Notes Introduction 1. “American Troops in Newfoundland,” London Times (January 30, 1941), 3. 2. For Newfoundlanders, the big troopship was like a floating city—it had a “modern” hospital, dental services, a gym, swimming pool, and a large assembly hall for films and other entertainments. St. John’s Telegram (February 1, 1941), 7. In April, the troopship was opened to thousands of St. John’s residents. The following day’s edition of the Evening Telegram included four photos showing Newfoundlanders thronging the ship (engine room, office, gang plank; and a corridor). The people of St. John’s were said to have enthusiastically entered into the spirit of Army Day. St. John’s Telegram (April 5, 1941), 12. 3. While the ship left the pier at First Avenue and 58th Street at 2:30 pm on January 15, it did not get underway for another hour as the vessel had lurched against the pier “breaking glass in several port-holes and scraping a forty-foot swath out of the gray paint along one side.” “First Defenders Off for New Base,” New York Times (January 16, 1941), 23. 4. Harold Denny, “We Begin to Man Our New Bases,” New York Times (January 19, 1941), E6. The description of the ship’s departure can be found in “First Defenders Off for New Base,” New York Times (January 16, 1941), 23. 5. “Assembly Again Debates Bases for United States Here,” Royal Gazette and Daily Colonist (Tuesday, November 26, 1940), 1–2. 6. Eric Williams, From Slavery to Chaguaramas. Speech Delivered by the Premier at Arima. July 17, 1959. Found in the “Chaguaramas” vertical file at the National Library of Trinidad and Tobago. 7. Eric Williams, Inward Hunger (London: Andre Deutsch, 1981), 209. 8. Frederick Cooper, Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 23. See also Frederick Cooper and Ann Laura Stoler, eds., Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), vii; 1 9. Frederick Cooper, Colonialism in Question, 27. 10. The United States of course acquired a formal empire with the conquest of the West and overseas expansion to Hawaii, Guam, the Philippines and Puerto Rico. Yet its informal empire reached far beyond. The British Empire, by contrast, occupied one quarter of the earth’s land mass after the scramble for Africa. This distinction between formal and informal empire can be found in Stuart Creighton Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation”: The American 206 NOTES Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), 13–14. See also Editors, “United States Bases and Empire,” Monthly Review 53, 10 (March 2002), 13. 11. British Overseas Planning Committee. Plan of Propaganda to the West Indies. 12 January 1943. File 5404–5-40C Part 1. Volume 3217. RG 25. National Archives of Canada (NAC). “Contact zones” are not geographic places with “stable significations” but sites of negotiation, borrowing and exchange. Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London: Routledge, 1992). 12. The notion of “friendly invasion” later prevailed in wartime Great Britain, Australia, and other allied countries that hosted United States forces in great numbers. There is a rich and varied literature relating to each. For Great Britain, see John Reynolds, Rich Relations: The American Occupation of Britain, 1942–45 (New York: Random House, 1995); and Sonya O. Rose, “Sex, Citizenship and the Nation in World War II Britain,” American Historical Review 103, 4 (October 1998), 1147–1176. Australia is explored in Marilyn Lake, “Desire for a Yank,” International History Review 19, 1 (February 1997), 34–60; Kay Saunders, “Conflict between the American and Australian Governments over the Introduction of Black American Servicemen into Australia during WWII,” Australian Journal of Politics and History 33, 2 (1987), 39–46; Kay Saunders and Helen Taylor, “The Reception of American Servicemen in Australia during WWII: The Resilience of White Australia,” Journal of Black Studies (June 1988), 331–348; as well as E. Daniel Potts and Annette Potts, Yanks Down Under 1941–1945: The American Impact on Australia (Oxford University Press, 1985). The key works on mainland Canada include William R. Morrison and Kenneth A. Coates, Working the North: Labor and the Northwest Defense Projects, 1942–46 (Alaska: University of Alaska, 1994); and Kenneth Coates and William R. Morrison, The Alaska Highway in World War II: The US Army of Occupation in Canada’s Northwest (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992). The meaning of the “friendly invasion” for women in Newfoundland is explored in Cecelia Benoit, “Urbanizing Women Military Fashion: The Case of Stephenville Women,” in McGrath, Barbara Neis and Marilyn Porter, eds., Their Lives and Times, Women in Newfoundland and Labrador: A Collage (St. John’s: Killick Press, 1995); Peter Neary, “Venereal Disease and Public Health Administration in Newfoundland in the 1930s and 1940s,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 15 (1998), 129–151; and Katherine Anne Ling, “ ‘Share of the Sacrifice’: Newfoundland Servicewives in the Second World War” (Ph.D. thesis, St. John’s: Memorial University, 2001). 13. Stephen Constantine, The Making of British Colonial Development Policy, 1914–1940 (London: Frank Cass, 1984), 288. 14. Sir John Campbell quoted in Stephen Constantine, The Making of British Colonial Development Policy, 1914–1940 (London: Frank Cass, 1984), 235. 15. J.M. Lee, Colonial Development and Good Government: A Study of the Ideas Expressed by the British Official Classes in Planning Decolonization, 1939–1964 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967), 21–22. 16. Beth Bailey and David Farber, The First Strange Place: The Alchemy of Race and Sex in World War II Hawaii (New York: Free Press, 1992). Somewhat related are those studies of the peacetime occupation of former enemy countries. Studies of postwar Germany and Japan (especially Okinawa), for NOTES 207 example, have concentrated on the issues of race, gender and national identity: John Willoughby, “The Sexual Behavior of American GIs during the Early Years of the Occupation of Germany,” Journal of Military History 62 (January 1998), 155–174; Laura Hein and Mark Selden, eds., Islands of Discontent: Okinawan Responses to Japanese and American Power (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2003); and Michael S. Molasky, The American Occupation of Japan and Okinawa: Literature and Memory (New York: Routledge, 2001). 17. Sonya Rose, “Sex, Citizenship and the Nation in World War II Britain,” American Historical Review 103, 4 (October 1998), 1147–1176; Marilyn Lake, “Desire for a Yank,” International History Review 19, 1 (February 1997), 34–60. See also Sonya O. Rose, “Race, Empire and British Wartime National Identity, 1939–45,” Historical Research 74, 184 (May 2001), 220–237. 18. Harvey Neptune, Caliban and the Yankees: Trinidad and the US Occupation (Durham: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), introduction. The quotation comes from Neptune’s dissertation, “Forging Trinidad, Facing America: Colonial Trinidad and the United States Occupation, 1930–1947” (Ph.D., New York: New York University, 2002), 7. 19. The unfolding economic and political situation in Newfoundland has similarly been explored in Peter Neary. Newfoundland in the North Atlantic World, 1929–1949 (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1988); and his “ ‘A Mortgaged Property’: The Impact of the United States on Newfoundland, 1940–49,” in Jim Hiller and Peter Neary, eds., Twentieth-Century Newfoundland: Explorations (St. John’s: Breakwater, 1994). See also Jeff A. Webb, “VOUS—Voice of the United States: The Armed Forces Radio Service in Newfoundland,” Journal of Radio Studies 11, 1 (2004); Malcolm Macleod, Peace of the Continent: The Impact of Second World War American Bases in Newfoundland (St. John’s: Harry Cuff Publications, 1986); and David MacKenzie, “A North Atlantic Outpost: The American Military in Newfoundland, 1941–1945,” War & Society 22, 2 (October 2002), 51–73. 20. The Caribbean historiography includes Fitzroy Andre Baptiste in War, Cooperation and Conflict: The European Possessions in the Caribbean, 1939–45 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988), O. Nigel Bolland, The Politics of Labour in the British Caribbean (Princeton: Markus Wien Publishers, 2004), and Cary Fraser, Ambivalent Anti-colonialism: The United States and the Genesis of West Indian Independence (New York: Greenwood Press, 1994) as well as a number of articles including Howard Johnson, “The Anglo-American Caribbean Commission and the Extension of American Influence in the British Caribbean, 1942–45,” Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative History 22, 2 (1984), 180–203. 21. Stetson Conn and Byron Fairchild’s The Western Hemisphere: The Framework of Hemispheric Defense (Washington, DC: Center of Military History of the U.S. Army, 1958) and in Stetson Conn, Fairchild and Rose C. Engleman’s The Western Hemisphere: Guarding the United States and Its Outposts (Washington, DC: Center of Military History of the U.S. Army, 1964). Another useful study produced by official U.S. Army historians is Colonel Stanley W. Dziuban, Military Relations between the United States and Canada, 1939–45 (Washington, DC: Center of Military History of the U.S. Army, 1959). 208 NOTES 22. Charlie Whitham, “On Dealing with Gangsters: The Limits of British ‘Generosity’ in the Leasing of Bases to the United States, 1940–41,” Diplomacy & Statecraft 7, 3 (November 1996), 589–630. 23. Mary A. Renda, Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the Culture of U.S. Imperialism, 1915–1940 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 21. 24. Stephen Frenkel, “Geographical Representations of the ‘Other’: The Landscape of the Panama Canal Zone,” Journal of Historical Geography 28, 1 (2002), 85–99. 25. Ibid., 85. 26. The story of the 99th Anti-Aircraft Artillery unit is told in Annette Palmer, “The Politics of Race and War: Black American Soldiers in the Caribbean Theatre during the Second World War,” Military Affairs 47, 2 (April 1983). 27. David Brody, “Building Empire: Architecture and American Imperialism in the Philippines,” JAAS (2001), 123–145.