CONCEPTS AND POLICIES 17 OF ASSIMILATION

CONCEPTS AND POLICIES OF ASSIMILATION

Planning your FIRST STEPS learning journey The process of absorbing one cultural group into What are some policies of another is known as assimilation. Assimilation assimilation that the Canadian can be pursued through government policy,1 which is what the Canadian government has attempted government has enacted on to do over the course of much of its relationship Indigenous Peoples? with , Métis and . These policies of assimilation have had devastating impacts on Indigenous Peoples and communities, many of which can still be felt today.

CONCEPTS AND POLICIES OF ASSIMILATION The following concepts and policies relate to the assimilation methods used by the Government of toward Indigenous Peoples. Some are general concepts, while others are specific programs or legislation.

British North America Act (1867): The BNA Act put “Indians, and Lands reserved for the Indians” under the exclusive legislative authority of the Parliament of Canada.2 Also known as the Constitution Act, this legislation established the Dominion of Canada.3 The act allowed the Department of Indian Affairs to develop national policies that impacted Indigenous people and “set more local policies in a national context.”4 PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN EN ROUTE TO RED DEER, ALBERTA CREDIT: WOODRUFF / LIBRARY AND ARCHIVES CANADA / PA-040715RESTRICTIONS ON USE: NIL COPYRIGHT Colonialism: Colonialism refers to the aggressive seizure of Indigenous lands and the permanent settlement of European A group of students and parents from the Saddle Lake settlers on those lands.5 This has led to the physical, social, Reserve (Alberta), en route to the Methodist-operated cultural and political displacement of Indigenous Peoples.6 Red Deer Indian Industrial School, Alberta, date unknown. Cultural Genocide: According to the • Killing members of the group Truth and Reconciliation Commission • Causing serious bodily or mental harm of Canada, “Cultural genocide is the to members of the group destruction of those structures and • Deliberately inflicting on the group practices that allow the group to continue as a group. States that engage conditions of life calculated to bring in cultural genocide set out to destroy about its physical destruction in whole the political and social institutions of or in part the targeted group. Land is seized, and • Imposing measures intended to pre- populations are forcibly transferred vent births within the group and their movement is restricted. • Forcibly transferring children of the Languages are banned. Spiritual leaders 19 are persecuted, spiritual practices are group to another group.’” forbidden, and objects of spiritual value Gradual Civilization Act (1857): This are confiscated and destroyed. And, act was intended to “encourage the most significantly to the issue at hand, Eskimo identification tag E.6-215 progress of Civilization among the families are disrupted to prevent the Photo reprinted with permission of Indian Tribes in this Province, and the transmission of cultural values and Barry Pottle, https://barrypottle.com. gradual removal of all legal distinctions identity from one generation to the next. between them and Her Majesty’s other In its dealing with Aboriginal people, Canadian Subjects.”20 Indian males over Canada did all these things.”7 Eurocentrism: Eurocentrism “[p] the age of 21 who could read, write and Doctrine of Discovery: The Doctrine resupposes the supremacy of Europe speak in English or French and were of Discovery was a framework that and Europeans in world culture, and of good moral character could apply European explorers used to justify their relates history according to a European to be enfranchised. Under the Gradual claims to territory that was uninhabited perception and experience.”14 Civilization Act, only one individual by Christians. Because Indigenous applied for enfranchisement.21 peoples were not Christian, they were Forced Relocation: First Nations, Métis (1876): The Indian Act is deemed nonhuman and thus their land and Inuit have all been subjected to the legislation that governs Indian could be freely taken, a concept known forced relocation at the hands of the status, local First Nations governance, as terra nullius.8 The United Nations has Canadian government. The Reserve First Nations lands and First Nations denounced the Doctrine of Discovery as system was established under the monies.22 It has gone through many “the root of all the discrimination and Indian Act and through treaty in order amendments. The 1880 amendment to the marginalization [I]ndigenous peoples to force First Nations to transition to an 15 Indian Act outlawed spiritual practices faced today.”9 agriculturally based lifestyle. Métis have been forcibly relocated several such as the Sundance23 and Potlatch. Enfranchisement: Enfranchisement is times over the course of history.16 This Spiritually significant ceremonial the termination of legal Indian status, displacement eventually led to their items were confiscated and dispersed rights and identity. Those who became unofficial title of “road allowance to collectors and museums around the enfranchised would then gain full people,” since they established makeshift world.24 The 1914 amendment to the act Canadian citizenship. Enfranchisement communities in the unused crown land criminalized the wearing of regalia and was central to the Canadian government’s next to the side of roads.17 In the 1950s, the performance of “any Indian dance.” assimilation policies toward Status First the Government of Canada wanted The punishment was a fine of $25 and/ Nations people.10 Status Indians could to assert its sovereignty in the Arctic or imprisonment for one month.25 These be forcibly enfranchised for becoming a and reduce administrative costs of bans remained in effect until 1951. The doctor, lawyer or member of the clergy, government programs, and therefore Indian Act remains in force today. or for serving in the military. As well, an began the forcible relocation of Inuit Indian woman who married a non-Status families and communities. Some of Métis Scrip: Scrip was a policy of the man would have her Status taken.11 these moves happened in the middle Canadian government to deal with Métis of winter, meaning that the rocks they land title. “Half-breed” scrip, as it was Eskimo Tag System: From 1945 until the would typically use to build their winter officially known, was granted to those 1970s, Inuit were forced to register with homes, quamma, had already been Métis who met the criteria set out by the the Canadian government and wear an frozen under the snow. Instead they had Government of Canada. It was issued in identification tag around their neck or to make due with their summer shelters, the form of a certificate valued at either wrist at all times. This was due to the tupiq, made out of animal skins, leaving $160 or $240 or acres of land. Throughout fact that the federal government did not them vulnerable to the harsh winter the scrip process, scrip speculators understand Inuit naming systems, and conditions. As a result, people died. Inuit committed widespread fraud. In the the Inuit way of naming did not follow were moved up to 2,000 km from their early 1920s, Canada’s Senate changed the standard English spelling.12 Tags started homes, to much harsher climates and Criminal Code to effectively decriminalize with an E for eastern or W for western, landscapes. Families were separated, and this fraudulent activity. This sparked followed by a four-digit number. The the impacts have been devastating.18 outrage among the Métis, some of whom architect of the system, A G Mackinnon, became politically active as a result.26 was the medical officer at Pangnirtung Genocide: According to the United in the Northwest Territories in 1935. He Nations, “Genocide is defined in Article 2 Pass System: The Red River Resistance said, “As far as the Eskimo is concerned, of the Convention on the Prevention and (1869–1870) and the North West it does seem to me that this names Punishment of the Crime of Genocide Resistance (1880) were used as business is of no great concern to them. (1948) as ‘any of the following acts justification for the pass system, which They have got on nicely for a long time committed with intent to destroy, in was enforced from 1885 until the 1940s. without cluttering up their minds with whole or in part, a national, ethnical, Under the pass system, First Nations such details.”13 racial or religious group, as such: people living on reserve required a

Walking Together: Education for Reconciliation written pass from their Indian Agent to NEXT STEPS leave the reserve for any reason. Parents required a pass to visit their children at residential school, and Indian Agents »»» were encouraged to permit no more than Indigenous Peoples and four visits per year.27 Government officials communities continue to feel acknowledged that the pass system the lasting impacts of policies violated Canadian law; the architect of the of assimilation enacted by system, Assistant Indian Commissioner the Canadian government. Hayter Reed said, “I am adopting the This is seen primarily in the system of keeping the Indians on their form of intergenerational respective Reserves and not allowing any trauma, which is when [to] leave them without passes—I know trauma and stress are passed this is hardly supportable by any legal from one generation to the enactment but we must do many things next.40 “Intergenerational which can only be supported by common trauma is usually seen sense.”28 within one family in which Paternalism: “Paternalism is the the parents or grandparents interference of a state or an individual were traumatized, and each with another person, against their will, PHOTO COURTESY OF THE PROVINCIAL ARCHIVES OF generation of that family and defended or motivated by a claim SASKATCHEWAN AND USED WITH PERMISSION. continues to experience that the person interfered with will be trauma in some form… Direct 29 survivors of these experiences better off or protected from harm.” of the Department, that Indian children often transmit the trauma to should be withdrawn as much as possible Project Surname: Inuit naming systems later generations when they from the parental influence, and the only are complex and imbued with spiritual don’t recognize or have the way to do that would be to put them in meaning. Traditionally, Inuit did not opportunity to address their central training industrial schools where use surnames. Project Surname was an issues. Over the course of they will acquire the habits and modes attempt by the Canadian government to time these behaviours, often of thought of white men.”31 In 1883, the replace the Eskimo tag system and force destructive, become normalized Government of Canada established three all Inuit to have a surname for legal within the family and their large schools in Western Canada, and the purposes. It began in 1970 when Abe community, leading to the next system continued to grow from there. By Okpik, who was fluent in many dialects generation suffering the same 1930, 80 schools were in operation across of Inuktitut, was hired to travel to Inuit problems. Many Indigenous the country, a partnership between the communities to explain the program, Peoples and communities Canadian government and the Roman answer questions and explain that are working to overcome Catholic, Anglican, United, Methodist people would get to choose their own the devastating impacts of surnames. Under this program, most and Presbyterian churches. The Indian attempted assimilation through Inuit chose the names of their ancestors Residential Schools Settlement Agreement a holistic approach to wellness, as their surnames. Okpik worked with recognized 139 schools in total, and at one that encompasses physical, a linguist throughout this process in least 150,000 First Nation, Métis and Inuit mental, emotional and spiritual 32 order to standardize spelling as much as children attended residential school. It is health.41 The continuation of possible. Critics of Project Surname point estimated that at least 6,000 children died First Nations, Métis and Inuit 33 out that it ignored Inuit naming practices at residential school. Alberta was home to cultures in the face of ongoing 34 and forced European naming methods 25 schools. attempts at assimilation onto the Inuit. As well, women generally Sixties Scoop: This phrase refers to an also speaks to the continued did not have a say in choosing their own era from the 1950s to the 1980s when strength of Indigenous Peoples. surname in this process.30 Indigenous children were “scooped” Residential Schools: At the time of from their families and communities.35 Confederation, Christian churches were The children were then adopted out already operating a small number of into primarily non-Indigenous families Continuing Your boarding schools for Indigenous children. across Canada, as well as the United With the expansion of settlement to the States and internationally. This was due Learning Journey west, Roman Catholic and Protestant to a lack of understanding of Indigenous a) How might the legacy of missionaries established missions and childrearing practices as well as an boarding schools across the Prairies, in attempt at assimilation.36 The Sixties intergenerational trauma continue to the North and in British Columbia. These Scoop was part of broader provincial impact some Indigenous Peoples? schools were funded by per–student grants government policies that ignored the from the federal government. Sir John A needs and rights of Indigenous children Macdonald, a key architect and proponent and families. It is estimated that over of the residential school system, stated in 20,000 children were impacted by b) How does an understanding of some 1879, “When the school is on the reserve, the Sixties Scoop, and it was most concepts and policies of assimilation the child lives with its parents, who are widespread in the Prairie provinces.37 savages, and though he may learn to read Many survivors of the Sixties Scoop have contribute to the journey of and write, his habits and training mode of experienced abuse and ongoing struggles reconciliation for educators? thought are Indian. He is simply a savage with identity.38 In 2018, the Government who can read and write. It has been of Alberta apologized to survivors for the strongly impressed upon myself, as head Sixties Scoop.39

Stepping Stones | 17 | CONCEPTS AND POLICIES OF ASSIMILATION Inuit: A History of Policy and Program .ca/education/saskindianresidentialschools/ NOTES Development,” www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/ wp-content/uploads/2017/08/ eng/1100100016900/1100100016908#chp7. ShatteringthesilenceLegaciesReed8-16-2017.pdf. 1. Centre for Global Education, UNDRIP:United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous 13. Roberts, A B, Eskimo Identification and Disc 29. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Peoples, http://tcge.tiged.org/images/news/files/ Numbers: A Brief History, http://capekrusenstern “Paternalism,” https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ UNDRIPTeachersGuide.pdf. .org/docs/eskdiscsid.pdf. paternalism/. 2.Government of Canada, Department of Justice, 14. Canadian Race Relations Foundation, 30. TCE, “Project Surname,” www.the www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/csj-sjc/constitution/ “Eurocentrism,” www.crrf-fcrr.ca/en/resources/ canadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/project lawreg-loireg/p1t13.html. glossary-a-terms-en-gb-1/item/22827-eurocentrism. -surname. 3. Canadian Encyclopedia (TCE), Constitution Act, 15. UBC, First Nations and Indigenous Studies, 31. ICT, “10 Quotes John A. Macdonald Made 1867, www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/ “Reserves,” https://indigenousfoundations.arts About First Nations,” www.ictinc.ca/blog/10 constitution-act-1867. .ubc.ca/reserves/. -quotes-john-a.-macdonald-made-about-firs t-nations. 4. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, A History 16. TCE, “Métis,” www.thecanadianencyclopedia of Treaty-Making in Canada, www.rcaanc-cirnac .ca/en/article/metis. 32. TRC, Canada’s Residential Schools, https:// .gc.ca/eng/1314977704533/1544620451420. 17. Canadian Geographic, Indigenous Peoples nctr.ca/assets/reports/Final%20Reports/Volume_1_ History_Part_1_English_Web.pdf. 5. Global Research, “First Nations Rights: Atlas of Canada, https://indigenouspeoplesatlasof Confronting Colonialism in Canada,” www canada.ca/article/road-allowance-people/ . 33. CBC, “Truth and Reconciliation Commission: .globalresearch.ca/first-nations-rights-confronting 18. Madwar, S. “Inuit High Arctic Relocations in By the Numbers,” www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/ -colonialism-in-canada/5321197. Canada,” www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/ truth-and-reconciliation-commission-by-the -numbers-1.3096185. 6. Canada Communication Group—Publishing, article/inuit-high-arctic-relocations. Looking Forward, Looking Back, http://data2 19. United Nations, Office of the UN Special Adviser 34. National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation, .archives.ca/e/e448/e011188230-01.pdf . on the Prevention of Genocide, www.un.org/ar/ “Residential Schools and Reconciliation,” https:// education.nctr.ca/. 7. Truth and Reconcilation Commission of Canada preventgenocide/adviser/pdf/osapg_analysis_ (TRC), Canada’s Residential Schools: The History, framework.pdf. 35. TCE, “Sixties Scoop,” www.thecanadian Part 1, Origins to 1939, https://nctr.ca/assets/ 20. CAP XXVI, http://caid.ca/GraCivAct1857.pdf. encyclopedia.ca/en/article/sixties-scoop. reports/Final%20Reports/Volume_1_History_ 21. ICT, “Indian Act and Enfranchisement of 36. UBC, First Nations and Indigenous Studies, Part_1_English_Web.pdf. Indigenous Peoples.” “Sixties Scoop,” https://indigenousfoundations 8. Indigenous Corporate Training (ICT), .arts.ubc.ca/sixties_scoop/. 22. TCE, Indian Act, www.thecanadian “Christopher Columbus and the Doctrine of encyclopedia.ca/en/article/indian-act. 37. TCE, “Sixties Scoop.” Discovery—5 Things to Know,” www.ictinc.ca/ 38. National Indigenous Survivors of Child blog/christopher-columbus-and-the-doctrine-of 23. TCE, “Sun Dance,” www.thecanadian Welfare Network, “Survivors’ Stories, https:// -discovery-5-things-to-know. encyclopedia.ca/en/article/sun-dance. sixtiesscoopnetwork.org/niscw/survivors-stories. 9. United Nations Department of Economic 24. ICT, “Potlatch Ban: Abolishment of First 39. Alberta Government, “Sixties Scoop Apology,” and Social Affairs, “Impact of the ‘Doctrine of Nations Ceremonies,” www.ictinc.ca/the-potlatch www.alberta.ca/sixties-scoop-apology.aspx. Discovery’ on Indigenous Peoples, www.un.org/ -ban-abolishment-of-first-nations-ceremonies. en/development/desa/newsletter/desanews/ 25. Moss, W, E Gardner-O’Toole, Law and 40. Giroux, R, K Homer, S Kassam, T Pokrupa, dialogue/2012/06/3801.html. Government Division, “Aboriginal People: History J Robinson, A Sauve and A Sumner, “Mental Health and Suicide in Indigenous Communities in 10. University of British Columbia (UBC), First of Discriminatory Laws,” http://publications.gc.ca/ Canada,” https://docs.google.com/document/d/18fU Nations and Indigenous Studies, “Enfranchisement,” Collection-R/LoPBdP/BP/bp175-e.htm#. -64n4n66PQhmeZ9Id_LC5mcfeVB6xwnDQg6ndFas/ https://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/ 26. Métis Nation of Alberta, “Métis Scrip in Alberta,” edit#heading=h.gjdgxs. enfranchisement/. http://albertametis.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/ 41. Aboriginal Healing Foundation, Reclaiming 11. ICT, “Indian Act and Enfranchisement of RCMR-Scrip-Booklet-2018-150dpi.pdf. Connections: Understanding Residential School Indigenous Peoples.” www.ictinc.ca/blog/indian 27. ICT, “Indian Act and the Pass System,” www Trauma Among Aboriginal People,” http://www.ahf -act-and-enfranchisement-of-indigenous-peoples. .ictinc.ca/blog/indian-act-and-the-pass-system. .ca/downloads/healing-trauma-web-eng.pdf. 12. Indigenous and Northern Affairs 28. University of Regina, “Hayter Reed: Canada, “Canada’s Relationship with Separation and the Pass System,” www2.uregina URLs in this document were verified on July 15, 2020.

Stepping Stones is a publication of the Alberta Teachers’ Association Walking Together Project intended to support certificated teachers on their learning journey to meet the First Nations, Métis and Inuit Foundational Knowledge competency in the Teaching Quality Standard. Walking Together would like to acknowledge the contributions of First Nations, Métis and Inuit community members within Alberta in developing these resources.

For additional resources and information on Walking Together, visit www.teachers.ab.ca. www.teachers.ab.ca walkingtogetherata @ATAindigenous

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