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Swimming Physiology and Biochemistry SWIMMING PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY INVITED CONTRIBUTION 14 minutes 30 seconds to complete swimming those distance events. The required energy to swim a certain distance is sup- plied by aerobic and/or anaerobic energy processes, however, ENERGETICS IN COMPETITIVE SWIMMING AND ITS APPLICATION the relative importance of each energy process and also exer- FOR TRAINING cise intensity vary depending on the exercise time (and thus swimming distance) (Medbø 1989, Ogita 1996, 1999, 2003). Futoshi Ogita Therefore, it is considered that coaches and swimmers should National Institute of Fitness and Sports, Kanoya, Japan. understand metabolic profile of each swimming distance event, what is more required for the swimmer, and how to strengthen Competitive swimming events consist of different distances from the weak point, in order to develop effective and distance spe- 50m to 1500m. Since the exercise intensity and the relative cific training program. By doing so, the performance could be importance of aerobic and anaerobic energy processes vary improved more successfully. depending on the exercise time (and thus swimming distance), This paper is summarized concerning to energetics in competitive training regimen should be developed in accordance to time swimming and its application for training. In particular, I would dependent metabolic profile. To understand the time dependent like to focus on following 4 topics using some of the recent our metabolic profile of arm stroke (A), leg kick (K) as well as whole results; 1) metabolic profile corresponding each distance event, 2) body (S) swimming, the accumulated O2 uptake (AOU) and the specificity of training effect to various training program, 3) ener- accumulated O2 deficit (AOD) were determined at six different getics during swimming under a normal and hypoxic conditions, water flow. The AOU increased linearly with exercise time in all and 4) new idea of hypoxic (high-altitude) training. strokes, and the increased rate of AOU in A and K corresponded to 70, and 80% in S, respectively. The AOD in A and S signifi- TIME DEPENDENT METABOLIC PROFILE cantly increased until 2-3min of exercise time, while the AOD in The propulsion during whole body swimming is generated by K more rapidly increased and the AOD at 30 s was not signifi- the action of both arms and legs. Therefore, daily swimming cantly different from those at 1 min and 2-3min. These results training is conducted not only by whole body swimming but concerning time dependent metabolic profile in A, K, and S, also by arm stroke or leg kicking only, because it has been con- would give a helpful information to plan training successfully to sidered that to strengthen metabolic capacity in local muscles improve the metabolic capacity for each stroke. would improve more effectively whole body swimming per- Training effects of a moderate–intensity continuous training formance. Therefore, if time dependent metabolic demands of (CT) and a high-intensity intermittent training (IT), which are arm stroke (A), leg kick (K) as well as whole body (S) swim- the most popular training regimens in competitive swimming, ming are clarified, the knowledge would provide an important on VO2max and maximal accumulated O2 deficit (MAOD) were implication for specific training of each distance event. So, the evaluated. After the training, VO2max increased significantly in aerobic and anaerobic energy release were determined the at both training modes. On the other hand, MAOD did not six different intensities, which were estimated to cause exhaus- increase significantly in CT, but in IT. These results indicate tion in 15 s, 30 s, 1 min, 2-3 min, 4-5 min, and 8-10 min simu- that CT can improve only aerobic power but that adequate IT lating from 25m sprint to 800m. can improve both aerobic power and anaerobic capacity. Aerobic and anaerobic energy release in supramaximal swim- Aerobic and anaerobic energy release ming lasting 2-3 min were determined under different levels of The AOU increased linearly with exercise time in all strokes hypobaric hypoxic condition. The exercise intensity (water flow (Fig. 1). This means that the longer the duration (and thus the rate) decreased with decrease in atmospheric pressure. During distance), the larger the total amount of aerobic energy release. the exhaustive swimming, rate of aerobic energy release dimin- Also, the increased rate of AOU related to exercise duration ished with increase in hypobaric hypoxia, while not only AOD was the highest in S, and those in A and K corresponded to 70 but also rate of anaerobic energy release throughout the exer- and 80% of that in S, respectively. The ratio was similar to cise were unaffected despite the decreased O2 demand caused those when VO2max among strokes was compared (A: 2.80 by diminished exercise intensity due to hypobaric hypoxia. l•min-1, K: 3.34 l•min-1, S: 3.92 l•min-1). Therefore, it is sug- Furthermore, the effects of high-intensity exercise training gested that the increased rate of AOU is highly dependent on under a normal condition (C) and hypoxic conditions (H) on the magnitude of VO2max, supporting a general concept that a metabolic capacity were examined. After the training, VO2max higher maximal aerobic power can be a more beneficial to significantly increased in both N and H, and no significant dif- accomplish a good performance for the endurance swimmer. ference was observed in the increase ratio of VO2max between With increasing duration, the AOD in A and S significantly C and H. MAOD also significantly increased in both groups, increased until 2-3min of exercise, and the AOD gradually however, the increase ratio of MAOD was significantly higher decreased when the exercise duration was longer than 4-5min in H than C. The results suggest that the hypoxic training (Fig. 1). The AOD at 30s was not significantly different from would be favorable for the improvement of the ability to supply those at 1 min and 2-3min. Several studies used running and anaerobic energy such as MAOD rather than VO2max. cycling have also reported that the AOD reached maximal lev- els with exercise bouts lasting 2-3 min (Medbø 1988. Medbø Key Words: metabolic profile, specific training effect, energy 1989). Actually, it was revealed that the anaerobic ATP produc- dynamics, hypoxic training. tion estimated by lactate production and PCr break down was the highest in 2-3 min exhaustive exercise (Medbø 1993). INTRODUCTION These findings indicate that both the ATP-PCr system as well Competitive swimming events consist of different distances as the lactate producing system are stressed maximally with 2- from 50m to 1500m, and it takes approximately 23 seconds to 3 min exhaustive exercise. Therefore, it is suggested that the Rev Port Cien Desp 6(Supl.2) 117–182 117 SWIMMING PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY anaerobic energy system is recruited maximally in 200m swim- Exercise intensity ming event, and consequently maxima AOD (MAOD) is recog- The relative exercise intensities expressed as %VO2max in nized as an important factor determining the performance of relation to exercise duration longer than 1 min were compa- this event. rable among A, K and S, and corresponded to 135%VO2max On the other hand, the AOD in K increased more rapidly, and for the 1 min bout, 105-110%VO2max for the 2-3 min bout, reached almost maximal levels in 30 s (>90% of maximal and 95-100%VO2max for the 4-5 min bout. These results AOD). In addition, this level was observed in bouts lasting up indicate that the 400m event is competed at almost to 2-3 min. Therefore, it is implies that the anaerobic energy 100%VO2max level, and that the shorter distance events are release in K is different from the other strokes and that the done at supramaximal intensities. This finding points out swimmer can induce a maximal stimulus for the anaerobic that the anaerobic training should be very important for energy process in leg muscles by maximal leg kicks of 50 m to most swimmers. In addition, in the 15 s and 30 s bout, the 200 m. Consequently, this stimulus would induce the improve- intensity in K was much higher than those in A and S (15 s : ment of the anaerobic capacity in K, due to an increase in K 240%, A 190%, 30 s : K 190%, A 165% VO2max), and the buffering capacity of leg muscles per se. intensities in S were intermediate between A and K (Table 1). Therefore, when the training consists of 25 m or 50 m sprints, it should be heeded that the exercise intensity expressed as %VO2max differ between A, S and K. Conventionally, the magnitude of the training effect on meta- bolic capacity depends on the exercise intensity (Fox 1975). In other words, in order to improve the total metabolic capacity, adequate exercise intensity, taxing both aerobic and anaerobic energy processes, must be set. Therefore, the reported metabolic profiles (i.e. aerobic and anaerobic energy release and their relative contributions, relative exercise intensity and so on) in relation to exercise time in A, K, and Fig. 1. The accumulated O2 uptake (AOU) and deficit (AOD) S, gives helpful information to plan training successfully. in relation to exercise duration in arm stroke (A), leg kicking (K), and whole swimming (S). (Ogita 2003) EFFECTS OF TRAINING MODES (OR INTENSITY) ON VO2max AND MAOD Relative contribution of aerobic and anaerobic energy Metabolic capacity has been considered to be one of impor- processes tant determinants of swimming performance. Therefore, the The relative importance of anaerobic energy process in three swimming training should be designed to improve the ability strokes decreased from 78-85% for 15 s to 50 % for 1min, 30% to release energy both aerobically and anaerobically.
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