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GOVERNET WP2 P6 D01 Description of study areas and of representative cases THE HALKIDIKI CASE STUDY AREA

Editors: Vassiliki Kazana, Angelos Kazaklis

Contributors: Ioannis Takos, Theodora Merou, Dimitrios Emmanouloudis, Nikolaos Avtzis, Martha Lazaridou, Maria Panteli, Kiriaki Georgiou, Ioannis Skrettas

TEI Kavala- Technological Education Institute of Kavala- Department of Forestry & Natural Environment Managment at Drama,

June, 2004

TABLE OF CONTESTS

1. Introduction 3

2. Environment and Landscape 5

3. Land use 17

4. Demography 24

5. Local economy and welfare 33

6. Cultural heritage and history 44

7. Institutions 49

8. Choice of representative case-studies for further analysis 54

9. Conclusions 55

10. References 56

2 Chapter 1. Introduction

1.1. Geography

The Halkidiki Prefecture is located in the Central Region of northern Greece and is made up by three peninsulas, Kassandra, and Athos (Map 1.1). The last one, the most to the east, forms an entity on its own, which is also called Agio Oros (Holy Mountain). It has a border with the Prefecture of to the north and has shores on the Aegean Sea to all other sides.

Map 1.1 General Map of the Halkidiki Prefecture (Source: Hellenic Tourism Organization, 1992)

1.2. Main features of the area

The Halkidiki Prefecture is one of the seven Prefectures of the Region in Northern Greece. From the administrative point of view Halkidiki includes 14 Municipalities with 73 Settlements in total. The main towns and villages of Halkidiki are Poligiros, the capital town with 5,040 inhabitants, Arnea, , Agia Paraskevi, Afytos, Agios Nikolaos, Galatista, Gerakini, Kallithea, Kalandra, , Nea Kallikratia, , Nea Fokea, , Petralona, , , , , Nea Potidea.

3 Halkidiki is the only typical Mediterranean area in Northern Greece in terms of climate, vegetation and landscape. Its land is characterized by two main mountain massifs, the Holomontas Mount (1,165 m above sea level.), the (2,027 m above sea level) and a complex system of hills ranging from 300 m and 900 m of altitude. The coastal landscapes of Halkidiki are of outstanding beauty and the tourist infrastructure, which has been mainly developed on those landscapes made Halkidiki one of the best known tourist destinations in Northern Greece. On the contrary, the mainland of the Halkidiki Prefecture, which hosts some of Greece’s best broadleaf and mixed forests, is little developed. In Halkidiki lives about 1% of the country’s population with a gradual declining growth rate, as it can be observed by the natural birth rate (births per 1000 residents), which is negative (-0.7 in 1998 and –1 in 1999) and the average rate of the primary school pupils per 1000 residents, which is also lower than the national average (54 and 61 correspondingly). The population appears increased by 16.3% between the national inventories of 1991 and 2001. The Halkidiki Prefecture contributes 5.6% to the regional (Central Macedonia) GDP and about 1% to the country GDP of which 2/3 is attributed to services, mainly hotels and restaurants at about 12% (2001 data). The average per capita GDP is about 12,500 Euros and this indicator ranks Halkidiki 12th between the country’s Prefectures. The Halkidiki residents own 13 cars per 100 (national average 31 in 2001) and 65 telephone connections per 100 (in 2000), the 5th higher in the country. In terms of the national income, Halkidiki contributes 0.8% of the income tax payers, 0.6% of the declared to the Internal Revenue Service income and 0.3% of the direct taxes in 2000. Halkidiki ranks 9th in wheat production at national level and 5th in nights spent by foreigners, 2.2 million in 2000 (NSSG, 2002).

4 Chapter 2. Environment and Landscape

2.1. Climate The climate of the Halkidiki Prefecture is typically Mediterranean, with mild winters and long hot summers with a pronounced long dry season. Only a small proportion of the highest mountain areas in the central massifs of the Prefecture have less than 40 biologically dry days in the hot season. Most of the coastal areas, especially those in the Western- south central part and also most of the three peninsulas have between 2 1/2 and 3 months of biologically dry days (between 75 and 100 days). These conditions characterize more than half of the total Prefecture area. The remaining area, the lower reaches of the central mountain massifs and those of the Sithonia peninsula and Athos peninsula, have on average 40 and 75 biologically dry days per season.

5

Map 1.2 Mean annual precipitation. For the Halkidiki Prefecture it is low, ranging from less than 400 mm to over 800mm.

7 With the exception of the highest elevations on the Prefecture’s mountains, that is, those higher than approximately 700 m, most of the Halkidiki area receives between 400 and 600 mm of annual precipitation. This is very low, but typical of eastern mainland Greece, and it is mostly due to the physiography of the land and the prevailing winds. For Halkidiki the wide valleys of the Axios and Strymonikos rivers allow for heavy dry northern winds during the main rain season for Greece (winter). Similar areas in western Greece would probably have more than 1000 mm of annual precipitation. Relative atmospheric humidity ranges between 60% (summer) and over 80% (winter). High temperatures in the winter range from mid to low tens (Centigrades). In the hottest months of June and August they range between 30o and 36o C. Map 1.3 presents mean lowest temperatures of the coldest winter months. Most of the Halkidiki area is characterized by mild winters and hot summers.

8

Map 1.3 Climate zones in Halkidiki, based on bioclimatic formation, and average minimum temperature of the coldest winter months.

9 2.2 Topography and geology The highest mountain in the Halkidiki Prefecture is Mount Athos at 2,030 m above sea level (asl). The total area in Halkidiki that exceeds 1,000 m though, is rather limited around this peak. The second highest peak in this range is only 1,042 m high. Mt. Itamos (or Mt. Sithonia) is centrally situated in the middle peninsula, rising up to 817 m, with most peaks in its neighborhood ranging from 670 m to 806 m. Further southeast the peaks are gradually decreasing (ranging from 300 to 550 m). Mount Kassandra in the westernmost peninsula only rises up to 307 m with its highest peak closer to the peninsular tip, (similar to the Mt. Athos peninsula). In the mainland Mount Holomontas is the major mountain massif of Halkidiki, rising up to 1,163 m, but with most other peaks in the 700 m to 950 m range. Mount Holomontas, as all other mountains in Halkidiki, are a continuation of the ranges coming down in a southeast direction from the northern national borders. The watershed divide formed by the Hortiatis, Holomontas and Stratonikion mountains, drains the northeastern corner of the Prefecture into the and Koronia lakes of the Thessaloniki Prefecture. All other areas drain to the sea, through a complex system of streams, most of which dry up in the summer. The relief of all Halkidiki is very well dissected. The eastern two-thirds of the Halkidiki Prefecture are made up of a mosaic of igneous rocks, interspersed with semi-metamorphic or metamorphic rocks, with limited occurrences of marbles (Map1.4). This is a continuation of the range extended northward, and is characteristic of north central Greece. Limestone is almost completely absent, while the metamorphic rocks are covered by a weathering mantle. The westernmost third of Halkidiki is covered by sediments, mostly orogenic, but also some quaternary. This substrate type causes landslide problems for the urban centres around. Mount Kassandra, where also extensive tourist resort development has taken place in the last 2-3 decades. Problems are also caused by numerous tectonic faults crossing the area, but recently the epicentres of all major earthquakes have been clustering outside of the Prefecture borders. The substrate is rich in a number of minerals and the area has a substantial tradition of mining. Most recent is an investment in gold mining from Canadian interests, which conflicts heavily with environmental issues and tourism in northeastern Halkidiki.

10

Map 1.4 Geologic substrate of Halkidiki Prefecture and Central Macedonia.

11 2.3 Hydrology The Prefecture of Halkidiki as it has been described in section 2.1 is characterized by a low annual precipitation, which makes the water a scarce resource in the area. On the other hand increased quantities of water are required for most of the agricultural crops and for tourism development. The hydrographical network of Halkidiki is directly related to the tectonic evolution of the area. In the mainland, the watershed divide of the two main mountain massifs of Hortiatis and Holomontas borders two large watersheds, one north draining to Lagada and Volvi lakes and one south draining to , Kassandra, Toroneos and Ierissos Gulfs. The areas under water declined significantly (25.1%) over the last 40 years mainly through drying out of small wetland areas at the deltas of the Prefecture’s larger streams. A usual practice of finding water for the agricultural crops in the area is drilling. Only in the Mount Holomontas area, which forms a small part of the Halkidiki Prefecture, 855 drilling permits were granted during 1983 –1997 (Malamidis, et.al. 2001). Drillings have a negative effect on the water balance of the area, which started to show already. The water supply from the springs and streams of the area is gradually and steadily declining. Especially during summer and beginning of autumn most of the springs and streams in the area dry up. This is due to the fact that the inputs (precipitation) remain constant or decrease and the outputs increase. The increase in outputs is related to the use of water for irrigation of agricultural lands and for the tourists’ needs. Sustainable management of the water resources is required for the whole of Halkidiki area. Regarding water quality most freshwaters and coastal areas meet the EU quality standards. However in certain sites, such as the coastal areas between Sithonia and Athos peninsulas both drinking and bathing water were found polluted with phosphorus, mainly due to toxic wastes from chemical industries located in the neighbouring areas of the Halkidiki Prefecture. Disposal of residential wastes also has generated problems with water pollution in the area due to the lack of biological treatment establishments.

12 2.4 Soil types The majority of Halkidiki is covered by acrisols and luvisols resulting from weathering of metamorphic phyllites and schists, and to a lesser degree of amphibolites etc (Map 1.5). Most of the igneous rocks form regosols and cambisols where accumulations are possible. Most of these soils are acidic with sandy/clay to silt/clay texture, and can be very shallow at places. Agriculture is concentrated on fluvisols, cambisols and regosols from the flatter alluvial areas of western Halkidiki, and around Mount Holomontas.

2.5 Vegetation Typical Mediterranean low elevation natural vegetation (Quercion ilicis) is predominant, (but highly fragmented due to agriculture and tourism), in the coastal areas of Halkidiki (Map 1.6). The garrigue type vegetation, resutling from thousands of years of grazing pressure mainly from small animals, (goats), is typical of the area. Fragmented remnants of old-growth pyrophilic Allepo pine are to be found on the three peninsulas, in diminishing frequency from west to east. Fragmentation and felling of old fire resistant specimens with diameters at breast height in the order of 1m is mainly due to tourism development and intensification of agricultural practices. Most of the mainland mountainous massif is covered by Ostryo-Carpinion or broadleaved oaks at higher elevations. The mountain peaks in this massif are covered by Abies fagetum type of vegetation. The flora of the area is well documented in other studies, and consists of more than 850 species, some of which are endemic or threatened, while 230 species are reported as having traditional therapeutic or aromatic value.

13

Map 1.5 Major soil types, Halkidiki Prefecture, Central Macedonia, Greece.

14 2.6 Wildlife The fauna of Halkidiki has been studied to some extent in the last two decades, with mammals being the least studied taxon. Canis aureus, Lutra lutra and Felix sylvestris are the most rare large mammals with declining populations. Capreolus capreolus and Sus scrofa are the main large mammals being hunted, with their populations at low levels. The avifauna and herpetofauna and amphibians are typical of northern Greece, with many rare and threatened species still being observed but at declining numbers. Intensification of agriculture and tourism development constitutes the main causes for this decline.

2.7 Parks and other protected areas According to the Greek legislation for protection purposes natural areas could be designated national parks, aesthetic forests, protected natural monuments, wilderness areas and wetlands. In the Halkidiki Prefecture only protected natural monuments have been designated. These include the Aleppo pine of , the plane tree of Geroplatanos and the plane tree of Vavdos, established in 1979 (Eleftheriadis, 1994). The Sithonia peninsula and the Mount Holomontas areas have been classified as NATURA 2000 areas. Protected in a way can be also regarded the self –administered monastic state of the Athos peninsula, due to its cultural and natural heritage, as there is a limit to total number of visitors per day with a quota for Greek and other nationality people, a special permit from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs or the Ministry of Macedonia and is required for entrance to the area, while entrance is forbidden to women.

15

Map 1.6 Vegetation of Halkidiki Prefecture, Central Macedonia, Greece.

16 Chapter 3. Land use

3.1 Introduction Land cover in Halkidiki is almost equally divided between agricultural lands (35.5% of 328,100 ha), forests (32.5%) and rangelands (29.85) according to the First National Forest Inventory (1992). The self-administered Athos peninsula is much more forested (58.8% of 3,360 ha) than the rest of the Halkidiki Prefecture, but it has got about the same proportion of rangelands (33.4%) and much less of agricultural lands (4.8%). Residential areas are 0.9% and 0.5% for Halkidiki and Athos respectively. Also designated pasturelands are very few, 0.6% and 0.4% respectively, although traditional nomadic livestock rearing, mostly of goats, utilizes in addition the rangelands and to a lesser extent the sparse open forestlands (7.4% and 15.7% for Halkidiki and Athos respectively). During the last 40 years no major land use changes were observed in Halkidiki, signifying a rather stable landscape mosaic. Forests declined by 5.86% between 1971 and 1991 (Table 1.2) with an average annual decline rate of about 0.3%. Areas under open water declined more significantly (18.1%), during the same period, mainly through drying out of small wetlands at the deltas of the Prefecture’s larger streams. The total area lost is 890 ha.

Table 1.2 Distribution of the area by basic land use category in ha, (1961-1991) Halkidiki Prefecture Census Year Land use 1991 1981 1971 1961 Area under cultivation 97,730 94,880 95,190 82,330 and fallow land Municipal or communal 18,780 19,420 18,980 18,000 pastures Private pastures 31,980 32,240 30,450 37.490 Forests 156,770 160,910 166,530 146,060 Areas under water 4,020 4,580 4,910 3,220 Residential areas 10,030 8,760 7,430 10,240 Other areas 6,040 4,550 4,220 -

17 Municipal and privately owned designated pastures remained almost unchanged between 1971 and 1991, at 15.8% of all the Halkidiki lands (the data of Table 1.2 were obtained from the NSSG land use classification, which is different from that used by the Greek Forest Service; therefore the percentage value reported includes the open forested areas and rangelands, which are being systematically used as pastures). The agricultural and fallow lands present a significant change between 1961-71, but are more or less stable since 1971. Changes from 1961 to 1991 are + 18.70%, and this is mostly attributable to developments in mechanized agriculture and irrigation. Residential areas increased by 2,600 ha or about 35% between 1971 and 1991. This is attributed to the explosive tourism related constructions along the shores, including medium and large capacity hotels and vacation dwellings due to the proximity of the study area to the large urban centre of Thessaloniki. Another important increase of 1,820 ha or 30.1% between 1971 –91 is at “the other areas” category, which includes barren lands and mines. This change is mainly due to the mining activity.

3.2 Agriculture Agricultural lands are found mainly on the alluvial deposits of western Halkidiki, and on similar sites around Mount Holomontas. For the past 16 years that is during the period between 1986 –2002 crops on arable lands have mostly decreased, 22.5% in total or at an average annual rate of 1.4% (Table 1.3). This is mainly due to an increase in tree crops of 53.9% in total or about 3.4% annually on average. To a great extent this change relates to an increase in olive groves (55.8% or about 3.5% annually). Olive groves in 2002 were 88.5% of all areas under tree crops, just 1.1% more than in 1986 when olive groves formed 87.4% of all areas under tree crops. Garden related production occupied more or less the same area, vineyards fluctuated but they follow a slightly increasing trend. Fallow lands increased dramatically between 1986 and 1993, (at 173.4% in total, or 21.7% annual rate), but have since stabilized at about twice the 1986 area. This is mainly attributable to a preponderance of low cost field labour mainly coming from the Balkan countries. Changes in agricultural land cover from 1986 until 2002 are shown in Table 1.3 and Figures 1 and 2. Cereals (mostly wheat), accounted in the last decade for most of the arable lands (90.6%), cotton was next at 6.4%, sunflower at 1.8% and corn at 1.3%.

18 About a third of all agricultural lands are rented, two thirds are owned, and this has remained constant in the last decades.

Table 1.3 Agricultural land in ha (1986-2002), Halkidiki Prefecture (Source: NSSG, Annual Bulletins of Agricultural Statistical Research)

Agricultural Census Year land cover 2002 2001 2000 1999 1996 1993 1991 1986

Crops on 53,293 57,112 56,955 57,025 59,912 58,450 63,004 68,770 arable land Vegetables 1,513 1,544 1,567 1,556 1,628 1,480 1,484 1,673

Tree crops 29,223 26,586 26,864 27,072 23,226 21,344 20,443 18,993

Olive 25,865 22,934 23,208 23,252 19,723 18,393 17,745 16,602 groves Vineyards 1,883 1,712 1,742 1,739 1,827 2,085 1,807 1,573

Fallow land 9,978 10,409 10,152 9,635 9,690 13,220 10,408 4,834 1-5 years TOTAL 121,755 120,297 118,921 120,279 116,006 114,972 114,891 112,445

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 Agricultural land 10 0 1986 1991 1993 1996 1999 2002 Year

Crops on arable land Tree crops Olive groves

Figure 1. Agricultural land cover in ha, 1986-2002, Halkidiki Prefecture

19 14

12

10

8

6

Agricultural land 4

2

0 1986 1991 1993 1996 1999 2002 Year

Vegetables Vineyards Fallow land 1-5 years

Figure 2. Agricultural land cover in ha, 1986-2002, Halkidiki Prefecture

3.3 Forestry The total area under forests when compared to the national average is slightly higher for Halkidiki, at 64.3%, and much higher for the Athos peninsula, at 89% (Table 1.4). Halkidiki is among the most forested Prefectures in Greece, but only half the forested lands produce industrial quality timber. The other 32.9% (103,481 ha) only produce low quantities of firewood through coppicing. This percentage is higher for Mount Athos, at 47.8%, and both are higher than the national average. Most reforestation efforts aimed at producing high forests in this evergreen oaks area, have met with little success as a direct or secondary effect of the low annual precipitation characterizing Halkidiki.

20 Table 1.4 Area under industrial forests, Halkidiki Prefecture Industrial forests Non-industrial forests Total Location Ha %* Ha %* Ha %* Halkidiki (not 98,563 31.4 103,481 32.9 202,049 64.3 incl. Athos) Athos 15,927 41.3 18,446 47.8 34,373 89.1 Total Halkidiki 114,490 32.5 121,927 34.6 236,422 67.1 Greece 3,359,186 29.5 3,153,882 27.7 6,513,068 57.2 * of total area (including all land use/cover types) (Source: Hellenic Ministry of Agriculture, 1992)

Table 1.5 Forest areas by location and tree species, Halkidiki Prefecture Halkidiki Athos Species Area (ha) % Rank* %* Area (ha) % Rank* %* Pinus halepensis 46,710 47 4 8.23 2.634 7.1 Quercus spp. 38,087 39 13 2.59 4.790 13 Macquis 103,481 51.2 8 3.28 18.446 49.8 Platanus 2,874 2.9 9 3.32 479 1.3 orientalis Castanea sativa 1,317 1.3 6 3.98 7.785 21 1 23.5 Fagus spp. 8,862 9 Pinus nigra 718 0.8 TOTAL 202,049 *Refering to national level (Source: Ministry of Agriculture, 1992)

Maquis type forest vegetation covers 51.2% of all forested lands in Halkidiki and 49.8% of Athos peninsula (Table 1.5). Aleppo pine forests at 47% (46,710 ha) are the most important forests in the Prefecture, and Halkidiki ranks 4th nationally in terms of percentage of Prefecture area covered by this type of forest. Mixed oak species are the second most important forest type, at 39% (38,087 ha). This comprises 2.59% of all similar oak forests in Greece. Beech forests, (pure or mixed with Greek fir), are the 3rd most important productive forest type in the area,

21 with 9% (8,862 ha). From the other forest types worth to mention are the plane tree coastal riverine forests (2,874 ha, or 2.9%), and the chestnut forests at 1,317 ha (1.3%). The situation is different in Athos peninsula, where chestnuts at 21% (7,785 ha) are the most important species. Athos ranks as 1st in Greece in terms of Prefecture area under chestnuts, and holds 25% of all chestnut forests in Greece. Broadleaved oaks at 13% are the next forest type of importance for Athos peninsula, followed by Aleppo pine (7.1%) and plane trees at 1.3%. Forest fires in the last five years fluctuate considerably between 20 and 2,000 ha (Forest Directorate of Halkidiki, 2000). The most devastating forest fires are started by unknown or “accidental” reasons, and cover previously privately owned lands of some degree. Skyrocketing land values in areas neighbouring tourist developed centres, is perhaps the driving reason behind this trend. However, the great majority of fires (over 90%) are extinguished before they burn more than 1 ha of land. Rangelands according to the First National Forest Inventory (Hellenic Ministry of Agriculture, 1992) cover 29.85% of Halkidiki. In this classification scheme the open forested areas and rangelands that are being used systematically as pastures are included too. The NSSG classification, which reports as pasture land only 15.8%, as it has been noted in section 3.1of the current report refers only to municipal or private pastures. This type of land use has been almost stable from 1971 to 1991. Nomadic livestock mostly of goats and sheep is quite developed mainly in the northern and central part of the Halkidiki Prefecture. In certain sites grazing conflicts with forestry because of the damage the animals, especially goats cause to the areas under regeneration. Rough grazing in general is declining, despite the large number of livestock animals and this is associated with the decline in the number of herdsmen and the development of other economic activities mainly in the services sector.

3.4 Urban development There are no strong urban centers in Halkidiki and all the settlements are scattered many along the shores, where also most of the tourist development facilities, such as large and medium capacity hotels, restaurants and other related services have been concentrated. Urban pressure on the coastal zone has also increased by the legal and illegal building of a very large number of vacation houses mainly due to the proximity of the area to the large urban centre of Thessaloniki. This zone becomes very

22 crowded during the summer months and suffers several environmental problems along many sites. The majority of the population (53.8% of the total) is living in the semi-urban areas, that is, areas with less than 20,000 residents. The second largest population concentration appears in rural areas with 1000 – 1999 residents (Table 1.5), although the number of settlements is larger in the category of rural areas with 500-999 residents. No differences are observed in the population distribution by sex between the areas.

Table 1.5 Urbanization in the Prefecture of Halkidiki Number of Urbanization Population* % settlements Semi-urban 16 56,442 53.8% Rural with 1000-1999 20 26,381 25.1% Rural with 500 – 999 22 16,075 15.3% Rural <500 15 5,996 5.7% Total 73 104,894 100% *Athos is not included (Source: NSSG, 2001, Elaboration by the study team)

According to the EU Directive 75/268 41 out of the 73 settlements are recorded as mountainous and the rest 32 as less favoured areas. The rate of new residences is about 2.3 per 100 residents and this is rather stable from 1992 until 2000.

23 Chapter 4. Demography

4.1 Resident population The total population of the Halkidiki Prefecture according to the recent population Census (2001) is 104,894, of which 54,964 are males and 49,930 females, with a population density of about 33 inhabitants per km2. According to the Greek National Statistical Service data the population of the Halkidiki Prefecture has gradually increased from 1951 up to date, except during the decade 1961-1971, when it decreased from 82,536 to 75,582 residents (Table 1.6). The percent changes between the different decades are also shown in Table 1.6. The natural birth rate (births per 1000 residents) is negative (–1 in 1999) and the average rate of the primary school pupils per 1000 residents lower than the national average (54 and 61 correspondingly). Therefore, the population increase is mostly due to immigration, mainly attributed to development of tourism and other related to it activities of the secondary and tertiary sectors of economy, as well as to improvement of the highway infrastructure connecting Halkidiki with Thessaloniki, which is the nearest big urban centre.

Table 1.6 Population of the Halkidiki Prefecture 1961-2001 Year Population % Change 1951 78,821 1961 82,536 4.7% 1971 75,582 -8.4% 1981 80,508 6.5% 1991 93,653 16.3% 2001 104,894 12%

With regard to the other Prefectures of the Central Macedonia region, Halkidiki is the most sparsely populated one. The distribution of population by sex over the last 30 years is shown in Table 1.7.

24 Table 1.7 Population of the Halkidiki Prefecture by sex, 1981-2001 Year 1981 1991 2001 Males 40,093 48,143 54,964 Females 40,415 45,510 49,930 Total 80,508 93,653 104,894

According to the 1991 NSSG data a slight increase of 1.6% is shown at the 14-44 age class in relation to the corresponding percentage in 1981, a higher increase of 4% at the 45 –64 age class with simultaneous decrease of about 4.5% at the 0 –14 age class, while the over 65 years old population showed a little decline of just about 1%. The age structure of the Halkidiki Prefecture population for 1971, 1981 and 1991 is presented in table 1.8.

Table 1.8 Population of the Halkidiki Prefecture by age structure, 1971-1991 Absolute percentage differences AGE CLASSES 1971 1981 1991 1981-1971 1991-1981 0-14 26.0% 24.0% 19.6% -2.0% -4.4% 15-44 42.0% 39.0% 40.6% -3.0% 1.6% 45-64 21.5% 23.0% 27.0% 1.5% 4.0% > 65 10.5% 14.0% 13.0% 3.5% -1.0% (Data source: NSSG 1971-1991) In comparison with the Central Macedonia region the population concentration in the Halkidiki Prefecture is smaller in the age group of 15 – 44 years, which is considered as the economically productive portion of the population, while is higher by 1.5% in the age class of the over 65 years old (Table 1.9).

Table 1.9 Comparative population structure of the Halkidiki Prefecture with the Central Macedonia Region CENTRAL HALKIDIKI AGE CLASSES MACEDONIA REGION PREFECTURE 0-14 19,0% 19,5% 15-44 43,5% 40,5% 45-64 26,0% 27,0% > 65 11,5% 13,0% (Source: NSSG, 1991)

25

The population age distribution in the Halkidiki Prefecture appears rather balanced. Males and females are distributed almost equally by 6.5% in each age class for all the economically productive age classes, which implies a trend of population maintenance in the area, despite the decreased percentage in the 25-39 age class for both sexes compared with the rest of the economically productive age classes. According to the 1991 population Census (Table 1.10), the sex balance for each age group favours males in the age classes up to 65 years of age, after which the balance is for females. The highest proportional distribution for both sexes was observed in the age class of 10-14 years of age (7.6% for females, 7.8% for males) and in the age class of 50-54 years of age (7.1% for females, 7.5% for males).

Table 1.10 Population age structure of the Halkidiki Prefecture by sex Age Total Males Females classes Both sexes % Number % Number % 0-9 10,931 11.9% 5,585 12.0% 5,346 11.7% 10-14 7,064 7.7% 3,620 7.8% 3,444 7.6% 15-29 19,002 20.6% 9,590 20.6% 9,412 20.7% 30-44 18,375 19.9% 9,368 20.1% 9,007 19.8% 45-64 24,830 27.0% 12,882 27.6% 11,948 26.3% 65 + 11,915 12.9% 5,562 11.9% 6,353 14.0% TOTAL 92,117 100% 46,607 100% 45,510 100% (Source: NSSG, 1991- Elaboration by the study team)

Generally, males are slightly more (46,607) than females (45,510). The total of 92,117 in Table 1.10 is different than the total of 93,653 in Table 1.6, because in the population age structure analysis by sex, the Athos peninsula where only male monks live has been excluded.

4.2 Migration As it has been described in section 4.1 of the current report there has been a real increase in the total population level of the Halkidiki Prefecture. This increase to a great extent is attributed to migration mainly internal and to a lesser degree from countries other than Greece (EU or Balkan countries) due to the proximity of the city of Thessaloniki. It is worth noting that people who migrated to Halkidiki are of the older age classes (over 45 years of age), while those who leave Halkidiki are young

26 people (14 to 45 years of age). The natural balance of the population appears negative from 1991 onwards at about -0.7% on average annually.

4.3 Active population and unemployment rates The economically active population by age class and sex in the Prefecture of Halkidiki in 1991 is shown in Table 1.11.

Table 1.11 Economically active population of the Halkidiki Prefecture by age class and sex Economically active Age class Males Females Both sexes Number % Number % 10-14 141 115 0.4% 26 0.4% 15-19 1,365 967 3.7% 398 5.4% 20-24 3,680 2,510 9.7% 1,170 15.8% 25-29 4,147 2,991 11.5% 1,156 15.6% 30-34 3,999 2,956 11.4% 1,043 14.1% 35-39 3,922 2,924 11.3% 998 13.5% 40-44 3,938 3,150 12.1% 788 10.6% 45-49 3,522 2,895 11.2% 627 8.5% 50-54 3,623 3,041 11.7% 582 7.9% 55-59 2,824 2,447 9.4% 377 5.1% 60-64 1,710 1,518 5.9% 192 2.6% 65-69 346 304 1.2% 42 0.6% 70-74 96 85 0.3% 11 0.1% 75+ 42 40 0.2% 2 0.0% Σύνολο 33,355 25,943 100% 7,412 100% (Source: NSSG, 1991)

In 1991 the economically active population of the Halkidiki Prefecture represented 36.2% of the total population. The corresponding distribution was 55.7% for men and 16.3% for women. In Table 1.11 can be observed that in men an equivalent distribution of 11 % and 12% exists in the age classes of 25-54 years of age, which cumulatively corresponds to 69.2% of the economically active male population, while a distribution of 9.5% exists for the age classes of 20 –24 and 55 – 60 years of age. The distribution for women shows a maximum of 15.5% for the age classes of 20 –24 and 25 –30 years of age, while for the older age classes there is a significant decline, something which was expected however, because of the role women play in

27 mountain and rural areas. The corresponding 69.5% for women, in contrary with men ranges between 20 and 44 years of age. With regard to the groups of individual occupations by sex in the Halkidiki Prefecture it can be noted that the male population is occupied mainly with technical professions and specialized activities in the Services Sector (40%) and with activities in the Primary Sector (29.5%). The female population is equally distributed in the 6 out of seven classes of individual occupations with percentages of 15% - 19% (Table 1.12).

Table 1.12 Groups of individual occupations by sex, Halkidiki Prefecture Groups of individual Males Females Both sexes occupations Professional, technical and 1,613 6.7% 1,264 19.4% 2,877 9.4% related workers Administrative, executive and 266 1.1% 37 0.6% 303 1.0% managerial workers Clerical and related workers 1,380 5.7% 959 14.8% 2,339 7.6% Tradesmen and sales workers 2,101 8.7% 1,073 16.5% 3,174 10.3% Service workers 2,024 8.4% 1,085 16.7% 3,109 10.1% Farmers, Loggers and related 7,148 29.5% 1,085 16.7% 8,233 26.8% workers Craftsmen and labourers (not in agriculture) and operators of 9,669 40.0% 996 15.3% 10,665 34.7% transport means Total of declared occupations 24,201 100% 6,499 100% 30,700 100% Workers not classified by 251 72 323 occupation New* 632 485 1,117 Occupation not declared 859 356 1,215 1,742 913 2,655 Total of economically active 25,943 7,412 33,355 population ( Source: NSSG, 1991) * People seeking work for the first time

In the group of technical and specialized works in the Services Sector the dominating age class is the 30-44 years of age, while in the Primary Sector the 45- 64 years of age. In the private practice occupation group, where most of the women are occupied, the dominating age class is the 30 – 44 years of age in about 50% in relation to the rest of the groups of individual occupations. From the Halkidiki Prefectural Government data the economically active population and the employed and unemployed people were decreased between 1991 and 1995

28 although during the same period the total Halkidiki population increased by 16.5%. These changes appear in Tables 1.13 and 1.14

Table 1.13 Economically active, employed and unemployed population of Halkidiki, 1991-1995 POPULATION 1991 1995 % Change Total 93,653 109,114 16.50 Economically active 33,355 21,098 -36.75 Employed 31,221 19,500 -37.55 Unemployed 2,134 1,598 -25.12

Table 1.14 Active population and unemployment rates Total economically Employed % Employed Unemployed % Unemployed active population 21,098 19,500 92.42 1,598 7.58

4.4 Employment in the different economic sectors The general distribution of the Halkidiki Prefecture economically active population in the primary, secondary and tertiary Sector of the economy is 32.9%, 10.1% and 57.0% correspondingly. Tables 1.15, 1.16,1.17, 1.18, 1.19,1.20 show the distribution of the economically active population per sector of economy and sex. In the primary sector of economy almost 90% of the economically active population in it are men (Table 1.15).

Table 1.15 Distribution of the economically active population in the primary sector of economy by sex, Halkidiki Prefecture Primary sector economic activity Total Males Females branches Agriculture, Livestock, Forestry, Fishing 8,122 7,035 1,087 Mining, Quarrying 1,579 1,406 173 Total 9,701 8,441 1,260 87.0% 13.0% (Source: Halkidiki Development Agency, 2000)

29 Regarding the age class, more than 50% of the population occupied in the primary sector of economy are between 45 and 64 years of age, while young are just 17% (Table 1.16).

Table 1.16 Population distribution by age class in the primary sector of economy, Halkidiki Prefecture 0-14 15-29 30-44 45-64 65+ Total Agriculture, Livestock, Forestry, Fishing 37 1,370 1,936 4,464 315 8,122 Mining, Quarrying 0 250 724 604 1 1,579 Total 37 1,620 2,660 5,068 316 9,701 0.4% 16.7% 27.4% 52.2% 3.3% 100% (Source: Halkidiki Development Agency, 2000)

In the secondary sector of economy men also form the majority of the population occupied in it (75.3%) while the women working this sector are only 24.7% (Table 1.17).

Table 1.17 Distribution of the economically active population in the secondary sector of economy by sex, Halkidiki Prefecture Secondary sector economic Total Males Females activity branches Manufacturing, Handicraft 2,971 2,236 735 100% 75.3% 24.7% (Source: Halkidiki Development Agency, 2000)

In terms of the age class distribution in the secondary sector of economy 70% of the population occupied in this sector are between 15 and 44 years of age, while the rest 28% are older people (Table 1.18).

Table 1.18 Population distribution by age class in the secondary sector of economy, Halkidiki Prefecture

Age class Number % 0-14 23 0.8% 15-29 952 32.0% 30-44 1,138 38.3% 45-64 837 28.2% 65+ 21 0.7% Total 2,971 100% (Source: Halkidiki Development Agency, 2000)

30

From the economic activity distribution analysis in the tertiary sector of the economy, it is shown that 72% of the male population is occupied in the 2nd, 3rd and 4th category (Table 1.19), while women are mainly occupied in the 3rd category (trade- restaurants and hotels) and in the 8th and 9th category. Also it is worth noting that about 10% of both sexes are occupied in Public Administration.

Table 1.19 Distribution of the economically active population in the tertiary sector of economy by sex, Halkidiki Prefecture Total Males Females Tertiary sector economic activity branches Number % Number % 1 Power, Gas and Water supply 182 166 1.3% 16 0.4% 2 Constructions 3,692 3,665 29.0% 27 0.6% 3 Trade, Repairs, Restaurants, Hotels 5,893 4,046 32.0% 1,847 44.2% 4 Transport, storage, communications 1,461 1,379 10.9% 82 2.0% 5 Intermediary Financial Organizations 298 190 1.5% 108 2.6% 6 Real estate management 693 404 3.2% 289 6.9% 7 Public Administration 1,840 1,446 11.4% 394 9.4% 8 Education 1,277 579 4.6% 698 16.7% 9 Health and Social Security 779 337 2.7% 442 10.6% 10 Services- Household assistants 705 433 3.4% 272 6.5%

16,820 12,645 100% 4,175 100% Total (Source: Halkidiki Development Agency, 2000)

Table 1.20 Population distribution by age class in the tertiary sector of economy, Halkidiki Prefecture 0-14 15-29 30-44 45-64 65+ Σύνολο Power, Gas & Water supply 0 39 0.9% 96 1.4% 46 0.9% 1 182 1.1% Constructions 19 1,105 24.1% 1,409 20.0% 1,150 2.,9% 9 3,692 22.0% Trade, Repairs, Restaurants, 24 1,680 36.7% 2,226 31.6% 1,877 37.4% 86 5,893 35.0% Hotels Transport, Storage, 0 277 6.1% 616 8.7% 564 11.3% 4 1,461 8.7% Communications Intermediary Financial 0 66 1.4% 167 2.4% 64 1.3% 1 298 1.8% Organizations Real Estate Management 0 248 5.4% 292 4.1% 147 2.9% 6 693 4.1% Public Administration 0 310 6.8% 967 13.7% 549 11.0% 14 1,840 10.9% Education 0 394 8.6% 661 9.4% 218 4.3% 4 1,277 7.6% Health- Social Security 0 231 5.0% 373 5.3% 173 3.5% 2 779 4.6% Services –Household 0 226 4.9% 243 3.4% 225 4.5% 11 705 4.2% assistants Total 43 4,576 100% 7,050 100% 5,013 100% 138 16,820 100% (Source: Halkidiki Development Agency, 2000)

31 From Table 1.20 it can be observed that regardless age and sex about 23% are occupied in the Constructions, while about 35% in Trade, Repairs, Hotels and catering services.

32

Chapter 5: Local economy and welfare 5.1 Introduction The economy of the Prefecture of Halkidiki relies on the primary sector (agriculture and mining) and on the tertiary sector (tourism, public administration and trade). The Halkidiki Prefecture GDP in 1998 was 1,089,815 EURO, while the GDP of the Central Macedonia Region at the same year was 19,090,509 EURO, thus representing 5.7% of it. In terms of the National GDP the Prefecture of Halkidiki contributes to it by almost 1% (Table 1.21).

Table 1.21 Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Prefecture of Halkidiki (1994) GDP (EURO) Halkidiki 1,089,815 Central Macedonia 19,090,509 Greece 10,921,891

The main productive activities in the Halkidiki Prefecture relate to agriculture- fishing and mining (2.3% and 7.5% of the country’s GDP and 12.5% and 71.5% of the regional GDP correspondingly, in 1998). The contribution of agriculture and fishing to the Prefecture’s GDP has been declining over the past decade and this is mainly due to the increasing importance of other activities, such as building constructions and particularly vacation house building, banking/insurance services, as well as other services. The secondary sector of economy includes a relatively large number of agri- businesses and agro-food establishments, which are based on local raw materials (agricultural products), but have in general a low turnover. There is also a large number of family businesses with clear “endogenous” orientation and non-food production. In the secondary sector of the Halkidiki economy are also included two large scale mining enterprises, which however failed to increase substantially their contribution to local economy due to lack of economic and regional infrastructure. It is worth noting that about 1/7 of the Halkidiki GDP relates to tourism. However, tourism development in Halkidiki is facing problems mainly due to the seasonal type

33 (summer time) and the spatial concentration of development (only the southern part of Halkidiki is developed).

5.2 Agriculture and forestry The GDP of the agricultural sector in 1998 was estimated to about 12.5% of the regional GDP (Region of Central Macedonia). The gross agricultural production is made up by crops, animal husbandry, forestry, apiculture, hunting and fishing. In the Prefecture of Halkidiki there are 16,000 agricultural holdings and about 100,000 ha of arable land, the average land per holding being about 6.3 ha. Agricultural land is extremely fragmented and on average each holding includes about 12 parcels of land. In terms of the ownership status 62% of the total agricultural land is owned and 38% is rented by owners who are not Halkidiki residents. The high percentage of rented lands signifies the interest of the people occupied with farming to expand their activities. Table 1.22 and Figures 3 and 4 show the production of principal agricultural products for the period from 1990 –2002.

Table 1.22 Principal agricultural products in tons, Halkidiki (1990-2002) Agricultural Year products

2002 2001 2000 1999 1996 1993 1990

Cereals for grain 90,578 98,102 97,850 105,460 105,931 72,936 70,056 Edible pulse 77 106 125 136 107 103 109 Industrial crops 6,053 6,764 6,374 10,198 7,740 6,677 4,186 Fodder crops 8,228 7,197 8,173 6,824 7,457 6,444 4,581 Vegetables 33,595 44,454 35,478 36,500 27,495 25,747 12,666 Vineyards 14,800 14,798 14,746 15,693 28,612 24,455 12,683 Tree crops 5,923 5,606 5,190 5,138 6,508 9,489 7,771 Olives 49,043 49,999 55,700 57,405 39,409 29,541 13,550 Olive oil 4,503 5,177 4,888 4,606 5,937 3,951 6,001 (Source: NSSG, Annual Bulletins of Agricultural Statistical Research)

34 160 140 120 100 80

in tons 60 40 20 0 Principal agricultural products 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 Year

Cereals for grain Edible pulse Vegetables Olives

Figure 3. Agricultural production in tons, 1990 –2002, Halkidiki Prefecture

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

Principal agricultural products in tons 0 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 Year Industrial crops Fodder crops Vineyards Tree crops Olive oil

Figure 4. Agricultural production in tons, Halkidiki (1990-2002)

35 The most significant changes in production of the principal agricultural products in the Prefecture of Halkidiki between 1990 and 2002 are observed for the olive production, vegetables and cereals for grain. There is available agricultural land for sale and the price of land fluctuates according to the location and the irrigation possibilities. In the very mountain sites for non-irrigated land of low fertility the price ranges between 140 –450 Euros /ha, while for irrigated land in the same locations it can be even double than this. In the level sites the non- irrigated land costs between 800 – 3,000 Euros per ha and the irrigated one from 1,500 –6,000 Euros per ha. In sites where there are possibilities of future tourist or residential use, the price of land may even reach the astronomical for the area amount of 90,000 Euros per ha. The candidate buyers in the mountain areas are mainly farmers, while in the level areas they are residents from urban centres and have no particular relationship with agriculture. The economically active population occupied in the primary sector of economy is about 32.9% and its distribution by sector and age class has been presented in Chapter 4, Tables 1.15 and 1.16 of the current report. Table 1.23 shows the main forest products in the Prefecture of Halkidiki from 1990 and 1999. The forests of Halkidiki as it has described in Chapter 3 of this report although extensive produce mainly firewood.

Table 1.23 Forest products, Halkidiki Prefecture (1990 –1999) Forest Products Year 1999 1996 1993 1990 Roundwood (m3) 14,773 11,314 10,779 19,489 Pine 3,859 2,297 943 3,326 Oak 466 605 488 2,365 Beech 3,44 2,235 4,575 7,230 Other 3,765 6,177 4,773 6,568 Firewood (tons) From forests 63,841 44,593 25,470 67,026 From agricultural 4,185 3,369 3,094 3,243 holdings

36 Charcoal 90 108 1,041 3 Resin - 158 - 390 (Source: NSSG, Annual Agricultural Statistical Research)

The management of forests in the Prefecture of Halkidiki is under the jurisdiction of the three Forest District Offices located in Poligiros, Arnea and Kassandria and the Forest Directorate of Halkidiki located in the capital town of Poligiros. Hunting is an important, activity in the mountain areas of Halkidiki. The most common game species are hares, wildboars, turtle-doves, wood-pigeons, thrushes, rock partridges and woodcocks. Game in Greece is considered a public property and it is exercised under the relevant legislation. Hunters need a hunting permit to go hunting, which is issued by the Forest District Offices of the area. Fishing forms an important share of the agricultural income because a substantial number of people, about 4,000 are occupied with fishing, while the average annual quantity of fish landed amounts to 28,000 tons. Livestock has a smaller share than the crop production to the agricultural income of the Prefecture of Halkidiki. From the income point of view, the most important economic branch of livestock is the flock sheep and goat rearing, with goat flocks outnumbering the sheep ones. In cattle rearing the majority of animals regards the improved ones, the non-improved following by a ratio about 3:1 and last come the foreign in very small numbers. In honey production the Halkidiki Prefecture ranks 1st in the country accounting for about 35% of the total national honey production. The distribution of animals is as follows: Cattle 6,300 Sheep 43,700 Goats 155,500 Bees 174,325 (domestic beehives 26,650 – European 147,675) Pigs 15,770 Poultry 286,360 The production in tons of the principal livestock products in the Halkidiki Prefecture between 1990 and 2002 is shown in Table 1.24.

37 Table 1.24 Livestock production in tons, Halkidiki Prefecture (1990 –2002) Livestock products Year Primary Livestock products 2002 1999 1996 1993 1990 Milk 23,092 23,096 18,990 17,872 18,379 Meat 6,475 6,905 4,505 3,993 3,598 Lard 5 8 9 9 10 Sheep hair 39 31 44 36 24 Honey 2,222 1,955 2,117 1,669 1,789 Eggs (thous. pieces) 7,791 9,879 - - - Secondary Livestock products Cheese, soft 1,686 1,858 2,104 2,234 1,742 Cheese, hard 7 39 78 80 5 Butter fresh 6 6 5 8 1 Butter melted - - - - - (Source: NSSG, Annual Agricultural Statistical Research)

In general, it can be noted that development of agriculture is facing difficulties mainly due to the small percentage of irrigated land (12%), high degree of land fragmentation, low precipitation, influence of tourism, soil erosion, aquifers salination, inappropriate water resources management and finally to the aged population occupied with agriculture.

5.3 Agri-business, agro-food, local products and agro-tourism The main agri-business and agro-food establishments in Halkidiki related to processing and standardization of agricultural, livestock and fishery products. The number and type of such establishments is presented in Table 1.25. Table 1.25 Number and type of agri-business and agro-food establishments, Halkidiki Prefecture Agri-business/ Agro-food establishments Number of establishments Potatoes peeling 2 Agricultural products processing 1 Edible olive processing 16

38 Olive oil processing 44 Cheese dairies 9 Refrigerators 3 Honey standardization 2 Dried fruits processing 5 Edible pulse packing 3 Standardization – Fruit and vegetables processing 7 Wine- Beverage distilleries 6 Eel aquaculture 1 Mussel aquaculture 5 Open sea aquaculture 3 TOTAL 107

The agricultural character of the Halkidiki Prefecture justifies the relatively large number of agricultural processing establishments. From the total number of agri-business and agro-food establishments 87 (81.3%) relate to plant production, 11 establishments (18.7%) to animal production including fish. Furthermore, from the plant production establishment 60 (69%) relate to olive crops, which rank first in the tree crops of the area. Improvement of selection, standardization, packaging, storage and trading of agricultural product establishments forms one of the basic planning objectives of the Agricultural Development Plan drafted by the Halkidiki Prefecture Authorities. Local agricultural products include crops on arable land, mainly wheat hard, industrial crops mostly cotton and sunflower and fodder plants for hay and grass. Other local agricultural products are tomatoes, potatoes, water melons and melons. Also very important are the olive crops and the vineyards. Most of the agricultural products are sold directly by the producers without being subjected to any processing, with the exception of a few products, which undergo a simple standardization or processing (wines and beverages). Olives are sold through two Unions of Agricultural Cooperatives and a single Agricultural Cooperative. Livestock products are also collected directly from animals with no special equipment of infrastructure (e.g. milk and eggs). These products are sold directly by the producers, except honey, which is sold by the Apicultural Cooperative.

39 The northern and central part of the Prefecture of Halkidiki, which is dominated by two main mountain massifs is considered most suitable for developing agrotourism activities. The picturesque town of Arnea is one of the few places in this part of Halkidiki where some organized forms of agrotourism take place. Also some recreational activities, such as mountain climbing, hunting and trekking on marked routes for which this part of Halkidiki offers excellent opportunities are enjoyed by a number of visitors, although still limited. In some spots the Forest District Offices of Halkidiki have provided some simple outdoor recreational facilities for ecotourism activities.

5.4 Industry The majority of enterprises in the secondary sector of economy are small and medium scale in the Prefecture of Halkidiki. Foodstuffs, beverages and tobacco are the main manufacturing activities (about 36% of the Prefecture’s manufacturing GDP), with products mainly based on the agricultural production, following by textiles (the second important manufacturing activity) and wood and furniture activity. The manufacturing branches of metal products, machinery, electrical supplies, chemicals and non-metallic mineral products contribute also to the Prefecture’s manufacturing GDP, but are far less important activities in the area. In total, the manufacturing branch of the Halkidiki prefecture appears declining over the past decade and its contribution to the regional and national GDP is very low (1.6% and 0.3% correspondingly, in 1998). The economically active population occupied in the secondary sector of economy amounts to just 10%. Its distribution by sector of economy and sex is presented in Chapter 4, Tables 1.17 and 1.18 of the current report. There are about 1,000 manufacturing establishments in which almost 3,000 are employed on average per year. 5.5 Trade and services The trade, communications and other services, such as dwelling services, construction and public administration are very important for the employment of people in the Prefecture of Halkidiki. The GDP of dwelling services alone for Halkidiki in 1998 was estimated at 3.3% of the corresponding GDP of the Central Macedonia Region. The GDP of the total

40 Halkidiki Services sector including hotels and restaurants in the same year was estimated to almost 6% of the corresponding Central Macedonia Region GDP. The population of the Halkidiki Prefecture employed in the tertiary sector by activity branch and sex were presented in Tables 1.19 and 1.20 of Chapter 4 in this report.

5.6 Tourism Halkidiki is one of the best known tourist destinations of Northern Greece for both Greek people and people from other countries. There is a well- developed tourist infrastructure, which however is concentrated only along the coastal zone of the Prefecture in the southern part of the Prefecture. The tourist activity is seasonal extending over a 6-month period with main concentrations in July and August, when the Halkidiki visitors are about 6 times more the permanent residents. The ratio of Greek and foreigner visitors is about 1:5. About 35% of the people employed in the tertiary sector of economy are occupied in the tourism sector (Table 1.19, Chapter 4 of the current report). The GDP of hotels and restaurants alone was estimated at 11.4% of the regional GDP in 1998. It is worth noting that only 40% of beds in hotel units is licensed by the Hellenic Tourism Organization. This is probably due to the proximity of the large urban centre of Thessaloniki and the excessive demand of the Thessaloniki residents for vacation houses. Table 1.26 shows the number of rented rooms and beds for the Halkidiki Prefecture from 1994 –1996 in houses licensed by the Hellenic Tourism Organization (EOT). Tables 1.27 and 1.28 present the number of nights spent by Greeks in the Halkidiki hotel units from 1994 to 1996.

Table 1.26 Rented rooms and number of beds licensed by EOT, Halkidiki, (1994 – 1996) Year 1994 1995 1996 Rooms 10,016 11,735 12,467 Beds 22,486 25,306 26,830

41 In 1996 also, 39 camping units were established with a capacity in tents and trailers of 4,358 and 14,016 individuals were served.

Table 1.27 Number of nights spent by Greeks in the Halkidiki hotel units, 1994- 1996 Year 1994 1995 1996 Hotels and related 190,025 270,171 321,603 units Guest rooms 9,519 6,167 6,955 Furnished suites 19,693 16,629 21,084 Camping 93,397 81,432 103,155 Summer resorts - - 2,170 TOTAL 312,634 374,399 454,967 % Halkidiki 2.6 3 2.6 % Central Macedonia 12.5 12.9 13.3 % Greece 100 100 100

Table 1.28 Number of nights spent by foreigners in the Halkidiki hotel units, 1994-1996 Year 1994 1995 1996 Hotels and related 1,542,243 1,275,591 1,232,073 units Guest rooms 36,586 30,760 23,883 Furnished suites 154,783 199,077 155,092 Camping Units 29,814 12,582 66,990 Summer resorts - - 466 TOTAL 1,764,129 1,518,010 1,478,504 % Halkidiki 4.3 4.0 4.1 % Central Macedonia 6.2 6.1 6.5 % Greece 100 100 100

42

During 1994 –1996 from the data reported in Tables 1.26, 1.27 and 1.28 the trend in tourism development generally can be interpreted as increasing, despite the decrease by almost 14% in the number of nights spent by foreigners in Halkidiki between 1994 and 1995. Fluctuations of this order (10 –15%) are typical from year to year with foreign tourists due to the strong competition between similar places in the Mediterranean region, but also to other external factors, such as political events, extreme physical events, etc. In year 2000, the number of nights spent by foreigners in Halkidiki was 2.2 million.

43 Chapter 6. Cultural heritage and history

6.1 Short history of the area Halkidiki was first inhabited about 700,000 years ago, as it has been revealed through findings from 1960 on in the Petralona cave. The most important finding is a Neanderthal skull, called “the Archanthropus europaeus petraloniensis” dating 500,000 years BC. The type of man it represents constitutes the link between the Homo erectus and the Homo sapiens. In the cave traces of fires were found, as well as bones belonging to animals that have disappeared thousands of years ago or which do not belong to the fauna of Halkidiki for millennia, such as the cave bear, the hyena, the cave lion, the rhinoceros, the deer, the jackal, the mammoth and other animals. During the prehistoric years, settlements were established in various locations of Halkidiki and the first inhabitants were Thracians and Pelasgians. In the 8th century BC, settlers from the south of Greece, particularly Chalkis, Eretria, Andros, Korinth and Athens, colonized the peninsula, founded important cities and exploited the rich mines of Halkidiki. During the Peloponnesian war many battles took place in the area and in 348 BC, after the destruction of Olynthus by Phillip II, it became part of the Macedonian Kingdom. In 168 BC, Halkidiki was conquered by the Romans. In 43 BC, Romans founded the town of Kassandria, in order to control the Thermaikos Gulf, which became the most important economic center of the area in those times. During the Byzantine era, the coastal towns of Halkidiki suffered many attacks from marauders and raiders. In 269 AD Halkidiki was besieged by the Goths, but an expedition of emperor Claudius relieved it from them. In the middle of the 6th century AD, the area was almost completely destroyed by the Huns. Historical information from the 6th until the 9th century AD is completely missing for Halkidiki. Historical information is coming mainly for the 9th century AD on period from the Holy Mount monasteries the first of which were founded in the 9th century. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD Halkidiki was conquered by the Turks. It participated actively to the revolution of 1821 for the liberation from the Turkish yoke and was finally united to Greece in 1912. During the Macedonian struggle for union with Greece, Halkidiki was an important bulwark and after the Greek defeat of 1922, it received many refugees from

44 Asia Minor, who transplanted in the area their culture and many place names from their lost “fatherland”.

6.2 Existing agricultural traditions In Halkidiki the main traditional agricultural activities are related to the production of crops on arable lands, mainly wheat with low yields due to lack of sufficient water resources, production of olive crops and vineyards, extensive livestock production, mainly flock sheep and goat rearing, bee keeping, as well as forest production, particularly firewood, charcoal and chestnut wood. Important in the area is also the production of Christmas trees. Other agricultural traditions are related to collection of particular agricultural products, such as chestnuts, mushrooms, cherries, fruits of the forest and aromatic plants and spices, such as oregano, mint, thyme, bay leaves, etc. Some agricultural traditions are connected to processing of livestock products, such as cheese, butter and yogurt making. Some of these products have been certified as origin labeled products or products of geographic indication, like the feta cheese of Halkidiki. Wine making constitutes also an existing agricultural tradition in some parts of Halkidiki. There are several wines and wine byproducts, such as ouzo, which have been certified as origin labeled products. Finally, it is worth mentioning the tradition of locally woven textiles in traditional looms mainly by women in the town of Arnea and the surrounding it area, which has been officially declared as “Historical Site” by the Ministry of Culture.

6.3 Relevant historical and cultural issues Halkidiki is full of archaeological sites and Byzantine monuments. The ancient city of Acanthos is an important archaeological site as there are ruins from its fortification of Classical Hellenistic times and the ancient cemetery. Excavations are in progress to reveal the ancient city. The ancient Olynthus is the only ancient Greek city discovered to its greatest extent. The excavation offer an insight into Greek townplanning- the city was built on the Hippodamian system- compared to that gained from Pompeii. Seven parallel avenues were intersected by perpendicular streets, creating urban blocks of about 35.5 metres wide and 86.5 metres long, each consisting of about 10 houses. The city was fortified by a brick wall, while the agora was at an open place, surrounded by arcades. The finds of the excavation are exhibited at the

45 archaeological museums of and Thesslaoniki. The archaeological site itself is surrounded by a fence. Recently restoration works have begun in order to reconstruct the city. Other historical sites of interest is the ancient city of Stagiros, the birth place of Aristotle, the Xerxes canal, the Cemetery, Macedonian tombs and wall ruins of ancient and ruins of ancient settlements in Torone, Afytos, Skioni, Ormilia and Metagissi, as well as the temple of Amon-Zeus in Kallithea and the Poseidon temple in Poseidi. In Halkdiki also several remains of monastery dependencies (metochia), fortifications, towers, churches and water-mills are of historical interest in many places, such as Nea Fokea, Galatista, , , Nea , Ormilia and Flogita. There are also two settlements, Paleokastro and Parthenon, which are of cultural interest and have been declared as “Historical sites” by the Ministry of Culture. The Holy Mount (the Athos peninsula) is unique mainly due to its cultural and historical heritage. Its mountainous area of 336 km2 is divided amongst the 20 monasteries on it. In the middle of the 10th century, the peninsula was officially declared a residency for monks, and in 963 the first monastic community, by the name of Megisti Lavra (Great Lavra) was founded by Saint Athanasius, with the help and resources of the emperors Nikiforos Fokas and Ioannis Tsimiskis. A few years later, in 971/972, the first typikon (charter) was written, which was a set of rules determining the organization and administration of the monks on Mount Athos. The monasteries are either built on impressive natural sites such as cliffs or in sheltered bays with sandy beaches. Apart from the beauty of the landscape, the unique architectural features of the monasteries, and the rich treasures, which are kept in them are the big attractions of this part of Halkidiki. The Holy Mount is administered by the Greek State, but jurisdiction lies with the Ecumenical Patriarchate. Its seat is at Karyes, which is the capital of Athos. At Karyes is also the oldest church of the Holy Mountain, the Protaton (10th century), the Athoniadis ecclesiastic School, the representations of the monasteries and the Hagiographic society. There are 20 monasteries on the Holy Mountain peninsula, 12 skites and many kelia, kalyves, Kathismas and Hesychastyria, where small groups of monks live. As too many people have been visiting the peninsula over the past few years, the number of visitors to the Holy Mountain has been restricted to 120 Greeks and 10 foreigners a day. Entrance is prohibited to women.

46

6.4 Relevant landscape features The natural environment in the Halkidiki Prefecture is typical of the Mediterranean landscapes found throughout Greece, with the possible exception of the southern Aegean islands, and a narrow coastal strip around Attica, the Peloponnese and Crete. The Halkidiki natural environment in general is of outstanding beauty combining land with Aleppo pine forests, beech and chestnut forests, picturesque villages and beautiful beaches. The most remarkable, however, landscape features of aesthetic and scientific interest are the mountain natural ecosystems of Mount Itamos and Holomontas, declared as NATURA 2000 sites, the wetlands of Agios Mamas, and Vourvourou and the dunes of Pyrgos and Gerani. Very interesting landscapes make the Armenistis beach and the Delta of Havrias river with many migratory birds and water turtles. The protected natural monuments of Halkidiki, which include the Aleppo pine of Nikiti, the plane tree of Geroplatanos and the plane tree of Vavdos, along with the Petralona cave, where “the Archanthropus europaeus petraloniensis” human skull was discovered, which is a unique geological formation constitute also landscapes of high aesthetic and scientific interest. The most exceptional landscape features of Halkidiki are found in the Athos peninsula (Holy Mount), which has been declared by UNESCO as World Cultural and Natural Heritage.

6.5 Traditional fairs of the area The best known folklore events and traditions in Halkidiki are the commercial fair of Agios Mamas, the Holy Mount fairs, the Kassandra Festival, the swimming contest at Toroneos Bay, the Carnival feast of Poligiros, the feast of Megali Panagia and the cultural events of Olympiada. The commercial fair of Agios Mamas is a tradition that has lived through many centuries, probably since the Byzantine times. In the past animals used to be sold in this fair, which today have been replaced by agricultural machines. Many visitors come to this event to taste fried sausages, the typical dish of this occasion, see the accompanying folklore activities or visit the nearby to the village country church dedicated to Agios Mamas.

47 The Holy Mount fairs are always interesting events as every monastery attempts to present its best assets, such as icons, relics, vestments, crosses, silver and golden urns, manuscripts, old and new documents, etc. The Kassandra festival is organized every year at the amphitheatre of Siviri. It attracts many artistic shows centred around the Open Air Theatre. On the last Sunday of July, the “Cultural Association of young people of Nikiti, Sithon”, organizes every year a swimming contest across the Toroneos Bay. The swimmers start from Afytos or Kallithea without any means of transport and end at the wharf of Nikiti. Particularly colourful is also the feast on the occasion of the name-day of the village’s protector Agios Nikitas (St Nicetas), that last from September 14 till 16. At the same time the “days of Agios Nikitas” are organized, where lectures, archaeology and folklore are held. A Carnival feast is organized in Polygyros the picturesque capital town of Halkidiki for a whole week with many carnival events, old customs, parades, etc during the last Carnival Week of the Greek Orthodox calendar. The feast at Megali Panagia is one of the most traditional of the whole region and lasts from August 1st till August 15. In the old days people from all over Halkidiki used to gather in the village of Megali Panagia, sometimes travelling long distances on their mules for several days. Every summer, on the day of Agia Kiriaki (July 7th), cultural and artistic events are being organized and a meeting is held on the life and work of the great philosopher of Stagira, Aristotle in Olympiada, a town founded by refugees on a site of major historical importance, the location of ancient Stagiros. Small fairs are organized in almost all villages at the dates the church of the village is celebrated

48 Chapter 7. Institutions

7.1 Public Institutions of the Halkidiki area The Public Actors involved in local and regional development Planning in Greece generally are the Regional Authorities, the Prefecture Authorities and the Municipal Authorities. In the case of Halkidiki the Regional Government of Central Macedonia is the upper level Authority on making decisions mostly about regional development planning and it is based in Thessaloniki (69 km from Polygyros the capital town of Halkidiki), the Prefecture of Halkidiki based in Polygyros with decision making power related to the territory of the Prefecture of Halkidiki and the 14 Municipal Authorities, each having decision making power related to development issues on the territory of each Municipality. The Prefect and the Mayors are directly elected by the people, while the Regional Governor is appointed by the Prime Minister. Other Agencies involved in many aspects of local development in Halkidiki are the Development Agency of Halkidiki (AN.ET.XA), S.A. based in Polygyros, the Union of Halkidiki Hotelliers, the Hunting Association Clubs, the Manufacturing Chamber, the Forest District Offices of Halkidiki, the General Forest Directorate of Halkidiki, the Rural and Forest Cooperatives of Halkidiki, the Administration Authorities of Athos and associations of citizens with special interests (such as environment, culture, recreation etc).

7.2 Planning zones The Development Plan of Halkidiki 2000-2006 identified the following 7 planning areas in order to specify development objectives. I. The Capital city area II. Kallikratia – Galatista area III. South area IV. Kassandra area V. Sothonia area VI. Ierissos- Agio Oros area VII. North Halkidiki area The general objectives set through this plan were the following: i. Increase of the net domestic per capita product

49 ii. Maintenance of the permanent population iii. Improvement of the economic infrastructure iv. Job opportunities v. Improvement of accessibility to the Services of the Prefecture vi. Improvement of the land use structure for better connection of the planning areas vii. Environmental improvement and viii. Regional integration.

Agricultural development according to the Development Plan (2000 – 2006) of the Halkidiki Prefecture Authorities aims at improving the competitiveness and productivity of agricultural activities in terms of production, processing and trading, modernization of agricultural infrastructure and basic equipment, protection of agricultural environment and agricultural differentiation through integrated development programs and actions. The operation agricultural development plan is based on four pillars, dynamic agriculture, integrated agriculture and organically grown products, agro-environmental measures and agricultural differentiation. As areas of dynamic agriculture were defined the planning areas of South Kalamaria, the plain zone of the capital city planning area and parts of the planning areas of Kallikratia and North Halkidiki. As areas of integrated and organic farming were defined all the rest of the planning areas.

7.3 Main legislation and tools for the provision of environmental – recreational goods and services Financing for local and regional development in the Prefecture of Halkidiki over the past 15 year was derived mainly through three Regional Operational Programs (ROP), of which the third is still on-going and it is anticipated to be finalized by the end of 2006, National Sectoral Programs, EU Initiatives and Regulations (LEADER, 867/902078/92, 2158/92, 2080/92, etc), the Cohesion Fund, the European Social Fund and National Funds. The second ROP of 704 million Euros for the total Central Macedonia Region was co-financed by EU (69%), the Greek Government (23%) and private investors (8%) and it was finalized at the end of 2001. Through the third ROP (2000 – 2006), the Central Macedonia Region should invest 1,235 million Euros for local and regional development in its seven Prefectures,

50 among which, Halkidiki too. This amount will be increased by funds derived from National Sectoral Programs, the Cohesion Fund, the EU Regulations and other National Funds, to 5, 900 million Euros for the same period. The main strategic aims of the 3rd ROP are to balance local and regional development between the Prefectures of the Region, to protect the natural environment, to support development of the rural, mountain and border areas, to reduce unemployment and provide equal opportunities to knowledge and skills and to develop the city of Thessaloniki into a Metropolitan center with international functions. Table 1.29 shows the financing sources in the mountain area of Halkidiki from 1997 – 2000 and the corresponding amounts for local and regional development projects. The ROP financing was completely directed to forest road construction, while in the period between 1997-1999 for rural road construction and maintenance were invested additionally 277,067 Euros.

Table 1.29 Financing sources for local and regional development in the mountain Halkidiki (1997 –2000) in Euros Financing source Year 1997 1998 1999 2000 Public Investment 2,185,234 2,332,798 1,516,270 896,503 2nd ROP 399,628 432,656 270,361 159,190 Cohesion Fund - - 126,270 53,826 867/90 198,592 78,240 4,750 - 2158/92 740,465 334,753 235,020 318,064 2080/92 316,085 205,961 161,827 683,873 LEADER II – Agrotourism 2,212,031 1,417,137 2,399,986 - 2nd ROP –Agrotourism - 780,631 27,356 -

The main tools used for evaluation of rural development projects are mainly economic indicators, such as employment opportunities, generated income and some general “yes/no” qualitative indicators for the environmental and social aspects of the projects, as these are defined by the EU DG Regional Development. These tools by

51 no means are sufficient to assess the contribution of the rural development projects the sustainable development of the area. Almost all the rural development projects which have been carried out or are presently on-going are of small or medium scale, they run under the EU Initiatives or Regulations (LEADER, Reg. 867/90, Reg. 2158/92, 2078/92, 2080/92, 1257/99, 1260/99), or under the Regional Operations Programs and they could be classified in one of the following categories: * Road construction * Road maintenance * Agrotourism establishments * Reforestation * Recreation facilities * Water resources protection and management * Soil erosion and flood protection constructions * Irrigation * Crop restructuring and agricultural land protection * Forest protection * Forest fire combating * Rangelands improvement constructions * Sewage treatment studies and constructions * Farm forestry * Development and management studies * Organic farming * Vocational training

7.4 Negotiated agreements in the area Most of the mountain land of Halkidiki belongs to the State or Municipal Authorities, therefore it is regarded as a public property and development and management of this land should be carried out within the context of the relevant legislation. There are no specially designated protected areas, except the Sithonia peninsula and the Holomontas forest, which have been proposed as NATURA areas and therefore their management should be carried out under a different legislation context.

52 A special case forms the Athos peninsula, which is self-administered by the monks living in the Athos monasteries. As it was noted in previous sections accessibility is restricted to Athos and a special permit is required to enter it. Entrance is not allowed to women. Some considerable amount of land in Halkidiki especially belongs to Monasteries and Churches and is also under a special legislation context.

53 Chapter 8. Choice of representative case-studies for further analysis

The GOVERNET work up to this stage involved the full description of the study areas, which will be used next to apply an integrated evaluation framework and tools for rural development within the context of sustainable development through indicator models of environmental, economic, social and institutional impacts. The cases to be selected for further analysis should be based on spatial development entities and reflect both differences and similarities in all aspects, environmental, socio-economic and institutional between the different countries, so that country comparisons of best practices for integrated and sustainable rural development might be possible. Therefore, the following step of GOVERNET should involve selection of spatial scales and identification and mapping of spatial development entities (suitability models) at different suitable for development analyses spatial scales of all country study areas. A four level spatial scale system involving region, landscape system, landscape type and ecotope resulted from previous research is suggested as more appropriate for the GOVERNET analysis. On the basis of the spatial development entities and participation of all the local institutions concerning with rural development, possible development alternatives at different spatial scales will be formulated for the study areas. Environmental impact indicator models, particularly related to natural resources, socio-economic and institutional impact indicator models will be applied to evaluate the development alternatives and the best alternative will be derived. In the Halkidiki case study for each spatial scale, lowlands with different kinds of crops (mostly wheat and olives), mountain areas (forests and rangelands), coastlands and specific SMEs particularly those depending upon the agricultural production and other agricultural traditions will be selected for futher analysis. Representatives of all the public institutions described in section 7.1 of the current report will be asked to take part to the GOVERNET process.

54 Chapter 9. Conclusions

Halkidiki the peninsula with its three smaller peninsulas, Kassandra, Sithonia and Athos, is a typical Mediterranean mountain area of Northern Greece in terms of the physical enviroment (climate, vegetation, wildlife), the land use pattern, the human and economic resources and the institutional framework in the context of which local and regional development projects are implemented. Its territory, with the 104,894 inhabitants is dominated by two main mountain massifs and a complex system of hills ranging from about 300m to 900 m a.s.l. About one third of the land is used for agriculture, mainly cereals, vegetables, tree crops and olive groves and the rest supports forestry, grazing and tourism. An important tourist infrastructure has been developed mainly over the last decade along the coastal areas of Halkidiki, thus making it one of the best known tourist destinations in Northern Greece. However, the mainland of the Halkidiki Prefecture, which hosts some of the best broadleaf and mixed forests in Greece is little developed. On the condition that private and public development investment will be distributed in different spatial patterns, due to the landscape types of the Kasandra and Sithonia peninsulas, some of the tourist activity on the coastal areas, which has generated several environmental problems can be possibly directed towards the inland part of the Prefecture with no negative impacts on the environment. A special case constitutes the Athos peninsula in the area. This is a mountainous peninsula and its 336 km2 are divided among the 20 monasteries on it. The area is renowned due to the beauty of its landscape and the unique architectural features of the monasteries and the rich treasures, which are kept in them. The Halkidiki case study it is believed will make an excellent study area for the GOVERNET INTERREG III B CADSES. .

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