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Environmental Governance of Coasts Janette Shaw B.Sc (Hons)

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Environmental Governance of Coasts Janette Shaw B.Sc (Hons) Environmental Governance of Coasts Janette Shaw B.Sc (Hons) La Trobe University M. En. St. University of Melbourne Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Tasmania September 2014 Declaration of Originality This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for a degree or diploma by the University or any other institution, except by way of background information and duly acknowledged in the thesis, and to the best of my knowledge and belief no material previously published or written by another person except where due acknowledgement is made in the text of the thesis, nor does the thesis contain any material that infringes copyright. Janette Shaw Date ii Authority of Access This thesis may be made available for loan. Copying and communication of any part of this thesis is prohibited for two years from the date this statement was signed; after that time limited copying and communication is permitted in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968. Janette Shaw Date Statement regarding published work contained in thesis (where applicable) The publishers of the papers (see below) comprising material in Chapter One Section 1.5 hold the copyright for that content, and access to the material should be sought from the respective journals. The remaining non published content of the thesis may be made available for loan and limited copying and communication in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968. Shaw, J. R. 2008. Coastal planning and conservation: what next for Victoria’s eastern coastline? Proceedings of Conserv-Vision Conference. The University of Waikato. New Zealand. Shaw, J. R. 2010. The Sustainability of Coastal Planning: An Australian Example. The International Journal of Environmental, Cultural, Economic and Social Sustainability. 6:45-54. Janette Shaw Date iii Other Publications and Presentations during the course of this thesis Jan Shaw. 2012. ‘Knowledge and the Next Generation in Coastal Management’. Coastal Research Forum. Australian Coastal Councils Conference. National Sea Change Taskforce. Hobart. Beverley Clarke, Laura Stocker, Brian Coffey, Peat Leith, Nick Harvey, Claudia Baldwin,Tom Baxter, Gonni Bruekers, Chiara Danese Galano, Meg Good, Marcus Haward, Carolyn Hofmeester, Debora Martins de Freitas,;Taryn Mumford, Melissa Nursey-Bray, Lorne Kriwoken, Jenny Shaw, Janette Shaw, Tim Smith, Dana Thomsen and David Wood. 2013. Enhancing the Knowledge-Governance Interface: Coasts, Climate and Collaboration’ Ocean and Coastal Management 86: 88- 99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2013.02.009 . Jan Shaw. 2012. ‘Managing Coastal and Marine Ecosystems in Australia – Environmental Governance’. paper presented at Coast to Coast 2012 Conference. Brisbane. iv Acknowledgments I am indebted to my supervisors, Professor Marcus Haward, Professor Chad Hewitt and Dr Andy Fischer. Firstly, I wish to thank my primary supervisor, Professor Marcus Haward for his constant guidance, enthusiasm, intelligent creativity, expansive mind, professional manner and positivity that made this project possible. Thank you to Professor Chad Hewitt for his enthusiasm on environmental and academic discussions, scholarship support and practical assistance. My appreciation also goes to Dr Andy Fischer for his assistance with critique, conference presentation, scientific merit and funding. I would like to express my gratitude to CSIRO Collaboration Coastal Cluster for funding support. I also would like to thank the Commonwealth Government for the Australian Postgraduate Award scholarship, and the University of Tasmania for its associated administrative support. I am very appreciative of the academic, administrative and funding assistance provided to me by the Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies (IMAS), University of Tasmania. I would also like to thank the Australian Maritime College (AMC), University of Tasmania for administrative and funding assistance and other practical support. I am particularly indebted to all the individuals that gave up their time for the undertaking of interviews. I also wish to thank my husband and son for their support and constant light- heartiness. v Abstract The problem of managing Australia’s coasts has been a focus of concern for at least the past three decades. The Australian Government’s State of the Environment Report in 2011 recognised that “our coasts, as well as being some of the our most iconic natural areas, are some of Australia’s most heavily settled areas,” but noted continued environmental degradation and decreasing environmental sustainability of coastal regions, where “’business as usual’ is likely to lead to undesirable outcomes for coast.” This thesis utilises the emerging field of environmental governance as a lens to examine progress in environmental management of the coast. Environmental governance has dealt with processes of efficiency, effectiveness, institutional arrangements, social justice and capacity building, but much of this literature focuses on process and lacks an outcome and performance orientation. A review of the environmental governance literature drawing on natural resource management, ecology, management theory, politics and international law, was undertaken. This review, highlighting specifically Driessen et al’s insights that environmental governance includes “all kinds of measure deliberately taken to prevent, reduce and/or mitigate harmful effects on the environment” and “the means by which society determines and acts on goals related to the management of the environment” identified key criteria of environmental governance. These criteria were considered to provide a robust base to a framework of analysis to apply to empirical examples to assess achievement of environmental management goals. These criteria are: environmental objectives in strategic planning, spatial links to ecological techniques, thresholds and feedback loops, advocacy, and knowledge management. The empirical focus of research centres on three selected case studies of natural resource management in coastal areas of Victoria, Australia. The case studies of terrestrial (wetlands) and freshwater management (environmental flows) are generally neglected in coastal management that tends to focus on littoral or marine issues. A third case study of marine protected areas encompasses both coastal and marine areas. These cases studies; freshwater environmental flows, coastal wetlands management, and marine protected areas are government programs interacting with community and other actors. While there are constraints in analysis from a limited number of case studies that cover a large, but not all, area of vi Victoria’s coastal zone, these data can, however, provide important insights in outcome focused environmental governance. Analysis of the cases showed that environmental objectives in strategic planning, spatial links to ecological techniques, advocacy and knowledge management were found to be major contributors to achievement of environmental management goals in each of the case studies with thresholds and monitoring, the criterion least subscribed to in the three case studies. The extended period of time taken to get spatial components allocated to the environment has contributed to this. These processes took well over 20 years, lowering the immediate importance of thresholds and monitoring. Recent emphasis has been on monitoring, definition of ecological character and resilience. At a micro scale, the research also highlighted that objectives developed outside of government, the importance of science, paid advocacy and including knowledge suitable for the general public contribute to achieving progress in environmental governance. This lengthy time period to achieve key goals in all three case studies is a major finding. This is most notable in terms of environmental flows (27 years), and marine reserves (24 years). It was found that is was impossible to move quickly on environmental objectives, given the impact of institutional arrangements, and management structures, the need for research and agreement on science techniques, as well as gaining broad community support. In addition it was noted that extremely lengthy implementation periods made the development of thresholds and feedback loops extremely unlikely. Advocacy that was paid or resourced from government was a critical factor, as was compensation. It was found that science was extremely important in the negotiations for the environment and that the “hard yards” of negotiating with key user groups were unavoidable. Knowledge management pointed to the critical nature of providing information in forms that the public can understand including the terms that were used and the descriptions that they could relate to. Existing property rights and land tenure contributed to the lengthy time to achieve performance along with getting the public and others to understand the issues involved. Analysis of the case study data also enabled a checklist for environmental governance to be developed. This evolution in environmental governance is a substantial step to assist performance. vii Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................................................................................. V ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................. VI INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1 OBJECTIVES AND AIMS ...........................................................................................
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