ K ðTÞ u c k ½ a½ b p 1 atm b A eq B eq no ^0 ^0 ^0 ^0 gA gB gC gD where KpðTÞ¼exp a ^ þ b ^ À c ^ À d ^ is the equilibrium constant based RuT RuT RuT RuT ^0ð Þ¼ ^ð Þ ^0ð Þ on partial pressures and gi T hi T Tsi T is the Gibbs free energy at reference pressure (1 atm). CO 2 ^ ^0 0 ^ T (K) c^p (kJ/kmol-K) h À h (MJ/kmol) s^ (kJ/kmol-K) g RuT 200 32.39 À3.42 199.87 À262.76 250 34.96 À1.74 207.37 À215.11 298 37.2 0 213.73 À184.46 300 37.28 0.07 213.96 À183.48 350 39.37 1.99 219.86 À161 400 41.27 4 225.25 À144.22 450 43 6.11 230.21 À131.24 500 44.57 8.3 234.82 À120.91 (continued) 247 248 Appendix 3 CO (continued) 2 ^ ^0 0 ^ T (K) c^p (kJ/kmol-K) h À h (MJ/kmol) s^ (kJ/kmol-K) g RuT 550 46 10.56 239.14 À112.51 600 47.31 12.9 243.2 À105.55 650 48.51 15.29 247.03 À99.7 700 49.61 17.75 250.67 À94.72 750 50.62 20.25 254.13 À90.43 800 51.55 22.81 257.42 À86.7 850 52.38 25.41 260.57 À83.43 900 53.13 28.05 263.59 À80.55 950 53.79 30.72 266.48 À77.99 1,000 54.36 33.42 269.25 À75.7 1,050 54.86 36.15 271.92 À73.64 1,100 55.33 38.91 274.48 À71.79 1,150 55.78 41.69 276.95 À70.11 1,200 56.2 44.49 279.33 À68.58 1,250 56.6 47.31 281.64 À67.19 1,300 56.98 50.15 283.86 À65.91 1,350 57.34 53 286.02 À64.74 1,400 57.67 55.88 288.11 À63.66 1,450 57.99 58.77 290.14 À62.67 1,500 58.29 61.68 292.11 À61.74 1,550 58.57 64.6 294.03 À60.89 1,600 58.83 67.54 295.89 À60.1 1,650 59.08 70.48 297.71 À59.36 1,700 59.31 73.44 299.47 À58.67 1,750 59.53 76.41 301.2 À58.02 1,800 59.73 79.4 302.88 À57.42 1,850 59.93 82.39 304.52 À56.86 1,900 60.11 85.39 306.12 À56.33 1,950 60.27 88.4 307.68 À55.83 2,000 60.43 91.42 309.21 À55.36 2,050 60.58 94.44 310.7 À54.92 2,100 60.71 97.47 312.16 À54.5 2,150 60.84 100.51 313.59 À54.11 2,200 60.96 103.56 314.99 À53.74 2,250 61.08 106.61 316.37 À53.39 2,300 61.18 109.66 317.71 À53.06 2,350 61.28 112.73 319.03 À52.74 2,400 61.37 115.79 320.32 À52.45 2,450 61.46 118.86 321.58 À52.16 2,500 61.55 121.94 322.83 À51.9 2,550 61.62 125.02 324.05 À51.64 2,600 61.7 128.1 325.24 À51.4 2,650 61.77 131.19 326.42 À51.17 2,700 61.84 134.28 327.57 À50.95 2,750 61.9 137.37 328.71 À50.74 2,800 61.96 140.47 329.83 À50.54 (continued) Appendix 3 249 CO (continued) 2 ^ ^0 0 ^ T (K) c^p (kJ/kmol-K) h À h (MJ/kmol) s^ (kJ/kmol-K) g RuT 2,850 62.02 143.57 330.92 À50.35 2,900 62.08 146.67 332 À50.17 2,950 62.14 149.78 333.06 À50 3,000 62.19 152.88 334.11 À49.83 3,050 62.25 155.99 335.14 À49.68 3,100 62.3 159.11 336.15 À49.53 3,150 62.35 162.22 337.15 À49.38 3,200 62.4 165.34 338.13 À49.25 3,250 62.45 168.46 339.1 À49.12 3,300 62.51 171.59 340.05 À48.99 3,350 62.56 174.72 340.99 À48.87 3,400 62.61 177.84 341.92 À48.76 3,450 62.66 180.98 342.83 À48.65 3,500 62.72 184.11 343.73 À48.54 H O 2 ^ ^0 0 ^ T (K) c^p (kJ/kmol-K) h À h (MJ/kmol) s^ (kJ/kmol-K) g RuT 200 32.25 À3.23 175.59 À168.5 250 32.9 À1.6 182.86 À139.11 298 33.45 0 188.71 À120.26 300 33.47 0.06 188.91 À119.66 350 33.97 1.75 194.11 À105.85 400 34.44 3.46 198.68 À95.58 450 34.89 5.19 202.76 À87.64 500 35.34 6.95 206.46 À81.34 550 35.8 8.73 209.85 À76.22 600 36.29 10.53 212.98 À71.99 650 36.81 12.35 215.91 À68.43 700 37.36 14.21 218.65 À65.41 750 37.96 16.09 221.25 À62.81 800 38.59 18 223.72 À60.56 850 39.25 19.95 226.08 À58.59 900 39.93 21.93 228.34 À56.85 950 40.62 23.94 230.52 À55.31 1,000 41.31 25.99 232.62 À53.94 1,050 41.99 28.07 234.65 À52.71 1,100 42.64 30.19 236.62 À51.6 1,150 43.26 32.34 238.53 À50.6 1,200 43.87 34.52 240.39 À49.69 1,250 44.46 36.72 242.19 À48.87 1,300 45.02 38.96 243.94 À48.11 (continued) 250 Appendix 3 H O (continued) 2 ^ ^0 0 ^ T (K) c^p (kJ/kmol-K) h À h (MJ/kmol) s^ (kJ/kmol-K) g RuT 1,350 45.57 41.23 245.65 À47.42 1,400 46.1 43.52 247.32 À46.79 1,450 46.61 45.84 248.95 À46.2 1,500 47.1 48.18 250.53 À45.66 1,550 47.58 50.55 252.09 À45.16 1,600 48.03 52.94 253.6 À44.7 1,650 48.47 55.35 255.09 À44.28 1,700 48.9 57.78 256.54 À43.88 1,750 49.31 60.24 257.97 À43.51 1,800 49.7 62.71 259.36 À43.16 1,850 50.08 65.21 260.73 À42.84 1,900 50.45 67.72 262.07 À42.54 1,950 50.8 70.25 263.38 À42.26 2,000 51.14 72.8 264.67 À42 2,050 51.47 75.37 265.94 À41.75 2,100 51.78 77.95 267.19 À41.52 2,150 52.08 80.54 268.41 À41.31 2,200 52.38 83.16 269.61 À41.1 2,250 52.66 85.78 270.79 À40.91 2,300 52.92 88.42 271.95 À40.73 2,350 53.18 91.07 273.09 À40.56 2,400 53.43 93.74 274.21 À40.4 2,450 53.67 96.42 275.32 À40.25
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    AMMONIA, ANHYDROUS AMA CAUTIONARY RESPONSE INFORMATION 4. FIRE HAZARDS 7. SHIPPING INFORMATION 4.1 Flash Point: 7.1 Grades of Purity: Commercial, industrial, Common Synonyms Liquefied compressed Colorless Ammonia odor Not flammable under conditions likely to refrigeration, electronic, and metaflurgical Liquid ammonia gas be encountered grades all have purity greater than 99.5% 4.2 Flammable Limits in Air: 15.50%- 7.2 Storage Temperature: Ambient for pressurized 27.00% ammonia; low temperature for ammonia at Floats and boils on water. Poisonous, visible vapor cloud is produced. 4.3 Fire Extinguishing Agents: Stop flow of atmospheric pressure Avoid contact with liquid and vapor. Keep people away. gas or liquid. Let fire burn. 7.3 Inert Atmosphere: No requirement Wear goggles, self-contained breathing apparatus, and rubber overclothing (including gloves). 4.4 Fire Extinguishing Agents Not to Be 7.4 Venting: Safety relief 250 psi for ammonia Stop discharge if possible. Used: None under pressure. Pressure-vacuum for Stay upwind and use water spray to ``knock down'' vapor. 4.5 Special Hazards of Combustion ammonia at atmospheric pressure. Call fire department. Products: Not pertinent Isolate and remove discharged material. 7.5 IMO Pollution Category: Currently not available 4.6 Behavior in Fire: Not pertinent Notify local health and pollution control agencies. 7.6 Ship Type: 2 4.7 Auto Ignition Temperature: 1204°F Protect water intakes. 7.7 Barge Hull Type: 2 4.8 Electrical Hazards: Class I, Group D Combustible. 4.9 Burning Rate: 1 mm/min. Fire 8. HAZARD CLASSIFICATIONS Wear goggles, self-contained breathing apparatus, and rubber over- 4.10 Adiabatic Flame Temperature: Currently clothing (including gloves).
  • HEATS of COMBUSTION of DIAMOND and of GRAPHITE by Ralph S

    HEATS of COMBUSTION of DIAMOND and of GRAPHITE by Ralph S

    r---------------___........,._ . _____~ ~_ U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS RESEARCH PAPER RP1140 Part of Journal of Research of the }.{ational Bureau of Standards, Volume 21, October 1938 HEATS OF COMBUSTION OF DIAMOND AND OF GRAPHITE By Ralph S. Jessup ABSTRACT Measurements were made of the heats of combustion of one artificial graphite, two natural graphites, and two samples of diamond. The bomb calorimeter used was calibrated electrically and by means of benzoic acid. The amount of reaction in each combustion experiment was determined from the mass of carbon dioxide formed. This method of determining the amount of reaction automatically eliminates the effect of unburned carbon and of some impurities. It was found, however, that results for different samples did not agree unless the samples were purified. Two methods of purification were used: (a) heating in vacuo to 1,800° C and (b) treatment with hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids and subsequent heating in vacuo to 200° C to remove traces of the acids. Both methods yielded graphite containing only small amounts of impurities. The mean value obtained for the heat of combustion (-/lH) of the purified graphites in oxygen at 25° C and a constant pressure of 1 atmosphere to form gaseous carbon dioxide at the same temperature and pressure was 393.396 international kilojoules per mole (44.010 g of CO2). The maximum deviation of the mean value for anyone of the purified samples from this value was 0.021 percent. The two samples of diamond, purified by treatment with aqueous hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids and subsequently heated in vacuo to about 570° C, had average particle sizes of 2.5 I'- and 39.5 1'-, respectively, and yielded the following respective mean values for the heat of combustion (-/lH) at 25° C and 1 atmos­ phere, in oxygen to form gaseous carbon dioxide: 395.771 and 395.287 interna­ tional kilojoules per mole.
  • Model Vulcanization Systems for Butyl Rubber and Halobutyl Rubber Manual

    Model Vulcanization Systems for Butyl Rubber and Halobutyl Rubber Manual

    Exxon™ butyl and halobutyl rubber Model vulcanization systems for butyl rubber and halobutyl rubber manual Country name(s) 2 - Model vulcanization systems for butyl rubber and halobutyl rubber manual Model vulcanization systems for butyl rubber and halobutyl rubber manual - 3 Abstract The vulcanization of isobutylene-co-isoprene rubber (IIR), brominated isobutylene-co-isoprene rubber (BIIR), chlorinated isobutylene-co-isoprene rubber (CIIR), and brominated isobutylene-co-para-methylstyrene elastomer (BIMSM) differs from that of general-purpose rubbers (GPR). Butyl rubber has approximately 2% unsaturation in the backbone. Halobutyl rubber (BIIR and CIIR) incorporates the butyl backbone with either bromine or chlorine, which significantly increases the chemical reactivity of the isoprenyl units located in the butyl backbone. Similarly, in BIMSM the bromine atom is bonded to the para-methylstyrene (PMS) group, thus affording the completely saturated polymer backbone a site of chemical reactivity. Utilization of the unique attributes of butyl rubber and halobutyl rubbers with their minimal backbone unsaturation and of BIMSM elastomers with no backbone unsaturation is found in many areas of industry. These properties are excellent vapor impermeation, resistance to heat degradation, and improved chemical resistance as compared to general-purpose rubbers. However, this low amount of reactivity requires special consideration to vulcanize these isobutylene-based polymers. The type of vulcanization system selected is a function of the composite structure in which it is used, and the cured product performance requirements. Therefore, vulcanization systems vary and may include an accelerator package along with resins, zinc oxide, zinc oxide and sulfur, and quinoid systems. This review will discuss the types and selection of appropriate vulcanization systems for isobutylene-based elastomers.
  • Chemistry Grade Span 9/10

    Chemistry Grade Span 9/10

    Chemistry Grade Span 9/10 Carbon and Carbon Compounds Subject Matter and Methodological Competencies • name the allotropes of carbon and use them to explain the relationship between its structure and properties • state the characteristics of the oxides of carbon • conduct experiments to o detect evidence of carbon dioxide o detect evidence of carbonates (using carbon dioxide detection) o describe the natural formation and decay processes of carbonates and hydrogen carbonates and use this to explain a simple model of the carbon cycle Natural Gas and Crude Oil Subject Matter and Methodological Competencies • identify natural gas, crude oil and coal as fossil fuels • explain the causes and consequences of increasing carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere • discuss the economic and ecological consequences of the production and transport of natural gas and crude oil • apply knowledge of substance mixtures and substance separation using the example of fractional distillation of petroleum • describe the molecular structure of the gaseous alkanes using chemical formulas, structural formulas and simplified structural formulas • conduct experiments to o examine the flammability and solubility of selected alkanes o determine that water and carbon dioxide are the products of combustion o explain the relationship between the construction, properties and uses of important alkanes (e.g. methane - natural gas, propane and butane - liquid gas, octane - gasoline, decane - diesel, octadecane - paraffin candle wax) o explain the cohesion of alkane
  • Emissions from Small-Scale Combustion of Biomass Fuels - Extensive Quantification and Characterization

    Emissions from Small-Scale Combustion of Biomass Fuels - Extensive Quantification and Characterization

    Emissions from small-scale combustion of biomass fuels - extensive quantification and characterization Christoffer Boman Anders Nordin Marcus Öhman Dan Boström Energy Technology and Thermal Process Chemistry Umeå University Roger Westerholm Analytical Chemistry, Arrhenius Laboratory Stockholm University _______________________________________________________________ Emissions from small-scale combustion of biomass fuels - extensive quantification and characterization Christoffer Boman1, Anders Nordin1, Roger Westerholm2, Marcus Öhman1, Dan Boström1 1Energy Technology and Thermal Process Chemistry, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden 2Analytical Chemistry, Arrhenius Laboratory, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden STEM-BHM (P12648-1 and P21906-1) Umeå, February 2005 SUMMARY This work was a part of the Swedish national research program concerning emissions and air quality ("Utsläpp och Luftkvalitet") with the sub-programme concerning biomass, health and environment ("Biobränlen, Hälsa, Miljö" - BHM). The main objective of the work was to systematically determine the quantities and characteristics of gaseous and particulate emissions from combustion in residential wood log and biomass fuel pellet appliances and report emission factors for the most important emission components. The specific focus was on present commercial wood and pellet stoves as well as to illustrate the potentials for future technology development. The work was divided in different sub- projects; 1) a literature review of health effects of ambient wood