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And Up-Converters in 433 Mhz ISM Band sensors Article Indoor Positioning System Based on Global Positioning System Signals with Down- and Up-Converters in 433 MHz ISM Band Abdulkadir Uzun 1,2 , Firas Abdul Ghani 1 , Amir Mohsen Ahmadi Najafabadi 1, Hüsnü Yenigün 3 and Ibrahim˙ Tekin 1,* 1 Electronics Engineering, Sabanci University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey; [email protected] (A.U.); fi[email protected] (F.A.G.); [email protected] (A.M.A.N.) 2 Radar Electronic Warfare and Intelligence Systems Division, ASELSAN A.¸S.,Istanbul 34906, Turkey 3 Computer Science and Engineering, Sabanci University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +90-(216)-483-9534 Abstract: In this paper, an indoor positioning system using Global Positioning System (GPS) signals in the 433 MHz Industrial Scientific Medical (ISM) band is proposed, and an experimental demonstration of how the proposed system operates under both line-of-sight and non-line-of-sight conditions on a building floor is presented. The proposed method is based on down-converting (DC) repeaters and an up-converting (UC) receiver. The down-conversion is deployed to avoid the restrictions on the use of Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) repeaters, to achieve higher output power, and to expose the GPS signals to lower path loss. The repeaters receive outdoor GPS signals at 1575.42 MHz (L1 band), down-convert them to the 433 MHz ISM band, then amplify and retransmit them to the indoor environment. The front end up-converter is combined with an off-the-shelf GPS receiver. When GPS signals at 433 MHz are received by the up-converting receiver, it then amplifies and up-converts these signals back to the L1 frequency. Subsequently, the off-the-shelf GPS receiver Citation: Uzun, A.; Ghani, F.A.; calculates the pseudo-ranges. The raw data are then sent from the receiver over a 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi link Ahmadi Najafabadi, A.M.; Yenigün, H.; Tekin, I.˙ Indoor Positioning to a remote computer for data processing and indoor position estimation. Each repeater also has an System Based on Global Positioning attenuator to adjust its amplification level so that each repeater transmits almost equal signal levels System Signals with Down- and in order to prevent jamming of the off-the-shelf GPS receiver. Experimental results demonstrate that Up-Converters in 433 MHz ISM Band. the indoor position of a receiver can be found with sub-meter accuracy under both line-of-sight and Sensors 2021, 21, 4338. https:// non-line-of-sight conditions. The estimated position was found to be 54 and 98 cm away from the doi.org/10.3390/s21134338 real position, while the 50% circular error probable (CEP) of the collected samples showed a radius of 3.3 and 4 m, respectively, for line-of-sight and non-line-of-sight cases. Academic Editor: Simon Tomažiˇc Keywords: down-conversion; GPS; indoor positioning; navigation; RF repeaters; up-conversion Received: 26 May 2021 Accepted: 18 June 2021 Published: 25 June 2021 1. Introduction Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in Global indoor positioning is an emerging market whose size is forecast to grow published maps and institutional affil- from USD 6.1 billion to USD 17.0 billion by 2025 [1]. Many researchers, in the field of iations. indoor positioning, have proposed different solutions to solve this sophisticated problem. Some of the proposed technologies for indoor positioning are based on IEEE 802.11 [2–7], Bluetooth [8–11], Zigbee [12], radio frequency identification devices (RFIDs) [13], visible light [14], acoustic [15,16], and ultrasound [17,18]. GNSS-based solutions have also proven to be a candidate for the indoor positioning problem [19–21]. Some of the GNSS-based Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. solutions are based on high sensitivity GNSS (HS-GNSS) [22], assisted GNSS (A-GNSS) [23], This article is an open access article pseudolites [24–31], GNSS repeaters [32,33], repealites [34,35], and peer-to-peer cooperative distributed under the terms and positioning [36]. Among the GNSS-based techniques, HS-GNSS and A-GNSS technologies conditions of the Creative Commons require no infrastructure within the indoor environment, while pseudolite and repeater- Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// based approaches require infrastructure. creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Ideally, from a navigational point of view, a GPS-based solution to the indoor posi- 4.0/). tioning problem would result in integrated outdoor and indoor applications such as asset Sensors 2021, 21, 4338. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21134338 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors Sensors 2021, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 24 Sensors 2021, 21, 4338 tive positioning [36]. Among the GNSS-based techniques, HS-GNSS and A-GNSS tech-2 of 23 nologies require no infrastructure within the indoor environment, while pseudolite and repeater-based approaches require infrastructure. Ideally, from a navigational point of view, a GPS-based solution to the indoor posi- tioningtracking, problem vehicular would navigation, result in integrated and emergency outdoor services. and indoor However, applications GPS-based such as asset solutions tracking,currently vehicular experience navigation, a multitude and of emergency weaknesses services. due to However, (a) reflections GPS- andbased multipath solutions errors currentlyfrom the ex indoorperience environment, a multitude of (b) weaknesses attenuation due (up to (a) to reflections 30 dB [37 and]) from multipath walls errors and other fromstructural the indoor components, environment, (c) non-line-of-sight (b) attenuation (up conditions to 30 dB caused[37]) from by walls corners and and other objects, (d)structural changes components, in the indoor (c) non environment-line-of-sight due conditions to people caused and movingby corners objects, and objects, and (e) (d) RF de- changesvices operating in the indoor in the environment same frequency due bandto people and and their moving interference objects, to and the ( indoore) RF devices positioning operatingsystem. in the same frequency band and their interference to the indoor positioning sys- tem. In addition to the listed drawbacks, GPS-based systems operating in L1, L2, and L5 bandsIn alsoaddit sufferion to the from listed the drawbacks, restrictions GPS on- thebased use systems of GNSS operating repeaters. in L1, Such L2, and restrictions L5 bandsaim to also prevent suffer repeatersfrom the restrictions from interfering on the use with of otherGNSS GNSSrepeaters. systems Such restrictions in the vicinity. aim The toElectronic prevent repeaters Communications from interfering Committee with (ECC),other GNSS European systems Telecommunication in the vicinity. The StandardsElec- trInstituteonic Communications (ETSI), and the Committee US policy (ECC), “Manual European of Regulations Telecommunication and Procedures Standards for In- Federal stituteRadio (ETSI), Frequency and the Management” US policy “Manual present of theRegulations practices and and Procedures restrictions for on Federal the use Radio of GNSS Frequency Management” present the practices and restrictions on the use of GNSS repeat- repeaters [38–41]. These standards reduce the coverage of GPS repeaters by limiting the ers [38–41]. These standards reduce the coverage of GPS repeaters by limiting the output output power and the maximum allowable amplification for repeater structures in the L1, power and the maximum allowable amplification for repeater structures in the L1, L2, and L2, and L5 frequency bands. L5 frequency bands. In [32,42], a GPS-based indoor positioning technique with three repeaters is shown; In [32,42], a GPS-based indoor positioning technique with three repeaters is shown; however, the the repeaters repeaters operate operate solely solely in inthe the L1 L1band band and and,, therefore, therefore, are restricted are restricted to the to the aforementioned restrictive restrictive policies policies in intheir their usage. usage. ThisThis paper presents aa newnew GPS-based GPS-based approach approach that that does does not not contradict contradict the the restrictions re- strictionsin the aforementioned in the aforementioned standards. standards. The proposed The proposed indoor indoor positioning positioning system system in this in paper thisoperates paper in operates the 433 in MHz the ISM433 MHz band, ISM hence band, it is hence not subject it is not to subject the amplification to the amplification restrictions in restrictionsGPS frequencies. in GPS The frequencies. proposed The repeaters proposed down-convert repeaters down GPS-convert signals GPS in the signals 1575.42 in MHzthe (L1 1575.42band) to MHz the 433(L1 MHzband) ISM to the band, 433 allowing MHz ISM signal band, coverage allowing to signal be increased, coverage with to be the in- higher creased,permitted with power the higher levels permitted in the 433 power MHZ levels ISM band.in the In433 addition MHZ ISM to band. the higher In addition power to levels thepermitted higher power in the levels 433 MHz permitted ISM band, in the the 433 free MHz space ISM pathband, loss the infree the space 433 path MHz loss frequency in theis 11.22 433 MHz dB less, frequency as presented is 11.22 indB Figure less, as1, presented while the in penetration Figure 1, while through the penetration walls is higher throughthan at 1575.42walls is MHz higher (GPS than frequency) at 1575.42 or MHz 2.4 GHz (GPS (Wi-Fi frequency) frequency). or 2.4 Therefore,GHz (Wi-Fi in fre- terms of quency).coverage Therefore, and compatibility in terms withof coverage existing and rules compatibility on the use with of repeaters, existing therules proposed on the use system ofcould repeaters, outperform the proposed the existing system indoor could positioning outperform systems the existing that areindoor operating positioning at frequencies sys- temshigher that than are 433operating MHz. at frequencies higher than 433 MHz. Figure 1. Free space path loss at 2.4 GHz, 1575.42 MHz, and 433 MHz. Figure 1. Free space path loss at 2.4 GHz, 1575.42 MHz, and 433 MHz.
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