The Sacred Dimension of Protected Areas Proceedings of the Second Workshop of the Delos Initiative - Ouranoupolis 2007

IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas

Edited by Thymio Papayannis and Josep-Maria Mallarach

INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE

WORLD HEADQUARTERS Rue Mauverney 28 1196 Gland, Switzerland [email protected] Tel +41 22 999 0000 Fax +41 22 999 0002 www.iucn.org The Sacred Dimension of Protected Areas Ouranoupolis 2007 264 The Sacred Dimension of Protected Areas Proceedings of the Second Workshop of the Delos Initiative

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Citation: Papayannis, T. and Mallarach, J.-M. (eds) (2009). The Sacred Dimension of Protected Areas: Proceedings of the Second Workshop of the Delos Initiative – Ouranoupolis 2007. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN and Athens, Greece: Med-INA. pp. 262

ISBN: 978-2-8317-1166-9

Cover design: Pavlina Alexandropoulou

Cover photos: Clockwise from top: Holy Convent of Chrysopigi, A. Davydov, K.K. Han, R. Wild, I. Lyrat- zaki, Archives of the Monastery of Poblet, J.M. Mallarach, B. Verschuuren, S. Catanoiu Back: J. M. Mallarach

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The Sacred Dimension of Protected Areas Proceedings of the Second Workshop of the Delos Initiative

Ouranoupolis, Greece, 24-27 October 2007

Edited by Thymio Papayannis and Josep-Maria Mallarach

table of contents

7 Opening message HAH The Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I 9 Opening statements Dimitrios Tziritis Father Gregorios 13 Introduction Thymio Papayannis and Josep-Maria Mallarach

25 Part One: Analysis of case studies

27 Indigenous peoples 27 Power on this land; managing sacred sites at Dhimurru Indigenous Protected Area, Northeast Arnhem Land, Australia Bas Verschuuren, Mawalan II Marika and Phil Wise 47 Sacred versus secular in the San Francisco Peaks, Arizona, USA Jeneda Benally and Lawrence Hamilton

61 Mainstream faiths 61 The National Park of the Casentine Forests, Italy Gloria Pungetti, Franco Locatelli and Father Peter Hughes 67 ‘Abd al-Salâm ibn Mashîsh and Jabal La‘lâm Site, Northern Morocco Zakia Zouanat 77 Sacred Mountain of Ganghwa Island, South Korea Kyung-Koo Han 89 Solovetsky Islands: a holy land surrounded by the Arctic Ocean, Russian Federation Alexander N. Davydov, Ivan N. Bolotov and Galina V. Mikhailova

105 Part Two: Management of monastic lands and facilities

107 Mount Athos (Greece) 107 The protected area of the peninsula of the Athos Holy Mountain, Halkidiki, Greece Ioannis Philippou and Konstantinos Kontos 127 Landscape conservation actions on Mount Athos, Halkidiki, Greece Petros Kakouros

137 other case studies 137 Buila-Vânturarit,a National Park, Valcea county, Romania Sebastian Catanoiu 153 An integrated ecological approach to monastic land: the case of the Holy Convent of Chrysopigi, Chania, Crete, Greece Mother Superior Theoxeni 161 Initiatives taken by the Cistercian Monastery of Poblet to improve the integration of spiritual, cultural and environmental values, Catalonia, Spain Josep-Maria Mallarach and Lluc M. Torcal 173 Rila Monastery Natural Park, Bulgaria Josep-Maria Mallarach and Sebastian Catanoiu 177 The inclusion of a Tibetan Buddhist perspective in the management of the property of the Sakya Tashi Ling Monastery in Garraf Park, Catalonia, Spain Isabel Soria García

191 towards ecological management 191 Reflections on the management of monastic lands and facilities Josep-Maria Mallarach and Thymio Papayannis

201 Part Three: Achieving synergy between spiritual and conservation concerns 203 IUCN-UNESCO Guidelines for protected area managers on Sacred Natural Sites: rationale, process and consultation Robert Wild 225 Sacred natural sites in developed countries Thymio Papayannis 235 Some thoughts on sacred sites, faith communities and indigenous peoples Gonzalo Oviedo 241 Environmental action by the Ecumenical Patriarchate Theodota Nantsou

249 The Ouranoupolis Statement on sacred natural sites in technologically developed countries

255 Appendices

Opening message

HAH The Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I

Opening statements

Dimitrios Tziritis Father Gregorios

Welcome speech, from past lessons and realise how very Dimitrios Tziritis dependent we are on nature. We have to do that if we are to enhance our quality of life now and build more sustainable Dear participants, communities for the future. On behalf of the Prefect of Halkidiki, the Now is the time to act and introduce en Prefectural Board and the people of vironmental mitigation —wherever that Halkidiki, it is my pleasure to welcome is possible— and preservation meas- you all to Halkidiki. I would also like to ures and techniques whose ultimate say that we are delighted to see the 2nd goal, of course, is our current and fu- Delos Initiative Workshop being organ- ture sustainability. ised in Halkidiki. As the Vice-Prefect responsible for Envi- After years of unsustainable practices, ronmental Issues, I understand that our the Greeks have realised the most self- society has continuously and robustly evident truth: that nature is our society’s demanded that its decision —and poli- main resource base and that our future cy-makers— establish new and attaina- well-being depends on the harmonious ble targets, introduce new initiatives and relationship beween nature and hu- boost its efforts to achieve the goals that mans. We really need to look back, learn we have collectively set.

< The Tower of Ouranoupolis, Halkidiki, Greece Nevertheless, there are several stages consideration of several topics, reflec- in the struggle for environmental sus- tion on many important issues, contem- tainability, which requires careful plan- plation of distinct aspects of sustainabil- ning, informed decisions and dynamic ity and, ultimately, careful management. implementation. Several areas of con- In the days ahead, we will have the op- cern have distinct characteristics of their portunity to progress on many vital is- own, which give rise to specific and di- sues regarding the conservation of the verse problems that should be managed natural environment. Your ideas, reviews accordingly. and criteria are important, and this Mount Athos, the world’s oldest monas- makes the Delos Initiative a scheme of tic state, a unique site of historic, envi- particular importance; we are glad, as ronmental and cultural importance, the the Prefecture of Halkidiki, to be actively exceptional and dominant ‘Garden of participating in this initiative. the Virgin Mary’, is located on the I would like to thank you again for host- Halkidiki peninsula. The conservation ing the event in Halkidiki and to wish you and management of Mount Athos’ natu- all the best. I look forward to seeing the ral and cultural heritage requires the results of your efforts.

Iviron Monastery, Mt Athos

10 Opening statement, Since the time of the Creation, our mer- Father Gregorios ciful God has made Man capable of carrying out his role as the king of earth and let him use nature to satisfy his On behalf of the Holy Community of needs. In other words, nature should Mount Athos, it gives me great pleas- not be worshipped; at the same time, ure and satisfaction to greet the Delos however, nor should it be overexploited. Initiative, which is under the supervision Athonite monks have always respected of Med-INA, and endorse its main ob- nature and used natural resources wise- jectives which are promoting environ- ly and only to satisfy the bare necessi- mental awareness, making rational use ties of life. of natural resources and addressing the need to establish a more harmoni- However, living a life based on the wis- ous relationship between humans and dom of Orthodox Theology is not the environment. enough in itself to preserve and sustain the natural environment of Mount Athos. Further, the Delos Initiative examines the The Holy Community should retain its role that sacred places can play in envir self-governance, and Athonite monks onmental conservation, the protection of should continue —through their theo- biodiversity and, ultimately, the sustaina- logical quests— to be able to express ble management of our natural and cul- their environmental concerns. These two tural heritage. points are core prerequisites for the de- The natural environment of Mount Athos velopment and implementation of an in- with its rich fauna and flora, invaluable novative strategy for the sustainable biodiversity and beautiful landscapes is management of the natural environment indeed exceptional and unique. We are of Mount Athos. thus extremely grateful that Med-INA has I should like to inform you that the Holy included Mount Athos as one of the case Community has taken the initiative in pre- studies in the Delos Initiative, since the paring a Special Environmental Study region’s cultural and environmental sig- that aims to raise environmental aware- nificance will be examined from a scien- ness and promote the Athonite Environ- tific point of view. ment. Our dear friend Mr Ioannis Philip- pou, Professor of Forestry at the Aristotle Briefly, it can be stated that the unique- University of Thessaloniki, will be pre- ness of Mount Athos’ natural environment senting its salient points. stems, firstly, from the way of life of the Athonite monks, which is based on the I would like to finish by conveying our wisdom of Orthodox Theology concerning best wishes. We hope that the Delos Ini- the Creation and, secondly, from the self- tiative will meet its aims and objectives government status of Mount Athos. for Nature and for Man.

11 12 Introduction

Thymio Papayannis and Josep-Maria Mallarach

Sacred natural sites and the recent years is between those concerned Delos Initiative with the conservation of nature –and of its biodiversity– and the custodians of sa- As environmental problems continue to cred sites, representing both indigenous increase at an ever more rapid rate, exac- beliefs and mainstream faiths. erbated by the major threat of global climate change, the need for widespread Natural sites are defined as those that main remedial action is becoming ever more tain a significant degree of biodiversity and pressing. Scientific consensus on both therefore merit protection status, whether the root causes of these problems and local, national or international. Such sites the measures required to tackle them is are usually part of protected areas and be growing, while mass media and public in- nefit from active management of some kind; terest has reached fever pitch. Of course, although this can be applied through a wide while this has put pressure on decision- range of means, in technologically devel- makers to take positive action, the reali- oped countries such management tends sation of the gravity and extent of the envir to be in the hands of special management onmental problems has encouraged all bodies –whether governmental services those concerned about the state of our or NGOs– or even local communities . world to search for partners around it: one As is often the case in Community Conserved such significant partnership to emerge in Areas (CCAs).

< Ouranoupolis, Halkidiki, Greece 13 However, the existence of protected areas traditions are markedly present across is probably as old as the history of hu- North America (First Nations), Australia manity. In many parts of the world, natu- (Aborigines), New Zealand (Maoris), Rus- ral sites have acquired spiritual signifi- sia, northern Scandinavia (Sami) and a cance through the ages for indigenous few other European countries like Esto- peoples, local communities or particular nia. Sacred sites related to ancient histor- mainstream faiths and groups of believ- ic religions occur frequently in the Medi- ers. In addition, some sites which were terranean Basin, with examples including sacred to now defunct societies, while Delos, Delphi and the Parthenon on the still meriting a degree of respect, have Athens Acropolis. Sacred natural sites maintained only their historical and cul- related to Christianity are still frequent in tural value. most countries where the Orthodox and / or Catholic faiths are or have been the As a result, most technologically devel- principle religions, and usually relate to oped countries have a multitude of di- places where holy people lived or were verse and complex natural sacred sites, touched by celestial beings. There are al- which connect ancient and modern spir- so a number of related examples of living itual traditions through history: sacred pilgrimages, including the Camino de landscapes relating to prehistoric cul- Santiago de Compostela (Way of St tures with tangible traces, like rock paint- James) in northern Spain, France and ings or labyrinths, or without them; sa- Portugal; the Via Laurentana in Italy; El cred sites related to ‘dead’ historic cul- Rocßo in Spain and Saintes-Maries-de-la- tures from megalithic civilisations on- Mer in the Rhône Delta, France. wards, some of which have been reviving in recent times in certain regions or The sanctity of a site is usually related to are well-documented by traditional liter- the integrity of its natural features, which ary sources like epics or sagas; sacred is to say that it is normally compatible sites relating to living indigenous spiritual with the requirements of nature conser- traditions; sacred sites and pilgrimage vation. In fact, many countries first routes related to long-established living sought to establish natural protected ar- mainstream religions; and new sacred eas because of sacred sites or pilgrim- sites related to either recently-estab- age paths. For instance, the largest con- lished mainstream religions or main- centration of Biosphere Reserves in Eu- stream religions recently established in a rope is related to the Camino de Santia- new geographical location: e.g. Bud- go in Northern Spain. However, this can dhism in Europe. lead to conflict stemming either from the pressure put on the natural environment Characteristic examples of natural sa- by large numbers of pilgrims and / or vis- cred sites related to prehistoric cultures itors, or from protected area managers include Stonehenge in England, Carnac affording insufficient recognition to spirit- in France and the megalithic structures ual or religious values and their require- on the islands of Malta and Minorca. Sa- cred sites related to indigenous living Dedicated to the goddess Athena.

14 The participants at the Delos2 Workshop ments. In old sacred sites located within of the ancient Greek world. Jointly co- modern protected areas, the lack of a ordinated by Thymio Papayannis and common language shared by custodi- Josep-Maria Mallarach and supported ans and managers has proven to be an by Med-INA and Silene, its core method- obstacle to co-operation. ology is the study and analysis of carefully selected case studies from around Preventing and resolving such conflicts the world from which experience can be is one of the missions of the Delos Initia- gained and lessons learned. Its first tive, which attempts to encourage synergy through collaboration between cus- Workshop was organised in October todians of sacred sites and managers of 2006 at the Monastery of Montserrat, protected areas. Established in 2004 which is located within a nature reserve within the framework of the Cultural and in Catalonia, Spain. The Workshop’s pro- Spiritual Values of Protected Areas ceedings were published in 2007. (CSVPA) Specialist Group of the Interna- tional Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the Delos Initiative focuses on Ouranoupolis Workshop sacred natural sites in technologically In October 2007, the 2nd Delos Initiative developed countries. As such, it con- Workshop was held in Ouranoupolis, a cerns itself with sites that are significant location chosen for its proximity to Mt. for indigenous peoples in Australia, Can- Athos, Eastern Orthodox Christianity’s ada, the United States and elsewhere, as well as sites recognised by main- Mallarach, J.-M. and Papayannis, T. (eds.) (2007), stream faiths including Buddhism, Chris- Protected Areas and Spirituality, Proceedings of the First Workshop of the Delos Initiative, Montse tianity, Islam and Judaism. rrat 2006, Gland, Switzerland: IUCN and Publica- cions de l’ Abadia de Montserrat. The Delos Initiative was named after the Held at the Eagles Palace Hotel, on 24-27 Octo- Aegean island of Delos, a spiritual centre ber 2007.

15 most celebrated monastic centre for over The Delos2 Workshop a thousand years. Ouranoupolis is a proceedings small town in the North of the Athos Pe- The proceedings are organised in the ninsula but outside the borders of the same way as the Workshop. Holy Mountain territory, to which women are not permitted entry. They start with the blessing of His All Holiness the Ecumenical Patriarch and The 22 participants at the Workshop in- opening statements made by the repre- cluded religious leaders, academics and sentatives of the Holy Community of Mt. conservationists from 11 countries and Athos and the Prefecture of Halkidiki. four continents (see Appendix 1). These are followed by three distinct sec- The Workshop was divided into three tions dealing with i) the presentations of parts: The first concerned the presenta- the new case studies, ii) the manage- tion and critical discussion of new case ment of monastic lands, and iii) general studies relating to both the spiritual tradi- issues and the future orientation of De- tions of indigenous peoples and to main- los activities. stream faiths which were not presented at the first Delos Workshop. The second Part One: theme focused on the management of An overview of the case studies monastic lands, with examples drawn Indigenous sacred sites mainly from the Northern Mediterranean. Finally, the last day of the Workshop was Following the introduction and opening dedicated to examining and discussing speeches, Part One of the Workshop general issues relating to the provision of proceedings includes two case studies guidance to sacred natural sites, and to relating to indigenous peoples in Austral- the future orientation and planning of De- ia and the United States of America re- los activities. spectively, and four case studies relating to mainstream faiths (Buddhism, Christi- The main results of the presentations anity and Islam) in Italy, Morocco, the and discussions were summarised in the Russian Federation and South Korea. Ouranoupolis Statement (p 249), which The Dhimurru Indigenous Protected Ar- was subsequently translated into the ea is located in Northeast Arnhem Land, IUCN’s other official languages and wide- Australia, and is comprised of several ly disseminated through the appropriate smaller sites. Yolngu, the Aboriginal networks and the Delos Initiative web- people that inhabit the area, have a cul- page at http://www.med-ina.org/delos. tural obligation to manage their lands Workshop participants then visited mo with respect to their ancestral traditions, nasteries in Meteora, Thessaly, the applying effective conservation tech- Ormylia Monastery in Halkidiki, the Ver- niques that have in all likelihood ensured gina archaeological site and the Byzan- their existence for more than 50,000 tine Museum of Thessaloniki. years. The highly complex practices are

16 Meteora, Greece handed down from one generation to wastewater for effluent snow. In an effort the next through cultural transmission. to save the Sacred Peaks from profana- Dhimurru is an example of a protected, tion, 13 tribes have formed the Save the sacred natural area for which indige- Peaks Coalition to fight unwanted devel- nous people have sole management re- opment projects in the courts. sponsibility. They have chosen to edu- Sites sacred to mainstream faiths cate the public through paintings, stories and songs. The National Park of the Casentine For- ests, Mount Falterona and Campigna, The Sacred San Francisco Peaks have been held sacred and accessed for spe- extends along the ridge of the Tuscan- cific religious purposes for many centu- Romagna Appenine in Italy. The Casen- ries by 22 Native American Nations. tine Forests are part of a National Park Commonly known as Dooko’oo’sliid, that covers around 36,000 ha. The Park these peaks are recognised by the Nav- hosts a large number of plants and her- ajo people as a female life form, a baceous species and is also rich in fau- source of medicinal and ceremonial na, both mammals and birds. The area’s plants and minerals, and a place of spir- main sacred sites are the Benedictine itual nourishment. High precipitation, Hermitage and Monastery of Camaldoli, several altitudinal vegetation zones, its and the Franciscan Sanctuary of La Ver- varying directional orientation and a myr- na. People have lived and worked in this iad of microhabitats make the mountain landscape for many centuries, and ruins range a haven of biodiversity. The most and abandoned villages are still frequent serious threat to the natural and spiritual within the park. Tourism has become an / cultural values of the Peaks is posed important source of revenue for the area, by plans to build a ski resort on its south- but has also had a major impact both on ern slopes, which include the use of the forest and on the religious values of

17 the park. Marked benefits would thus ac- is apparent. Some environmental dam- crue to forming and supporting an inte- age is also a result of the traditional mar- grated approach for the entire area, kets that operate in the locality. which would protect the region’s natural, Mount Mani-san on the island of Gang- cultural and spiritual heritage without hwa-do near the capital of South Korea compromising the future of its tourist is considered one of that country’s most industry. sacred mountains due both to its beauti- Jabal La‘l â m [Mount of the Signal] is sit- ful landscapes and magnificent views of uated at the heart of the Jabal Bouh- the sea and –still more significantly– to achem region in the Rif mountains of the fact that Dangun (the legendary Morocco. The spiritual importance of the founder of the Korean nation) allegedly site derives from the presence at its peak constructed a stone altar on Mani-san’s of the famous tomb / sanctuary of ‘Abd Chamseongdan peak over 4,000 years al-Salâm ibn Mashîsh, a holy man who ago and performed the first celestial of- withdrew there eight centuries ago. Na- fering. While Mount Mani-san has a tional forest legislation and the existence unique ecosystem –it is the home of of a ‘hurn’ —an Islamic traditional pro- many migratory birds, well preserved for- tected area— guarantee to a certain de- est, etc.– its tideland is in great danger. gree the conservation of the natural her- The most serious conservation threats itage. The oak forests as well as the nu- are posed by the large number of visitors merous species of mammals and birds, and by several development projects quite a few of them endemic or endan- planned for the region. The local govern- gered, attest to the site’s biological and ment has announced several ambitious ecological significance. Degradation plans to reclaim the tideland, to build a caused by the vast number of pilgrims thermal power plant and to transform the who visit the open-air sanctuary to pray area into a tourist resort. â

Orchards in Vatopedi Monastery, Holy Mountain

18 The Solovetsky Islands lie in the middle Community of Mount Athos has suc- of the White Sea, 165 km South of the cessfully implemented a LIFE project re- Arctic Circle in Northern Russia. The lating to the rehabilitation of coppice unique archipelago in the European Part Quercus frainetto and Quercus ilex to of the Arctic Ocean is comprised of over high forest, and has conducted a strate- one hundred islands. The Solovetsky ar- gic Special Environmental Study to iden- chipelago contains sub-tundra and for- tify and list the management measures est-tundra ecosystems, crooked forests, required to protect and restore the entire â numerous endemic species and a com- peninsula with all its biotic and abiotic plex of small lakes. Many different cul- constituents, while promoting a develop- tures have regarded the Solovetsky Is- ment model compatible with the environ- lands as sacred down the ages, while mental and economic concerns of the some of the islands number among Or- local community. Athos’ mountain land- thodox Russia’s most sacred places. scape features diverse vegetation and a The monasteries, which were restored complex and profoundly beautiful to- after the Communist era, and the in- pography, which has been preserved by creasing number of pilgrims who visit the an orthodox Monastic Community for islands every year, are gradually becom- over a millennium. The monastic life ing a significant factor in the life of the lo- style is characterised by temperance, sical community. lence, the careful use of natural resources and a concern for conservation. The Part Two: need for special landscape conserva- Management of monastic lands tion actions emerged after the wildfire of and facilities 1990 and the road network that has Part Two includes case studies relating since been developed. to Mount Athos and other monastic communities in Rila (Bulgaria), Catalo- Buila Vâ nturari,at is a small Romanian nia (Spain), Crete (Greece) and the national park in the Southern Carpathi- Southern Carpathians (Romania). ans. The Park has three levels of vegetation –the deciduous, the boreal and At the end, a short paper attempts to the sub-alpine– and boasts flora includ- draw conclusions and lessons from ing many endangered, rare and endem- these presentations. ic species. Carpathian fauna is also well The Athos Peninsula is the Easternmost represented. The area is also known as of the three peninsulas in Halkidiki, the ‘mountain of the monks’, and there Greece; it is roughly 60 km long. The Ho- are six Orthodox monasteries and sketes ly Mountain is inhabited by a society of within the Park, its only permanent hu- Monks who have devoted their lives to man settlements. The monasteries, situ- the worship of God and is a sacred site ated at the start of the tourist trails, form of global significance. It is a Natural and a circle around the National Park and Cultural World Heritage Site and part of are considered its spiritual guardians. Europe’s Natura2000 network. The Holy The cultural values of the area are

19 strongly related to the presence of these its surrounding forest were restored dur- Christian Orthodox monasteries of which ing the 20th century. More than 150,000 the Bistrita Convent, built by the Craio- people visit Poblet Monastery every year, vesti boyars, is the most famous. Librar- the majority of whom are attracted by its ies and museums dating back to the cultural heritage. The main natural sig- 15th century can also be found there. nificance of the Park is linked to the sur- The main economic activities are wood rounding Mediterranean forests. In 1984, harvesting and stock raising. An inte- the area around the Monastery was de- grated approach is, perhaps, the most clared a Natural Site of National Impor- effective strategy for preserving the nat- tance. The monastic community has un- ural and cultural character of the area dertaken several initiatives which aim: and maintaining strong spiritual links be- i) to improve the environmental manage- tween Man and Nature. ment of all the Monastery’s facilities and The Monastery of Chrysopigi in Chania, lands, ii) to promote the effective protec- Crete is dedicated to the Mother of God, tion of the rural landscape around the the Life-Giving Spring. Since the 16th Monastery and iii) to develop a strategy century, it has been a source of spiritual for raising its visitors’ environmental and and social support for the people of the spiritual awareness. island. The land around the Monastery Rila Monastery was founded by Saint is currently given over to cultivation us- Ivan Rilsky in the early 10th century. Ri- ing organic farming methods. The mon- la, which lies in the heart of a magnifi- astery’s estate has been designated a cent mountain massif, is Bulgaria’s ho- protected area and is home to a variety liest site. Several other sacred places of plants and trees, some of which are are located around the Monastery, in- used in pharmaceutics. Apart from its cluding holy springs, the sacred cave environmental significance, the archae- of the founder and five hermitages. The ological and historical value of this bi- Natural Park, which nestles within a otope are substantial. Further plans for larger national park, is home to a varie- the conservation of the area should fo- ty of distinct ecosystems and spectac- cus on both its natural and spiritual ular mountain landscapes, lakes, old heritage. forests, and a number of endemic The Cistercian Monastery of Santa Maria plants. The local fauna is extremely di- de Poblet is located in Southern Catalo- verse and includes significant wolf and nia. It was well known throughout West- brown bear populations. The main ern Europe during the 13th-15th centuries goals of the 2003 management plan infor promoting advanced sustainable tech clude conserving the area’s spiritual, niques in agriculture, forestry and animal cultural and natural heritage; managing husbandry. The monastery was severely natural resources in relation to tourism; damaged and its forest razed to the raising awareness through educational ground during the social turbulence of schemes and co-ordinating the activi- the 19th century, but the monastery and ties of the Orthodox Church and state

20 institutions. These goals, which under- a presentation of the ecological activities line the strong relationship between the of the Ecumenical Patriarchate across a monastic community and the natural large part of the globe. environment, seek both to sustain the Working under the auspices of the IUCN multifaceted role of the nation’s most World Commission for Protected Areas important cultural and spiritual centre, (WCPA), the IUCN Cultural and Spiritual and to preserve the unity between the Values of Protected Areas Specialist monastery and nature. Group has prepared a set of Guidelines Sakya Tashi Ling is a modern Buddhist for Protected Area Management on Sa- monastery located in El Garraf Park near cred Natural Sites. The guidelines em Barcelona in Catalonia, Spain. The prop- erged out of a number of meetings or- erty of the Sakya Tashi Ling Monastery is ganised since 1998 by UNESCO and of significant natural, cultural and spiritu- the IUCN in India, Mexico, China, South al value. The monastic community’s re- Africa, Japan, the United Kingdom and peatedly expressions of interest in im- –now– Greece. The drafting process proving the management of the natural began in 2003, and a preliminary set of area surrounding the Sakya Tashi Ling working guidelines was posted on the In- Monastery have resulted in the drafting ternet in 2005 and subsequently pub- of a management plan, which seeks to lished by UNESCO. Although the guide- integrate the scientific conservationist lines focus on sacred sites relating to in- and traditional Tibetan Buddhist world- digenous peoples, they are just one views. The Buddhist monastery is cur- manifestation of the greater recognition rently the Park’s main attraction, with vis- being afforded to historical and contem- itors attracted by the activities and cours- porary conservation efforts rooted in an es offered by the monastic community appreciation of the natural world initiated and by the cultural significance of the by numerous communities across the Palau Novella building, in which the com- globe. The Guidelines were launched in munity lives. Barcelona at the IUCN World Conserva- tion Congress in 2008.

Part Three: Achieving synergy The next paper examines the specifici- between spiritual and conservation ties of sacred natural sites in technologi- concerns cally developed countries. The specific Part Three begins with a summary of the characteristics of these sites are signifi- efforts made to provide guidance to the cant for both mainstream religions and managers, custodians and administra- indigenous peoples, and as such their tors of sacred natural sites. The specifici- management and conservation are ex- ties of sacred natural sites in developed amined within the context of broader glo- countries are explored in a second pa- bal socio-economic and spiritual trends. per, which is followed by ‘Some thoughts Wild, R. and McLeod, C. (eds.) (2008) Sacred on sacred sites, faith communities and Natural Sites: Guidelines for protected Area indigenous peoples’ and concludes with Managers. Gland, Switzerland, IUCN.

21 Several general recommendations are sites remains unsolved in the majority of put forward, which are relevant to both. developing countries. Since all lands within protected areas in Latin America, The complex issue of indigenous and Asia and Africa are state lands, the rights traditional peoples and communities in of indigenous and traditional peoples to developing countries is addressed by their sacred sites cannot be restored. the paper Some thoughts on sacred The ongoing degradation of traditional sites, faith communities and indigenous institutions in developing countries, peoples. Through many years of IUCN which began during the colonial era is work around the world, it has become another major problem, exacerbated by obvious that indigenous faiths suffer a refusal to recognise indigenous spirit- substantially less in developed than in uality as legitimate. It is thus absolutely developing nations, where the traditional crucial that mainstream religious institu- peoples and cultures are more numer- tions become more open, ecumenical ous, the areas involved much larger and and tolerant and abandon their colonial the scale of the problems consequently attitudes towards indigenous spirituality, much larger. As a result, the prospects which include their continued efforts to for traditional spirituality are anything but convert indigenous people to institution- bright. In addition, there are frequent alised religions. conflicts between indigenous groups and institutionalised religions that result In recent years, numerous environmental in the harassment and persecution of organisations have turned to religions in the former, which can jeopardise the search of allies in their nature conserva- very survival of traditional cultures. More- tion and environmental action. Environ- over, the critical issue of indigenous mental action by the ‘green’ Ecumenical peoples having lost their rights of tenure Patriarch has been particularly noted and of managing indigenous sacred and appreciated. The Ecumenical Patri-

The Delos2 Workshop

22 arch Bartholomew is known for his work the global environmental crisis, the Ecu- in promoting sustainability, and he is menical Patriarchate has also organised without doubt the most active environ- a series of summer seminars at the The- mental leader within the Christian ological School of Halki. The Halki Eco- Church. The Ecumenical Patriarchate’s logical Seminars were initiated in collab- greatest contribution to the global effort oration with WWF International and for environmental protection and conser- brought scientists, theologians, environ- vation has been the series of important mentalists and Church leaders together international symposia organised by the to jointly explore and promote commonly Patriarchate aboard ships navigating en- acceptable solutions to a series of envi- vironmentally ‘troubled’ waters in signifi- ronmental-related issues. In so doing, cant ecosystems. Through these high- the Orthodox primate is promoting a new profile symposia, the Patriarchate has and greener way of life for the world’s addressed world leaders and brought 300 million Orthodox Christians which, together science, academia, politics, civ- according perfectly with the oldest of the ic society and religion. Aiming to unite Christian traditions, encourages a genu- the world’s Christian churches and gal- ine life-long association of Christianity vanise them into an active response to and the environmental cause.

23 24 Part One Analysis of case studies

- Indigenous peoples - Mainstream faiths

25 26 Indigenous peoples Power on this land; managing sacred sites at Dhimurru Indigenous Protected Area Northeast Arnhem Land, Australia

Bas Verschuuren Mawalan II Marika Phil Wise

Introduction Just as the Yolngu make no distinction between ‘land’ and ‘sea’, there is no sep- This case study outlines Dhimurru’s expe- aration between these values and the rience with the management of their sa- environment. Hence their use of the term cred natural sites which, in this article, will sea county for the coastal habitats of be referred to as sacred sites. It begins with their clan estates, and their referring to a general introduction and then proceeds themselves as saltwater people (Mem- to explain in greater detail Dhimurru’s experience with managing sacred sites us- mot 2004, Verschuuren 2006, Yunupingu ing the two examples of Nhulun and Mu- 2007). This unique integrated approach ruwirri. Nhulun provides a good example to cultural and natural values is better of fostering cross-cultural learning and understood when cultivating a deeper signifies the importance of sacred sites to understanding of the tangible and intan- the land rights movement. Muruwirri high- gible importance of Yolngu values. lights lessons learned from sacred art and The cultural connection with the land is a modern science-based exercises for map- sacred one encompassed by the rela- ping the coastal and marine environment tionships between Rom (law / protocol), which is also termed the ‘sea country’. Manikay (song / ceremony) and Miny’tji Like all aboriginal cultures, Yolngu abo- (art) (see glossary). This may be easier riginal culture is rich in spiritual values. to understand in the light of Graham’s in-

< Sign at Yalangbara, Northeast Arnhem Land, Australia 27 sights into the philosophical underpin- iarising oneself with the endogenous ap- nings of Aboriginal worldviews (2008): proach Dhimurru has taken. It involves making an effort to understand manage- “The land, and how we treat it, is what de- ment from within a culture. Based on termines our human-ness. Because land is this, Dhimurru has developed the Both sacred and must be looked after, the rela- Ways approach which will be detailed tion between people and land becomes the further throughout this article, as we illus- template for society and social relations. trate how cultural and spiritual signifi- Therefore all meaning comes from land.” cance help guide management actions Learning from Dhimurru’s experiences for the conservation and protection of with managing sacred sites entails famil- sacred sites.

Map of the Intigenous Protected Area with sacred sites marked

28 Location the collaboration of Yirritja and Dhuwa clans. Dhimurru itself was founded in 1992 The Dhimurru Indigenous Protected Ar- and is governed by the Dhimurru Execu- ea (IPA) is located in Northeast Arnhem tive Board, which consists of 20 repre- Land Australia. Located on Aboriginal sentatives —mostly Traditional Owners land, the Dhimurru IPA surrounds Nhu- (see glossary)— from the traditional clan lunbuy, the Northern Territory’s fourth estates that comprise the Dhimurru IPA largest city. It is named after the sacred (officially declared in 2000). The Dhimurru hill of Nhulun at whose base the mining Executive board is advised by the Dhimur- town is built. The IPA also includes Dham- ru Advisory Group, whilst the Dhimurru baliya (Bremer Island) off the shore to the staff implement the management plan North of Nhulunbuy. The IPA covers a to- and related conservation projects. tal terrestrial area of c.92,000 ha with an additional 9,000 ha of coastal waters Natural and cultural heritage values with- bounded by Nanydjaka (Cape Arnhem), in the Dhimurru IPA are managed from Yalangbara (Port Bradshaw), Djuwal- within the cultural worldview of the pawuy (Mount Dundas) and Dhambaliya Yolngu people, and therefore strive to be (Smyth 2007). To the North and East, the treated inclusively. From this position, Dhimurru IPA is bordered by the sea; to the Yolngu people have developed part- the South, its sea estate and lands are nerships and working relationships with bordered by Laynhapuy IPA and man- various conservation, government and aged by the Yirralka rangers at Layn- scientific institutes. Although the man- hapuy Homelands who, like Dhimurru, agement approach to the land is always have united the management of their based on a Yolngu perspective, Dhimur- Homelands. ru fosters different ways of understanding the unique natural heritage in the IPA. The sites referred to throughout this arti- To this end, a unique Both Ways man- cle have been indicated on the map (in agement approach has been estab- p. 28). They cover both land and sea and lished. The Both Ways management ap- are populated in varying densities. These proach stems from the need of Yolngu sites are known to Yolngu as: Nhulun people to seek greater recognition for (Mount Saunders) and Muruwirri and their culture than that which could be as- Dhambaliya Channel (Lonely Rock and serted through a joint management Bremmer Channel). agreement of the sort initially proposed by the Australian Government. Dhimurru provides an example of a protected area Dhimurru, the organisation whose management is entirely the re- Yolngu cosmology is divided into two sponsibility of Indigenous people, who moieties called Yirritja and Dhuwa. Like have chosen to exercise that responsibil- Ying and Yang, Yirritja and Dhuwa include ity by negotiating partnerships with gov- people, plants, animals and land. Yirritja ernmental and non-governmental organ- and Dhuwa are part of Dhimurru through isations (NGOs) to produce an alterna-

29 tive to joint management (Smyth 2007). dugongs, turtles, shellfish, crocodiles and The IPA is a voluntary management sea and water birds. We can describe agreement with the Australian govern- and name in detail coastal, underwater ment, which closely resembles Indige- and offshore features. We know and un- nous and Community Conserved Areas derstand in detail the behaviour and habi- (ICCA) or the World Conservation Un- tat of marine life”. (Dhimurru 2006a) ions’ (IUCN) Category V. The Yolngu Yolngu have a rich culture with a pro- Plan of Management recognises Yolngu found understanding of nature. They values, natural heritage values and other have been exposed to European values community values (Dhimurru 2000). since 1935, when a Christian mission was established at Yirrkala: the young people of that time are the elders of to- Natural values day. Since then, they have seen modern As explained earlier, the meaning of nat- science explore their culture and the natural heritage is defined from a Yolngu ural environment of their clan estates. Af- cultural perspective, in which cultural ter early explorers like Charles Darwin and biological values have been inextri- and Matthew Flinders mapped waters cably linked since time immemorial (Pos- and coastline, various overland expedi- ey 1999, Hutcherson 1995, Dhimurru tions surveyed the natural environment of 2006a). To Yolngu people, the reciprocity Northeast Arnhem Land. The collections of these values is evident. Yolngu people of such expeditions are on display in mu- have always been concerned with edu- seums around Australia. One such col- cating Balanda in this interconnectivity, lection is the Donald Thompson Collec- as illustrated by a statement in Dhimur- tion at the Victoria Museum (Thomson ru’s sea country management plan: 1983) from the 1948 American-Australian Scientific Expedition to Arnhem Land. “We have always known that we have some of the most culturally and ecologi- The Yolngu are interested in deepening cally significant shores and sea country scientific understanding and integrating in Australia. Finally, it seems the non-in- it into the day-to-day cultural manage- digenous world has caught up”. ment of their land and sea estates. Sev- eral scientific studies have been under- The Plan further describes Yolngu’s inti- taken in collaboration with Dhimurru. mate knowledge of the sea from their Both Dhimurru and the Northern Territory perspective as saltwater people: Parks and Wildlife Service (PWNT) has “Our marine estates include islands, rocky successfully applied the Both Ways ap- and coral reefs, inlets, bays, estuaries, proach in training Yolngu to assist in in- mudflats, underwater springs, sea grass ventory and monitoring programmes meadows, mangrove forests, the sea bed covering macropods, insects (notably and open ocean. We share our sea coun- the endemic Gove butterfly), mammals, try with marine creatures including fish, fish, reptiles and plants. However, the whales, dolphins, crustaceans, corals, unique and pristine environment remains

30 relatively unexplored by modern science. though numbers are known to be kept Two weeks of collecting insects generat- low by the limited availability of sea- ed extensive material including the dis- grass (Halophila ovalis and Halodule covery of species previously unknown to uninervis) feeding grounds. modern science. In addition, the Yolngu Plan of Management (Dhimurru 2000) recognises specific natural heritage val- Cultural and spiritual values ues which, following Smyth (2007), in- Since Dhimurru is an Aborigine-owned clude: high plant diversity and intact fau- organisation looking after aboriginal nal assemblages; coastal regions not land, their management practices are represented in any other protected area subsequently based on cultural values. —the largest Quaternary dune system To Dhimurru, therefore, the whole land- on the Northern Territory mainland, for scape is regarded as culturally signifi- instance; and significant feeding habi- cant, with specific sacred places and tats and nesting sites for seabirds, mi- species on it, which can be said to em- gratory birds and threatened species of body special spiritual connections to the marine turtle and dugong (Smyth 2007). ancestral beings that created the land in The marine turtle and the dugong are of a period called ‘the Dreamtime’. Accord- particular cultural interest to Yolngu peo- ing to Rose (1998), the concept of ple. Seven species of turtle occur in Dreamtime is very real to Aboriginal peo- Dhimurru IPA, six of which are known to ple and often hard to understand for nest there: the Olive Ridley (Lepidocheli- English-speaking people, because there ys Olivaces), Hawksbill (Eretmochelys is no adequate translation into English. imbricate), Leatherback (Dermochelys The ancestor beings —Wangar— creat- coriacea), Loggerhead (Caretta caretta), ed the landscape and sang it —with the Flatback (Natator depressus) and Green rocks, lakes, trees, sea and animals alive turtle (Chelonia mydas). Marine turtles within it— into being. This means that are in decline in most parts of the world Aboriginal people are spiritually connect- and are included in the IUCN Red List. ed to the landscape, but also to specific Dhimurru has learned from other moni- plants and animals. The Manikay songs toring studies how to put effective man- of the ancestors are records of their trav- agement practices in place to help de- els as they created the land, and they clining populations recover. Such man- have been passed on from one genera- agement practices include protecting tion to the next since time immemorial habitat (through Dhimurru’s permit sys- (Morphy 1991, Chaloupka 1993, Mem tem and patrols), advocating the use of mot 2004). As the ancestors laid down Turtle Exclusion Devices in fisheries and the law (Rom), the songs, stories ensuring that the traditional harvest of (Dhawu), art (Miny’tji), dance and musi- eggs and turtles is sustainable (through cal instruments form a unique and pow- the Sea Country Management Plan). The erful medium through ceremony (which dugong (Dugong dugong: the sea cow) outsiders call corroboree) and guide also occurs in the Dhimurru IPA, al- Yolngu life (Morphy 1998). This means of

31 Newspaper clipping relating to the first protest ceremony in the 1960s communicating cultural and spiritual val- rights began when this sacred site was ues is widely recognised by society as a damaged by road works (see image in highly influential and powerful medium p. 32). A protest ceremony (the Galtha for educating and influencing people. Bunggul) was held on the damaged site Yolngu people today still practice their (Dhimurru 2007) prior to the Yolngu peo- heritage in this traditional way, using it to ple creating a statement of their ‘title enrich and strengthen their land and sea deeds’ glued onto a bark painting (com- management practices. The following monly known as the Bark Petition) and sections will detail the cultural signifi- presenting it to the Australian House of cance to the Yolngu of the two sacred Representatives in 1963. The Bark Peti- sites, and the role Dhimurru plays in tion made particular reference to the sa- managing them. credness of the land:

“...That the land in question had been A history of land rights at hunting and food gathering grounds Nhulun (Nhulun lookout) for the Yirrkala tribes from time immemorial. That places sacred to the Yir- Nhulun is a natural hill and a sacred site rkala people, as well as vital to their enclosed on three sides by the Nhulun- livelihood are in the excised land. That buy Township, which is home to over people feel that their needs and inter- 4000 residents. It was at the centre of the ests will be completely ignored as they first legal claim made for Aboriginal tradi- have been ignored in the past.” (from tional ownership of land and customary Hutcherson 1995). law, a legal action which ultimately resulted in the passing of the Aboriginal The Federal Court initially rejected the Land Rights Act (ALRA, 1976). It can claim, upheld the hypothesis of Terra thus be said that the struggle for land Nullius (meaning ‘empty land’, a Latin

32 Re-enactment of the Galtha Bunggul in 2007 dictum legally applied to claim a territory spiritual values of the sacred site as well under public law) and did not recognise as its importance to the land rights move- Yolngu law or the Yolngu people as Aus- ment. The signs include a timeline cover- tralian citizens. However, the Royal Com- ing these events chronologically from a mission advised that the Nabalco mining Yolngu perspective, and is a good ex- company and the Commonwealth had ample of Dhimurru’s strategy of promot- wrongfully entered Aboriginal land on the ing reconciliation and cultural under- basis of leases initially granted by the standing through the interpretation of Commonwealth. This ruling resulted in Yolngu beliefs and values to visitors the ALRA, which has allowed approxi- (Smyth 2007). mately 50% of Northern Territory land to Nhulun is of high cultural significance to be handed back to Traditional Owners Yolngu people, who still carry out a cere- since 1976. mony at Nhulun. The last ceremony took Traditionally, Nhulun is a sacred site replace on 1 May 2007 and was a com- lating to a ‘sugarbag’ dreaming, the ma- memorative re-enactment of the Galtha ternal birthplace of the wild honey or Bunggul held in 1969 (see image in p. sugarbag produced by native bees and 32). The re-enactment was timed to coin- considered a delicacy among Yolngu. cide with the opening of the interpretive Nhulun is a registered sacred site under display at Nhulun, which describes its im- the 1989 Northern Territory Sacred Sites portance to Australian history and culture Act (1989) as well as a recreational area. (see image in p. 33). The re-enactment A sealed road provides access for motor brought together Yolngu as well as non- vehicles to a steel watch tower (Nhulun indigenous people including government lookout) overlooking the surrounding officials and schoolchildren to celebrate lands. The lookout has been provided Yolngu culture and the recognition of land with signs explaining the cultural and rights. However, despite this legal recog-

33 nition of Yolngu land rights, the Yolngu or stories, are very important to Yolngu”. people continue to fight for the willing (Yunupingu and Muller 2007). and cooperative recognition of these The paintings of Muruwirri shown in this rights by non-indigenous people. This is chapter illustrate how the site is intercon- reflected in the Dhimurru permit system nected with the broader seascape com- and in the restoration activities Dhimurru monly known as the Dhambaliya (Brem- has had to carry out as a result of the un- mer) Channel. desirable impact of visitors. Muruwirri is a single rock protruding out of the sea in the Dhambaliya Channel. The Sacred Paintings of Muruwirri The Channel is sacred to the Riratjingu and Dhambaliya (Lonely Rock and Djambarrpuyngu clans, and in an and Bremmer Channel) area influenced by the Djambawal, the Thunderman and Daymirri, the ancestral The Dhambaliya Channel and Muruwirri whale. This place, song and significance are both good examples of sacred sites in the marine environment commonly extends to knowledge about features called the sea country by the Yolngu, and landmarks that are at the bottom of who also refer to themselves as ‘Saltwa- the ocean floor but were dry land some ter People’ (National Oceans Office 10,000 years ago (Buku-larrngay Mulka 2004). Djawa Yunupingu, the director of Centre 1999). This sea country is also Dhimurru explains the Yolngu connec- important culturally, because the stories tion to the sea country when talking relate to heritage dating back to the about the sea country management plan Dreamtime and the testimony of famous Dhimurru has been working towards: turtle hunters. Turtle hunting is still regarded as a very important part of Yolngu “For Yolngu, sea country is very impor- culture. Although most of the pressure tant culturally. When we sit, when we on turtle populations are due to the activ- think, when we sing and when we dream, ities of Balanda (non-Aboriginal people), we have visions about sea country. sacred places and cultural heritage can Yolngu sing about the winds coming in help conservation practices to generate from the ocean. The sacred sites from Yolngu acceptance of potential regula- the Dreaming stories are there, too. We tions such as hunting limits which render sing some animals from the sea, which the harvest sustainable. are sacred to us, passed down from one generation to the next. Yolngu have sa- The two paintings (images in p. 35) tell cred sites in sea country because stories different stories, but the stories relate to are tied up with that land underneath it. the same place: Dhambaliya Channel That’s why we paint and we explain and Muruwirri. The Painting by Mawalan those drawings and paintings. It is not a II Marika shows Muruwirri at the bottom painting; it is a map, a map of the Dream- with the white of the bird droppings on its ing and sea creatures and sacred sites. top. The two king browns also refer to the There are many stories behind it. Dhawu, sacred digging sticks called Mawalan

34 that point to a well of freshwater that imals in the bottom left corner) by his springs from the ocean floor and is sur- grandfather is also present in his own rounded by patterns depicting the sacred painting, and those who are initiated in currents of the sea. All these features ex- the knowledge can see it. According to ist in the Dhambaliya Channel. As they Mawalan II Marika, “It is the easiest way are painted through sacred design, they to explain what we know about what is in refer to stories that contain a rich source the sea and what is in the land”. Mawalan of information about the ecosystem. The II Marika also comments on the Balanda painting by Mawalan Marika (Mawalan II map (meaning geographical maps): “It’s Marika’s grandfather) was designed to really hard, I look at it and I can’t even reveal some of these stories to two an- find it [the place and the story]. These thropologists (Ronald and Catherine maps don’t match”. Berndt) in the late 1940s. According to Mawalan II Marika, the detailed informa- Yolngu artwork has many levels of mean- tion depicted in the painting (Muruwirri ing that are revealed to people in accord- being the yellow circle surrounded by an- ance with their status, gender and level of

Painting of sea country. Gunda Muruwirri Painting of sea country. Dhambaliya myth map

35 initiation. Their meaning ranges along a ancestors. This way of managing the continuum from ‘inside’ or secret (often land has sustained Aboriginal peoples’ sacred) to ‘outside’ or public knowledge presence on the land for what could be (Hutcherson 1995). The explanations as long as 50,000 years (Chaloupka along this continuum are also referred to 1993, Memmot 2004, Yunupingu 2007). as ‘open’ or ‘closed’ stories. There is a Although some Aboriginal practices of growing awareness of the importance of land management such as fire manage- saltwater paintings since the 80 bark ment may seem detrimental to the unac- paintings painted by Yolngu toured Aus- customed eye, they are in fact highly tralian museums in the course of gaining complex practices that are widely credit- recognition for indigenous sea rights in ed as being successful in managing, 1997. The cultural information contained sustaining and enhancing ecosystem bi- in such paintings is of paramount impor- odiversity. The continuity of caring for tance in the understanding of ecosys- the country handed over from one gen- tems, and even more important for suc- eration to the next is also part of a proc- cessful conservation practices. Another ess called ‘cultural transmission’. One key to understanding the importance of feature of attention with fire-management the Yolngu perception of nature to con- is that the healthy ecosystem that results servation is Yolngu’s intimate spiritual re- from it is directly related to cultural integ- lations with the sea country and the spe- rity. For example, if Aboriginal people do cies in it. Throughout North-eastern Arn- not have their traditional cultural fire- hem Land and the Gulf of Carpentaria, management in place, the country re- anthropologists have documented what ceives less attention, the intervals be- is called ‘calling up’ or ‘dreaming up’ tween fires become too long, and fire marine resources, or ‘talking to country’, events are inevitable too hot and pro- which related to applying that spiritual longed, thereby having a negative im- relationship to land, the sea and the spe- pact on biodiversity and the area’s car- cies in it (Chaloupka 1993, Cordell 1995, bon sequestration capacity (Muller 2007). Memmot 2004). Yolngu people assert Maintaining traditional practices thus de- this relationship in their sea country man- pends on keeping culture strong and agement plan thus: central to the management of Dhimurru “We call up the names we have for im- Indigenous Protected Area. portant places in our sea country for dif- The Yolngu people have had to adapt to ferent reasons and purposes —some the permanent residence of non-indige- are deep and secret” (Dhimurru 2006a). nous Australians —referred to collectively as Balanda by the Yolngu people— since the mid 1930s. However, it was Pressures and impacts the impact of Balanda living at Nhulun- Yolngu people have a cultural responsi- buy since the 1960s which prompted bility to manage the land in accordance Traditional Owners to establish Dhimur- with spiritual obligations owed to their ru to better control and manage the in-

36 creasing threat posed to the land. To use is in the drive to address the decline halt unlawful access to land and poten- in sea turtle and dugong populations tial damage to sacred sites, Dhimurru (both IUCN Red-Listed species) due to manages an access permit system that boat strikes, overfishing, ghost net en- is at the forefront of the movement for trapment and habitat destruction outside getting their rights recognised. Dhimur- the Dhimurru IPA on a national and inter- ru’s permit system is an attempt at reg- national level. Other activities on the part ulating visitor experience and impact of the residents of and visitors to Nhulun- within areas allocated for this purpose. buy —such as increasing numbers of The permit provides access to areas tourists, the behaviour of recreational appointed by Traditional Owners as rec- and commercial fishermen and the activ- reational areas. Apart from regulating ities of the Rio Tinto-Alcan mining com- the impact of, for instance, four-wheel pany— impact directly on Dhimurru. drive access to beaches or camping and fishing, these recreational areas have been selected on the basis of Conservation perspectives and Yolngu concern for visitor safety as sustainability much as safeguarding the sacred sites As cultural and spiritual values are in- outside their perimeters. creasingly integrated into new conserva- Not surprisingly, most of the pressures tion management approaches, they be- on the natural (and often, indirectly, cul- come an integral part of the benefits natural) values of the IPA originate else- ture provides to society. These benefits where. Of course, some of the factors (which include hunting, fishing and rec- which impact on the environment are be- reation) are termed ‘ecosystem services’ yond Dhimurru’s scope of management. and contribute to the socio-economic Some of these pressures are of interna- development of Dhimurru IPA and the tional significance and caused by global well-being of the Yolngu and Balanda processes such as climate change (e.g. who enjoy the cultural and natural rich- greenhouse gas emissions), overfishing ness of the area. A promising opportuni- (e.g. bycatch and habitat destruction) ty to integrate cultural and spiritual val- and marine debris (e.g. ‘ghost nets’) ues into management approaches would washing up on stretches of coastline be to establish historic baselines, which within the Dhimurru IPA. Dhimurru aims document species density over time to address the forces behind those pres- based on cultural memory, song and art sures through its cooperation with other as well as other sources of cultural infor- institutions such as the Carpentaria mation. As relatively little scientific infor- Ghost Nets Programme, the Worldwide mation exists on species abundance Fund for Nature (WWF) and the Austral- and behaviour, information of this sort ian Quarantine Inspection Services derived from a cultural basis may be re- (AQIS) and Customs. An example of garded as crucial to the defining of man- such collaboration being put to good agement objectives.

37 From traditional culture to ual values. The intended cooperation modern science goes beyond science working with cultural conservation projects: it is an op- Dhimurru manages two ends of the portunity to include and unite the quali- spectrum from traditional culture to mod- ties of Yolngu institutions such as the ern science. This entails that what to Buku-larrngay Mulka Centre, the North- map and what not to map should be ern Land Council and Dhimurru Land based on a cultural basis. From a scien- Management Corporation itself. The con- tific perspective, it may be argued that tribution of spiritual values to the conser- maps are commonplace and well-devel- vation efforts that could be supported oped for the terrestrial areas of the through the mapping process could also Dhimurru IPA, but that no accurate maps provide a vehicle for developing poten- exist for its marine areas. From a cultural tial means of safeguarding the spiritual perspective, however, we have seen that values of those sites through their inclu- this assumption is not entirely correct as sion in patrolling programs, data storage detailed maps do exist (see images in p. 35). When negotiating the means by systems and cultural databases kept at which mapping exercises are to be con- the Buku-larrngay Mulka Centre. ducted, the assessment of a comprehensive system for storing these different information types will have to be con- Mapping Dhambaliya sidered. It has been suggested that a Synergies between the conservation of GIS database be developed with layers natural heritage and the protection of for each information source. These lay- spiritual and cultural values are being ers and the information sources con- developed thought the mapping exer- tained in them could then be password- cise. Both Yolngu traditional knowledge protected. It would thus be possible to systems and their perceptions of nature develop points on a map linked to a vid- are of critical importance for conserva- eo with password protection. In such tion management and planning. Muru- cases, there is a need for a committee to wirri is an excellent example of this be- decide on what is acceptable and what cause the site including the Dhambaliya is not in terms of mapping and data stor- Channel has been earmarked for future age. This would also win cultural approv- conservation work. Dhimurru and part- al for the process and legitimacy for its ners such as the Aboriginal Areas Pro- tools and modus operandi. tection Authority (AAPA) and Natural Re- Dhimurru is uniquely placed to integrate sources Environment and the Arts (NRE- management objectives into a cultural TA) are planning a mapping exercise to perspective. Coordinating the mapping better understand the cultural and natu- exercise thus includes forming synergies ral heritage in the area. This mapping ex- between the interests of the parties in- ercise is part of the programme to work volved and ensuring this is done in a on the sea country plan, and combines manner respectful to cultural and spirit and builds on existing management pro-

38 Establishing plots for coral reef monitoring grammes at Dhimurru such as turtle re- times, companies and government de- covery and satellite tracking, marine de- partments need documents to sign off bris surveys, participation in the Carpen- the job, and establishing a Memoran- taria Ghost Nets Programme, ethno-bo- dum of Understanding (MoU) signed by tanical survey of Melville Bay, coral mon- facilitators and key staff rather than the itoring, informal surveillance and the pro- Traditional Owners of all 20 clans usually vision of expert advice (Yunupingu & serves as a solution. In addition, Dhimur- Muller 2007). As efforts turn towards ru has developed a scientific protocol mapping the seabed, due care has to be outlining the responsibilities of the re- taken to ensure that sacred sites and searchers and partner organisations in other cultural values are respected (see terms of sharing the benefits of their re- image in p. 39). search and addressing issues of Intel- lectual Property Rights (IPR). The agree- One of the ways of adapting to cultural ment also enforces cultural protocols conditions is to test equipment and ap- and can be seen as induction training for proaches in less culturally sensitive are- Balanda to learn about proper behaviour as first, showing people the proposed in working and communicating with techniques so they can see if they are Yolngu culture. acceptable or not (see image in p. 35). As mapping also involves the consent and cooperation of the 20 clans repre- Talking about sacred sites, Nhullun sented by Dhimurru, reaching consensus on the work may not be an issue, Through experience, Yolngu are political- though bureaucratic issues such as sign- ly aware of the importance of fostering ing an agreement between all the organ- effective ways of achieving reconciliation isations involved may prove virtually im- and cultural understanding. The Dhimur- possible for practical reasons. In modern ru homelands are the birthplace of Aus-

39 tralia’s most famous Aboriginal music pain of the land as it was felt through the band: Yothu Yindi. At the height of its eyes of the elders and we feel strongly popularity, the band was instrumental in again because the land is important to bringing issues such as recognition for us; we feel the land, we sing the land culture and land rights to the forefront of when we care for the land and respect mainstream Australian society. The band the land” (Dhimurru 2007). produced songs in Yolngu and English From a management perspective, Nhu- with titles like “Treaty”, “Tribal Voice” and lun demands continuous attention. There- “Mainstream”. The band has an interna- fore, Dhimurru is considering taking tional reputation, having toured extensive- measures against the destruction of the ly abroad, establishing relationships with signage. The management options un- other indigenous people’s organisations der consideration range from replacing around the world and forming the Yothu the signage with more sturdy and dam- Yindi Foundation. Another example of age-resistant signage to installing a per- mainstream musical exposure for the manent digital surveillance camera. An- Dhimurru community was the recent co- other option would be to make effective operation with popular Australian folk rock use of policy measures —for example, artist, Xavier Rudd, which brought the re- by penalising trespassers with the $AUS enactment of the Galtha Bunggul and the 1000 fine foreseen by the Sacred Sites importance of Nhulun as a sacred site to Act. Less rigorous options might include the attention of the Australian people. limiting access by excluding vehicles Xavier Rudd visited Northeast Arnhem from the top of Nhulun. This could be Land and recorded a song called “Land combined with increased surveillance Rights” with outstanding Yolngu artists and patrols which would enable offend- and musicians which was included on his ers to be reported to the police. 2007 album White Moth. The song, which was inspired by the history and cultural significance of Nhulun, has once again Conclusions and carried the message of Yolngu people to recommendations the broader Australian public in a very effective and engaging way. Dhimurru has acquired extensive experience of managing sacred natural sites Culturally, Nhulun is an interesting exam- from a Yolngu and Western perspective. ple of the ongoing need to engage in pub- As Dhimurru’s management is guided lic outreach and cross-cultural education, by perspectives central to Yolngu cul- as the interpretive signage is regularly van- ture, spiritual and cultural values are al- dalised. This need is felt and recognised ways of primary concern to natural val- as a priority by each generation of Yolngu ues. A number of universal lessons can people, and expressed thus by Dhimur- be extracted from this broad experience ru’s director, Djawa Yunupingu: which could be of use to indigenous “Here in Northeast Arnhem Land we peoples, managers and policy makers have a very strong culture. We feel the dealing with sacred sites:

40 Enabling equitable conservation ous digital media and references to practices: physical media can be stored in a 1. Empowerment. Empower custodians (GIS) database. Information can be and responsible community members labelled and password-protected to regulate access and catalogue cultur- to take appropriate care of their sacred al significance. sites. Ensure local custodians are as- sisted and their concerns addressed. 7. Intellectual Property. Cultural protocols and intellectual property rights 2. Preserve culture as a whole. Sacred should be taken into account with re- sites are part of a rich cultural tradi- gard to sacred sites and the cultural tion which intertwines the land and and spiritual values related to them. the sea. They can be used to enforce This can be important for visiting sci- traditional responsibilities in taking entists, commercial operators, com- care of these areas. panies and other outside parties. 3. Living culture. Cultural concepts such as law, song, art and ceremony Communicating interests: should be treated as part of a living 8. Appropriate media and communica- culture. Any of these aspects relating tions. Consider media and other to sacred sites are usually part of a means of communication that are cul- dynamic system, which is governed turally acceptable and functional. The and practiced by Yolngu people and use of still images and film can be a includes taking care of sacred sites. very effective aid in protecting sacred sites. Such media can also be linked Information management: to existing information systems. 4. Sacred sites and secrecy. Sacred 9. Perceptions of nature. Recognising sites can be protected and registered, different perceptions of nature is the but they may also be kept secret from key to understanding the importance other parties for cultural reasons. placed on prioritising conservation Some of the different knowledge sets options. This perception typically con- attached to them may need to be ac- cerns the intimate Yolngu spiritual re- cessible to certain groups only. lations with the sea country and the 5. Access. Access to sacred sites may species it contains. be regulated based on zoning and 10. Aspirations and rights. Communicate permit schemes which can operate aspirations and rights to other concurrently and in synergy with one organisations and institutions. For ex- another. Zoning schemes, in particu- ample, press decision makers (and lar, may be a good way of conserving governments, in particular) to recog- cultural and natural values. nise and implement the United Na- 6. Sacred site information systems. Once tions Declaration of the Rights of In- included in information systems, vari- digenous Peoples, and share practi-

41 cal management experiences with sufficient conceptual space is left for a other conservation organisations. mutual understanding of the importance of taking care of sacred places to 11. Reconciliation. Promote reconciliation grow, we can look after the power on and cultural understanding through this land together. the interpretation of Yolngu cultural beliefs and values for visitors. This may be of particular use in establish- Acknowledgements ing good working relationships with other parties using indigenous land The authors deeply respect the wisdom, and sea areas. the rich culture of the Yolngu people of Northeast Arnhem Land. They acknowl- The Yolngu people of Northeast Arnhem edge that the true value of this text is Land have chosen to share their experi- rooted in the cultural and spiritual rela- ences in the management of sacred sites tionship that Yolngu people have with and cultural and spiritual values, because their land. In addition, much value has they believe their extensive experience in been derived from the interaction of managing sacred sites may be of value Yolngu cultural traditions with contempo- to other peoples, and that other people’s rary conservation and management ap- experiences may be valuable to them. proaches. The authors are indebted to They recognise that the sharing of such Lea Ezzy, Mathew Zylstra, Daryl Guse, expertise is dependent on a willingness Dhimurru Aboriginal Corporation’s staff, and an ability to communicate openly especially Steve Roeger and Larpan for and to respect different worldviews. Nat- providing guidance on earlier versions of urally, highlighting cultural differences this article. Thanks, too, to the Marine goes hand in hand with respecting and Conservation Biology Institute for sup- understanding different perceptions. If porting this research.

Land rights protest image, 1969

42 Glossary Balanda: Non-Aboriginal people.

Dhawu: Creation stories from the dreamtime connecting people, place and spirit.

Dreamtime: A mythological Creation time (very real to Aboriginal people) in which ancestral beings created the landscape by singing it into being and gave everything in the world its meaning.

Ghost nets: Redundant fishing nets cut loose from fishing vessels and left in the open sea to trap and kill marine life until they wash ashore.

Manikay: Song connecting people, place and spirit. Manikay, like roads, are known to form a network across the Australian landscape and are also called songlines. Amongst other things, they contain information needed to navigate through the land.

Miny’tji: Sacred art and painting or sacred design connecting people, place and spirit.

Ngapaki: see Balanda.

Rom: Traditional law or protocol directing culturally correct behaviour.

Sacred site: The Northern Territory Aboriginal Sacred Sites Act (2000, formerly 1989) defines a sacred site as a site that is sacred to Aboriginals or is otherwise of significance according to Aboriginal tradition, and includes any land that is declared to be sacred to Abo- riginals or of significance according to Aboriginal tradition under a Northern Territory law.

Traditional Owners (TOs): The Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1997 defines TO as local descent group of Aboriginals who: (a) have common spiritual affiliations to a site on the land, being affiliations that place the group under a primary spiritual responsibility for that site and for the land; and (b) are entitled by Aboriginal tradition to forage as of right over that land.

Wangar: Ancestral beings from the dreamtime which created the landscape —including the rocks, lakes, trees, sea and animals alive within it— and sang it into being.

Yolngu: Aboriginal people of Northeast Arnhem Land Australia.

References ALRA, (1976), Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act.

Buku-larrngay Mulka Centre (1999), Saltwater. Yirrkala Bark Paintings of Sea Country. Recognizing Indigenous sea rights, Collection of the Australian National Maritime Mu- seum, Buku-larrngay Mulka Centre in Association with Jennifer Isaacs Publishing.

Chaloupka, G. (1993), Journey in time: The world’s longest continuing art tradition, Reed, Sydney.

43 Dhimurru (2006a), Dhimurru Yolnguwu Monuk Gapu Wanga Sea Country Plan. A Yolngu Vision and Plan for Sea Country Management in North-east Arnhem Land, Northern Territory, Dhimurru Land Management Aboriginal Corporation, Nhulunbuy.

Dhimurru (2006b), Mawalan filming for new land rights, Video footage, Dhimurru files.

Dhimurru (2000), Indigenous Protected Area Management Plan, Dhimurru Land Man- agement Aboriginal Corporation, Nhulunbuy.

Graham M. (2008), “Some Thoughts about the Philosophical Underpinnings of Aborig- inal Worldviews”, Australian Humanities Review, 45, pp. 181-194.

Gumana v Northern Territory of Australia (2007), FCAFC 23, Federal Court of Australia. Darwin.

Howitt, R. (2001), “Frontiers, Borders, Edges: Liminal Challenges to the Hegemony of Exclusion”, Australian Geographical Studies, 39 (2), pp. 233-245.

Hutcherson, G. (1995), Djalkiri Wanga, the land is my foundation: 50 years of Aborigi- nal Art from Yirkala, Northeast Arnhem Land, The University of Western Australia, Bern- dt Museum of Anthropology, occasional paper No.4.

Marika, II M. (n.d.), Gunda Muruwirri, natural pigments on bark (93x52 cm), Maritime Museum Collection, Image courtesy of Buku-larrngay Mulka Centre and Mawalan II Marika.

Marika, M. (1947), Myth-map of Dhambaliya, crayon on paper (115x74 cm), Berndt Collection, Image courtesy of Buku-larrngay Mulka Centre and Mawalan II Marika.

Marika, W. (1995), Life story: as told to Jennifer Isacs, University of Queensland Press, St Lucia.

Marquis-Kyle, P., Walker, M. W. (1992), The illustrated Burra Charter: making good decisions about the care of Important places, ICOMOS Australia, Australian Heritage Commission.

Memmot, P. (2004), Living on Saltwater Country, Southern Gulf of Carpentaria, Sea country management, needs and issues, National Oceans office (NOO), Hobart.

Morphy, H. (1998), Aboriginal Art, Phaidon Press, London.

Morphy, H. (1991), Ancestral Connections: Art and Aboriginal System of knowledge, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

44 Muller, S. (2008), “Indigenous Payment for Environmental Service (PES) Opportunities in the Northern Territory: negotiating with customs”, Australian Geographer, 39:2, pp. 149-170.

National Oceans Office (2004), Living on Saltwater Country. Review of literature about Aboriginal rights, use, management and interests in northern Australian marine environments, Hobart.

Northern Territory Aboriginal Sacred Sites Act (2000, formerly 1989), Aboriginal Areas Protection Authority, Northern Territory Australia.

Posey, D.A. (1999), “Culture and nature, the inextricable link” in Posey (ed.) Cultural and Spiritual Values of Biodiversity, a comprehensive contribution to the UNEP Global Biodiversity Assessment, United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi.

Rose, B. (1998), Attitudes and Perceptions amongst Aboriginal People in Central Aus- tralia, Central Land Council, Alice Springs.

Smyth, D. (2006), Dugong and marine Turtle Knowledge handbook. Indigenous and scientific knowledge of dugong and marine turtles in northern Australia, North Austral- ian Indigenous Land and Sea Management Alliance.

Smyth, D. (2007), Dhimurru Indigenous Protected Area Case Study, Two-ways management: sole management with partners (draft report).

Thomson, D. (1983), Donald Thomson in Arnhem Land, Melbourne University Publish- ing, Melbourne.

United Nations (2007), Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, United Na- tions, General Assembly, 61st session, agenda item 68, Report of the Human Rights Council.

Verschuuren, B. (2006), “Socio-cultural Importance of Wetlands in northern Australia” in T. Schaaf and C. Lee (eds.), Conserving Cultural and Biological Diversity: The Role of Sacred Natural Sites and Cultural Landscapes, IUCN/UNESCO, Chapter 6, 141,150.

Verschuuren, B. (2007), Believing is Seeing, Integrating cultural and spiritual values in conservation management, Foundation for Sustainable Development, Wageningen, IUCN, Gland.

Yunupingu, D., Muller, S. (2007), Dhimurru’s sea country planning journey: opportunities and challenges to meeting Yolngu aspirations for sea country management in Northern Territory, Dhimurru Land Management Aboriginal Corporation, Nhulunbuy.

45 46 Sacred versus secular in the San Francisco Peaks Arizona, USA

Jeneda Benally Lawrence Hamilton

You must always be careful with something that is greater than you are. Shoshone Native American Proverb Look there! You see a mountain. We see the spirits of our ancestors. Kuka Yalangi, Australian Aboriginal, 2002

Introduction Arizona (US), the San Francisco Peaks are a volcanic massif. Mount Hum- Since time immemorial, more than 22 phreys, the highest peak, has an eleva- Native American Nations have revered tion of 3,851 metres and is the highest the Sacred San Francisco Peaks as a point in Arizona. Although the San Fran- dinstictively vital site that has consistent- ly been accessed for specific religious cisco Peaks are comprised of six peaks purposes. This unique biome is an eco- in all (four of which are the highest indi- logical island that provides refuge to a vidual peaks in Arizona), the 22 tribes multitude of different life-forms, some of acknowledge the massif as a single liv- which are rarely found elsewhere in the ing entity. Each tribe has a unique rela- surrounding dry region and, in some tionship with the San Francisco Peaks cases, the world. Rising from the semi- that leads to it bestowing a distinct tribal arid Colorado High Plateau in Northern name on the mountains and a specific

< The San Francisco Peaks from the East, Arizona, USA 47 Location of San Francisco Peaks role in their tribal tradition. In the 1600s, The green forested slopes and snowy sum Spanish colonists, disregarded the Na- mits of Dook’oo’sliid stand in marked con- tive American place names and named trast to the ochre-coloured, sparsely-vege- the prominence after Saint Francis of As- tated landscape around them. Due to the sisi, who many now consider the ‘patron physical features and positioning of the saint’ of ecology. mountains, the Peaks capture rain and snow and thus help nourish the dry lands Called Dooko’oo’sliid by the Navajo around them (including the city of Flagstaff) (Dine’) Tribe, the San Francisco Peaks are with streams, springs and groundwater aq- recognized as a female life-form by the uifers. This green oasis provides a variety Native American tribes that regard her as of habitats not found elsewhere in the vicin- holy, and by the 22 tribes for whom she is ity. In 1869, a biologist named C. Hart Mer- a source of medicinal and ceremonial riam studied the San Francisco Peaks and plants and minerals as well as a place of discovered six of the seven life-zones used spiritual nourishment. Called the ‘Peaks’ to classify climate zones (Merriam 1890). locally, the complex is an icon to most res- Dooko’oo’ sliid is an extremely important idents and visitors; a dominant landscape land —and spirit-scape that has helped to feature that greets them daily. The Peaks, define people’s identity and history. which are only 16 kilometres to the North- west of the small city of Flagstaff, are managed by the United States Forest Service. Natural values Although the tribes have always been stewards of the land, their role is now con- Most of The Peaks is public federal land strained to being consulted in decisions under the jurisdiction of the United States pertaining to land use; this tribal consulta- Forest Service as The Peaks District of tion rarely, if ever, provides protection for the Coconino National Forest (728,400 the sanctity of this Holy Site. ha). It is an IUCN Category VI Managed

48 Coconino National Forest: Peaks District, showing San Francisco Peaks

Resource Protected Area. Under the For- gered San Francisco Peaks groundsel est Service’s multiple-use policy, the ar- (Senecio franciscanus), a remarkable ea has over the years hosted timber har- plant of the Asteraceae family endemic vesting, some grazing, pumice mining, a to the San Francisco Peaks (US Fish and ski development and general public out- Wildlife Service 1983), occurs above the door recreation activities including hik- tree line. The most common tree is the ing, riding, hunting, camping, cross- ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), five country skiing and picnicking. There is a varieties of which grow in the Peaks. This large designated Kachina Wilderness forest, which stretches from the Peaks to Zone (7,670 ha). On the western flank of the White Mountains, is the largest block the Holy Mountains, the Nature Conserv- of the widespread ponderosa pine forest ancy owns and manages the Hart Prairie of the North American continent (Gra- Preserve (100 ha), a nature-based facili- hame and Sisk 2002). From these vari- ty for educational programs. ous natural communities, a wide variety of medicinal and ceremonial plants, min- This mountain complex is a haven of bio- erals and materials (including feathers) diversity, at the regional level at least, are harvested by tribal spiritual leaders. thanks to its higher precipitation, several altitudinal vegetation zones, directionally- The golden-leaved aspens (Populus varied orientation and myriad microhabi- tremuloides), which stand in a glorious tats. Major communities include the contrast to the adjacent dark green coni- Rocky Mountain upper montane conifer fers in autumn, provide additional scenic forest, intermontane grassland, alpine splendour. The peaks are also home to tundra and important seasonal wetlands. animals seldom found on the surround- The bristlecone pine (Pinus aristata), ing plateau, including the black bear, which is famous for its longevity, occurs mountain lion, deer, peregrine falcon, on the upper slopes, while the endan- bald eagle and birds endemic to forest

49 View of the Peaks from the Flagstaff urban area and alpine habitat. Tthe endangered the 1990s and resulted in a major con- Mexican Spotted Owl (Strix occidentalis frontation with those who regarded the lucida) also finds sanctuary in the San mines as wounds on the sacred body of Francisco Peaks (Defenders of Wildlife the Earth. Environmentalists, the Tribes web site, undated). and the Forest Service worked together and, joining forces with Former Secretary The Peaks’ most valuable natural product, of the Interior Bruce Babbit, succeeded in monetary as well as non-monetary in having the pumice mine shut down. terms, is its high quality water. It is the main water source for the city of Flagstaff (population 65,338), and recharges groundwater Spiritual and cultural values for the dispersed residents, ranchers and farmers who use the Coconino aquifer. Twenty-two Tribal Nations, each with dis- Further, the presence of snow on their up- tinct linguistic, historic and lifestyle char- per slopes, though increasingly unreliable acteristics, have found commonality in due to global warming, has given rise to a the holiness of the Sacred San Francis- skiing enterprise: the Arizona Snowbowl. co Peaks. Some tribes have specific shrines on the mountain while others rec- The opportunity for forest hiking with spe ognize that the entire mountain is inte- ctacular views has led to the creation of gral to continue their cultural and spiritu- a substantial network of trails, some with al survival. The sanctity of the mountain an elevation gain of over 1,000m. In the affects the spiritual, emotional, mental summer, the Scenic Skyride (a Snow- and physical aspect of these traditional bowl lift) carries people to a 3,500m high people. For some tribes, every ceremo- view, above the tree line. ny and each of their prayers are directly The presence of volcanic pumice led to tied to this unique mountain icon. Both small-scale mining, which expanded in the fate of the individual tribal members

50 and the survival of these ancient living For the many tribes that perceive the San cultures are bound to the purity of their Francisco Peaks as Holy Mountains, holy mountainous Mecca. there is a duty and responsibility not only to protect the land, but also to preserve Medicinal plants are also gathered on this their traditional knowledge; traditional sacred mountain, and traditional medicine knowledge that is a privilege. Tribes re- has remedies for ailments for which mod- vere the Sacred San Francisco Peaks for ern medicine has no known cure including some of the following reasons: cancer, arthritis, AIDS and heart disease. Given that the San Francisco Peaks is an • Dine’ (Navajo): for Dooko’oo’sliid, the oasis in the high desert, there are many Western Sacred Mountain that controls plants that are only to be found on the the adulthood of people’s life, and for mountain. If the ski area is allowed (with being the home of the Holy People; the concurrence of the Forest Service) to • Acoma: for Tsii Bina, the Sacred introduce 681 million litres of treated sew- Western point that represents com- age effluent per season to this mountain pleteness, health and well being; ecosystem, Traditional Medicine practitioners insist that the ceremonial materials • Hopi: for Nuvatukyaovi, home to the they have gathered for generations will be Kachinas, rain makers; physically and spiritually contaminated • Havasupai: for Wi’ i Hanginbajah as a and that, consequently, they will no longer place of purification and the emer- be able to treat their patients effectively. gence point during the water world, The Forest Service cannot guarantee that when the world became unsafe and plants outside the ski resort’s Special Use flooded with water; Permit area would not be contaminated with wastewater. The sanctity of the Sa- • Hualapai: for Wi’hanbacha, the histori- cred San Francisco Peaks is of the utmost cal point at which the creation story begins for this world, being the 4th world. importance to the continuation of these Offerings are carried to this site when ancient healing practices and living faiths. tribal members need help and healing; The San Francisco Peaks is the home to • San Carlos Apache, White Mountain deities: The Hopi Tribe believe the Kachi- Apache, and Yavapai-Apache: Dsil nas live here and journey to bring rains Ligai Sian Nahokos Biyaayu, a portal to the distant dry mesas for the cultivata- into the spirit world and as the home ble season; for the Apache Tribes, the of the Mountain Spirits and the Origin mountain is home to the Mountain Spir- of Changing Woman; its; for the Navajo, it is home to the Holy People. Consequently, tribal people ma • Zuni: as Sunha kyabachu yallane, ke offerings, say prayers and perform rit- which is significant to the on-going tra uals and ceremonies to ensure balance ditions and practices of the Zuni peo- in the tribes’ relationship with these natu- ple, and for its ties to ancestral Zuni ral deities and with each other. from their time of emergence.

51 These beliefs are core elements of the the 22 tribes, and there is no central facility oral cultural traditions of the tribes. or information centre to raise their awareness on this subject. Most people who are The traditional medicine men and women aware of the controversy have learned are responsible for their tribes’ cultural about the area’s natural, cultural and spir- and spiritual heritage. Each tribal nation itual heritage from the media outreach and has its own historians and medicine peo- events organized by the Save the Peaks ple who devote their lives to their tradition- Coalition. Informative articles have also al art. When one learns a particular ceremony, one must learn all the traditional been published in international journals in- stories that are interconnected with it, and cluding Mountain Research and Develop- the spiritual leaders often begin learning ment (Hamilton 2006) and Scottish Moun- at an early age accompanying a family taineer (Hamilton 2007), while the contro- member with the knowledge. Today, be- versy has been covered by leading US cause of mandatory schooling in the pub- newspapers. However, although the Save lic education system and its materialistic the Peaks Coalition receives letters of sup- emphasis, there are fewer young people port from all over the world, the Forest learning the traditional ways. Service has not altered its ruling.

Tribes have continuously appealed to the city of Flagstaff, the Forest Service and the Pressures and impacts Ski Resort to stop desecrating their Sa- cred Mountain. The 22 tribes are part of a Small-scale mining activity was formerly coalition to protect the Sacred San Fran- permitted by the Forest Service for the cisco Peaks, which has received the sup- extraction of pumice and cinders, but the port of a number of ‘local’ people in the demand for stone-washed (faded) blue Flagstaff area and the State of Arizona, in- jeans in the mid-1990s greatly increased cluding business owners, tourists and the the profitability of, and demand for, pum- Sierra Club (a nation-wide environmental ice. Until 1998, the White Vulcan Mine NGO). Several faculties of Northern Arizo- (Tufflite Inc.) managed both to ignore the na University have also helped by integrat- protests of the local Navajo, Hopi, Huala- ing the controversy into their classes. pai, Zuni and White Mountain Apache However, the Chamber of Commerce and communities, but also to expand the ex- other organizations within the tourist intent of its operations from 2 to 36 ha. dustry have favoured the further develop- However, when Tufflite Inc. filed for a fur- ment and exploitation of the region, de- ther 12 ha under the obsolete 1872 Min- spite the Forest Service issuing an Envi- ing Law, its actions did not go unchal- ronmental Impact Statement, which makes lenged: rather, it galvanized 13 tribes it clear that the ski resort is not the most and the Sierra Club to work together to significant driver of the Flagstaff economy. bring the mining company’s expansion Unfortunately, most visitors and tourists to a halt through a series of well-con- are unaware of the cultural and spiritual ducted cultural events and protest ral- significance of the San Francisco Peaks to lies. At the same time, the Forest Service

52 Map of the Kachina Wilderness Zone showing the location of Snowbowl requested the Secretary of the Interior to the Peaks be declared a Traditional Cul- withdraw 29,500 ha of the national forest tural Property and be listed on the Na- from mining claims. In 2000, the Secre- tional Register of Historic Places, the For- tary, calling the mining “a sacrilege”, est Service has still to designate it as signed an agreement at the site to close such. The success of this joint effort led down the mine within 6 months and for to the coordinated support of 13 tribes restoration work to begin. Although the against the current threat posed by the tribal coalition proposed at this time that proposed Snowbowl development.

53 The history of logging, grazing and min- Forest Service c.1938 without consulting ing in Northern Arizona goes back to the the tribes, who have always opposed ski arrival of the first Europeans in the area. In development on the mountain. In 1983, 1898, the Forest Reserve now known as despite protests made by several Native the Coconino National Forest was set up American tribes, especially the Hopi and to control forest exploitation activities in the Navajo, permission was granted to the area. Timber harvesting centres on expand the ski resort by including more the ponderosa pine and is a major eco- pistes, four ski lifts, a lodge and an ex- nomic activity which impacts on the site pansion to the parking facility. The Courts (though not in the Kachina Wilderness Ar- ruled such protests out on the grounds ea). Over the years, timber harvesting has that a development of this kind did not become less significant as recreational impede the religious rights guaranteed demands have increased. Prescribed bur under the 1978 American Indian Reli- ning to reduce fuel loads is now a com- gious Freedom Act; however, it did in mon practice in National Forest manage- fact impact adversely on Native Ameri- ment. Hunting occurs, mainly during the can religious practices relating to the Sa- winter. Although mountain bikes and all-ter- cred Mountain. The ruling claimed the rain vehicles are prohibited from the Kachi- tribes could still access their spiritual site na Wilderness Zone, the forest (logging) from other places on the Peaks. Howev- routes are available to them elsewhere. er, for the tribes, access was a non-is- That the Forest Service requires tribal sue; what they were protesting in favour medicinal gatherers to file a permit and, of was protecting the physical integrity in some cases, to pay a fee for collecting and virtue of the wholeness of the natural plants, minerals and any other material state of the Peaks —something the from the Forest Service land / Sacred San courts had failed to fully recognize. In Francisco Peaks is a source of cultural 1998, the Navajo Nation Council passed stress. Failure to comply with the law can a resolution calling for the immediate result in a fine of up to $5,000 fine and / or dismantling of the ski area in order to re- a 6-month jail sentence. Although, to the store the Peaks to their natural state. best of our knowledge, no one has ever Late in 2002, however, another threat been prosecuted for failing to comply manifested itself to the sanctity of the with this regulation in this specific area, it Peaks: a further proposed expansion of serves as a deterrent and places a bur- the Snowbowl, which had been suffering den on traditional practitioners’ ability to from declining snow cover and hence obtain the ceremonial herbs they need. profits. With the support of the Forest A serious threat to the natural and spirit- Service, the Snowbowl ski resort pro- ual / cultural values of the area is attribut- posed a development plan that would ed to the ski resort on the South-western significantly alter the southern slope, flank, approximately 16 kilometres from where the ski resort is operational at the small city of Flagstaff. A small, rustic present, by expanding the parking facili- ski development was permitted by the ties and adding new ski lifts. The Snow-

54 View of The Peaks with a list of affected tribes on a map of Arizona

bowl developers also signed a contract water in a sacred area is, in itself, anath- with the City of Flagstaff by which they ema to the Native Americans. For their would use the city’s wastewater to make part, the Hopi fear that if man makes artificial snow (to supplement the limited snow at the home of the rain-making natural snowfall) and construct forthwith Kachinas —who are essential to the an immense open-air wastewater tank Hopi way of life— the deities will aban- with a capacity just short of 38 million li- don their homes in the mountain, but al- tres. Signs would then be posted advis- so the Hopi people. The Navajo and ing people not to eat the snow, and Apache Bands have a deep understand- snowmaking guns would be brought into ing of their own traditional sciences and service which would —under normal know that wastewater can never be fully conditions —be operational 24 hours a cleaned. Water used in hospitals and day. A single snowmaking gun can be mortuaries, as well as women’s menstru- heard over a radius in excess of 1.6 kilo- al blood, will have severe effects on the metres; the ski resort has not disclosed health of the environment. For the Nava- how many snowmaking guns they intend jo, the health of Dooko’oo’sliid is mir- to use. Despite considerable public out- rored directly in the health of the Navajo rage, the City Council and Mayor of Flag- people. For its part, western science has staff have agreed to allow Snowbowl to found that water treatment cannot reuse wastewater for snowmaking. It move all the contaminants, which in- should be noted that the ski business in clude chemicals, hormonal compounds operation on the San Francisco Peaks and antibiotics. In an appeal to the Unit- has changed hands many times due to ed Nations, Navajo President Joe Shirley the unreliability of its profits. stated that “the hearts of my people will Quite apart from the extension of the ski again be broken, their health will inevita- resort’s built facilities, the use of waste- bly suffer, and we will again witness the

55 View of the Peaks from the Navajo Reservation continued erosion of one of the oldest in- accommodation, and not merely the tol- digenous cultures in North America at the erance, of all religions, and declined to hands of the US Government”. authorize the use of wastewater treatment facilities for snow-making purpos- Thirteen tribes have re-united with the es. The Forest Service and Arizona Snow- Save the Peaks Coalition, and have been bowl Ski Resort filed for a rehearing and joined by several environmental NGOs their request was granted. On 11 Decem- including the Sierra Club. In April 2005, ber 2007, the case was reheard en banc despite two years of petitions and nego- by the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals of the tiations with the Coalition, the Forest United States of America. The en banc Service made an announcement in fa- court consists of the chief judge and an- vour of the development proposal. The other ten randomly-selected judges. Coalition secured the services of an at- torney and lodged an appeal against the The en banc reached a divided decision Forest Service in August 2005. In January on 8 August 2008 with the majority over- 2006, a District Court judge rejected the turning the decision of March 2007. The appeal, indicating, it would seem, that court based on their interpretation of the the economic interests of the Arizona Religious Freedom Testoration Act, stat- Snowbowl Resort, a single for-profit busi- ed that the “diminishment of spiritual fulfil- ness, are more important than the beliefs ment —serious though it may be— is not of hundreds of thousands of Native a substantial burden on the free exercise Americans. This decision was appealed of religion”. The Federal Administration in turn in September 2006 before a Cir- and land management agencies under- cuit Court of Appeals in San Francisco, stand, as do the Tribal Nations, that this which ruled in favour of the Coalition in precedent-setting ruling will affect policy March 2007. The ruling states that the US wherever Native Americans have sites of Constitution affirmatively mandates the special spiritual value on public land. The

56 Tribes, individuals and several grassroots ings over the years under a ‘multiple use’ organizations filed a petition on 5 January mandate have led to different interpreta- 2009 for the Supreme Court of the United tions of ‘conservation’, which have given States to hear their appeal. It is not clear rise to conflict. The Forest Service in gen- whether the Supreme Court will decide to eral has been criticized by environmental hear the case; until a decision is reached, groups for assigning priority to logging, however, the Snowbowl is legally barred and there have been some problems in from further development on the sacred recent years relating to the satisfactory San Francisco Peaks. natural regeneration of the forest. The use of better silviculture and use of controlled On June 8, 2009, the Supreme Court of fire seems to have put the area under the United States denied the petition to commercial harvesting onto a more sus- hear the appeal case of Navajo Nation et tainable path. The designation of the al. vs. United States Forest Service. The Kachina Wilderness Zone also bodes well case was based on the Religious Free- for conservation, although it could be re- dom Restoration Act (RFRA). Since the moved by an administrative ruling. In- Supreme Court refused to hear the case, creasingly, the Coconino is being man- the RFRA becomes virtually unavailable aged to give priority to recreational use. to protect sacred places on Federal However, to protect fragile natural com- lands in the United States. Although this munities, off-trail hiking and camping case was denied, the Save the Peaks above the tree line are prohibited, as is Coalition continues its work to protect camping in the Inner Basin. the Holy San Francisco Peaks. It may take work in the US Congress to revise A physical enlargement of the Snowbowl the RFRA to make more explicit the com- into the forest is still a possibility, since plete intent of what religious freedom en- the ski centre has received Forest Serv- tails i.e. that it involves much more than ice approval for a 29-hectare expansion access to a site -it involves loss or im- involving the felling of old-growth forest pairment of sanctity values as well. See on the allotted leased land. If snowmak- Addendum for latest development. ing is no longer a possibility under the court ruling, the whole enterprise would have to continue operating as it has Conservation perspectives done to date. For instance, during the and sustainability winter of 2001-2002 it was only open for 4 days due to poor snowfall; conversely, The natural resources of the Peaks are the winter of 2008-2009 was one of its mandated for conservation and sustaina- top ten years. bility under the legislation governing the foundation of the National Forest System. It is clear that the spiritual / cultural values The threat of mining claims on public land of the Peaks are in need of greater pro- has been removed from this area by vir- tection. One measure already being ad- tue of the decisive action of closing down vocated by the Coalition is the designa- the White Vulcan mine in 2000. Policy rul- tion of the Peaks as a Traditional Cultural

57 Property. Some recognition of ‘national • The importance of granting a deci- significance’ by the President or Con- sion-making role to Tribal Govern- gress might reduce the threat of harmful ments and Tribal Spiritual Leaders in local administrative decisions. issues relevant to the land manage- There is even potential for international ment of special Tribal Sacred Sites; recognition if the Peaks District, or the • The benefits of co-managing areas of entire Coconino, were to be designated public land or public trust. A recog- a Biosphere Reserve. The core zone of nized, increasingly common and so- such a Reserve could afford protection cially just arrangement for including to the less disturbed high elevation area local traditional users, this has proved (including the Kachina Wilderness to be the best method of avoiding Zone) and to any lower-altitude specific conflict, and should thus be taken in- sites of spiritual / cultural value. In the to consideration here, too; lowland peripheral zone, regular sustainable multiple use could continue, • The designation of the area as a Tra- along with sustainable private land man- ditional Cultural Property by the Presi- agement. With a new and more environ- dent or Congress, which would give it mentally-friendly administration in pow- national significance; er in 2009, such a scenario seems more • The inclusion of the Kachina Wilder- likely than previously. ness Zone in the National Wilderness Preservation System, which would re- Recommendations move the possibility of its being de- classified locally; As far as the Peaks are concerned, the decision- and policy-makers need to take • The investigation of the area’s des- the spiritual, cultural and natural values of ignation as an International Bio- the area into account along with its ex- sphere Reserve by a future federal tractive and recreational activities. They administration; must recognize the customary religious • The need to increase public aware- practices, healing powers, sacredness, ness of the San Francisco Peaks as a and traditional history relating to such areas. In line with the above, a broad set sacred site and its significant impact of recommendations focuses on: on the everyday lives of Native Ameri- cans and the continuation of their an- • The need for greater consultation with cient ways of tribal life. the original Native American owners and users of this land during the differ- • The establishment of a Living Cultural ent phases of the planning and man- Centre that would serve as a resource agement process (strictly speaking, centre for educating visitors about the Native Americans do not regard them- cultural and spiritual significance of selves as ’owners’ of Mother Earth); the Sacred San Francisco Peaks.

58 Addendum

On September 21, 2009 the Save the Peaks Coalition and nine citizens filed suit against the U.S. Forest Service under the National Environmental Policy Act. This is based on inadequate consideration of the possibility of human ingestion of snow made from treated sewage effluent. The Forest Service is obligated to consider these types of potential impacts on the quality of the human environment.

References Benally, J. (2006-2007), “Our sacred mountain is in danger”, Wilderness Magazine, pp. 41, 58.

Defenders of Wildlife, “Wildlife and Habitat Fact Sheets: Mexican Spotted Owl”. www. defenders.org/wildlife_and_habitat/wildlife/spotted_ owl_mexican.php

Grahame, J.D. and Sisk T.D. (eds.) (2002), Land use history of North America, Biotic Communities of the Colorado Plateau, Ponderosa Pine Forest.

Northern Arizona University. www.cpluhna.nau.edu/biota/ponderosa_forest.htm.

Hamilton, L.S. (2006), “Sacred vs. profane: conflict over the San Francisco Peaks”, Mountain Research and Development 26(4), pp. 366-67.

Hamilton, L. (2007), “Sacred vs profane: conflict over the San Francisco Peaks”, Scot- tish Mountaineer, Issue 34, p. 33.

Merriam, C.H. (1890), “Results of a biological survey of the San Francisco Mountain region, and the desert of the Little Colorado, Arizona”, North American fauna, US De- partment of Agriculture 3, pp. 1-136.

Save the Peaks Coalition home page. Various links to the issue. Updated with new developments, www.savethepeaks.org.

US Fish and Wildlife Service 1983. Federal Register 48(226), pp. 52743-52747.

US Forest Service, Coconino National Forest, US Government Official Web Portal www.fs.fed.us/r3/coconino.

Information on the San Francisco Groundsel, http://www.centerforplantconservation. org/ASP/CPC_ViewProfile.asp?CPCNum=3928.

Information on the Mexican Spotted Owl,http://www.defenders.org/wildlife_and_habi- tat/wildlife/mexican_spotted_owl.php.

59 60 Mainstream faiths The National Park of the Casentine Forests Italy

Gloria Pungetti Franco Locatelli Father Peter Hughes

Introduction

The National Park of the Casentine Forests, Mount Falterona and Campigna extends along the ridge of the Appenine dividing Tuscany and Romagna. It de- scends steeply into the valleys on the Romagna and eases gently into the Tuscan slopes in the Casentino area. It reaches the springs of the Arno River, and gradually slopes down into the broad valley of the Arno. The Park contains three sites of great interest and spiritual importance: the Sanctuary of La Verna, the Monastery of Camaldoli and the Hermitage of Camaldoli.

Natural values

The Casentine forests are part of the national park which includes the Casentine forests, Mount Falterona and Campigna. The park, which spreads over the provincial territory of Forlì and Cesena in Romagna and Arezzo and Florence in Tusca- ny, covers an area of roughly 36,000 ha on both sides of the Apennine. The body responsible for the protection of the park’s natural heritage is the National Park Authority. From an environmental viewpoint, the park stands out as one of the most precious forested areas in Europe, being home to rich vegetation including

< Camaldoli Monastery, Tuscany, Italy 61 woods of pine (Pinus spp.), silver fir (Abies alba), beech (Fagus sylvatica) and mountain maple (Acer spicatum), as well as mixed woodland with an incredible variety of species.

Over 1,000 species of flora have been recorded to date in the National Park area (Cavagna and Cian 2003), with a particular concentration in the meadows, glades and crags of Mount Falterona.

The Park also abounds with fauna, with species including the Apennine wolf (Canis lupus italicus), wild boar (Sus Scrofa), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), fal- low deer (Dama dama), common deer (Cervus elaphus) and mountain sheep (Ovis ammon). The birdlife includes some 100 nesting species, some native to central Europe —the alpine tree-creeper (Certhia familiaris), bullfinch (Pyrrhula pyrrhula), ring ouzel (Turdus torquatus)— and others to the Mediterranean —the Sar- dinian warbler (Sylvia melanocephala), whitethroat (Sylvia communis) and black- headed bunting (Emberiza melanocephala). Birds of prey include the sparrow hawk (Accipiter nisus), goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), golden eagle (Aquila chrysae- tos) and peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus). Moreover, the Park is home to 13 amphibian and 12 reptile species and to a large number of insect types (ibid.).

As a tourist attraction, the Park provides recreational and outdoor sports opportunities including mountain biking, horse-riding and cross-country skiing along a network of paths which extend for roughly 600 kilometres.

Spiritual and cultural values

The artfully constructed stone bridges and ancient roads, which still enable visitors to reach towns and villages, are of great historical interest, as are the area’s hermitage and monasteries, its Etruscan settlements and the Roman Way, which ran from Rome to Germany.

Country cottages, isolated or in clusters, ruined castles and small stone shrines also form part of the area’s natural and cultural heritage.

The area’s main sacred sites are the Benedictine Hermitage and Monastery of Camaldoli and the Franciscan Sanctuary of La Verna, whose religious communities —along with groups of pilgrims— form the area’s spiritual social groups. The Park is also visited by nature-lovers, cyclists, horseback riders and cultural tourists.

The bodies responsible for the preservation of the area’s cultural and spiritual values are the Hermitage and Monastery of Camaldoli, the Sanctuary of La Verna and the National Park Authority of the Casentine Forests, Mount Falterona and Campigna.

62 The first two bodies are primarily concerned with spiritual values and conduct workshops and seminars on relevant religious and spiritual topics, as well as providing personal individual retreats, in addition to hosting formal worship. Cultural values are primarily the preserve of the municipalities, particularly those of Santa Sofia and Poppi whose “Baroque and the Casentino” art exhibitions include works by local monks. The local population and visitors alike have always held both the monasteries’ spiritual values and the Park’s cultural values in high regard.

Pressures and impacts

There are innumerable ruins and abandoned villages in the designated Park area, which are largely a result of the domestic migration to urban centres that began during World War Two. The actual inhabitants of the National Park number 1,500 people at most.

Their activities relate to the religious orders, culture, nature and the forests and include pilgrimage, forest management, hiking and tourism. Tourism aside —a con- stantly growing industry with a growing impact on both nature and culture— there are no other major economic or industrial activities with an adverse environmental, cultural or other impact. Nonetheless, the monoculture-based forest management, which traditionally favours the silver fir, is not in sympathy with nature conservation as it serves to reduce biodiversity.

The Constitution of the Hermitage of Camaldoli (1080) sheds light on past land use in the area, since it highlights the date when land use regulations began. The Forestry Code of Camaldoli was passed in 1520 and remained in force until 1866, when the forest became state property and part of the national park administered by the State Forestry Body.

Conservation perspectives

The Hermitage of Camaldoli, which was founded in 1024 by Saint Romuald, is surrounded by white firs (Firgerio 1991), while La Verna, which became the Her- mitage of Saint Francis in 1213, is surrounded by firs and beech trees (Catoloni et al., 2003). Both the heritage and the forest have been venerated and respected for centuries by both the monastic and secular communities in the area, who continue to conserve its spiritual heritage; the task of conserving its natural and cultural heritage is now undertaken by the National Park Authority.

Past and present synergies between conserving the area’s natural heritage and protecting its spiritual and cultural values are evident in the monastic communities. The contribution of spiritual values to the conservation of the natural environ-

63 ment in the Casentine Forests —in the case of the orders of saints Romuald and Francis, in particular— is closely interwoven with the area’s natural and religious history. Down the centuries, the spiritual values of these two monastic orders have played an important role in the management of the forests and they continue to contribute to the conservation of the natural environment today. Safeguarding these values is thus the key to preserving and managing the area; this could be achieved by a campaign to raise awareness of them coupled with a clear site management policy.

Although both orders have played a leading role in this effort for centuries, our era requires a new and more pro-active management strategy including strong partnerships and efficient collaborations, particularly between stakeholders —the Na- tional Park Authority, the local authorities and local communities— who should be invited and encouraged to participate in the management process.

Conclusions

The preservation of the natural, cultural and spiritual wealth of the area is linked to balanced socio-economic development which depends, in turn, on the local authorities, the local population and visitors. Although all three are aware of the area’s natural, cultural and spiritual heritage, problems arise when open spaces are used as a public amenity —visitor parking, for instance— where better planning and management is required if conflicts between the needs of the spiritual communities and the tourists are to be minimised.

In order to overcome these problems, local communities should be involved in the planning and management process. There is also a need for campaigns to raise environmental and cultural awareness among local communities. Finally, the area’s natural, cultural and spiritual heritage should be linked to —and embraced by— the local planning authorities for the sustainable development of the Casen- tine Forests.

64 Forest around Camaldoli Monastery

Bibliography Cavagna S. and Cian S. (eds.) (2003), The National Park of the Casentine Forests: Where the trees touch the sky, Giunti, Florence-Milan.

Cetoloni, R., Bernacchi, F. and Locatelli, F. (eds.) (2003), The Sanctuary of La Verna, La Verna — Pazzini Editore, Villa Verucchio (RN).

Frigerio, S. (1991), Camaldoli: Historical, Spiritual and Artistic Notes, Edizioni Camal- doli — Pazzini Editore, Villa Verucchio (RN).

65 66 ‘Abd al-Salâm ibn Mashîsh and Jabal La‘lâm Site Northern Morocco

Zakia Zouanat

Introduction This sacred site is exceptional for four rea sons: firstly, it has been a significant living Jabal La‘lâm, the mount of the banner or pilgrimage centre for five centuries; sec- signal, is a place of outstanding spiritual, ondly, its custodians are the descendents cultural and natural importance in the heart of the holy man buried there, Ibn Mashîsh, of the Jabal Bouhachem massif in Moroc- who was himself descended from the co’s Rif Mountains. The site is well-known in North Africa and elsewhere in the Sunni Prophet Muhammad; thirdly, political and Muslim world because of its association military resistance against invaders from with the life and death of Sîdî ‘Abd al the north has centred on this holy site; Salâm Ibn Mashîsh, the spiritual master of and lastly, respect for the simplicity of Ibn the founder of the Shâdhilî Sufi order. Mashîsh’s life has kept human intervention in the holy site to a minimum, making There is no exact Islamic equivalent for it one of the important Islamic shrines that Christian and Buddhist monastic com- have remained close to nature. munities, because the example of the life of its founder, the Prophet Muhammad, does not encourage it. The closest equiv- Spiritual and cultural significance alent are the Sufi orders or brotherhoods, which usually consist of married people Many of the dramatic natural features of the living in society. Mediterranean’s mountains —special rocks,

< Divine names painted on large rocks on the road leading to the Jabal La‘lâm custodians village, Morocco 67 Jabal La‘lâm site map forests, monumental trees, springs, caves which means ‘the people of the moun- etc.— have been afforded sacred status tain’. Ibn Mashîsh, who died in 1228, was since ancient times. This was the case the founder of the Shâdhilî Sufi order with the Rif mountains in general and Ja- through his disciple and the inheritor of his bal La‘lâm in particular. Written references ‘spiritual secret’, Abû-l-Hasan al-Shâdhilî, to the spiritual values of the site go back to a member of the local Bani Zeroual tribe. the 9th century. Ibn ‘Arabî, the famous Sufi master who lived in the 12th and 13th cen- Today, the Shâdhilî order is spread turies, notes in his biography of the Sufi throughout the Eastern and Western Dhû-l-Nûn al-Misrî that al-Misrî encoun- Muslim world. Flourishing initially in Tuni- tered groups of saints in this region who sia and Egypt, it returned to its native lived near water sources and slept under land three centuries later via two impor- oak trees, as many pilgrims do to this day. tant 16th-century saints: al-Jazûlî and Over the last seven centuries, however, Zarrûq. Since then, pilgrims and people Jabal La‘lâm’s significance has been related to one of Morocco’s most famous Ibn Zâkûr, ‘Abd al-Rahmân, al-istishfâ’ min al al- alam fâ ma’âthir Sâhib al-‘Alam, BH, 3585. saints: Mawlây ‘Abd al-Salâm ibn Mashîsh, Ma’lamat al-Maghrib [Encyclopédie du Maroc]: known as the patron or head of the Jbala, entries on ‘Al-Jazûlî ’ and ‘Zarrûq’.

68 of different backgrounds, from kings and the sources of holy water and a village— religious authorities (‘ulama) to simple al-Sukkân, whose name means the ‘heirs shepherds, have visited the site and the of the holy man’. tomb of Ibn Mashîsh. The shrine is an old oak tree, its walls are Two main pilgrimages have been insti- the magnificent mountain landscape, its tuted through the centuries: the Naskha, vault the sky, the carpet pieces of cork th a religious feast which falls on the 15 bark from the nearby cork forest. In addi- day of the Islamic month of Sha‘bân, and tion to these holy places, all of them near a Hajj as important as the sacred pil- the top of the mountain, Jabal La‘lâm grimage to Mecca. The pilgrimage to the boasts numerous other holy places in- tomb of Ibn Mashîsh has been called cluding the sanctuary —Sîdî Mashîsh— ‘the pilgrimage of the poor’ (hajj al fu- of Ibn Mashîsh’s father, and those of his qarâ’), meaning that those without the ancestors. It also has some important means to make the pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca go there instead. In ad- subsidiary villages and towns, including dition to the main pilgrimages, however, Tazrut and Chefchaouen, which are lo- there is a year-round influx of pilgrims cated some distance away. A number of bringing alms to the custodians, the de- pilgrims have left prose and verses be- scendants of the saint who moved their hind which, along with the heritage of re- village from the foot of the mountain to ligious songs, add a rich cultural legacy the area of the shrine at its top about a to the sanctuary of Ibn Mashîsh. The first century ago, when the path to the shrine significant manuscript concerning this was built. site —“Healing illnesses by tasting the Ibn Mashîsh left a unique piece of writing traces of the Master of al-‘Alam”, a title behind: a wonderful prayer of love and that explains the function of the pilgrim- praise for his ancestor the Prophet Mu- age and the main attraction of the site— hammad —the Mashîshiyya. This prayer dates from four centuries ago. has been commented on over 70 times Jabal La‘lâm also plays a highly signifi- by Sufi masters in view of its essential cant role in the political history of Moroc- content: the doctrine of Muhammadan co. During the 15th and 16th centuries, Reality. The sacred components of the facing danger of invasion from the North, site are the sanctuary, the cavern (which the Banî ‘Arus and other Rif tribes gath- was the saint’s retreat during his years ered at the shrine of Ibn Mashîsh to on the mountain), the mosque of angels, pledge to intercede and defend the the miraculous rocks, the sacred places —witnesses of the saint’s martyrdom, country and its sacred values with their lives; their efforts proved successful. A widespread traditional belief and practice in Morocco. Al-Rhûnî A. (1953), Tàrîkh Titwàn, n.p., Tétouan. For the commentaries on this prayer, see Zoua- Ibn Raysûn, al-Hasan (1985), Fath al-ta’yîd fî nat Z. (1998), Ibn Mashîsh, maître d’al-Shâdhilî, manâqib al-jadd wa-akhîh wa-l-wâlid, n.p., Tét- n.p., Casablanca. ouan.

69 Natural values gered. Seventeen species of reptile have also been identified along with 11 amphib- Jabal La‘lâm is located in the Jbel Bouh- ian species, six of which are endemic. achem region, part of the ultra Rifan fold of Numidian sandstone. Limestone rock formations constitute most of the upper Pressures and impacts sections of the mountain, whose slopes are covered with cork oak forests, with This holy site has been under attack sev- some glacis and rocky crests occupied eral times down the ages for political, by dwarf vegetation. military, cultural or spiritual reasons.

This area has the highest levels of pre- The relations between the sanctuary and cipitation in Morocco, with more than the surrounding villages are varied, with one meter of rain per year, although the benefits accruing to one or both sides, limestone soil means the water drains open dialogues and claims made by one quickly. The area has a range of sub-hu- side on the other; the property, however, mid to humid temperate thermo-Mediter- concerns only the traditional custodians, ranean bio-climatic domains, depending who are all descendants of the saint. For on a particular area’s degree of expo- historical and political reasons, relations sure and altitude. between the Park administration and its traditional custodians are also very The area’s natural values include rich for- complex. est flora and fauna as well as an interesting cultural landscape on the lower The Jabal La‘lâm area is subject to a slopes consisting of a mosaic of agricul- number of traditional uses by the local tural and pasture lands dotted with small population, the main ones being trips villages sited on extensive forest matrix and grazing in the forest over the entire dominated by cork oak formations con- massif (95% caprine), harvesting cork- taining a high proportion of old trees. oak, and harvesting firewood.

Variations in altitude, slope and orienta- The main impact on the mountain forests tion allow for different types of oak for- are the uprooting of trees (cork oak) for ests (zeen, tauzin, cork-oak) and even illegal sale and insufficient cork oak for- pines and cedars and numerous strata est regeneration due to overgrazing. An- of vegetation including several hundred other issue is the sale of some holdings vascular plant species. in Sukkân village to non-Sharif people, a non-traditional practice which may lead The region’s fauna is also diverse and in- to social disturbances in the near future. cludes 32 species of large mammal — the hyena and the panther disappeared in The uprooting of tree stumps, mainly in historical times. Over 100 species of birds basins for the benefit of agriculture, is nest on the site or in nearby areas, of another real danger against which the which 32 are either endemic or endan- ‘Eaux et Forêts’ department struggles.

Les Eaux et Forêts report. Les Eaux et Forêts report.

70 The current risks with regard to the basin Visitors who decide to stay in the houses can be summarised in a worrying proof the Sukkân (the custodians or inhabit- gression of uprooting in the presence of ants) usually insist on paying, which pro- undefined land status. vides the traditional custodians with another source of income. The pilgrims, The flow of pilgrims to the Jabal La‘lâm who come wanting to make contact with shrine has been steadily increasing in re- the sacred, generally spend their time in cent years, and this precious natural spiritual recreation, singing and praying spiritual site is currently at risk from the to God, His prophets and saints. environmental pressures placed on it by pilgrims coupled with extremist religious A number of infrastructure projects have interpretations, poverty and ignorance. recently been completed by the ‘Agence As Regato & Salman (2007) point out: de Développement des provinces du “While the spiritual value of sacred sites in Nord’ to provide facilities for the pilgrims. mountain areas is generally well-recog- The majority, however, have failed to in- nised, the environmental value which so tegrate with the cultural and spiritual val- metimes goes with the spiritual character ues of the site: a large concrete water of the sites is often ignored or damaged”. tower next to the small old mosque of the angels, for example, or distribution During the year, people visit the sanctu- pipes for drinking water which do not ary to attend special spiritual events. take into consideration the sanctity of the Different social class from all over the sites, and new buildings (houses and a world ‘ascend’ to the holy place. Pil- restaurant) very close to the sacred foun- grims come by bus and car, but also on tain of ‘Aún al-Qshûr within the sacred mules when their route takes them over precinct where the pilgrims perform their difficult mountain paths. Some branch- ablutions. es of the Shâdhilî order abroad also organise massive annual pilgrimages. The summer is the season for mass vis- Conservation perspectives its, especially by Moroccan citizens living abroad (mainly in Western Europe), Jabal La‘lâm was declared a protected who visit the site on their way in or out sacred place (hurm) five centuries ago by of Morocco. a royal decree (Dahîr) issued by king al- Mansûr of the Saadid dynasty. Today, A serious environmental threat is also the site is a communal property which be- posed by various disrespectful practices longs to the community of the descend- ensuing from the operation of the small ants of ‘Abd al-Salâm ibn Mashîsh, the local traditional market as well as by pil- custodians of this holy place. grims who cut branches off trees, uproot In Moroccan culture and history, a hurm is plants or take stones or soil from the an inviolable space, which is normally sanctuary. Due to a lack of an efficient cleaning service, litter also mars the Ibn Sûda, S. (1994), al-rawda al-maqsûda fî most heavily visited areas. ma’îthir Banî Sûda, n.p., Casablanca.

71 linked to a shrine, and no violence or ex- around the shrine in it, while the saint’s in- ploitation of any kind may take place heritors claim the historical hurm (property there. The shrine normally contains the of the sanctuary) to be 1,186 ha and tomb of a holy person and the hurm en- have taken the matter to court.11 The circles this tomb. According to local an- Eaux et Forêts department is urging a cient beliefs, the holiness is transferred gentlemen’s agreement, since the terri- from the exceptional human being to na- tory is covered with precious oak trees. ture though the fact that “the saint chose The Directing Plan of Protected Areas a natural site as a retreat (khalwa) shrine with the remains of honoured local fig- in Morocco recommends that the Bou- ures located in forest groves”. Basset hachem site: (i) establish a means of (2004) suggests that nature is also a supervision, (ii) reinforce the human re- central component in this site of religious sources present at the site, (iii) create a significance. Jabal La‘lâm covers ap- rapid-response apparatus in case of proximately 8,000 ha and is located in fire, (iv) organise a campaign to raise the Jbel Bouhachem, itself a core area awareness of habits and uses, (v) es- of the Mediterranean Intercontinental tablish a partnership to protect areas Biosphere Reserve established in Octo- which are not totally protected, (vi) val- ber 2006 between Andalusia (Spain) orise them by a rational ecotourism and Morocco. Roughly a quarter of this scheme, (vii) assist and regenerate the area (2,300 ha) is considered a domani- failing sectors, and (viii) maintain regu- al biological reserve for which stricter lar monitoring.12 The village council was protection is planned.10 Morocco’s natu- also urged to introduce measures to ral heritage is also protected by forest protect against littering and squatters laws drafted under the French Protector- and to prevent unsanctioned land uses ate with some recent modifications. on the site, while the traditional custodi- These regulations aim to protect the veg- ans were charged with preserving cus- etation, fauna and flora of designated ar- toms related to traditional building, in- eas, which are placed in the charge of cluding the ancestral use of oak peel the Haut Commissariat aux Eaux et as a floor covering. Forêts et à la Lutte contre la Désertifica- tion. However, this legislation largely fails to address current challenges, and Mo- Conclusions and suggestions rocco lacks an appropriate legal frame- Although both the holiness and signifi- work for protected areas. It is hoped the cance of the holy site are widely accept- new law on protected areas currently in ed and understood by both the local pop- preparation will cover this need. ulation and pilgrims and other interested There is also a discrepancy with regard visitors, and although the significance of to the size of the hurm: the Eaux et Ibn Mashîsh is established throughout Forêts department includes only 131 ha 11 Les Eaux et Forêts report. 10 Les Eaux et Forêts report. 12 Les Eaux et Forêts report.

72 Custodian reciting the call to the prayer over the hermitage the Sunni Islamic world, the Jabal La‘lâm - Incorporating environmental criteria in- site is facing new and unprecedented to the custodians’ village, including challenges and impacts which require a water recollection from roofs; coordinated reaction if future damage is - Proposing boundaries for the hurm to be prevented, recent impacts restored which are accepted to all the stake- and the quality of the site preserved as it holders; has been for centuries. - Revising the project based on a holi Following the project undertaken in con- stic participatory approach that takes junction with Gonzalo Oviedo (IUCN) the full spectrum of values into ac- and Josep-Maria Mallarach (The Delos count, finding the most suitable and Initiative) in June 2008, the following sug- sustainable solutions to present needs; gestions can now be made: - Implementing effective rubbish collec- - Promoting sustainable cork forest ma tion; nagement; regeneration hinges on limitations being placed on caprine - Informing and educating custodians, grazing; pilgrims and visitors on ecological issues; - Promoting the effective and respectful management of the needs of pilgrims - Improving trails and access paths. and other visitors in terms of park ground, The implementation of these actions water, food, lodging, toilets, etc.; would require improved cooperation be- - Promoting the restoration of historic tween the institutional stakeholders at all trails to make pedestrian access easi- levels, and the protection of the custodi- er and more pleasant; ans and their legitimate rights.

73 References

Basset, H. (2004), Le culte des grottes au Maroc, Jasmin, Clichy.

Beck, H. L. (1989), L’image d’Idrîs II, ses descendants de Fâs et la politique Sharifi- enne des Sultans Marînides (656-869/1258-1465), Brill, Leiden.

Beck, L. & Cable, T. T. (2002), Interpretation for the 21stcentury. Fifteen Guiding Princi- ples for Interpreting Nature and Culture, Sagamore, Champaign.

Carson, C. (1995), “Mirror, mirror, on the wall, whose history is the fairest of them all?”, The Public Historian, vol. 17/4, pp. 61-67.

Colin, G. S. (1955), Chrestomathie marocaine, Adrien-Maisonneuve, Paris.

Dermenghem, E. (1954), Le culte des saints dans l’Islam maghrébin, Gallimard, Paris.

Drague, G. (1951) Esquisse d’histoire religieuse du Maroc, “Cahiers d’Afrique et d’Asie II”, Peyronnet & Co, n.p.

Fisher, A. (1917), “De grosse Marokkanische Heilige ‘Abdesselam ben Mesis”, ZD- MG, pp. 209-222.

Foltz, R.C., Denny, F.M. and Baharuddin, A. (2003), Islam and ecology: a bestowed trust, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.

Lévi-Provençal, E. (1926), “Religion, culte des saints et confréries dans le Nord Maro- cain, Rif et Jbala”, éditions du Bulletin de l’Enseignement Public du Maroc, janvier, N° 71, pp.71-74.

Large oak tree enclosed inside the wall around the tomb of ‘Abd al Salam Ibn Mashish On the right, the entrance of the hermitage cave

74 Massignon, L. (1906), Le Maroc dans les premières années du XVIème siècle, tableau géographique d’après Léon l’Africain, Jourdan, Algiers.

Mouliéras, A. (1899), Le Maroc inconnu, Challomel, Paris.

Schwartz, F. (1988), Le Lieu du temple, géographie sacrée et initiation, Question de, N° 73, éd. Albin Michel. Snow, S. E. (1993), Performing the Pilgrims, University Press of Mississippi, Jackson.

Westermarck, E. (1935), Les survivances paúennes dans la civilisation mahométane, (English trans. Robert Godet), Payot, Paris.

Xicluna, M. (1905), “Quelques légendes relatives à Moulay Abd as-Salam ben Machîch”, Archives Marocaines, vol.III. Zachrisson, S. (1991), “The guardianship of our live cultural heritage. On living plants and animals in the museum context”, Tagungsberichte, pp. 189-194.

Zouanat, Z. (2005), “Des origines de la Shâdhiliyya chez le shaykh ‘Abd al-Salâm ibn Mashîsh” in Eric Geoffroy (ed.) Une voie Soufie dans le monde, la Shâdhiliyya, Mai- sonneuve & Larose, Paris.

Zouanat, Z. (2008) “Jabal La‘lâm, a sacred mountain in Northern Morocco”, in Mal- larach, J.M. (ed.) Protected Landscapes. Cultural and Spiritual Values, IUCN, GTZ, Obra Social Caixa Catalunya.

Mediterranean Intercontinental Biosphere Reserve http://www.juntadeandalucia.es

75 76 Sacred Mountain of Ganghwa Island Republic of Korea

Han, Kyung-Koo

The site memorate the National Foundation of Korea. Mount Mani, in close proximity to Although Mount Mani (or Mani-san) on Seoul, is surrounded by many ancient Ganghwa Island, Korea, is only 469m and contemporary historic and cultural above sea level, it is still considered sites, while more than 500,000 people one of Korea’s most sacred mountains climb to its top every year, making it the thanks to its beautiful natural scenery second most visited mountain in Korea and because Dangun, the mythic founder of the Korean nation, is said to over several years. have constructed the stone altar of Its popularity and symbolic importance Chamseongdan on its peak and per- for the Koreans are indicative of a deep- formed the first celestial offering there rooted need to preserve the mountain, over 4,000 years ago. It is said that the but increased tourist numbers can have literal meaning of Mari-san, the old numerous adverse environmental ef- name for Mani-san, is ‘head (of all the fects on the soil, landscapes, fauna and mountains)’. flora. Public support for the preservation The sacred torch has been lit on its peak of the natural, cultural and spiritual val- for the National Athletic Games since ues of Mount Mani, as well as the can- 1953, and a special ritual has been per- cellation of any unsustainable develop- formed every year on October 3 to comment projects, is of key importance.

< Walls of Samrang Fortress, Mt. Jeongjok, Republic of Korea 77 Natural values billed duck, the shelduck (Tadorna tadorna), the sheldrake, the greater white-front- Mount Mani is located on the South- ed goose (Anser albifrons) and a great western coast of Ganghwa-do, Korea’s many others. The total area of the tideland fifth largest island. Long and thin, Gang- is 11,217 ha, or up to 10.5% of Korea’s to- hwa-do stretches from Northwest to South tal tideland. According to both the WWF east, offering tremendous scenic beauty. (World Wide Fund for Nature) and IUCN Mount Mani was originally an island (International Union for Conservation of called Goga-do [Goga Island] which re- Nature), the Southern tideland (80 km2) mained separate from Ganghwa-do until and its ecosystem are in grave danger 1706, when the two were connected by a and need to be designated a preserved large-scale reclamation project initiated area under the Ramsar Convention. This by the government to increase available tideland is extremely important, because arable land. Ganghwa-do lies in the es- it is home to endangered migratory spe- tuary of the Han River on the West coast cies including the black-faced spoonbill, of South Korea, and is separated from cranes and the white-fronted goose. the mainland by a narrow channel, which The forests of Mount Mani are relatively is bridged at several points. Approxi- well-preserved, with climax communities mately 65,500 people live on the island, of Japanese Red Pine (Pinus densiflora), most of whom are farmers (ginseng and Korean Hornbeam (Carpinus coreana) rice) and fishermen. Covering 302.4 km2, and Japanese loose-flowered Hornbeam the island accounts for most of Gang- (Carpinus laxiflora) that are considered to hwa county in Incheon City, which con- be of significant value, as well as decidu- sists of 29 islands in the Yellow Sea. ous broadleaved large trunked trees cov- At the foot of Mount Mani, an area of tide- ering its slopes. Sagi-ri, Hwado-myeon, land is home to cranes and other migrato- near Mount Mani provides habitat for the ry birds including wild duck, the spot- trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliata), which

Soil erosion caused by increasing visitor numbers

78 has been designated a Natural Heritage vation of the landscape and environment species by the Korean government. Ac- is thus both a crucial and a current issue. cording to a survey conducted by the Na tural Ecology Division of the Korean Min- istry of the Environment in 1999, the flora Spiritual and cultural values of Mani-san includes 245 genera and 90 At 469m, Mount Mani does not number families. The Korean Hornbeam has been among Korea’s highest mountains, designated a protected species. though it looks considerable higher be- The institutional framework for protecting cause the mountain rises from the sea the area seems in need of strengthen- level. As mentioned above, Mani-san was ing. The whole mountain area was des- originally called Mari-san (摩利山), and ignated a National Tourist Resort in 1977, was also called Maru-san and Duak-san but this has often been criticised for be- (頭嶽山), all these names being derived ing development —rather than preser from ‘meori’, which means ‘head’ or ‘top’, vation-oriented. Coordinated efforts are and denoting the ‘head mountain’. Accor needed for the sustainable conservation ding to popular belief, the name of the and development of the area. mountain was changed by the Japanese The natural habitat of Ganhwa Island has as part of its policy of symbolic aggres- been generally well-preserved until re- sion and manipulation. However, some cently, thanks to its proximity to the Demi point out that the name of Mani-san was litarised Zone. As the channel to the North already current in the late Joseon period of the island serves as the de facto Western (1392-1910), and others that, applying the border between South Korea and North pronunciation rules of Korean, Mani-san Korea, much of the island was designat- and Mari-san would be read in the same ed an Area Preserved for Military Use. way —which is also true of Mt. Hanna- Tension between North and South dis- san and Mt. Halla-san on Jeju Island. couraged real estate development on the Mount Mani is thought to be equidistant island, while other environmental regula- from the country’s other two most sacred tions contributed to the protection of the mountains: Mt. Baekdu (Changbai-san in environment. However, with the improve- Chinese) on the Korea-China border, the ment in relations between North and South highest mountain in the North, and Mt. Korea, land prices on the island have ris- Halla on Jeju Island, the highest moun en. As more and more people want to tain in the South. visit and stay in the area, Ganghwa-do has attracted real estate developers and Specialists in geomancy or pungsu (風 businessmen involved in tourism. As 水, Feng Shui) generally agree that the ki such, numerous hotels, restaurants, coun- (force 氣) on Mount Mani is the strongest try houses, etc. have been constructed in the whole of Korea, which is yet more there, while the local agricultural econo- proof of the mountain’s sacred nature. my is on the way to being transformed in- Thanks to the Koreans’ increasing inter- to an urban / tourist society. The preser- est in health and well-being in general

79 and recent media coverage in particular, mountains have always been important Ganghwa Island and the Mount Mani ar- religious areas. For example, the King- ea has become a popular spot for ‘well- dom of Shilla had five mountains desig- ness’ tourists, and one can see newly- nated as the Five Holy Mountains and constructed paths on the mountainside sent state officials to perform annual ser of Mount Mani along which tourists walk vices in appreciation of the protection barefoot to receive the strong ki (force) provided by the celestial and mountain from the soil of Mount Mani and regain gods. Since the Chinese emperor clai their spiritual and physical health. med the exclusive privilege of direct com munication with heaven in traditional East Legend tells us that Dangun, the mythic Asia, the Korean myth of Dangun build- figure who founded the first Korean state ing the altar on Mount Mani and perform- at the foot of Mt. Baedu, chose this place ing rituals is tantamount to a Korean dec- to make sacrifices and had Cham- laration of independence in the China- seongdan built by Baedalshin (Wunsa: centred world order. The ceremony of sa he who governs the clouds) in the 51st crificing to the heavens was stopped du year of his reign (i.e. 2283 BC). A granite ring the colonial period (1910-1945) but altar on the North side of Mount Mani- revived after liberation. The Korean gov- san was designated a Historical Site in ernment in Seoul designated October 3 1964. The altar is not in its original condi- Gaecheonjeol, meaning ‘Celestial Open- tion, having been repaired in 1270 during’ or ‘National Foundation’ Day, and offi ing the reign of King Wonjong of Goryeo cially named Mount Mani the most natio and again during the Joseon period in nally important mountain in South Korea. 1639 and 1700. Its current appearance with the rounded bottom and square up- As a sacred place for national identity per section, which seem to symbolically and a symbol of a celestial mandate, reverse the natural order by placing the Mount Mani is also visited by ambitious earth (squared in East Asian cosmology) politicians. For example, former presi- on top of heaven (which is rounded), is dential candidate Mr. Sohn Hak-Kyu thus the result of these repairs. The altar climbed Mount Mani on New Year’s Day is 10 cheok (3.03m) high with sides 6 2007 to confirm his promise of national cheok 6 chon long (1.99m); the circle has unification and welfare. a diameter of 15 cheok (4.55m). There The Samrang Fortress, a designated His- are twenty-one stone steps to the East. torical Monument on Mt. Jeongjok some Unfortunately, no reliable information can five kilometres to the Northeast of Mount be found on the symbolism of this altar. Mani, was allegedly constructed by the Since time immemorial, Koreans have three sons of Dangun. In the fortress, one enjoyed a special relationship with their can visit the famous Jeondeung-sa for- mountains. As places close to heaven tress temple and the State Archive build- and as embodiments of sacred beings, ing, which was used to store copies of the historical records of the Joseon Dynasty in 1 cheok = 30.3cm case the originals were destroyed. A num

80 ber of other historical sites are also in clo the Goryeo capital for thirty-six years dur- se proximity to Mount Mani, including the ing the struggle against Mongol domina- Janggot Battery (designated a Monument tion. When Goryeo finally capitulated to of Incheon City) and several Buddhist the Mongols, the elite forces on the is- temples, including Jeongsu-sa (desig land rose up, starting the four-year Sam- nated a National Treasure), Jeokseok-sa, byeolcho struggle against the Mongols. Baengnyeon-sa and Cheongnyeon-sa. In the early 17th century, when the Man- Ganghwa Island is full of historical and churian invaders succeeded in crossing cultural remains. Prehistoric dolmen are the channel and captured the royal refu- found in large numbers on the island, in- gees on the island, Ganghwa Island lost dicating that the island has been inhabit- its strategic significance as an invincible ed since time immemorial. The reclama- fortress, though it continued to constitute tion work has, however, changed the an important defence for Seoul. coastline of the island, while is now home When the disturbing news of the Opium to a large number of rice fields. War reached Korea, Ganghwa-do Island Ganghwa Island also symbolises Ko- was fortified as one of Seoul’s outer de- rea’s heroic but tragic struggles against fences. In 1866, the French fleet attacked foreign invasion. Before the construction the island, supposedly in protest at the of bridges, the channel separating Gang- suppression of the Christian religion but hwa Island from the mainland was extre really to force Korea to open up, and a mely difficult to cross because of the large French landing party burned and plun- difference between high and low tide, dered Korea’s Royal Library as well as its which served as an invincible natural de- defence facilities. The island was at- fence against invaders. It was on this is- tacked again in 1871 by the US fleet, land that the court of Goryeo (918-1392) when gunboat diplomacy failed to open took refuge in 1232 when the Mongols Korea’s doors (as it had done in Japan). invaded again, and the island served as The US navy inflicted heavy casualty on

Path with hand rails to ensure walkers’ safety

81 Path to be walked barefoot to receive Ki force the Korean defence forces, but could not from the sea, Buddhist temples, the re- persuade the Korean court to change its mains of the Goryeo and Joseon palaces, policy. In the end, it was the Japanese fortifications and coastal batteries all indi- who forced Korea to open up by des- cate intense human activity. The new infra patching a warship to deliberately enter structures and tourist facilities are also con Korean territorial waters near the island spicuous that serve a great number of vis- and provoke the coastal battery into fir- itors attracted by the area’s relatively prising and then exploiting the Ganghwa Is- tine nature, its close proximity to Seoul and land Incident, as it was known. The re- its cultural and spiritual values. It is impor- sulting Ganhwa Island Treaty of 1876 tant to note that the symbolic significance was designed to open Korea up for Jap- attributed to the area by the public could anese trade by forcing the nation to open play a key role in conservation efforts. three ports and grant Japanese many of The huge number of tourists has proved the rights and privileges Westerners en- damaging to the soil, flora, fauna and joyed in Japan. The Ganghwa Treaty scenery. The two most serious conser- marks the start of Korea’s tumultuous vation issues facing Mount Mani are journey toward modernisation, and the overuse and overcrowding. The number other treaties that followed with other of visitors did not exceed 95,000 in 1983, major powers would ultimately lead to but increased steadily during the late the tragic loss of Korea’s independence. 1980s and 1990s as a result, in part, of ri sing standards of living and increased car ownership. In 2003, more than Pressures and impacts 413,000 people purchased admission Ganhwa Island and the Mount Mani area tickets at the foot of the mountain. Most has been a centre for human activity since of these visitors were not pilgrims in the prehistory. Dolmens, rice fields reclaimed strict sense of the word, though, as Ko-

82 reans who adhere to the Dangun myth, $56 million in redeveloping an area of many of them express feelings of awe in 645,388 m2. The initial plan also included their accounts of the visit. Although the schemes to develop the Hamheo- number of visitors stopped increasing af- Doncheon sector as an accommodation ter 2004, the damage was already done: and camping zone, and the Sangbang trampled by the feet of over 400,000 visi- sector as a culture and sightseeing zone tors per year, many trees on Mount Mani —which would involve the construction have had their roots uncovered, and the of a Local History Museum, a Dangun soil has suffered from erosion and hard- Myth Centre and a Recreation Park. The ening; like many other mountains, Mani- local authorities’ attempts to secure fi- san is also littered with garbage left by nancial support from the national gov- careless visitors. ernment and to attract private investors did not, however, prove successful. Several years ago, the local authorities enraged many conservationists by sink- It is ironic that the environment of Gang- ing hundreds of iron poles into the rock hwa Island should be threatened by and installing a safety rail to ensure visi- plans for the ‘peaceful’ use of the Demili- tor safety. Some visitors welcomed these tarised Zone presented by presidential safety measures, though others believed candidates in 2007. Although these the agency had unnecessarily damaged plans were supposedly environmentally the natural environment. Of course, the friendly and designed to win UNESCO rail would also allow more people to visit Biosphere Reserve status for the zone, the remote paths and areas, and thus they have been criticised for containing posed a further threat to the area’s al- unsustainable development practices. ready fragile ecosystem.

There is a good deal of pressure for de- Conservation efforts velopment. The local authorities have announced several ambitious plans to re- Many of these planned developments ran claim the tideland, to build a power plant into strong opposition. The Hwabuk Pro and to develop the area into a tourist re- ject was finally cancelled in 1999 due to sort. For example, the Hwabuk Project, strong public protest in favour of conserv- announced in 1995, sought to reclaim ing the tideland, while the plan to build a and develop the vast tideland along the thermal power plant was also cancelled, Southern shores of Ganhwa Island, while both because of the rising price of liquid the government and the Korea Hydro natural gas, the fuel on which it was to and Nuclear Power Company an- have run, and due to protests voiced by nounced a plan to build a thermal power environmental activists and concerned plant on Seokmo-do, an island located citizens. This protest movement provided just 1.5 km to the West of Ganghwa Is- the impetus for the birth of the Ganghwa land, in 1996. In 2006, the Municipality of Island People’s Network (Ganghwa-do Incheon announced plans to develop the Simin yeondae) in May 1997. Concerned Mani-san area by investing more than citizens, local opinion-makers, feminists,

83 religious groups and students joined forc- and local businesses, most of whom es to compile a report critical of the short- were motivated by a fear of restrictions sighted policies espoused by Ganghwa on further development and an interest County local government, which sought in short-term financial gains. More than to increase revenue from tourist resort de- seven years have passed since then, but velopment by destroying the tideland and the government has only succeeded in the forest. The ‘Ganghwa-do Green designating some 60 m2 as a preserva- Project’, as it is called, also proposed tion zone. the drawing up of a tideland ecosystem and landscape preservation programme which would take the ecology of each vil- Recommendations lage into account, employ environmental- Six recommendations can be made to ly-friendly agriculture and offer environ- improve the conservation of Mount Ma- mentally-friendly tour programmes fo- ni’s natural, cultural and spiritual herit- cused on local cultural traditions (festi- age. The basic ideas, which are in need vals, rituals, lifestyles, cultural remains, of further elaboration, are: etc.), migratory bird watching and the exploration of the tideland ecology (includ- • Supporting the local initiative aimed ing mud packs and shell gathering). at developing an effective conservation government system. A number of There have also been some hopeful de- scholars and NGO leaders (including velopments: In an effort to conserve na- the members of the Ganghwa-do ture, Ganghwa County designated 45 ha People’s Network) have gathered to of the Sangbang sector as a Mountain- discuss the future of Ganghwa Island, ous Region Protection and Purification the problems inherent in development Zone, while Incheon municipal govern- and the conservation of nature. Al- ment designated 24 protected species though undoubtedly a positive devel- of animals in 2006. These measures in- opment, their concerns have yet to re- clude the observation and analysis of the sult in a systematic approach. The changes to the Mount Mani eco-system, residents of the island are vulnerable as well as the protection of the animals to the temptations of the short-term in the area. benefits generally expected to accrue However, it has become clear that con- to development plans, while the limit- servation efforts cannot succeed if they ed experience of the local authorities, fail to take the socio-economic wellbeing which pay lip service to and support in of the people who live in the area into principle the conservation of the envi consideration. For example, the attempt ronment, renders them unable to fore- on the part of the Ministry of Marine Af- see future concerns. The combined ef fairs to designate 300m2 of tideland on forts of scholars, experts and the local the Southern coast of Ganghwa Island, a community have proved successful in Marine Ecosystem Preservation Zone, persuading the local authorities to put ran into strong opposition from residents in place a network for the exchange of

84 ideas and the building of consensus tists could join forces and contribute in the formation of strategic plans for significantly to understanding and con the wise use of natural resources. serving the site’s distinct values. Such This may evolve into some kind of ad- studies will constitute an important con ministrative body regulating the scope tribution to the conservation of the na and speed of development. tural environment and cultural remains, • Raising environmental awareness at a which are vital for the environmental- national and international level. If this ly-friendly development of ecotourism local initiative is to succeed and devel- and cultural tourism envisaged in the op into an effective form of administra plans for sustainable development. tion, national and international support • Making serious efforts to give due con is vital, since it would greatly enhance sideration to the people affected. It is the position of local and national activ- important to provide compensation ists in their efforts to conserve nature. and / or feasible plans for environment- • Establishing a new regime in the area. friendly development as well as finan- The area should be designated part of cial and technical supports for the resi the National Park. Although there are dents of the area to be affected by the many people who are not satisfied with proposed conservation measures. the lax rules in force in Korea’s nation- Mount Mani-san and Ganghwa Island are al parks (which are, for instance, vague symbols of Korea’s ancient history, myth- about land use practices), such a ic national origin, national identity and measure would contribute to the con- struggle for spiritual and political inde- servation cause. Special attention is pendence. They are closely related to the required for the protection of tideland. ancient traditions of mountain worship, • Drawing up and implementing an en- hermits and ascetics and remind every- tirely new approach to the sustainable one of the battles Koreans have waged conservation of the Ganghwa-do Is- against the invading forces of old empires land as a whole. Such an approach and modern imperialists. Its tidelands and would consider issues such as pro- migratory birds are now under threat from tecting the ecosystem and tideland, tourist development, while the entire area preserving historic sites and cultural is at the centre of ambitious development remains, promoting alternative forms plans and political controversies (e.g. the of tourism (i.e. ecotourism and cultur- thermal power plant), which are not in al tourism) and large development keeping with the effective conservation of projects in an integrated manner. the natural and cultural environment. • Conducting interdisciplinary research Mount Mani-san and Ganghwa Island is a into the spiritual, symbolic, social, and place where empowered local citizens cultural characteristics of the area. His can develop a new system of governance torians, cultural anthropologists, socio for conservation with the help of commit- logists of religion and political scien- ted scholars and professionals.

85 Glossary Geomancy (風水, Pungsu in Korean, Feng Shui in Chinese) Pungsu or fengshui, literally ‘wind and water’, is a method of divination developed in East Asia for locating favourable sites for cities, residences and burial grounds. The practice maintains that the happiness and prosperity of a person, family or entire nation is favourably or adversely influenced by the positioning of the burial place of ancestral bones, residential buildings or the capital city. Geomancy is under- pinned by the belief that vital energy forces (‘ki’) flow under the ground, and that auspicious nodes are formed where the vital energy accumulates. Since parents are the main bodies of their children (like the trunk of a tree with branches growing out of it), their bones —when enveloped in vital energy in their burial site— can exercise an auspicious influence on the fortunes of their children.

Force (氣, Gi or Ki in Korean, Qi in Chinese) Gi is a vital force that underlies the functioning of the body, mind, and spirit. The concept, together with ‘li’ (理, pattern, form, order, regularity, reason) is fundamental to philosophical thoughts and various practices in East Asia, including architecture, art, traditional medicine, magic and the martial arts. Excessive loss of gi force or disharmony in the balance of gi can lead to loss of life or health, or misfortune and disorder in society.

References Books

Bak, Su-jin (2007), “Yeonan seupji ui chegyejeok boseon eul wihan jedo gaeseone gwanhan gochal”, Wolgan Haeyangsusan No. 277, October 2007.

Ganghwagun (1983-2007) Ganghwado tonggye yeonbo.

Hwangyeongbu (2007), Seupji bojeon gibon gyehoek, Korean Ministry of the Environment.

Hwangyeongbu & Gukrip hwangyeong yeonguwon (2002), Jeonguk mu’in doseo jayeon hwangyeong josa: Incheon gwangyeoksi ganghwagun ongjingun, Korean Min- istry of Environment and National Institute of Environmental Studies.

Jayeonsaengtae-gwa (1999), Ganhwa eui jayeon hwangyeong, Ministry of Environ- ment (Natural Ecology Division), Gwacheon.

Kim, Mun-Sook (1999), “Saengtae gwangwang eul tonghan jangso panchok e gwanhan yeongu: Ganghwa-do janghwa-ri ui saryero”, MA Thesis.

Lee, Gyeong-su (2002), Yeoksa ui seom ganghwa-do, Sinseowon, Seoul.

Lee, Hyeong-gu (1994) Ganghwa-do, Daewonsa, Seoul.

86 Lee, Won-Hee (1999) “Ganghwa-do janghwa-ri gaetbeol saengtae gwangwang gyehoek e gwanhan yeongu”, MA Thesis.

Newspaper and magazine articles

Kiho ilbo, 26/06/2007.

Hangyeore sinmun, 01/01/2005.

Incheon sinmun, 08/04/2005.

“Ganghwa-do, saengmyeong ui seom eul geotda”, Hangyeore 21. No. 685, 15/11/2007.

Websites

Ganghwa munhwawon [Ganghwa Institute of Culture] http://www.ganghwacc.or.kr

Ganghwagun [Ganghwa County] http://www.ganghwa.incheon.kr

Ganghwa-do simin yeondae [Ganghwa Island People’s Network] http://www.ghpn. or.kr/ver2/index.php

Ganghwa-do gajok yeohaeng ui giljabi — ganghwa sarang [Guide for Family Tour of Ganghwa Island — Love of Ganghwa] http://www.kanghwado.net

Mai ganghwa dat keom [My Ganghwa Dot Com] http://ganghwa.tistory.com

Historic Archives Building

87 88 Solovetsky Islands: a holy land surrounded by the Arctic Ocean Russian Federation

Alexander N. Davydov Ivan N. Bolotov Galina V. Mikhailova

Introduction Between the 15th and early 20th century, the Solovetsky Islands were governed by The essential features of the Solovetsky one of the most famous Russian Ortho- Archipelago are similar to those of other dox monasteries: the Saviour-Transfigu- th th holy places. During the 13 and 14 cen- ration Monastery (or Solovetsky Spaso- turies, the holy islands of Russia’s North- Preobrazhensky Stavropigial’ny muzh- ern territories were considered a hospita- skoj monastyr’ in full, with Solovetsky be- ble place for saints and hermits. The re- ing the name of the archipelago on which mote areas of the Solovetsky Archipela- the monastery is located [it comes from go became a symbol for the Russian Or- the indigenous Finno-Ugric name for the thodox Church in much the same way islands —“suola vesi”— which means that Mount Athos came to symbolise “salt water”]; Stavropigial’ny referring to Greek Orthodoxy. However, recent re- the fact that the monastery is under the search and archaeological remains indi- direct supervision of the Patriarch of the cate that the archipelago was sacred Russian Orthodox Church rather than the long before the appearance of the first Bishop of Archangel; and Spaso-Preo- Orthodox Christians in the area —for in- brazhensky being the name of its main stance, the largest collection of prehis- catholicon, which is dedicated to Our toric stone labyrinths in Russia are to be Saviour of the Transfiguration). (image in found in the Solovetsky Archipelago. pp. 90-91). The monastery was founded

< Church of Ascension, Sekirnaya gora, Bol’shoy Solovetsky Island, Russian Federation 89 Solovetsky Monastery: general view by three hermits, German, Savvaty and Natural values Zosima, who are all saints of the Russian The Solovetsky Archipelago contains Orthodox Church. ecosystems of sub-tundra forests and The Solovetsky Islands are located in the forest-tundra crooked forests, which are middle of the White Sea, 165 km south considered to comprise a zonal ecosys- of the Arctic Circle in the land of the tem. The islands are intersected by the Northern Lights, long dark winters and 12oC isotherm for July, which marks the white summer nights. They encompass boundary between the Northern taiga over than 100 islands and cover 300 km2 and forest-tundra zones of Northern Eu- in total. The largest islands are Bolshoy rope. The formation of extrazonal tun- Solovetsky, Bolshaya Muksalma, Ma- dras on the islands can be attributed to laya Muksalma, Bolshoy Zayatsky, Maly the cooling effect of the sea and to the Zayatsky and Anzer. The islands have a prevalence of cold North-easterly winds wide range of landscapes despite their during the growing period. Herbaceous proximity and limited extent, including and herb bilberry shrubs similar to their taiga forests where spruce and pine middle-taiga counterparts grow in this dominate (60% of the total territory), for- region due to an intense convective heat- est tundra (10%), tundra (5%), marshes flow anomaly whose source is probably (12%) —including aapa mires— and a diapir fold involving the upward move- some 500 lakes (13%). The highest ment of the mantle. points of Solovetsky Arcipelago (Sekir- The archipelago is rich in flora, with 378 naya and Golgofa Mountains), are under native spices including 11 rare orchids. 100 metres in height. The islands’ unique A number of rare bird species are also climate permits species of flora and fau- present, including the cormorant (Pha- na not normally found at this altitude. lacracorax carbo), whooper swan (Cyg-

90 nis cygnis), white-tailed eagle (Haliaee- herbage is the main characteristic of tus albicilla), marsh harrier (Circus aeru- motley grass forests, e.g. forest gerani- ginosus), merlin (Falco columbarius), um, oxalis, forest peas, etc. These eco- hobby (Hypotriorchis subbuteo) and systems are not in keeping with the local kestrel (Cerchneis tinnunclus). There is climate and would not be able to survive a unique colony of Polar tern (Sterna without geothermal heating. paradisea) on Malaya Muksalma island; Bolshoy Solovetsky Island: 45 species occasionally exceeding 800 nestling of flowers grow on the dry meadows couples, it is one of the largest colonies in Europe. of Saint Isaac’s Hermitage (Isakovo). These species are listed in the Red Da- Rare ecosystems are represented by co ta Book for the Archangel region and astal tundra (4.5% of the total territory) amount to 30% of the total number of as well as herbaceous and herb bilberry species identified in the area. Isakovo is areas. The coastal tundra is concentrat- also a nesting place for a number of ed on the small islands of Bolshaya Muk- bird species, which are also listed. Eve- salma, Malaya Muksalma, Zayatskie (Ha ry year, approximately 90 white whales res) and the Eastern part of Anzer island. reproduce off Cape Belushy (which ac- Reindeer have been successfully intro- tually translates as ‘White Whale Cape’) duced onto Cape Kolguy, thanks to the on Big Solovetsky Island during July unique species of tundra mosses which and August. can also be found on the South-eastern part of Bolshoy Solovetsky island. The The Solovetsky Islands have hundreds central and Northern part of this island of lakes, with most of the smaller lakes are covered in spruce, mixed and small- being of the deep reservoir type. The leaved forests. Areas of motley grass re- bottom of the lakes in the Solovetsky Ar- semble those found in middle taiga. This chipelago are located below sea-level

91 (Krugloe Orlovo Lake, for example, has Cultural landscapes a bottom 6m beneath sea-level) due to The unique reclaimed meadows on the their hollows being crypto depressions. Sekiro-Voznesensky, Savvatyevsky and Nonetheless, all the lakes have super- Isakievsky Hermitages on Bolshoy Solo- fresh, very soft water. The aapa-type vetsky Island, the Golgofo-Raspyatsky mires, which provide habitat for several and Svyato-Troitsky Hermitages on An- rare birds species, are scattered across zer island and the Svyato-Sergievo Ra- the Solovetsky Islands, and can be donezhsky Hermitages on Bolshaya Muk found in the Pechakovskoe and Bere- salma Island are significant examples of zovo-Topskoe areas of Bolshoy Solo- man-made landscapes created and sus- vetsky Island and in a large mire com- tained by the monastic population for hay. plex (1200 ha) in the Eastern part of Bolshaya Muksalma Island (maps in During the 16th-19th centuries, the monks pp. 92 and 93). on Bolshoy Solovetsky Island began

Vegetation map of the Solovetsky Islands (based on remote-sensing data from the Landsat 7 satellite and the results of geo-botanical studies in the field; generalisation at a 15-pixel level)

1 – Spruce forests 6 – Crowberry tundras with fragments of crooked birch 2 – Sphagnum pine forests and bogs with pine stands (Betula tortuosa) forests and bogs 3 – Lichen pine forests 7 – Dwarf shrub, sphagnum bogs without trees 4 – Birch (Betula pubescens) and aspen forests 8 – Birch/spruce forests (Picea obovata and Betula pubescens) 5 – Crooked birch (Betula tortuosa) forests with frag- 9 – Areas with a prevalence of anthropogenic trans- ments of crowberry tundras and bogs formed biocenoses 10 – Lakes

92 The Wild Rose in the Bothanic Garden: a present from Panchen Lama to the Solovetsky Monastery

Diagram comparing the location of (I) Sosnovskaya and (II) Central CHF anomalies with the zone of distribution of extrazonal forests on Bolshoy Solovetsky Island

1 – Morainic plain (with large stones brought here by glaciers) 2 – Marine plain 3 – Heat flow anomaly according to data from the NOAA satellite (provided by V.I. Gornyi) 4 – Relative (%) anomalies in summer bedrock temperatures 5 – Zone of the highest prevalence of extrazonal forests (remote-sensing and field studies) 6 – Forest biocenoses (cluster analysis of geo-botanical descriptions): middle taiga 7 – Forest biocenoses (cluster analysis of geo-botanical descriptions): Northern taiga 8 – Forest biocenoses (cluster analysis of geo-botanical descriptions): sub-tundra biocenoses

93 The labyrinth on Bolshoy Zayatsky Island. In the background the Church of St. Andrew, built by Tsar Peter the Great connecting the lakes with canals which ropean North; they date back to the 1st- helped drain the marshland and con- 2nd millennium BC. The island has a tun- tributed significantly to the formation dra-type extra-zone natural complex with and maintenance of the area’s mead- nesting places for birds listed in the Red ows and forest complexes. These for Data Book for the Archangel region. mer mires need human intervention to remain as meadows. Nowadays, this unique meadows complex is being de- Spiritual and cultural values graded since the lake and channelling The Solovetsky Archipelago was a sac systems are no longer fully functional red place for prehistoric and early historic after a century of neglect. The system cultures. The Archipelago contains about contains 65 lakes connected by 69 1,000 sacred stones (dolmens, seeds, channels, 16 dams (bunds), six lashers stone works) dating from between the Ne- and four locks. olithic / Early Metal Age and the Mediae- The Makarievskaya Hermitage on Bol val period. The Solovetsky Islands are the shoy Solovetsky Island is the Northern- Easternmost site of Northern Europe’s most botanical garden in Europe. The stone labyrinths (more than 30 labyrinths garden was started in 1822, and its col- have survived) (image in p. 94). The Solo- lection of plants includes 426 species. vetsky Saviour-Transfiguration Monastery Surprisingly, these plants have thrived in began as a wooden hermitage for three these extreme climatic conditions. monks —German, Zosima and Sav- Bolshoy Zayatsky [Big Hare] Island is a vaty— in the 15th century (these initial unique natural and cultural complex and wooden buildings have not survived). home to the largest complex of laby- The monks later became the patron rinths and sacred places in Russia’s Eu- saints of the White Sea (image in p. 95).

94 The icon of Saint Zosima and Saint Savvaty holding Solovetsky Monastery

In 1429, the Solovetsky Monastery was monks of the Solovetsky Monastery who established and significantly affected visited the Pamir Mountains in the 19th the spiritual and economic life of North- century were given the large-fruited ern Russia. In 1552, the construction of dog-roses, lilacs and bergenias in the the Uspenskaya Church (church of the Solovetsky botanical garden as gifts by Dormition of the Mother of God), refec- Panchen Lama (image in p. 93). Sur- tory and cellarer’s chambers began. rounded by the cold waters of the White The Arctic Ocean’s ‘fortress of the spirit’ Sea, the Archipelago came to symbol- resembles a real fortress with its five ise the Garden of Eden. The monastery monumental towers constructed out of has been a popular destination for tour- large boulders. Its main catholicon, ists and pilgrims since the late 18th cen- built in 1558-1566, is the cathedral of tury; indeed, the holy community intro- the Saviour-Transfiguration. The idea of duced a tourist information office for Transfiguration is conveyed in Russian people visiting the area in the early 20th with a word synonymous with ‘transfor- century, along with accommodation (a mation’, and the idea of the Holy Land hotel) and transportation. The monas- of the Russian Orthodox Church is tery still receives thousands of pilgrims present here in site names like Golgofa- on an annual basis. Calvary, in the transformation of land though the construction of a system of The place names in the Solovetsky Ar- channels, dams, fish ponds, and in the chipelago bear witness to the tradition hermitages created on different islands of the Holy Islands. For instance, there in the Archipelago. In the Makarius Her- is the Svyatoe ozero [holy lake] near the mitage, for instance, a botanical garden monastery, while the highest mountain was created with herbs, apple trees, on Bolshoy Solovetsky Island is named roses, shadberries, etc. in 1822, while Sekirnaya from the legend of the first

95 monks who settled on these islands and prisons (1920-39), in which context it their conflict with a family of fishermen was also known as Solovetsky Special that had lived there before them. The Purpose Camp (image in p. 96 [left]). wife of the fisherman was angry with the The Solovsky settlement was also es- monks and did not recognise the spe- tablished on the archipelago during the cial spirit of the Holy Islands until she Soviet era in 1944; it now has around met two angels that descended out of 1,000 residents. the luminous sky and whipped her on The Solovetsky Historical, Cultural and the mountain —Sekirnaya gora means ‘mountain of whipping’. The name of Natural Museum / Reserve was estab- the holy mountain on Anzer Island, the lished in 1967. Restoration works in Northernmost island in the Solovetsky Solovetsky Monastery started in the late Archipelago, is Golgofa, which means 1960s. Since 1992, the Cultural and His- ‘Calvary’ and echoes the holy site in the toric Ensemble of Solovetsky Islands Holy Land (Jerusalem). The local topon- has been a UNESCO World Cultural ymy is thus indicative of the special spir- Heritage site (map in p. 97). The time itual status of the Solovetsky Islands has come to re-designate the Solovet- and serves to highlight that this is a land sky archipelago a “site of mixed cultural for monks, not common folk. and natural heritage”.

The islands further impinged themselves After the Holy Synod of the Russian Or- on the European consciousness with thodox Church of 25 October 1990, Solo- the publication of Alexander Solzhenit- vetsky Monastery opened its gates syn’s Gulag Archipelago —Solovetsky again. The monastic community current- Monastery was one of the first Soviet ly consists of 60 people (20 celibate

The iron star, a symbol of the GULAG, which was added to Solovetsky Monastery main A group of experts who hung the bells in 1992 campanile during its service as a prison. It under the leadership of Alexander N. Davydov was removed on July 27, 1984 and Vladimir M. Petrovsky

96 priests, 20 monks and 20 novices). The were re-hung in the main campanile for monastery plays an important role in the the occasion, and the relics returned Russian Orthodox Church. In 1992, the home to the sound of their chimes (im- relics of the creators of the monastery, age in p. 96 [right]). saints Zosima, Savvaty and German The monastery was visited by some were returned to the monastery by a del- 6,000 pilgrims in 2004; the number of egation headed by Patriarch Aleksij II of pilgrims has been steadily increasing in the Russian Orthodox Church. The bells recent years.

Map 3: The spiritual heritage of the Solovetsky Islands.

1.Solovetsky Monastery of the Saviour-Transfiguration. The monastery complex contains the catholicon of the Transfiguration of the Saviour, the Church of the Assumption, the Church of Saint Nicholas and the Church of the Annunciation. There used to be a large labyrinth complex near the monastery. 2. Herring’ Cape with Holy Cross. 3. The Saint Savvaty Hermitage. 4. Sekirnaya gora [Mountain of Whipping], where the Church of the Ascension also serves as a lighthouse. 5. The Saint Isaac Hermitage. 6. The Saint Macarius Hermitage with the Archimandrite’s summer residence and the botanical garden). 7. Bolshoy Zayatsky [Big Hare] Island with Saint Andrew’s Church and a large labyrinth complex. 8. The Jesus Hermitage on Muksalma Island. 9. The Holy Trinity Hermitage and Anzer island’s large labyrinth complex. 10. The Calvary-Crucifixion Hermitage on Golgofa [Calvary] Mountain on Anzer Island. 11. Cape Kolgui with its large labyrinth complex.

97 The Solovetsky Historical, Cultural and and the 1st–early 2nd millennium AD, the Natural Museum / Reserve is financed by economy of these tribes was based on the Russian Ministry of Culture, which is hunting in the forest, fishing in the lakes responsible for managing and conserv- and sea and hunting walrus and seals. ing the site, but is administered by nu- The people also used forest materials to merous museum, monastery and forestry build temporary constructions (which re- services whose actions are not coordi- sembled the kota of the Sami people) nated by a centralised body. Thus, while and collected firewood. They gathered the forestry service is responsible for the stones for labyrinthine tumuli and seida. th protection of forests (which account for It is ironical that fires during the 20 cen- 90% of the territory of the archipelago), tury would contribute to the discovery of Cape Belushy, which needs to be as- many of these artefacts. signed maritime reserve status as quickly In the 15th century, monks felled trees to as possible, falls beyond its ambit. build the first wooden churches and cells. The settlers were poslushniks, inoks and monks. The most intensive impact on the Pressures and impacts islands’ nature came in the 16th century, The history of Solovsky testifies to the hete when the stone fortress, churches and channels were constructed (Uspensky rogeneity of the archipelago’s community. and Preobrazhensky cathedrals, etc.). Humans began to impact on the archi- This was the time when many workers pelago in the Neolithic period when the and craftsmen (trudniki) gathered on the first tribes came to the islands. Archaeo- islands to help build the fortress and the logical sites discovered by Anatoly Ku- monastery. In the 16th century, a dike was ratov and Alexander Martynov show that built to transform one of the archipelago’s between the 2nd and 1st millennium BC bays into a fishpond (Filippovskie sadki);

Festival in Solovetsky Monastery in 2006, dedicated to the return of the relics of St. Zosima, St. Savvaty and St. German

98 a second dike was built and served as a the monastery as a gift. The monastery road connecting Bolshoy Solovetsky and would own the islands until 1920, when Muksalma Islands. Reindeer were brought the civil war ended in the North. The ar- to the Archipelago at this time from the rival of monks on the Solovetsky Is- mainland and set free in the forest. lands was connected to their opposition to the Pomors (the local inhabitants The siege of the monastery by troops sent of the shores of the White Sea) alluded by the tsar (1668-1676) also had a major impact on nature. At that time, the mon- to in the legend about the ‘mountain of astery was the leader of Northern dissent whipping’. within the Russian Orthodox Church. The restored monastery is gradually be- Since the late 17th century, timber to cover coming the most significant factor in the the monasteries’ heating needs has been continued existence of the local commu- imported from the Onega Peninsula. nity. A source of employment for locals, the monastery conducts spiritual and The increasing population of the island cultural educational activities in the re- during the 1920s following the establish- gion, which are coordinated by local ment of the gulag and later, in the 1940s, leaders and businessmen in collabora- following the founding of the settlement, tion with the monastery. Disagreements put pressure on the archipelago’s nature with the local population arise in the through practices connected with the summer as a result of the traditional natural economy of the region: gathering practices of pilgrims: entire areas where berries and mushrooms, collecting fire- mushrooms and berries grow are devas- wood, stock breeding, hunting and fish- tated by the pilgrims, depriving local res- ing. Pressures on the natural habitat in- idents of the opportunity to gather those creased significantly during World War gifts of the forest. Two (1941-1945). The monastery traditionally does not over In September 2005, the Institute of Eco- exploit natural resources. The population logical Problems of the North (Ural of the settlement has a greater environ- branch of the Russian Academy of Sci- mental impact on nature, mainly as a re- ences) Laboratory of Nature Protected sult of its unsanctioned activities in the for- Areas and Ecology of Culture organised ests. Increasing pollution caused by waste an expedition to the Solovetsky Islands around the settlement and on the roads is to research the historical and cultural another major environmental burden. heritage of the region and to analyse the complex relations and conflicts between the different stakeholders. Monastery — Museum Solovetsky Museum is a federal institution under the jurisdiction of the Ministry Monastery — Local community of Culture of the Russian Federation. The In 1479, Ivan the Terrible offered the is- Solovetsky Monastery is under the direct lands of the Solovetsky Archipelago to jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Russia.

99 The problem of managing the archipela- vsky forestry commission. The commis- go’s heritage stems from ambivalence sion limits several activities on the part of surrounding ownership of the Solovet- the territory’s local community, which is sky Islands: given that the law states protected by the Forest Fund (Federal that the cultural heritage of the archipel- organisation). ago is the responsibility of the museum, it is not clear whether the islands belong Forestry — Museum to the museum or to the monastery. The The jurisdiction of the forestry commis- issue has become still more complicat- sion overlaps in parts with the muse- ed following a statement by the former um’s jurisdiction over the archipelago’s President and current Prime-Minister of cultural and natural landscape. The sub- Russia, Vladimir Putin, concerning the il- ject of the ownership of the forests is legality of past confiscations of church highly sensitive. Even if the problem of property. This has been perceived by the recreational use of the forests is re- some as an appeal for restitution. solved, the overlapping authorities mean The museum has now commercialised that the museum seems to be infringing its activities, which itself creates environ- on the commission’s jurisdiction. The mental problems largely stemming from museum has proposed leasing the en- the sometimes inappropriate behaviour tire forest area to the forest commission of the islands’ increasingly numerous gratis as a solution to this problem. The tourists. The museum allows tour opera- forestry commission has refused this tors to buy or rent land in the archipela- proposal. go for long periods of time. Forestry — Monastery Museum — Local community As Archimandrite Joseph has stated: According to a resolution authorised by “The natural environment around the the government of the Archangel region Solovetsky Monastery must be carefully in 1980, the entire territory of the archipel- managed by the monks as it has been ago, including its cultural and natural her- for five centuries”. The question of rent- itage, belongs to the museum. The same ing part of the forest to the monastery legislation states that the territory of the has not been discussed at all. archipelago comprises a single adminis- Concerning the protection status of the trative unit: the Solovetsky district of the archipelago’s natural heritage values, Archangel region. In practice, the local the situation can only be described as government administrates only the settle- paradoxical. The Solovetsky Cultural ment area. and Historical Ensemble enjoys the status of a UNESCO World Cultural Herit- Forestry — Local community age site, but the archipelago has yet to Some 95.6% of the archipelago’s territo- be declared a protected natural area, al- ry is under the jurisdiction of the Solo- though its unique eco-system indubita-

100 bly deserves effective protection; the ar- Finally, the Delos Initiative should aim at ea around the archipelago does not establishing a strong network in Russia benefit from any form of protection sta- with experts and specialists in the field of tus. Five areas / complexes appear to cultural and environmental management. be ‘protected’ at the local level: the A network of this sort could support the lakes-and-channels system, Filippovsk- exchange of ideas, strategies and expe- ie sadki, Isakovo, the Cape Belushy ar- riences and raise awareness of the cur- ea and Bolshoy Zayatsky Island. All in rent and long-standing issues facing the all, there are 54 natural heritage ele- Solovetsky Islands through international ments in need of protection (10 geologi- conferences, joint fieldtrips and other cal and geo-morphological [lithosphere] forms of cooperation on a bilateral and elements, 16 hydrological, 18 species of multilateral basis. flora and five animal species).

Conclusions Recommendations The importance of conserving the natu- The monastic complex has been a ral and spiritual heritage of the Solovet- UNESCO World Cultural Heritage site sky Islands is undisputable, given the since 1992 (by dint of a resolution at raised interest expressed in recent years the 16th Session of the World Heritage by the Russian regional and federal au- Committee, nomination ‘Cultural Herit- thorities, the Russian Orthodox Church age’, UNESCO Certificate 14.12.1992). and the wider community. It is of the ut- It has been proposed that the Solovet- most importance that the site be award- sky Archipelago be re-classified as a ed ‘protected area’ status, as this would ‘site of mixed cultural and natural herit- protect the cultural and natural identity of age’, but while the proposal was final- the region and its values, as well as de- ised in 2002, approved by the Ministry fining which of them are in need of ur- of Natural Resources a year later and gent protection and who the users of this presented at the UNESCO Conference heritage are. on ‘Conserving Cultural and Biological The steps that follow should focus on Diversity: The Role of Sacred Natural continuous and concrete efforts with re- Sites and Cultural Landscapes’ in gard to ensuring that the spiritual and Tokyo in 2005, the re-classification has cultural values of the Solovetsky Islands yet to take place. are managed in a harmonious and inte- There is also a clear need to assist the grated manner. It may well be that this holy community in issues related to the will only happen when Russia has cho- efficient management of natural resourc- sen the course it is to steer in the new es, environmental protection, transfer of century: studying Solovetsky’s spiritual know-how (e.g. the relevant experience and social condition may afford us an in- of the Holy Community of Mt. Athos) and sight into the phenomena and process- other related fields. es that may impact on this.

101 A Holy Cross in the White Sea near Solovetsky Monastery

Glossary of local terms Guberny (gouberny): a region of the Russian Empire governed by the governor

Eparchy: a region of the Russian Orthodox Church headed by a bishop; formerly com- parable to a guberny

Gora: in Russian ‘mountain’, in the local, North-Russian dialect ‘a hill’ or even ‘a high bank of a see (river)’

Inok: a coenobite monk

Poslushnik: a novice, a lay brother

Pustyn’: a hermitage

Trudnik: a person who travelled to a monastery to pray but also to work for a long or short period of time (trud means “work”).

References Àðõumåêmóðíî-õó á îæåñmâåííûå ïàì míuêu Ñîëîâåöêuõ îñmðîâîâ, Moscow, 1980. Èñmîðè Ïåðâîêëàññíî îs ñmàâðîïuãuàëüíî îs Ñîëîâåöêî îs ìîíàñmûð.. , Saint-Petersburg, 1899.

Davydov, A., Vostryakov, L., (1995), The “Barents Region Sails 1996” Project in the Light of Eco- and Ethno-Tourism, 2nd International Congress of Arctic Social Sciences (ICASS II), IASSA, Rovaniemi, p. 20.

102 Davydov, A. (2004), “Spiritual Habitat – The Role of Folk Traditions and Beliefs in Local Population Involvement in Nature Conservation Activities” in T. Lindholm and E. Kei- nonen, (eds.), Proceedings of the 3rd Meeting of the International Contact Forum on Habitat Conservation in the Barents Region, Helsinki, pp. 66-67.

Davydov A. (2009), “Solovetsky green meridian” and SNS “Svyatye roshschi”, in T.K. SpidsØ and O. J. SØrensen (eds.) The last large intact forests in Northwest Russia. Protection and sustainable use, - TemaNord 2009: 523. Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen. pp. 26-36. Dosifey (1853), Ãåî ðàôu÷åñêîå,s uñmîðu÷åñêîå u ñmàmuñmu÷åñêîå înuñàíuå Ñmàâðînu uàëüíî îs nåðâîêëàññíî îs Ñîëîâåöêî îs ìîíàñmûð , Ìoscow. Kuratov A.A. (2008), Kàìåííûå ëàáèðèíòû â ñàêðàëüíîì ïðîñòðàíñòâå Ñåâåðíîé Åâðîïû, Pomor University, Archangel. Meletij (1881), Èñmîðu÷åñêîå înuñàíuå ñmàâðînu uàëüíîs îs nåðâîêëàññíî îs Ñîëîâåöêî îs ìîíàñmûð , Moscow. Shvartsman, Yu. and Bolotov, I. (2005), “Mechanisms of Formation of Extrazonal Bio- cenoses on the Solovetsky Islands”, Russian Journal of Ecology 36 (5), pp. 312-319. Shvartsman, Yu. and Bolotov, I. (eds.) (2007), Ïðuðî á íà ñðå àá Ñîëîâåöêî s î àðõunåëà às â óñëîâu õ ìåí þùå îñs êëuìàmà., Ekaterinburg. Skopin V.V. (1990), Íà Ñîëîâåöêuõ îñòðîâàõ, Iskusstvo, Moscow. Viken, A., Vostryakov, L. and Davydov, A. (1995), “Tourism in Northwest Russia” in C. Hall and M. Johnston, (eds.), Polar Tourism – Tourism in the Arctic and Antarctic Re- gions, Chichester, pp. 101-114.

Website www.solovky.ru www.solovky-monastyr.ru

103 104 Part Two Management of monastic lands and facilities

- Mount Athos (Greece) - Other case studies - Towards ecological management

105 106 Mount Athos (Greece) The protected area of the peninsula of the Athos Holy Mountain Athos Peninsula, Halkidiki, Central Macedonia, Greece

Ioannis Philippou Konstantinos Kontos

Introduction In 1988, the Holy Mountain was designated a mixed World Heritage site, following The Athos Peninsula or Holy Mountain is significant efforts made and actions tak- the Easternmost of Halkidiki’s three pe- en related to the protection of both its cu ninsulas (image in p. 108 [top]) and dif- ltural and natural heritage. The entire area fers substantially from the other two in of the Holy Mountain has also been inclu terms of morphology, climate, geology ded in the Natura2000 network. Further and history. Over its thousand-year his- more, the Holy Community has succes tory, the area has acquired various sfully implemented a EU LIFE-Nature pro names that convey both its cultural and ject called the ‘Rehabilitation of Coppice natural / environmental importance: the Quercus Frainetto & Quercus Ilex Woods Holy Mountain (or simply ‘the Moun- to High Forest’, and has conducted a tain’), because of its dominating posi- strategic Special Environmental Study tion; the Community of the Holy Moun- (SES) entitled ‘Protected Area of the Pe- tain; the Ark of Orthodoxy; and, the Gar- ninsula of the Athos Holy Mountain’. den of the Virgin (Theotokos). The main goals of the SES were to iden- This study was conducted by an interdisciplinary tify and list the management measures team of 20 scientists under the guidance of Pro- fessor Nikolaos Stamou, Dr Stefanos Fotiou and required to preserve and protect the Konstantinos Kontos. whole of the Holy Mountain area with its

< Sheer slopes rising up from the sea, Athos Holy Mountain, Greece 107 Prefecture of Halkidiki - Athos Peninsula

Mount Athos: the Holy Mountain biotic and abiotic constituents, while pro- and protect the natural and human moting a development model compati- environments; and ble with the environmental and econom- • Planning land use to resolve prob- ic concerns of the local community. lems arising from the conflict between The objectives of the study were: the need for protection, on the one hand, and production and other activ- • The preservation, improvement and sustainable management of natural ities on the other. habitat types and species of flora and fauna, particularly those protected by Characteristics of the area international conventions; Initially, the study aimed to identify and • The modulation of principles and quantify the various characteristic ele- rules of usage for natural resources, ments of the area, assessing their func- so as to ensure species preservation tions and interactions and their signifi- and the sustainable and integrated cance for the environment. The main use of resources; characteristics analysed included the to- • The drafting and developing of a set pography; flora, vegetation, forests and of measures designed to maintain their management; fauna; climatic condi-

108 tions; natural and social functions; the ef- effects on the environment (e.g. there fects of humankind and the surroundings. has been no grazing for centuries) that help explain the rich and extremely inter- Topography and landscape esting vegetation, flora and fauna to be found on the peninsula. The area presents a variform terrain (image in p. 108 [bottom]). There is a mildly The special characteristics of the sur- wavy row of hills in the central part of the roundings, the monasteries and their ar- peninsula with a gradually increasing al- chitecture, the relatively limited human titude that varies between 450 and 990m activity and the singular and isolated lo- before climbing to an altitude of 2,033m cation of the peninsula have combined (the summit of Mount Athos) to the to make Mount Athos one of the most Southeast. unique and important coastal landscapes in Greece and the Mediterranean The relief consists of deep, steep area as a whole. traverse gullies alternating with steeper folds. The intense relief of the Athos Pe- Flora and vegetation ninsula is the result of the great difference in altitude between areas and by The flora found on the Holy Mountain is the steep slopes that rise up almost another feature of its singularity. It is one from sea level (image in p. 109). The of the richest areas in Greece in this re- wide variety of habitats in the area has spect, according to the bibliography de- managed to sustain itself thanks to the tailing the wealth of plant life and the var- diverse and distinct geographical, geo- ious endemic, rare and endangered spe- logical and climatic characteristics cies to be found there. found on Mount Athos. The flora of the Holy Mountain includes It is these unique features, coupled with 1,453 plant species and subspecies, the almost complete absence of adverse which represent 539 genera and 109

Steep slopes rising up from the sea

109 families. Of these taxa, 26 belong to pteri- Forests dophyta, 12 to gymnosperms and 1,415 The area is dominated by forest habitats to angiosperms. The flora of Mount Athos and all the natural processes that ensure includes local, national and Balkan en- their ecological and environmental main- demics found in pockets or throughout tenance and survival. Forests cover most the entire Balkan Peninsula. It is com- of the peninsula (image in p. 111), with posed of Mediterranean (70%), North- chestnuts (Castanea sativa) dominating eastern (15%), Balkan (9%), central Euro- its central and southern parts. The North pean (4%) and local (2%) endemics. of the peninsula is home to sclerophyl- lous evergreen (mostly Quercus ilex) veg- The existence of 58 important taxa attests etation in tree form, mixed oak forests to the significance of the region in terms (Quercus frainetto) and chestnut and of its biodiversity. Of these taxa, 22 spe- pine forests (Pinus halepensis). The cies are endemic to Greece (14 are local Southern section also contains some endemics) and six have been included in patches of primitive forms of vegetation, Annex II of Directive 92/43/EEC. A further with forests of beech, fir and black pine. five species have been listed with the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Forest management Centre (WCMC) and are also on the Euro pean Red Data List, 10 species are prote Up to 1990, the monks managed the cted by Greek Presidential Decree 67/ chestnut forests of the Holy Mountain on 1981, and three species are considered an ad hoc basis. The non-intensive char- rare, reaching the limit of their geographi- acter of the forestry practices in place and the prudence of the monks helped cal spread in northern Greece. Finally, six preserve the forests. However, the species are endemic to the Balkan Pe- monks’ lack of silvicultural knowledge ninsula and extend as far as Turkey. and scientific management skills led to The Athos Peninsula is also very impor- reduced profits from forest products. tant for the protection of the Quercus Clear-cutting was the most common frainetto (Hungarian Oak) and Quercus form of management practice in the case ilex (Holm Oak), which have been includ- of chestnut forests. When the monaster- ed in Annex I of Directive 92/43/EEC. ies could not cover their needs (day-today living, heating, construction, etc.), The human and natural environments are they applied up to three treatments on interdependent on the peninsula, and the their chestnut forests (two for cultivation two exist in harmony. This can be seen in thinning and one final clear-cutting) over the species of vegetation found there, a 23- to 25-year period at the longest. In their structure and composition, the way addition, for some two decades (1970- they are cultivated and managed, the 90), a reduction in the number of monks methods used for harvesting forest prod- made it necessary to call in profession- ucts and the policy in place on clearance als to exploit the forests. The tradesmen and opening up cultivable regions. paid the monasteries a percentage of

110 Forest map of Mount Athos what they received from their buyers. exploitation of chestnut forests was However, this had an adverse effect on based on 10-year management plans, the structure of the forests and on pro- which marked the first efforts to convert ductivity, as most logging was carried the irregular coppice forests into high out only in places that offered these mer- forests. At the same time, the existing chants and lumberjacks the greatest method of managing the chestnut for- profits. Mixed-aged coppice forests were ests was improved upon through the addition of one or two extra cultivation stag- created in these areas as a result. es and an extension of the final logging The era of unsustainable practices came time-frame (rotation period) by 10 years to an end in the 1990s. The new, rational from 23-25 to 32-35 years.

111 This management practice, which be- ed from the production process and ex- came known as the ‘Holy Mountain ploitation, mostly to protect soil from ero- Method’, is based on periodical interven- sion or something similar, but also on tions in the chestnut stands every seven aesthetic grounds. In recent years, se- to 10 years. The first intervention, which lective / conversion thinning projects takes place in the seventh year and is in- have been implemented, in part through tensive, results in the production of sticks opportunities afforded by the LIFE and poles. The second intervention oc- project (LIFE 03 NAT/GR/000093 ‘Reha- curs after 13-15 years and results in bilitation of coppice Quercus frainetto small chestnut products. A third cultiva- (9280) and Quercus ilex (9340) woods to tion stage, again intensive, is carried out high forest’). Today, these areas are ma after 20-25 years and produces medi- naged as coppice forests. The project um-sized logs. The final clear-cutting is covered an area of 500 ha. done when the trees are around 35 years old and offers thicker (and more valua- Fauna ble) timber. The chestnut cultivation method applied on the Athos Peninsula As many as 173 species of birds have was later adopted in the management been identified in the Holy Mountain area plans of all Greek chestnut forests. The (Poirazidis 1992, Chandrinos 1992, Chan- method is also used —with some varia- drinos & Akriotis 1997, Vavalekas 1997). tions— in other European countries. It is estimated that 102 of these are seasonal, and most are rare or endangered. The chestnut forests of Athos are highly Specifically, 29 species are included on productive. Their production capability the IUCN Red List, 40 species on the lists (volume increment) begins at two and included in Directive 79/409/EEC, 134 in 3 reaches 10 m of timber per year, while Appendix II of the Bern Convention, 80 in the chestnut forest timber stock ranges Appendix II of the Bonn Convention and 3 from 40 m / ha in young stands to 210 two species are endangered worldwide. 3 m / ha in more mature stands and high- Some 23 species have a population lo- er-quality sites. cated mostly in Europe, while the popula- The evergreen broadleaf forests —and tions of 43 species are to be found main- in particular the Holm Oak (Quercus ilex) ly outside Europe. forests— are financially exploited by In addition, 41 species of mammals have most Athonite monasteries, especially been recorded on the peninsula (Vavale- those located far from the chestnut for- kas 1997). The vast majority of these are ests. Holm Oak stands are exploited small mammals living entirely or partly in through clear-cutting in a 20- to 30-year forests (rodents, in particular). Vavalekas rotation. However, the wood harvested is (1997) also reports the presence of six suitable only for firewood and charcoal. carnivorous species, while the largest The forests surrounding the monaster- herbivorous terrestrial mammals are the ies, sketes and cells were usually exclud- wild boar and the roe deer.

112 There were reports until 1980 of a final some 24 species have been included in pair of wolves in the area, but they would Presidential Decree 67/81 (on the pro- seem to have perished owing to illness. tection of wild flora and fauna and the The absence of wolves stems mainly coordination and research processes re- from the geographic isolation of the pe- lated to these). Finally, 18 species are list- ninsula, which is connected to the mained in Annexes II, IV & V of Directive 92/43/ land only through a narrow strip of land EEC, 16 in Appendix II of the Bern Con- in the area of Nea Roda (where there has vention and 10 in Appendix II of the Bonn been intense construction and tourist ac- Convention (one is also included in Ap- tivity in recent years). Another reason be- pendix I). hind the disappearance of the wolf could be the absence of livestock farming and Natural and social functions livestock animals in the area. The natural and social functions that Nine species of chiroptera (bats) and six characterise the region are spiritual, cul- marine species (cetacean and seal) have tural, productive and protective: also been sighted in the area. The Monk seal has been spotted in specific areas Spiritual functions of the Holy Mountain —particularly in its The Holy Mountain has been classified South-eastern part (however, no further by the Orthodox Church as an ecumeni- research has been carried out into the cally sacred place where the unique presence of this species). truths of Christ’s Gospel and His Church In sum, 22 mammals found in the Holy have been experienced. The mountain Mountain area are included on the Red has been a site of spiritual creation for List. Of these, 10 are in category E (‘en- the last 14 centuries (image in p. 113). dangered’), 9 in category V (‘vulnerable’) The exceptional beauty of the area’s nat- and 3 in category R (‘rare’). In addition, ural environment enhances its spirituality.

Monastery of Simonopetra

113 Cultural functions • The preservation of natural landsca pes of outstanding natural beauty; The Holy Mountain is home to a priceless cultural treasure composed of arte- • The conservation of a large number facts but also accumulated cultural of species of flora and special forma- knowledge, tradition and a unique way tions of forest vegetation, as well as of life. The various religious ‘heirlooms’ beaches and other coastal habitats; —the architecture of the building com- • The conservation of the large number plexes and their style, the Byzantine mu- of species and populations of fauna, sical tradition and the traditional way of including the wild boar, roe deer and using natural resources— are all constit- jackal as well as marine species. The uent parts of its cultural importance and Holy Mountain is a designated wildlife contribution to world heritage. refuge;

Productive functions • Hydrology and fire protection. This involves the protection and maintenance These functions refer to the productive of forest soils and springs, the cultiva- capacity —of the local forests, in particu- tion of forests using fire-resistant spe- lar. They are characterised by a relatively cies and efforts to develop a systemat- high productive capacity in various sec- ic control mechanism for the preven- tors, such as timber, foraging (regardless tion and avoidance of forest fires. of the lack of livestock breeding), agriculture practiced using traditional methods Anthropogenic effects (and a few modern organic ones), apiculture, herbs and aromatic plants, fishing Throughout the greater part of its history, and water resources. All of these consti- the Athos environment has not been ad- tute valuable sources of income that help versely affected by human intervention. cover the monks’ living needs and ex- There are accounts of there having been penses as well as the cost of upgrading 50,000 monks and a large number of and restoring the monastery buildings. mules living on Mount Athos at one point They also contribute to the local econo- during the Ottoman period, and of in- my on and around the peninsula, and es- tense logging having taken place over pecially within the prefecture of Halkidiki, an extended period of time, especially in both directly (people employed by the the areas around the monasteries and Holy Monasteries) or indirectly (religious sketes. Fortunately, the Holy Mountain’s tourism, as in the case of Ouranoupolis). forests have always been able to regenerate themselves naturally owing to the Protective functions absence of grazing and large infrastructure projects (roads, water supply and The protective operations are mainly fo- drainage networks, large hydro-electric cused on: dams, irrigation or water-supply). For • The conservation of the forests of the over a thousand years, the monasteries Holy Mountain; and sketes have been the only infrastruc-

114 ture in the area; indeed, they could per- intervention rather than adding further haps be thought of as an extension of roads to the network. New roads are con- the natural and cultural environment. The structed only where it is deemed absolu most recent —and important— human tely necessary and always within the fra intervention on the peninsula was the mework of the area’s fire protection plan. construction of a dense forest road net- Both the improvement and construction work consisting mostly of technically of roads are now based on environmen- simple and relatively narrow dirt roads; tal studies; potential projects are exami however, the project also included a few ned and approved by the Holy Commu- large roads which have had a highly neg- nity (Forest Board) and public bodies, and ative effect on the landscape, in particu- are approved or rejected in view of their lar. The construction of this network necessity, feasibility and functionality. mainly arose out of the need to protect Any new developments should not be the forests from fire, particularly those ar- viewed as threats, however, and not eve- eas where flammable forest species, ry intervention has had negative conse- such as pine and evergreen hardwood quences on the environment and the ap- shrubs, grow in close proximity. pearance of the area. The monks’ way of A great fire broke out on the Holy Moun- life, their dietary habits, the limited tain in 1990, incinerating 2,200 ha of for- amount of construction and the non-in- est and threatening the monasteries and tensive exploitation of the environment sketes with complete destruction. have all contributed to the sustainable management of the area’s natural re- Secondary roads have also been opened sources. Economic activity today is very to exploit natural resources —especially limited because financial profit has not chestnut and Holm Oak trees. This deci- been the primary goal behind the exploi- sion was taken in a bid to satisfy the tation of these natural resources. monasteries’ heating, food, construction work and financial needs, since the in- The high quality of the local ecosystems come —which is derived mostly from has emerged through the interaction be- chestnut trees— covers a large part of tween their special features and the man- the cost of restoration work. Most of ner in which they have been managed these roads were constructed in the last over time. This interaction has substan- two decades of the 20th century. tially shaped the dynamics of these ecosystems, which have enjoyed the most Over the past decade and out of respect favourable prospects for sustainable, for the area, the monks of Athos have studied the environmental impact of the The monks of Athos adhere to the traditional Mediterranean diet, which alternates between construction of forest roads and, perhaps days with and without the consumption of olive more importantly, examined past mis- oil. This diet also promotes the avoidance of ani- takes. As a result, their primary concern mal proteins in favour of fish-sourced proteins (twice a week, except during periods of fasting). is now to maintain and improve the exist- In addition, vegetables, fruit and other natural ing network of forest roads with minimal products are only consumed in season.

115 multifunctional management. As a con- valuable natural biogenetic reserves in sequence, these ecosystems have been Greece. This is particularly important classified as ‘exceptional’. and relevant now that habitats are expe- riencing problems of degradation, dis- It is apparent that the Holy Community’s ruption and discontinuity and being af- wise and prudent approach has been fected by widespread changes in land expressed not only in spiritual terms, but use. These problems beset most Greek also in the management and exploitation forests and forest ecosystems today. of the area’s natural resources. The sustainable management of these resourc- The evaluation of land es is something that all monks take into serious consideration. It is essential that In order to facilitate the evaluation of the this practice is maintained and support- local environment, the study area was died in order to safeguard inter alia the tra- vided into four groups based on land ditional / cultural element in this special use and morphological characteristics: approach to managing the peninsula’s • Mountainous landscapes; forests and ecosystems. • Semi-mountainous / residential landscapes;

Proposed environmental • Stream and riverside landscapes; management measures • Coastal landscapes. Undoubtedly, the general strategic goal of any management method for the Holy Evaluation criteria Mountain must be the preservation of the The area was evaluated in terms of its integrity and authenticity of the peninsula environmental value and the threats it as a place of religious and spiritual im- faces, as well as with reference to its portance. By extension, this overriding contribution to the financial, social and aim incorporates and includes the pro- cultural development of the broader re- tection and conservation of the great gion. The large quantity of data as- wealth of both the cultural and environ- sessed in the evaluation process was mental elements of the area. gathered from the management plans for the forests of the Holy Monasteries, A. The evaluation of the natural and included information on timber environment stock, increment, age, site quality, silvi- An examination of the local natural envi- cultural treatments, management histo- ronment reveals the existence of partic- ry, a cartographic depiction of habitats ularly important features related to the and the existing bibliography. The eval- conservation of the biodiversity and nat- uation criteria were rareness, vulnera- ural environment in general (both spe- bility, extent of disturbance, representa- cies and habitats). This fact makes the tiveness, social and financial value, ge- region one of the most significant and ographic extent, rehabilitation and res-

116 Zoning on Mount Athos toration prospects, diversity and land- the implementation of protection and scape quality. management measures. Specific principles are applied in each zone and they The local flora and fauna were evaluated determine the framework to be used to according to their population dynamics and conservation and management implement the protection and manage- needs. For this reason, international con- ment measures. ventions, existing Greek legislation and The area classified as the ‘Protected Ar- the EU directives and regulations in force ea of the Peninsula of the Athos Holy were all taken into account. Mountain’ consists of the entire region within the administrative boundaries of B. Zoning the Autonomous Monastic State of the The zoning and demarcation of the area Holy Mountain plus a marine zone constitute a basic tool in the effort to stretching 500m out to sea. achieve the objectives laid down for its Three protection zones were proposed protection and management. This zoning (image in p. 117), based on the analysis serves three main domains: environmen- and evaluation of present conditions: tal, institutional and socio-cultural. Zone I: An area of complete protection; The protection zones are mainly of a functional nature, meaning that they or- Zone II: A nature protection area subdi- ganise, regroup, classify and facilitate vided into:

117 IIa Biogenetic reserves v. The prevention of the collection of all IIb Protected landscape features types of local plants and minerals. IIc Protected coastal and marine re- This zone is the most characteristic, gions; and, representative and significant region of the Holy Mountain. Collecting min- Zone III: An area of sustainably managed erals, rocks or other geological for- natural resources mations contravenes the Athonite religious philosophy. Zone I: An area of complete protection However, it is permitted to: Zone I includes the rocky slopes of Mount Athos and has an altitude ranging from i. Carry out work that seeks to protect 1,500 to 2,033m. This area is composed and conserve the region’s features; mainly of bushy and herbaceous vegeta- ii. Improve the access roads / paths us- tion and includes most of the plants ening environmentally-friendly materials; demic to Mount Athos. It is likely that it al- and so contains some endemic insect species, but no relevant studies have been iii. Improve and maintain infrastructures published to date to verify this. of religious interest.

This zone remains intact, and any—small- Zone II: A nature protection area: scale— interventions will be aimed at im- biogenetic reserves; protected proving and maintaining the light infra- landscape features; and, protected structure already in place, such as paths coastal and marine regions to the summit. This is divided into three sub-zones: Some of the restrictions that should be IIa Biogenetic reserves; observed include: IIb Protected landscape features; and IIc Protected coastal and marine regions. i. The avoidance of any kind of exploitation of natural resources; Sub-zone IIa (biogenetic reserves) includes: ii. The avoidance of construction of new roads; a) Areas with the remains of primitive vegetation containing beech, fir and iii. The avoidance of construction of black pine forests, as well as the for- large-scale structures and installa- ests at Krya Nera and near the Skete tions, e.g. dams, photovoltaic power of Ayia Anna; and stations, etc.; b) The steep regions near and along the iv. The avoidance of mass tourism and coasts of the peninsula. the unrecorded visitor access (i.e. For this sub-zone, the following restric- there is a need for visitor manage- tions should be observed: ment schemes), the prevention of organised recreational and / or sporting i. Maintenance, improvement and res- events such as climbing; and toration projects are to be implement-

118 ed only in the case of existing infra- general, this sub-zone encompasses structure; every extant historical and religious complex within the properties belonging to ii. Forest exploitation aiming at the pro- the 20 monasteries (image in p. 121). duction and trade of goods are to be prohibited, with the exception of nec- Any restrictions concerning Sub-zone IIb essary forestry maintenance and are in accordance with the rules and preservation projects and restoration specifications laid down in the Constitu- work on the monasteries; tive Charter of the Holy Mountain. The activities permitted in this sub-zone are iii. Construction of new forest roads is those practiced to date. Since the late not to be permitted; and, 1980s —a decade that saw many mis- iv. Access is to be denied for installa- takes made in relation to the constructions related to quarrying activities. tion of forest roads— the monks and However, it is permitted to: competent authorities (KEDAK, Forest Administration) have been promoting the i. Carry out projects (research or practi- maintenance and reconstruction of his- cal forestry work) aiming at protecting toric paved paths. and maintaining the features of the region; Sub-zone IIc (coastal and marine area) covers a 550m zone around the coast- ii. Improve and maintain the existing for- line of the entire peninsula. In Sub-zone est road / paths network in order to IIc, the Holy Community is allowed to promote permitted activities; practice only small-scale fishing aimed iii. Construct small structures and other at satisfying the dietary needs of the buildings adapted to the particular monks and pilgrims (fish is eaten two features of the area and aimed at days a week, except during fasts). ‘mild’ forms of forest recreation that In this Sub-zone, it is forbidden: cater to the needs of religious pilgrims; i. For ships and boats, except those transporting passengers to and from iv. Implement low-intensity cultivation the Holy Mountain, to approach with- measures aimed at preserving the out special authorisation; and continuity of important types of vegetation; and ii. For any economic activity —especially related to fishing— to be carried v. Collect stones and rocks for any use out by inhabitants of the wider region. on the grounds. Zone III: An area of sustainably Sub-zone IIb (protected landscape ele- managed natural resources ments) includes the 20 monasteries, 14 sketes, ‘kelia’ (cells), ‘kalyvia’ (huts), seats The remaining areas of Mount Athos and hermitages located in monastic are- are included in Zone III. These areas as, and the towns of Karyes and Dafni. In contain forests of chestnut, evergreen

119 broadleaf trees and Pinus halepensis. 3. Intact sites (natural reserves) should The natural resources of this area are be created and established as forest exploited by the Holy Community to deposits (permanent pilot units). Even cover the monasteries’ needs for goods though these sites have yet to be se- and to generate the income necessary lected, the total area of the perma- for financial independence. It is worth nent pilot units is to vary between 5 noting that there is a limited level of ex- and 20 ha. These will be established ploitation of natural resources, which is for all forest habitat types present on based on the capacity of the region and the peninsula, with priority given to accords with the fundamental meas- mature forests of beech, fir and oak; ures for the sound environmental man- 4. Special protective measures for prior- agement of the area. ity habitats and water resources are The specific management measures pro to be taken; posed for this zone include: 5. Financial assistance is to be provided to the monasteries to cover the envi- 1. Minimising the number of new man- ronmental cost of applying the afore- agement plans —which should have mentioned measures; a 10-year implementation period— for all forests; 6. Restrictions are to be placed on the construction of new forest roads; the 2. Preserving timber stocks at high levels; primary forest road transport network 2.1 In the case of chestnut forests, for forest products and the main for- the third cleaning must be ap- est road network for fire protection are plied as a general principle, mea to be selected; habitats and the land- ning that the rotation age (the fi- scape affected by the construction of nal logging of the stands) should existing road networks are to be re- be increased to 35-40 years; stored by implementing proper horti- cultural and technical projects; and, 2.2 The view that evergreen broadleaf special attention is to be paid to the forests —particularly Holm Oak rehabilitation of the landscape along unions— and mainly those around roads visible from the sea; and near the built environment of the Holy Mountain (as well as tho 7. Large-scale infrastructure projects se visible from the sea), should be should be carried out and installations included in the process of conver- constructed in cases where these are justified because they are energy-sav- sion to high forests; ing (hydroelectric dams and solar en- 2.3 That the Pinus halepensis forests in ergy production stations, for instance). the northern part of the peninsula In any event, these should be based should be managed by implement- on detailed planning which seeks to ing cultivation and regeneration estimate their effects. Small-scale in- logging within an 80-year rotation; frastructure works, such as water res-

120 Agios Pavlos Monastery

ervoirs for the supply of drinking wa- of clearances, the reinforcement of ter and underground water tanks, are crop rotation and fallowing, a reduc- acceptable when the location is se- tion in the use of agricultural pesti- lected with care and deemed com- cides, the optimised use of water re- patible with the environmental char- sources for agricultural needs, waste acteristics of the area; in general, the reduction and the promotion and use of renewable sources should be safeguarding of agro-biodiversity — progressively promoted; especially of old species varieties; and 8. There is a need for the establishment of a waste disposal or landfill site as 10. Intensifying control over illegal hunt- well as a waste treatment centre near ing and the entry of hunting dogs. Karyes; any such projects should in- Hunting is forbidden within the entire clude plans for further action to be Holy Mountain region. taken concerning the wider consequences and effects of such works C. Environmental Management Body (the transportation network, aesthetic According to the SES, a basic tool for considerations, the physical land- achieving the strategic goals in the scape and other areas affected); management of the cultural and envi- 9. The implementation of rational rules ronmental features of the Holy Moun- governing agricultural practice, such tain is the establishment of a new ad- as cultivation in ranks, the prohibition ministrative body. The creation of this body will take into account the particu- In recent years, some monasteries have begun larities of the governance of the Holy participating in organic cultivation projects, mostly in the form of vineyards and the revival of Mountain and the self-administration of old olive groves. the Holy Monasteries. The new body, to

121 be called the Environmental and Forest • Promoting the environmental educa- Board of the Holy Mountain, will be cre- tion of the monks, pilgrims, visitors ated mainly through upgrading the ex- and other parties working on Mount isting Forest Board commission. Athos, and assisting the Holy Com- munity in achieving the goals stated The main goals the Environmental and in the SES. Forest Board will be: The Environmental and Forest Board will • The development of a common action consist of an Administrative Council (sev- framework for all Holy Monasteries en members to be appointed by the Ho- within the peninsula of the Holy Moun- ly Community), and will collaborate with tain, that is, within the entire area des- five scientists (permanent staff) and sev- ignated as part of the Natura2000 eral other external advisors. The initial network; and, work of the Environmental and Forest • The coordination of the accumulat- Board will focus on: ed experience and sensitivity of the a. Protecting against forest fires; Athonite monks towards nature, for- b. Restoration techniques concerning ests and the environment for the the area’s cultural and natural herit- promotion of the protected area, its age; development, renewal and sustainable use through the implementa- c. The maintenance and improvement tion of modern plans, new studies of the forest road network; and, and actions, and organisational d. The multifunctional sustainable man- projects. Such actions will focus on agement of forests and the natural the multifunctional sustainable man- environment. agement of the terrestrial and coastal ecosystems and, generally, on Following this, the remaining stages of the natural heritage of Holy Moun- the Environmental Management Plan are tain with an emphasis on all its nat- to be completed within seven years ural resources. (2007-2013), and are to include these measures: The Environmental and Forest Board will also be expected to monitor the actions • The issuing of a regulative provision of the monasteries, with a view to: allowing for the incorporation of the Special Management Authority (that • Protecting, promoting and enhancing is, the Environmental and Forest all the outstanding values of the area; Board of the Holy Mountain) into the existing legal framework of the self- • Increasing the environmental aware- administrated Monastic Community; ness of the monks, pilgrims, visitors and other institutions / organisations • The ratification of the regulative provi- at the local, national and international sion by the Ministry of Environment, levels; and Energy and Climate Change;

122 • The securing of the necessary funds nastic vows and living ascetic lives for the operating costs of the Environ- there. Moreover, the fact that the mem- mental and Forest Board as well as bers of the board are appointed by the for the compensation of the monas- Holy Community —which represents all teries (owing, for example, to the loss 20 Holy Monasteries— ensures that the in income stemming from the imple- board and its decisions are viewed as mentation of restoration and conser- authoritative and valid by the people vation measures); and institutions / authorities with which the board cooperates. Finally, this will • The exploitation of all possible alter- raise the prestige of the body, which is native sources of funds in order to important when taking the necessary protect the integrity and authenticity action for funding management meas- of this special area and the rehabili- ures, structures and plans, and also in tation of degraded forest habitats; the context of cooperative efforts with and, national or international institutions and • Ensuring the viability of the Special organisations. Management Authority for seven years and implementing an evaluation system for its effectiveness in or- Epilogue der to make necessary adjustments The monks of the Holy Mountain have after this seven-year period. dedicated their lives to worshipping the Appointing the Environmental and For- Divine, and this is also expressed through est Board as the management, protec- the preservation of the natural environ- tion and development authority of the ment in which they live. The Holy Com- protected area has indisputable advan- munity respects the natural surroundings tages. Firstly, it is an authority based in of the area and is aware of the impor- the area being protected. It is also com- tance of nature, which it considers a gift posed of members with sensitivity, from God. Thus, in its own special way, knowledge and special experience, the Holy Community has repeatedly ex- who are familiar with the specific fea- pressed its intention to continue to ac- tures of the area. They have a personal tively contribute to the conservation and investment in safeguarding the Holy preservation of the natural and cultural Mountain, since they have taken mo- heritage of Mount Athos.

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125 (photo)

126 Landscape conservation actions on Mount Athos Athos Peninsula, Halkidiki, Central Macedonia, Greece

Petros Kakouros

Abstract ecological management of the Simo nopetra area and the management plans The Athos Peninsula / Holy Mountain is a for the forest of each monastery. An im- mountainous landscape characterised portant step towards assessing the im- by diverse vegetation and a complex to- pact of the forest road network and the pography whose profound beauty and requisite restoration work was the study diversity is preserved by an orthodox on the ‘Rehabilitation of slopes along the monastic community whose history goes back over 1,000 years. The Holy Moun- forest road network in Mount Athos’. tain is a World Heritage Site. The next important step towards rehabili- The need for special landscape conser- tating the landscape was the spiritual vation actions emerged after the wildfire and economic support from the Holy of 1990 and the road network that has Community provided for Professor Dafis’ since been developed. The Holy Com- call for the gradual abandonment of the munity and the monasteries launched coppice management of oak forests several landscape conservation initia- (Holm oak and Hungarian oak). This was tives aimed at restoring the forest and implemented through the Life-Nature assessing the impact of infrastructural project ‘Rehabilitation of coppice Quer- development on the environment and cus frainetto woods and Quercus ilex overall ecological management of the woods’, which aimed to invert coppice area. The first such study concerned the into high forests.

< The Holy Monastery of Agios Pavlos, Mount Athos, Greece 127 Introduction the monasteries and sketes that seem to hover in mid-air compose a representa- Mount Athos and its 20 monasteries has tive picture of the timeless and close-knit stood proud down the centuries, a lofty relationship between Man and Nature. symbol on the Athos Peninsula denoting the Ark of Orthodoxy and Faith, a guardi- This is a landscape of rare beauty and an of the history and cultural heritage of major ecological significance, exqui- the land that cherishes a priceless part site architectural achievements and outstanding historical and religious val- of society’s natural riches with such ue. When, during the 20th century, this devotion. unique landscape suffered a wide- The blue sea and gentle coastline, the spread degradation of its natural quali- wild beauty of the ravines and cliffs and ties for the first time, the monastic com- the dense green vegetation alongside munity responded with several initia-

Mount Athos is the highest peak on the peninsula of the same name, which forms the easternmost part of Halkidiki in North-eastern Greece

128 tives which sought to reduce the ad- sula is affected by the North-westerly verse impact of road network projects, winds and the mountain itself, which to enhance the ecological manage- acts as a major windbreak, creating a ment of the forests, and to supervise unique micro-climate. the coppice oak forests. This geological diversity and topograph- ic complexity combined with climatic va- The natural setting riety, the isolation of the narrow peninsula and the absence of grazing has re- Mount Athos is the higher peak of the sulted in a complex mosaic of several peninsula of the same name and forms vegetation types ranging from charac- the easternmost part of Halkidiki in teristic Mediterranean to alpine habitat North-eastern Greece (image in p. 128). types. Apart from the diversity of habitat Mount Athos is also known as the ‘Athos types, the area is also characterised by Peninsula’, the ‘Holy Mountain’ or –more good to excellent conservation status simple– the ‘Mountain’ (Oros), a term and considerable species diversity com- used mainly by people in Halkidiki and prising 1,453 plant taxa (Babalonas other nearby areas. Geologically, Mount 2001) as well as 131 bird, 37 mammal, Athos is an extension of the Rhodope 14 reptile and eight amphibians species mountain range and consists of meta- (Vavalekas 2001). morphic rocks –gneiss, greenstone, The rich vegetation and complex topog- schist and limestone– with a high miner- raphy of Mount Athos make for a pro- al and structural diversity. foundly beautiful and diverse landscape. Apart from its great geological diversity, Soft coastal landscapes can be found Mount Athos has a complex topography adjacent to deep gorges and alternate dominated by its peak which soars to with steep coastal rocks. The natural en- 2,033 metres. The climate of the penin- vironment is an integral part of the cul-

The Holy Skete of Timiou Prodromou

129 Mixed beech / fir forest on Mount Athos tural heritage of Mount Athos, which plenitude reported by Grisebach despite should be protected with special care the conversion of many forests to cop- (images in pp. 129 and 130). pice, and that it constituted an oasis in the Balkan Peninsula whose remaining forests were poor at best. Nevertheless, Historical data the available data are poor and it is possible that the transformation led to the Grisebach (1841) reports that Mount loss of flora and fauna species which on- Athos was surrounded by thick old- ly live in old-growth forests. growth forests with a great variety of species and vegetation. The same author Nowadays, the only high forests on states that the natural characteristics of Mount Athos are some beech (Fagus the area were unique and could not be sp.) and mountainous Mediterranean found elsewhere in Europe. However, af- conifer forests (Black pine), the forests ter the Russian revolution of 1917, which of Aleppo pine in the Northern part of was followed by the Greek rural reforma- the peninsula and a few remains of the tion in the 1920s, the monasteries began mixed forests in the forest of the Holy exploiting their forests in order to make Monastery of Grigoriou and in remote up for the revenues lost from expropriat- locations of the forests of the monas- ed properties and from donations from teries of Simonopetra and Megisti the Orthodox communities of Russia. As Lavra. a result, the majority of the forests were The ecosystems of the broadleaved ev- turned into coppice. ergreen trees, which provided the mon- Rauh, who visited the Holy Mountain in asteries with fuel wood, were also se- the 1940s, argued that the vegetation verely impacted as fuel wood and char- had maintained the abundance and coal remain an almost exclusive source

130 of energy for many monasteries and mental surroundings, to manage the for- sketes to this day. As a result, the moun- ests with respect, care and a love for na- tain’s evergreen deciduous formations ture, and to apply the traditional monas- show various levels of degradation tic knowledge in parallel with modern around almost all of its monasteries. scientific methods and techniques.

Nature and monastic life Landscape conservation actions Orthodox monastic life is characterised Reducing the impact of the road by temperance, the careful use of natural network resources and a sensitivity towards nature conservation. The ultimate criteria In August (14-18) 1990, a devastating for the use of natural resources are sym- fire destroyed 2,230 ha of mainly chest- metry between needs and use, and the nut and oak forests and threatened the preservation of spiritual peace. The limits Monastery of Simonopetra. The fire was of monastic life should serve the conser- able to spread so widely for two main vation of nature, and there are written reasons: the absence of forest roads rules dating back to the foundation of the and the density of the coppice forests monastic community of Mount Athos, (Kailidis 1990). After this tragic incident, which explicitly prohibit actions with the the Monastic Community realised that potential to alter the balance of nature. further action was required for the sound management of Athos’ forests and land- Forest management is no exception. scapes, and that: During the reign of the Byzantine emper- • Coppice management should be or Ioannis Tzimiskis (AD 972), limitations re-evaluated. were placed on the timber trade (Box 1), while later legislation specified that the • New road networks should be con- forests could only be exploited to cover structed for the protection of the mon- the needs of the monasteries. asteries and forests.

Today, monks follow in the monastic tra- Many new roads were constructed as a dition of ‘order’ and ‘sustainability’ and result over the next few years. However, try to live in harmony with their environ- because the monks’ fearful state of mind

Box 1

Ioannis Tsimiskes’ Typikon [Rules of governance of the monastic community] of AD 972 imposed strict limits on the trade in forest products, while a second Typikon issued by Constantine VII Monomachos in AD 1045 states that trees may only be felled to provide for the needs of the monasteries.

131 Forest road constructed in the early Nineties visible from the sea was not conducive to careful planning, closure of some roads and their return this development left permanent scars to a natural state. New roads should on- on the Athonite landscape (image in p. ly be opened after adequate delibera- 132). When the monks became aware tion and a careful environmental assess- of the problem, they decided to investi- ment into the appropriate drainage gate methods for rehabilitating slopes works and restoration measures. Re- along their forest road network, resulting garding the rehabilitation of the roads, in a Special Environmental Management the study of 1999 concluded that natural Study conducted by the Greek Biotope / vegetation had successfully established Wetland Centre (Dafis et al. 1999). The itself on all low height (3-5m) slopes, but main two objectives of this Study were: that intervention was necessary for, and restoration measures should applied to, • To assess the impact of the construc- slopes higher than 5 metres. tion of the road network on nearby natural landscapes; and Finally, it was suggested that mature trees should not be removed, even if • To evaluate potential restoration mea they are in close proximity to the road sures. network, whereas further reforestation The report concluded that for 11 of the plans (involving mainly local species) 20 monasteries, the road density was should be drawn up and implemented. higher than the 15m/ha limit considered Subsequently, all new roads (image in appropriate for the environment. After al- p. 133) have been implemented in line most ten years, it is clear that the with these simple rules and the results Athonite road network has to be thor- are more than obvious, as can be seen oughly studied as a whole. It is also from a comparison of images in pp. 132 clear that this study should consider the and 133.

132 Newly-constructed road in which care has been taken to minimise the impact on the landscape

Ecological management of ing ecologically-tolerable methods of the forest of Simonopetra transportation and setting some stands Monastery aside as nature reserves. With regard to the rehabilitation of burned areas, the The fire of 1990 adversely affected the study proposed felling all burned trees lands of the Simonopetra Monastery, for aesthetic reasons, protecting the soil, whose monks decided that the forest increasing its organic matter and the for- should be managed ecologically to pro- est’s inversion to high forest. The study duce wood to cover the monastery’s also proposed the stratification of the needs and to render it better prepared in burned trunks along the contours of the the event of another forest fire. Accord- slopes to help prevent soil erosion. ingly, the monks invited Professor Spy- ros Dafis and his team to produce a de- These recommendations respected the tailed inventory of the monastery’s natu- intgrity of the site and were followed to ral environment and to make proposals the letter. Today, 17 year on, it is very dif- concerning the ecological management ficult to find evidence of the fire since the of their forest. In addition to these main vegetation has fully recovered, Castanea objectives, the study also assessed the woods are now coppiced every 35-40 ye situation after the forest fire of 1990. ars, and 29 ha (which equates to 23% of The study (Dafis 1993) covered an area the forested area of the Simonopetra Mo of 1260 ha and identified 14 fundamen- nastery) have been excluded from ex- tal points relating to the ecological man- ploitation and set aside for nature con- agement of the monastery’s forests, servation. More importantly, most of the such as favouring mixed stands, in- other monasteries proposed their own crease the minimum diameter of logged environmental management plans in the trees, conserving aged trees, introduc- wake of the Simonopetra Monastery’s in-

133 itiative; the 14 principles originally pre- the training of forest workers and super- sented to the Simonopetra Monastery visors, the establishing of a monitoring are now widely accepted across the Ho- system consisting of 45 permanent test ly Mountain. plots, and the publication (with contributions from associated Italian and Span- ish networks) of Guidelines for the Reha- Inversion of coppice Hungarian bilitation of Degraded Oak Forests (Dafis oak and Holm oak woods to and Kakouros 2006). high forest The main results of the project can be The coppice oak forests have been rec- summarised as follows: ognised since the fire of 1990 as a threat • Successful implementation of selec- which could assist the spread of forest tive inversion thinning, especially in fires. At the same time, several monks re- Holm oak, which will reduce the risk of sponsible for forest management realised wildfires and enhance diversity of spe- that Hungarian oak (Quercus frainetto) cies which prefer less dense forests. could provide high-quality timber for constructions, that coppice management had • The setting up of a monitoring system altered the pristine landscape of Mount allowing for a long-term ecological Athos, and that several species typical of and economical assessment of the high forests had become rare due to the method; and alteration of their habitat. At the same • The establishing of a demonstration ar- time, the income from Holm oak (Quer- cus ilex) forests had fallen in significance. ea for the sustainable management of Holm oak and Hungarian oak forests in In this context, the Holy Community of Greece and the Mediterranean in Mount Athos implemented the LIFE-Na- general. ture ‘Rehabilitation of coppice Quercus frainetto and Quercus ilex woods to high One of the most important elements of the forest’ project. The main scope of this project was the close cooperation with the project was to initiate the rehabilitation of monks, the exchange of experience on fo coppice Holm oak and Hungarian oak rest management issues, and most impor woods to high forest. tantly of all the integration of the spiritual aspects of nature management –the be- The method selected for the rehabilita- liefs that the forest should be treated as a tion of both types of oak forests was that valuable and fragile gift from God; that for- of selective inversion thinning, which est management should take it into con- over the three-year period of the project sideration that the forest should provide was successfully applied to an area of shelter for all God’s creatures; and that 500 ha (Kakouros and Dafis 2004). Oth- wood and non-wood products of the forest er key objectives of the project included should be extracted only to benefit the spi

http://ec.europa.eu/environment/life/coun- ritual life of monks and pilgrims– into the tries/ documents/greece_en_nov06.pdf planning and implementation of the project.

134 References Babalonas, D. (2001), “Flora and endemism of Mount Athos” in S. Dafis, N. Tsigaridas and M. Fountoulis (eds.) Holy Mountain: Nature-Worship-Art, Thessaloniki: Cultural Capital of Europe – Thessaloniki 97, Thessaloniki, p. 7.

Kailidis, D. (1990), Ç äáóéêÞ ðõñêáãéÜ ôïõ Áãßïõ ¼ñïõò – 14-28 August 1990, Thes- saloniki, p. 16.

Kakouros, P. and Dafis, S. (2004), Ôå÷íéêÞ ìåëÝôç ãéá ôçí áíüñèùóç ôùí äáóþí ìå Quercus ilex êáé ôùí äáóþí ìå Quercus frainetto ôïõ Áãßïõ ¼ñïõò, Greek Biotope- Wetland Centre, Thermi, p. 59.

Dafis, S. and Kakouros, P. (eds.) (2006), Guidelines for the rehabilitation of degraded oak forests, Greek Biotope/Wetland Centre, Thermi, p. 40.

Dafis, S. (1993), The Forest Of Holy Mountain Athos, Thessaloniki, p. 66.

Dafis, S., Goudelis, G. and Kontos, N. (1999), AðïêáôÜóôáóç ôùí ðñáíþí ôïõ äáóéêïý ïäéêïý äéêôýïõ óôï ¢ãéïí ¼ñïò: áîéïëüãçóç - ðñïôÜóåéò, Greek Biotope Wetland Centre, Thermi, p. 111.

Grisebach, A. (1841), Reise durch Rumelien und Brussa in jahre 1839, 1.2 University .. .. of Gottingen, Gottingen, p. 361. .. Rauch, W. (1949), “Klimatologie der Vegetationsverhaltnisse der Athos-Halbinsel und .. .. der ostagaischen Inseln Lemnos, Evstratios, Mytiline und Chios”, Heidelberger Akade- mie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch – Naturwissenschaftliche Klasse (12), 511 – 615.

Vavalekas, C. (2001), “The fauna of the Holy Mountain” in S. Dafis, N. Tsigaridas and M. Fountoulis (eds.) Holy Mountain: Nature – Worship - Art, Thessaloniki, Cultural Cap- ital of Europe – Thessaloniki ’97, Thessaloniki, p. 9.

135 136 other case studies

Buila-Vânturarit,a National Park Valcea county, Romania

Sebastian Catanoiu

Introduction In the Battle of Kalka (1223), a coalition of Slav princes and white Cumans (also known as Kipchaks or Polovetsy) was severely defeated by the Mongols under Subotai. Word of this battle and the imminence of a Mongolian invasion persuaded the black Cumans, who lived in what is now Romania outside the Carpathian Arch, to convert to Catholicism. Thus, in 1228 tens of thousands of Cumans were bap- tised by the Hungarian Archbishop of Strigonium. In 1241, when the Mongols invaded, some of the Cumans escaped to Transylvania, within the Carpathian Arch, but some of them were to later contribute to the establishment of the first Romani- an mediaeval state of Wallachia (or Muntenia) c.1290. The Cuman influence on this region was so strong that the earliest Wallachian rulers bore Cuman names. The ruling Cuman élite was gradually assimilated into the population they governed, becoming Romanian. The area in which Buila-Vânturarit,a National Park is located is renowned for the number of places still known by Cuman names (Djuvara, 1999), the two most famous of which are ‘Cozia’ (a copse of nut trees) and ‘Hurezu’ (an owl or night bird), because outstanding monasteries were built at both (Hurezu Convent, for instance, is a World Heritage Site). Our story can now begin…

< Arnota Monastery, the church, Valcea county, Romania 137 Natural values The BVNP is the smallest national park in Romania, covering just 4,320 ha in the The Buila-Vânturarit,a National Park Capatinii Mountains in the South Car- (BVNP) was established in 2004 as a pathians. The Buila-Vânturarit,a Massif category II protected area. According to covers the area between the western the contract signed by the Romanian corner of the Bistrit,a Gorges and the Ministry of the Environment and National Eastern corner of the Olaˇnes,ti Gorges, Forestry Administration (Romsilva), the and rises up to a ridge 14 km long and BVNP is to be administrated by Romsilva 0.5 to 2.5 km wide. The Park takes its in cooperation with the Kogayon Associ- name from the two highest peaks along ation, which will undertake administrative the ridge —Buila and Vânturarit,a— and issues. This cooperation is based on a varies in altitude from the Vânturarit,a collaboration protocol and is unique Mare peak (1,885m) to the point at which among the Parks administrated by the the Bistrit,a River exits its gorges (550m). National Forestry Administration, because the Kogayon Association was All in all, four rivers run through the Park: heavily involved in the establishment of the Olanesti and Cheia Rivers run the Park. The Kogayon Association is an through the massif from the North-east, NGO established in 2004 by a group of the Costesti and the afore-mentioned students interested in nature conserva- Bistrit,a from the South-west (Asociatia tion and sustainable development in the Kogayon 2005). Running along a South- Buila Vânturarit,a massif; it now has over west to North-east axis, the Buila- 120 members. Vânturarit,a limestone ridge —which, due to its altitude, its climatic conditions and The National Forest Administration is a bad weather, is known as the ‘kingdom state-owned company with a long and of lightning’— forms a barrier for the riv- distinguished history in forestry which ers that collect their water from the administers a further 22 Romanian na- Southern slopes of the Caˇpaˇt,ânii Moun- tional and nature parks. It operates un- tains. The Cheia River forms a spectacu- der the aegis of the Ministry of Agricul- lar system of gorges, one of the deepest ture and Rural Development, which has and wildest in the country, with 1 km of overall responsibility for forestry in Ro- waterfalls, steps, bottoms as narrow as mania. The Ministry of the Environment 2m and vertical walls as tall as 300m and Sustainable Development is respon- carved into the limestone between the sible for formulating environmental poli- Stogu and Vânturarit,a Mica Peaks. cy and strategies and administering Pro- tected Areas in Romania. The National While there are only a few small lakes, Agency for Protected Areas, which is the underground waters have carved out supposed to administer the Protected over 100 caves: the most important Areas remains a ‘paper organisation’ spring (as a water source) is the Izvorul (announced in 2006, it had only two em- Frumos [Beautiful Spring] near the Pa- ployees in March 2009). homie Hermitage.

138 Romania and Buila-Vânturarit,a National Park

The Buila-Vânturarit,a National Park has also resulted in a diversity of habitat. Due certain characteristics, including its mild to the different altitudes (550 to 1,880m), climate and Mediterranean influences, there are three main vegetation levels: that have aided the expansion of species the deciduous, boreal and sub-alpine native to warm climates; its dramatic levels, each of which has specific vege- high-relief fragmentation coupled with tation and fauna. A wide range of spe- the absence of human intervention has cies can be found in the Buila-Vânturarit,a

139 National Park, including 28 species of Monasteries and sketes aside, there are orchids as well as numerous endemic no permanent human settlements within (e.g. Centaurea pinnafida, Dianthus spi the Park. Some sheepfolds are set up culifolius), rare (e.g. Taxus baccata: yew during the summer months, especially in tree, Lilium jankae: mountain lily, Lilium the Southern part of the Park, which is martagon: martagon lily and Centaurea close to the villages of Costesti, Pietreni atropurpurea: thistle) and several endan- and Barbatesti. The local people are in- gered (e.g. Leontopodium alpinum: edel formed about the Park, but the majority weiss) species (Baciu 2007). do not appreciate the importance of conserving its biodiversity, although they Carpathian fauna are also well repre- agree that the area’s natural resources sented, including (most representatively) could form the foundation for prosper- the brown bear, the wolf, the lynx, the ous sustainable development in the area. chamois and the red deer. As the East- ernmost point of the Middle Carpathians, the Buila-Vânturarit,a Massif is also home Spiritual values to the cave micro fauna native to that range; its multiplicity attests to the mas- The area now covered by the BVNP sif’s great biological significance. The —which is also known as ‘the mountain bat colony which has resided in the Bat of monks’— is famous for the six Ortho- Cave (or the Saint Gregory of Decapoli dox monasteries and sketes that lie with- Cave) for a considerable length of time in it or on its fringes. These monastic set- (the cave bottom is covered in 1.7 me- tlements in the accessible part of the tres of bat guano) is composed of 7 Park form a ‘monastic belt’ running distinct species. Many of the species across the Southern and South-eastern found in the Buila-Vânturarit,a National sides of the Park. The religious founda- Park are protected by international con- tions can be considered the Park’s spirit- ventions ratified by the Romania Gov- ual guardians, because the main en- ernment (i.e. the Convention of Bern, the trances and tourist trails start at or pass Bonn Convention, the Convention of close by the monasteries and sketes. CITES, the Directives on Habitats and While it is not within the Park itself, the proximity of the Hurezi Convent means Birds). The Park is a Natura2000 site that its influence cannot be neglected. and has been designated both a Site of Community Interest (SCI) and a Special The monasteries adhere to the Romanian Protected Area (SPA), due to the mam- Orthodox faith, which is part of Eastern mal (14), bird (2) and plant (3) species Orthodoxy, the second largest Christian of European significance to be found communion in the world. Holy Tradition there. Scientific research in the area only (Sfanta Traditie) is very important for the began in the 1950s, and the Park’s flora Romanian Orthodox Church because it and fauna have still to be well docu- represents the faith as Jesus taught it to mented and described (Asociatia Ko- the apostles and passed down uncorrupt- gayon 2005). ed to future generations. Witnesses to the

140 Holy Tradition are the Bible, the liturgy and which is rather unusual for an Orthodox iconography, the rulings of the Ecu Church. Other sites in the vicinity include menical councils and the writings of the the Bolnita (Hospital) Church (1520: the Church Fathers. The only way to correctly only building to have survived from the understand the Bible is through the first monasterial complex), the Saint Church, as only the consensus of the Fa- Archanghels Skete (1633) and Ovidenia thers can provide one with a profound Church (14th century), the Bibescu Voda understanding of the Bible and Christian Bridge, two monumental crosses carved doctrine. into the walls of the Bistrit,a gorges and the bishop’s residence. There is an im- There are two types of monastic com- pressive fresco in Bolnita Church, the munities in the BVNP: coenobitic com- second oldest in Oltenia (an historic re- munities such as Bistrit,a or Arnota, who gion of Muntenia): the oldest is in Cozia se members live in monasteries under a Monastery (1388) and displays influenc- common rule, and semi-eremitic comes of the Cretan school of iconography. munities like Paˇtrunsa or Pahomie whose The Saint Archanghels Skete and Ovide- members live in sketes. nia Church are situated in the Bat’s Cave, Romanian churches are cruciform in which is also known as the cave of Saint shape and divided into three main parts: Gregory of Decapoli. The bat colony a pronaos (narthex), a naos (nave) and which lives in the cave is guarded by the an altar (sanctuary). The nave and sanc- nuns, and access to the cave is only tuary are divided by an altar screen or possible through Bistrit,a Convent with a iconostasis. There is usually a dome in nun as a guide). the ceiling with an icon of Christ Pan- Papusa Skete (1712) is a 15-minute tocrator (Ruler of the Universe). walk from Bistrit,a Convent. A dependen- Bistrit,a Convent (80 nuns) is the most cy of the Bistrit,a Convent, it was formerly important of the Park’s spiritual institu- used as a tranquil place for study by the tions. Built by the Craiovesti boyars in scholar-monks of Bistrit,a. Built in the the 15th century, it has housed the relicts Brancovenian style (which is known as of Saint Gregory of Decapoli (Asia Minor, the Brancovenian baroque, reflecting the 780-842 AC) since 1492. The Convent influence of the Western Renaissance), it has been destroyed many times, but as- also displays the influence of the Italo- sumed its present form in 1855 when a Cretan school. new church was constructed. The church Arnota Convent (30 nuns) was built in is surrounded by a complex of buildings: 1633 by Matei Basarab (an important a Royal Palace to its North and a belve- 17th-century ruler of Muntenia, the Roma- dere to the East whose turrets were spe- nian province between the Carpathians cially designed to afford spectacular and the Danube). According to a local views of the Bistrit,a Gorges and the Pa- story, Matei Basarab was being pursued pusa sketes. The church is in the neo- by a Turkish army but escaped by swap- gothic style with a Gothic iconostasis, ping clothes with one of his soldiers in a

141 swamp. Once crowned, he built a mon- ple of the perfect integration of a monas- astery on the site; he was later buried tic building into the landscape. there, beside his father. The soldier was Hurezi Convent (70 nuns) was built by called “arnaˇut” in Romanian, and that is Constantin Brancoveanu 1690-1697 in a how both the mountain and the monas- forested area whose charm was matched tery got their names. The monastery’s by its loneliness, and whose peace was catholicon is a small, simple building disturbed by the calls of owls (‘hurez’ is a with Brancovenian elements added in word of Cuman origin meaning owl). It th the 18 century. Although austere, this was added to the World Heritage List In beautiful monastery is a representative 1999 and declared an UNESCO monu- historical and religious Romanian monument. The convent is an important na- ment with typical painting, architecture tional monastic centre, and plays a role and sculpture. in preserving Romanian Orthodox culture Skete of the 44 Springs (also known as and spirituality. The Holy Convent of Hu- ‘The Hermitage under the Stone’) was rezi represents the largest collection of built by Abbot Steven of Bistrit,a Convent surviving mediaeval architecture in Mun- in 1701. It is a simple single-aisled tenia, encompassing the convent itself, church decorated on the outside by a the infirmary church, and the sketes of few brick bands. However, the paintings John the Theologian (1698), Stephen the of the skete are deteriorating because of Archdeacon (1703) and the Holy Apos- cracks in the walls caused by explosions tles Peter and Paul. The Convent of Hure- in a nearby limestone mine. zi and its sketes are considered the epit- ome of the Brancovenian style. Paˇ trunsa Skete (30 monks) was built in 1740 by a bishop in memory of his moth- It has to be mentioned that the monaster- er, who fled the invading Turks into this ies and sketes situated within or around area. She went into labour (“paˇtrunsaˇ de the Park form just the fringes of an impor- durerile facerii” in Romanian) in one of tant monastic area centred on Hurezi Convent. Apart from the six monasteries the most isolated places in the country, and sketes and the Hurezi complex, the known nowadays as Paˇtrunsa. Although Park is also home to the Ursani Church the skete has been destroyed many times (18th century), Ramesti Church (17th centu- in the past, the current building —in the ry), Peri Church (1689), Ciorobesti Church Brancovenian style with folk influences— (1750), Gramesti Church (1664)—the sec- dates back to the 19th century. A large ond older wooden church in Oltenia—, new church was built nearby in 2006. Grusetu Church (1801), Romani Church, Pahomie skete (10 monks: also known the Maldarasti Church of the Saint Steven as the ‘Pahomie Hermitage of the Beau- Hermitage (1790), the Lezer Hermitage tiful Spring’) was built in 1520 by a Craio- (14th century), the Bradu Hermitage vesti boyar. The location of the church (1784), the Saints Woivods Church (1722), —beneath a large stone near a splendid Saracinesti Church and Monastery (1688), waterfall— is outstanding, and an exam- Jgheaburi Hermitage (1640), Frasinei

142 Monastery (1860), Iernatic Church, Maˇleni ble with the Neamt Monastery in Moldo- Church, Vaˇtaˇs,es,ti Church, Mierles,ti va or Rila Monastery in Bulgaria. Munte- Church and Poieni church (Baˇrbaˇtes,ti). nia’s first printing press was housed here and printed the first book (Macarie, 1508) A monastery is a settlement where a reli- printed on Romanian territory. The first gious community of monks or nuns lives. monastic document written in the Roma- They dedicate their life to prayer, pover- nian language was printed here in 1573 ty, chastity and obedience. The leader of by Eftimie, and other books of signifi- the monastery is the abbot supported by cance to Romanian culture were printed the monastic community, the spiritual at the Bistrit,a Convent, including the council and the economical council. Eve- Cronica Universala (1620) and Pravila de ry monastery has almost complete ad- la Govora (1640). ministrative autonomy; in our case, they are subordinate to the Bishopric of Ram- The military school, which operated in nic, which is subordinate in turn to the the convent for a short time, was established by Marshal Averescu and gener- Metropolitan Church of Oltenia, which als Dragalina and Grigorescu, national was founded in 1370 and consists of on- heroes of World War One. Marshal An- ly two dioceses: the Archbishopric of tonescu, the Romanian dictator during Craiova and the Bishopric of Ramnic. World War Two and a benefactor of the convent, was also imprisoned here for a Cultural values short time. The Hurezi Convent owns a valuable collection of religious objects The cultural values of the area are strong- as well as an interesting library. During ly related to the presence of the Ortho- the reign of C. Brancoveanu, Prince of dox monasteries. In medieval times, the Wallachia (1688-1714), the convent func- Bistrit,a Convent was Muntenia’s main tioned as an important cultural centre for cultural centre, and was thus compara- Muntenia and the regions south of the

Traditional pottery with the ‘Hurezu rooster’

143 Danube. There are many museums here, served in the area: horses, for example, including the Horezu Ceramics Museum, are still used as a basic means of trans- the Potter’s Workhouse in Olari, the Art portation and for working in the forests Museum and Trovanti Museum in Cost- and fields. Traditional animal breeding esti and the Popular Art Exhibition —Baˇr methods, too (and sheep breeding, in baˇtes,ti. Horezu is the most famous pot- particular), are also still in use in the area tery centre in Romania and its stylised and while they may be relatively ineffi- rooster (the local potters use symbols cient and have an adverse impact on the that are of pagan as well as Christian ori- local economy in the form of low produc- gin [fish, trees, birds, snakes, etc.]) has tivity, overgrazing etc., recent trends to come to symbolise the entire region. replace transhumance with the perma- The Ministry of Culture and Religious Af- nent use of certain pasturelands and a fairs is responsible for protecting and con shift to goat breeding pose a real threat serving cultural, religious and historic to local biodiversity. Local traditions, sites of national importance. Though the customs and handicrafts remain closely Ministry does allocate funds to restora- linked to the locals’ main occupations of tion programmes and schemes, they are shepherding, wood and stone craft, fruit- usually inadequate. Local councils take growing, apiculture, pottery, carpet wea care of local sites of importance, but giv- ving, weaving and the production of tra- en the inadequacy of the funds provided, ditional fruit drinks. Since these activities monasteries and churches are usually left have no adverse affect on the environ- to use their own financial means. The mi ment, there is no source of major conflict nistries of Public Works on the one hand, between the locals and the Park Authori- and Agriculture and Rural Development ty objectives (Asociatia Kogayon 2006). on the other, are also involved in other pro In the case of monasteries, the harsh liv- jects in the area (roads, agriculture, etc.). ing conditions in the forested areas necessarily led to a common and efficient Pressures and impacts use of pasturelands, hayfields and forest clearings. Each monastic community still Pressures engages in traditional activities such as The main characteristics of the BVNP is cattle-raising, woodcraft, fruit produc- its inaccessibility and the absence of hu- tion, mushroom and wild berry collec- man settlements within its boundaries. As tion, apiculture, weaving, the making of a result, most human activity in the area is traditional fruit drinks and fish-farming in concentrated on the mountain’s Eastern ponds that have no significant negative slopes. For hundreds of years, the liveli- impact on the environment. This model, hood of the local population —who are characterised by sustainable consump- mostly engaged in wood harvesting and tion and production, does not produce a animal breeding— has been closely large volume of food and any surplus is linked to the forest and the alpine mead- sold in the monastic stores or is used as ows. Traditional lifestyles have been pre- alms on Orthodox feast days.

144 This local husbandry is, however, ex- The significant increase in construction pected to suffer dramatic changes due has translated into increasing demand to the influx of goods from the EU which, for raw material such as wood and ce- produced by intensive agriculture and in- ment, and the exploitation of timber and tensive animal breeding methods, are lime in the area is expected to increase. lower in price (even though the quality The BVNP can be seen as a transition can often be lower). belt between the monastic area centred The forest represents 89% of the Park’s on Hurezi Convent and the wild area rep- total area; the remaining 11% is made resented by the Capatinii Mountains. The up of pasture land and hayfields. The medieval monasteries and the Horezu Park’s main landowners are the National pottery centre are the main attractions in Forest Administration (around 48%, cor- the BVNP area, and visitors are usually responding to 2,074 ha) and private attracted by the area’s cultural heritage; owners (around 52%, corresponding to also, while just a small proportion of the 2,246 ha). The main private owners are annual visitors can be considered pil- the villages of Cheia, Barbatesti and grims, during the main feast days of the Olanesti, which collectively own some Orthodox year and the monasteries’ 1,900 ha, the Municipality of Costesti (60 Hram [Saints’ days] the tourism is exclu- ha), Arnota Monastery (210 ha), Pietreni sively religious. To a lesser extent, the and Costesti churches and a few private tourists are also attracted by the natural individuals. Although major owners such scenery of the outstanding Bistrit,a, Cost- as the National Forest Administration esti, Cheia and Olanesti gorges, which and village collectives are oriented to- are accessible by car. The gorges and wards a sustainable use of resources, the great number of caves are of great small owners tend to be orientated to- interest for climbers, cavers, etc. Further- wards extensive use. Although the forest more, there are two spas famous for their area owned by the Romanian Orthodox curative waters in the Baile Olanesti and Church is currently limited, important ar- Govora areas respectively. As far as tour- eas have been claimed (50 ha by Bistrit,a ism is concerned, the BVNP is the ‘end Convent , another 250 ha by Arnota Mon- of the road’ for visitors to the area. There astery) so the Romanian Orthodox are many tourist trails and it is only a Church could well become an important matter of time before the facilities re- landowner in the Park area. quired for mass tourism are constructed in the Park. A number of pensions and During the communist era, the lime pit traditional farms have been built recent- between Bistrit,a and Arnota Monasteries ly, while the Church has also developed was exploited as an open quarry which or modernised its various facilities in or- employed a noisy belt conveyer. Access der to host a greater numbers of guests. to Arnota Monastery is only possible through the lime pit, which is anything At the community level, the Park’s edu- but in harmony with the monastery’s spir- cational and awareness-raising initia- itual tranquillity and remarkable views. tives continue to have a positive impact

145 on promoting the area’s image and val- than 100 organised climbing trails. Since ues, paving the way for increased reve- some of the waterfalls freeze during the nues from recreational tourism and local winter, the Park can also offer ice climb- attractions. ing. Extreme skiing and flying with delta wings are also possible, though neither Impact on the natural environment are particularly popular as yet. Mountain bikers appreciate the forest roads within The animal husbandry economy of the the Park. The Park also boasts over one region is oriented towards self-sufficien- hundred caves and a number of aston- cy; no significant over-production is re- ishing gorges among its attractions, and corded, so these traditional activities some —especially the gorges and caves have a low impact on the environment. in the vicinity of monasteries— are easily However, lime exploitation and wood accessed by tourists. harvesting is expected to increase in intensity in the years to come; an area of Camping areas, mountain refuges, shel- 16 ha inside the Park was approved for ters, water reserves, rubbish collection the future exploitation of the lime pit be- facilities, information panels, towers for fore the Park was established, so the ac- bird / animal watching are some of the tivity will be continuing in the Park (Aso- facilities that need to be established at ciatia Kogayon 2005). appropriate points in the Park. While such facilities would assure good condi- Tourists are especially interested in the tions for the tourists, they would also al- monasteries. The presence of the Hore- low for an increase in visitor numbers. zu pottery centre and the famous mon- The growing number of pensions, hotels asteries of Bistrit,a and Arnota with their and traditional farms in the neighbouring sketes are the Park’s main tourist attrac- area will increase the average length of tions. The Park Administration and Ko- stay in the area, which will give tourists gayon Association promote and adver- an opportunity to visit the Park’s natural tise the spiritual and cultural values of the attractions as well as its monasteries. Park, which has led to increased visitor numbers. An ecotourism trail called ‘The If the Park’s visiting rules are not respect- gates of BVNP: Nature and Spirituality’ is ed, biodiversity could suffer due to envi- accessible to all visitors, with all the nec- ronmental pollution caused by the waste, essary information provided by informa- barbeque pits, and noise related to mass tion panels and tourist indicators. There tourism. Conflicts may then arise between are 18 tourist trails beginning in, or inter- tourists and the traditional users / owners secting, the Park. These trails are short of the forests, hayfields and pasture land. (4-5 hours) since the Park is small (14 km The main activity with a negative impact long, 0.5-2.5 km wide) and all start, end on the environment is lime exploitation. or pass close by a monastery or skete. During the 40 years in which the local Buila-Vânturarit,a is a paradise for climb- lime pit has been in commercial use, the ers. There are 5 climbing areas and more region has produced large quantities of

146 Interior of Bistrita Convent limestone and attracted large invest- well developed. Activities such as log- ments to ensure its efficient operation. ging on steep slopes and collecting and Lime production also provides work both transporting logs on river banks pose in the immediate vicinity and in the local further risks to biodiversity. The different cement factory. However, the lime pit types of ownership (state, community, does impinge on the natural environ- individual, monastic) make illegal log- ment. The dust and the noise produced ging possible, while ambiguities in own- by the pit, the lime mill and the conveyer ership status (areas that have been belt have a significant negative impact claimed but not restituted; areas whose on the neighbouring area. For their part, ownership is being legally disputed) can the quarry’s administrators consider lime in some cases encourage violations of exploitation a ‘traditional activity’ and the forestry regulations and result in irra- thus not out of keeping with the Park. tional and illegal timber exploitation. In the pursuit of greater efficiency, the Impact on the spiritual and cultural traditional methods of wood harvesting aspects of the site using horses, oxen and carts to collect and transport small logs, which have a The site’s main spiritual values are relat- low impact on the environment, are now ed to the Christian Orthodox faith and its giving way to modern methods utilising institutions, whose regimes vary from ex- modern tractors and trucks. This requires tremely strict in the isolated Arnota Mon- an improved infrastructure, especially astery to more lax in Bistrit,a Monastry, since larger quantities of wood are har- which is situated close to the main road vested in the same period of time. This and visited by more tourists. Mass tour- poses particular difficulties because the ism represents a double-edged sword BVNP’s network of forest roads is not for monastic life, since the new facilities

147 are not in keeping with the spiritual and the environment. It is assumed that, given a cultural values of the area. In Arnota’s dedicated management team, the level of case, for instance, the new buildings funds attracted by the BVNP will increase in (which resemble those of the Bistrit,a the years to come. Public interest is fo- complex) clash with the Brancovenian cused on only the most spectacular and style of the old church, while in Paˇtrunsa, well-known elements of Romania’s natural the new church, built in 2006, dwarfs the heritage, such as the big carnivores, caves, old historic one. gorges and animals considered important That the lime quarry is positioned be- by the Habitats Directive. These sites have tween the monasteries of Bistrit,a and Ar- to be mapped, and specific management nota is nothing short of a disaster. The measures must be applied. Eastern aspect of Bistrit,a Convent, which Governmental Decree 57/2007 introdu was designed to emphasise the sur- ced a new classification for zoning inside rounding landscape, now affords a Romanian national parks. The strictly-pro ‘splendid’ view of the lime pit, while the tected areas thus introduced —which ac- dust and noise affect both monasteries. count for 44% of the BVNP’s total area— One can only travel from Bistrit,a to Arno- are off-limits to all human intervention ex- ta through the quarry along a route re- cept for research, education and eco sembling the road from heaven to hell, tourism. In 74% of the buffer zone (which due to the enormous contrast between represents the remaining 56% of the Park), the tranquil spirituality of the monasteries only the special conservation harvesting and the bare earth, noise and dust of the of small quantities of wood is allowed. In lime pit. The monasteries and the areas conclusion, normal logging is permitted around them are models of cleanliness on only 619 ha, which represents just and good management, and could play 16% of the Park’s total forested area. In an important role in environmental edu- areas where logging is forbidden or restri cation in the years to come. cted, the dysfunctionality of the compe nsation mechanism has left private own- Conservation perspectives ers discontented with the restrictions and the impossibility of obtaining a revenue and sustainability from their woodland. As a result, the main Trends in the conservation of the forest owners (the representatives of vil- natural heritage of the site lage collectives and the small owners, in The BVNP Administration and Kogayon particular) are strongly contesting this le- Association are responsible for conserv- gal provision in the courts. Since no coming the natural values of the area, and vari- pensation is available for continuing to ous projects have been implemented in not fell trees in the core zone, the repre- the Park area through Kogayon. After EU sentatives of the Barbatesti collective tried enlargement in 2007 and the granting of to obtain an injunction shifting the bound- Natura2000 status to the Park, it has been aries of the Park so that Barbatesti’s col- possible to obtain EU structural funds for lective property was outside the BVNP.

148 Fortunately, the Supreme Court’s ruling jects, and it is only a matter of time be- in 2009 emphasised the privileging of na- fore this involvement is extended to envi- ture conservation measures over property ronmental issues, given the Church’s de- rights, but the compensation problem re- sire to tackle real challenges. Nowadays, mains unsolved. Future legislation is ex- the Church is the most credible institution pected to ensure better protection which in the Romanian state, and its influence accords with the expectations of the Na- is expected to remain at least at the same tional Agency for Protected Areas. In level in the future. The Kogayon Associa- any case, the precariousness of the law tion has already developed a project en- represents a major obstacle to uniting all titled ‘The gates of BVNP: Nature and the stakeholders in the area in support of Spirituality’ in order to emphasise the as- protecting its natural heritage. sociation between cultural and spiritual heritage in the case of the BVNP. Trends in the protection of cultural and spiritual heritage Several traditional events have also been staged to help preserve cultural heritage After fifty years of Communism, when the and traditional knowledge in the area, in- Romanian Orthodox Church was re- cluding the ‘Reel of Costumes’, a cele- pressed and thousands of monks and bration of popular costumes and music; nuns expelled and monasteries closed, ‘Golden Honeycomb’, a day dedicated the Orthodox Church is now entering a to apiculture; the ‘Rooster of Hurez’, a real growth period after an economically pottery trade fair; ‘Învârtita Dorului’, a perilous period of transition lasting al- day of celebration for and of shepherds; most two decades. For example, in one ‘Strawberry Day’ and the International year alone (1998), 145 churches were Roma Festival. These events are expect- built in Romania with a further 731 under ed to be instituted as annual events and construction. The Romanian Orthodox to be joined by several new ones. Church is arguably the second largest Orthodox flock numerically (with 19 million Rumanian Orthodox in Romania and Recommendations a further 0.7 million in Moldavian Repub- lic) after the Russian Orthodox Church. The BVNP is a place where nature and New churches are being built every- spiritually interact in a specific way. The where, along with new monasteries, her- role of ‘the mountain of monks’ with its mitages, shrines etc. (some even inside coenobitic and semi-eremitic communi- some protected areas), while the number ties living inside or close to a truly wild of clergy is also growing. Coupled with area should be recognised (especially the possibility of more EU funding, the given the presence of a World Heritage prospects for the protection of the na- Site —Hurezi Convent— nearby) as pro tion’s cultural and spiritual heritage is moting a spiritual attitude towards nature promising. The Orthodox Church is offi- and environmental protection at a na- cially involved in cultural and social pro tional and international level.

149 The management plan proposal for the Raise people’s awareness and they will BVNP has been approved by the Con- be far more willing to follow rules and re- sultative Council (which represents the spect beliefs and practices. For this rea- stakeholders) and the Scientific Council son, public awareness and education (the representatives of the scientific com- programmes must be implemented, munity). However, the law requires that which will focus jointly on the environ- the management plan be endorsed by mental and the religious, in order to em- the Environmental Ministry. Regarding phasise the region’s wonderful mixture the spiritual / cultural aspects of the site of natural and spiritual features (informa- and its natural heritage, both councils tion centres relating to both the park and agreed that the Park’s main objective is the monasteries; educating young peo- ‘the conservation of biological, geologi- ple to appreciate the purity, beauty and cal and cultural diversity for sustainable sanctity of the site). A cultural inter- development in the area’. The internal change is required between the monas- zoning includes three areas specifically tic population, local people and visitors dedicated to developing the monastic with regard to spiritual / cultural aspects communities (Arnota, Paˇtrunsa, Pahom- and natural heritage values if the site is ie). An evaluation of the proposal’s im- to be seen as combining the spiritual / pact in terms of conserving cultural di- cultural and natural heritage. versity has been conducted, and an ac- Efforts to protect the environment and tion plan drawn up. encourage more sustainable develop- The natural heritage of the BVNP has ment need to show that conserving the been extensively studied, but its cultural cultural, spiritual and natural heritage of and spiritual heritage has not been as the site can enrich people’s lives. The rigorously investigated; further and more management plan has to emphasise the focused research is required to identify necessity of a viable mechanism for and fill in gaps in our current knowledge. compensating the owners of strictly protected areas where logging is forbidden Detailed studies of the importance of or limited. Certification is necessary for spiritual and cultural values have also to the forest and the wood-processing in- be conducted by stakeholder groups. dustry, but also for agriculture (organic Moreover, religious activities and related farming), tourism, etc. The use of locally- tourist activities, as well as other activi- adapted crops and livestock must be en- ties permissible in the monastic areas, couraged, and brands for local products must be defined in the final version of the and services must be officially recog- management plan. nised and promoted. Measures to re- Education is one of the most effective duce the impact of the lime pit (perma- tools for developing an integrated ap- nent monitoring, reforestation of exploit- proach to the conservation of the area’s ed areas within the quarry, etc.) have al- natural, spiritual, and cultural heritage. so to be taken.

150 References Baciu, C.I. (2007), Masivul Buila, maretie spirituala intr — un cadru paradiziac, Vacante si calatorii.

Administratia Parcului National Buila Vanurarita (2006), Buila-Vânturarit,a — Cel mai mic pac national din Romania. Descopera-l pe tot!, Asociatia Kogayon.

Asociatia Kogayon (2005), Parcul National Buila Vanturita- Studiu de fundamentare sti- intifica, Asociatia Kogayon.

Djuvara, N. (1999), O scurta istorie a romanilor, povestita celor tineri, Humanitas, Bucharest.

Websites Parcul National Buila-Vânturarit,a, 20 December 2007, http://www.buila.ro Regia Nationala a Padurilor-Romsilva, 20 December 2007, http://www.rosilva.ro.

Romanian Orthodox Church, 15 March 2009, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_ Orthodox_Church.

Hurezi Convent, main entrance

151 152 An integrated ecological approach to monastic land: the case of the Holy Convent of Chrysopigi Chania, Crete, Greece

Mother Superior Theoxeni

Introduction - The history of the pegic Monastery. The monks participat- Holy Monastery of Chrysopigi ed in the historic struggles of the people of the area, and in consequence the The Holy Monastery of Chrysopigi was monastery itself suffered frequent retri- founded in Chania towards the end of bution at the hands of the Turks who the 16th century, during the last period of torched the monastery for the last time in Venetian rule. It is dedicated to the Moth- 1821 at the time of the Greek revolution. er of God, the Life-Giving Spring. During the Second World War the occu- Its founder was a Doctor of Medicine and pying German forces converted the mon- of Philosophy from Chania, educated in It- astery into their headquarters, forcing aly, known as John Chartophylax, who was the monks to leave and causing great an important personality of his time and an damage to the architectural structure of active member of the local community. the buildings –except for the church. A During the latter period of Venetian rule, period of decline followed. Chrysopigi became a spiritual centre for In 1976 Chrysopigi Monastery was con- Crete with many monks and a rich library. verted into a Convent. The new communi- During the period of Turkish rule the spir- Stavropegic (and Patriarchal) is a monastery itual tradition of the monastery continued which is directly dependent on the Ecumenical and the monastery became a Stavro Patriarchate in Constantinople.

< The Holy Monastery of Chrysopigi, Chania, Crete, Greece 153 ty of the first three nuns restored the mon- The second area of monastic land com- astery buildings from their foundations prises approximately 30 ha and is situat- and sought to give them new life. The first ed outwith the city of Chania. This location abbess, Mother Theosemni (†2000), was is an old monastic dependency of the Mo the new founder of Chrysopigi Monastery. nastery of Chrysopigi and the sisterhood now lives there in the monastic buildings Today the Convent comprises a commu- and sketes. It is situated in an area of nity of 40 sisters. The sisters are involved great natural beauty and operates as an in icon-painting, the preservation of old open museum for pilgrims and visitors. It books and icons, the publication of books, comprises woodland and a small gorge, bookbinding, church embroidery, the cul- through which a torrent runs during the tivation of land with organic methods etc. winter months. The area contains many The monastery is visited by many pil- caves, some of which are chapels, with stone footpaths to guide the pilgrims. grims from Greece and abroad, many of whom are young people who are redis- This monastic land represents a very im- covering the life of worship and the tradi- portant part of the natural map of Crete. tion of the Orthodox Church. According to the “Rio Declaration on En- vironment and Development” the ecosystem of Crete is one of the most sensi- Natural values tive and fragile in the world. This specific Chrysopigi consists of two large monas- biotope has a very significant biodiversi- tic areas. The one includes approximate- ty, which has been the object of scientific ly 10 ha and is situated only 3.5 kilome- research. Many of the plants indigenous tres from the city centre. This land com- to the area are valuable for the treatment of illnesses. They have been known to prises mainly olive and mandarin trees, conventional medicine for centuries and along with orange, avocado, fig, apricot are used even in our day in pharmaceu- and carob trees, as well as vegetable tics. Apart from the plants, some of which gardens. The convent has succeeded in are rare, there are all the trees character- having this area designated as a green istic of Cretan flora: the olive, carob, plat- belt area (protection zone A). In this way anus, cypress, myrtle, oleander, caparis, any danger of urban development on the cistus creticus, thyme etc. sacred area which surrounds the monastery is prevented. The land around the monastery buildings has been preserved Spiritual and cultural values and is a source of life for the city of Cha- Apart from its environmental value, the mo nia. In 1995 the Monastery received the nastic area of the caves also possesses 1st ‘Habitat’ prize as the “best model for an archaeological and historical value. It the restorative and environmental regen- includes the Church of St. Kyriaki, a monu eration in the wider area”. See Agenda 21, ch. 18, United Nations Confer- The prize was awarded by the UN Conference ence on Environment and Development, Rio de ‘HABITAT II’, 1995. Janeiro 1992.

154

Ascetic hermitages in the cave area

ment from the Venetian period, which ser when it would be regenerated and would ves as the starting point for the pilgrim’s become accessible to people it would itinerary. Here the pilgrim or nature lover function as a place of reconciliation with will leave his car to continue on foot follow- nature. Elder Porphyrios referred to na- ing the stone paths to the various hermit- ture as a ‘secret Gospel’ and used to say ages and chapels constructed in the ca that ‘all things around us are droplets of ves. There is also a path that leads higher the love of God’. “Droplets of the Love up to the ruins of a Byzantine fortress. of God” is the title of a children’s book This area was inhabited up until the first recently published by the Convent and decades of the previous century, but which has been translated into German, was destroyed by the Germans during English and Korean. With the blessing the Second World War. The monastery and encouragement of the holy Elder then became desolate, because the Porphyrios the sisterhood regenerated buildings were turned into stockyards the area of the caves. This area was in- and the natural environment was altered habited by ascetics for many centuries by an uncontrolled grazing of flocks. and thus it was sanctified through their prayer and worship. Important ascetic Elder Porphyrios, a contemporary saint figures lived here, either permanently or of the Christian Orthodox Church (†1991 periodically. One of best-known is St. on Mount Athos), who had an exception- Gerasimos of Kefallonia who lived for al love for nature, a few years before his about three years in a cave of this area. death urged the sisterhood of Chrysopi- The presence of holy ascetics on the land gi to work towards the regeneration of contributed to the sanctification of the ele- this abandoned monastic area, which is ments of the natural environment such as the property of the monastery, assuring

the nuns that by the grace of God he dis- See Wounded by love: the life and wisdom of cerned that the area was holy and that Elder Porphyrios, 2005, Limni-Evia, p. 218.

155 Walking on the stone paths the springs, to which people even to this • Participation in services of worship in day flock in search of cures for illnesses. the cave chapels

The conservation of the area’s biodiversi- • A pilgrimage to the caves and hermit- ty is therefore not only a matter of surviv- ages of the monastery with a walk on al, but a spiritual issue. For this reason the stone paths and steps since 1997 environmental education pro- • Exploration of the biodiversity of the grammes have been organised by sisters flora, the springs and the holy water of the community who have specialized sources in this subject. These programmes are designed for school and university stu- • Walking to the rain water tank and the dents, camp leaders, young women, mo- monastery wine-press nastic communities etc. During the last • A walk around the monastic buildings three years secondary school pupils from that are being restored throughout Greece have participated in • A visit to the hand-made soap work- the programme in the context of educa- shop and the beehives with organic tional excursions in cooperation with the honey Environmental Education Department of the local Secondary Education Authority. In addition, students are able to have Young people are invited to participate in computer access to information con- specific experimental programmes, and cerning the sacredness of creation and specifically in conferences and meetings, the management of the environment, in which take place in the restored monas- a restored building outside the main tery. The programmes, in addition to the monastery next to an old cistern. theoretical aspect, include: The Monastery’s environmental program • The planting of trees and the releas- me aims to raise awareness and educate ing of birds in the monastic biotope the young people who participate in it

156 (approximately 1500 per year), in order to One of the main activities of the Convent realise the importance of the conserva- is the cultivation of its land with organic tion of creation. The close connection be- farming methods, which is in accordance tween the Orthodox tradition and the pro- with the Ecumenical Patriarchate’s call tection of the environment is fully per- (01/09/1989) for the protection of the En- ceived and is well accepted by the stu- vironment. From that time the Monastery dents, as their ever increasing participa- of Chrysopigi has closely followed the ini- tion in the programme demonstrates. tiatives of the Ecumenical Patriarchate.

What emerges from these experiences is On the monastery land, chemical fertiliz- ers have been replaced with compost the vision of a life of thanksgiving: Just produced from organic matter, i.e. leaves as in the Divine Liturgy the bread and from the trees, manure from free-grazing wine are transformed and offered back animals, grass, sawdust and raw wood, to God, so the whole of creation can be quick-lime, fruit and vegetable scraps etc. seen as something to be sanctified and Vetch is sown for the general enrichment offered to God and indeed the inner be- of the soil. When the vetch is in flower, it ing of each individual may equally be is ploughed into the land thereby releas- transfigured and returned to God in a ing organic nitrogen into the soil. mystery of thanksgiving. Harmful insects affecting the trees and In accordance with the spirit of the Ortho- the vegetable gardens are also dealt with dox Church the aim of a true monastic is by using organic methods. That is, with to seek sanctity through the transfiguring the use of special traps which capture path of asceticism, prayer and repent- the dangerous insects while leaving the ance. He lives in a self sufficient manner, beneficial ones unharmed. Diseases in in obedience to the Church, free from any the vegetable gardens are dealt with by personal wishes; for that reason he lives in planting basil and dwarf marigold flow- peace, without anxiety or stress. He un- ers among the plants. Because of their derstands the anguish of the world, not strong odour, they are excellent insect- with despair but with love and prayer. Thus repellents. The plants are also sprinkled his life becomes a witness to sustainability with sulphur for the same reason. and an example of anti-consumerism and Since the olive oil, the mandarins and leavens the world with a new cast of mind, the avocados are produced in larger which is permanent, deep and definite. quantities, they are marketed with appropriate packaging and labelling, which in- Conservation perspectives and forms and educates the consumer about sustainability the programme of organic cultivation and its exceptional importance for health The sisterhood of Chrysopigi has re- of mind and body. stored the complex of buildings and preserved the artifacts of the Monastery Ecumenical Patriarch Demetrios, “Encyclical letter, September 1, 1989”, in Fr. John Chryssavgis through the creation of an ecclesiastical (ed.), Cosmic grace – Humble prayer, Michigan and folk museum. / Cambridge, 2003, pp. 379.

157 Many efforts are made by the monastic tional synthesis of hagiological subjects community of Chrysopigi to ensure the with the theological interpretation of so- protection of the monastic area of the cial, ecological and eschatological con- caves. Hunting is prohibited in the bi- cerns of contemporary man. otope and consequently many species In accordance with this spirit, subjects of birds find a refuge there, while the ex- such as the creation of the world as it clusion of grazing animals has helped in was created by God as ‘very good’ are the revival of the flora. At the same time, depicted. All the mysteries which sanctify due to the organic agriculture, the area and bless the path of human life as well has been chosen on a number of occa- sions as a point for bird release by bird as material things, portrayals of Saints protection organisations. who, with the grace of God obtained a Paradise-like relationship with the natural In regarding to the areas with buildings, world, as for example, Saint Seraphim of along with the restoration of the historical Sarov, who fed a wild bear with his own monuments, new stone buildings are un- hands or Saint John the Hermit of Crete der construction on a rocky prominence who walked on the sea (from Gavdos to in the area in total harmony with the natu- Crete) and many others. ral surroundings. In the new of monastic buildings of Transfiguration, programmes Pressures and impacts - to implement alternative forms of energy recommendations (such as solar heating and photovoltaic) are being studied and put into practice, It is true that the world-wide ecological while at the same time plans for water crisis, which often turns into ecological management are being carried out. In disaster, is frequently irreversable and addition, trees are being planted with the that man feels impotent in face of this prospect of being watered by the outflow painful reality. As Christians, however, from biological cleansing installations. our criterion and ultimate destination is The aim of this environmental pro- the future Kingdom. We are called to ex- gramme is to serve as a model for other perience it every day as a foretaste of monasteries on Crete –and indeed eternity. For this reason we do not quail throughout Greece– and also as a model before the hopeless prognostications of for farms in the surrounding villages and the scientists concerning the future of on the whole island of Crete. the planet, since we have the certainty In addition, the preservation of sanctity that here ‘we have no enduring city, but of the world is sought through the art of look for the city that is to come’ . Orthodox iconography. The painting of In accordance with this spirit, an ardu- the icons of the Orthodox Church of ous daily struggle is made by the sister- Saint Andrew in the city of Düsseldorf in hood of Chrysopigi for the preservation Germany by the sisters of the monastery of the holy monastic setting with its rich which was completed in 2002, consti- biodiversity and rare flora and fauna. The tutes a characteristic sample of orthodox iconography, which combines the tradi- Heb. 13. 14.

158 The ascent to Transfiguration problems are many. Today the children tians: a monastery in its location, a priest of the shepherds that live in the sur- in his parish, a bishop in his diocese, a rounding area do not have animals but layperson in his family or workplace, a dream of how they might exploit com- Government Minister in his position of re- mercially the pastureland which has sponsibility, a child in his class at school. been given to them and which consti- In this way, each individual, doing the will tutes the continuation of the area of the of God with consistency and responsibil- caves. According to the new law governing archaeological sites, the caves and ity in his or her everyday activities, can their immediate environs constitute a become aware of the sacredness of the protected area. However, for the land world and make his or her attendance at beyond the caves which have been giv- church an effective force. Our path on en to the shepherds as pastureland, a earth thus becomes a witness to hope legal framework for environmental pro- and joy; the things of this world cease to tection must be found. For if this wider be ephemeral and subject to corruption area is not preserved environmentally, and are transfigured into things immortal the environment around the monastery, and eternal. The quintessence is the love the springs, the trees, the organic culti- which the saints of our Church live and vation, the rare flora of the ravine, the an- teach. Love for all things, even for the imals and the birds and indeed the mon- basest and most insignificant things of uments themselves, along with the his- this world, which, however, carry within torical and cultural heritage and tradition them the breath of God. Because as the will all be endangered. poet Odysseus Elytis writes: ‘The earth needs a caress and a whisper like that of We believe that when we work conscien- the rider in his horse’s ear’. tiously with the conviction that God has providential care for the world we pre- Odysseus Elytis, The Light-Tree and 14th Beau- serve our self-consciousness as Chris- ty, Athens 1999.

159 160 Initiatives taken by the Cistercian Monastery of Poblet to improve the integration of spiritual, cultural and environmental values Catalonia, Spain

Josep-Maria Mallarach Lluc M. Torcal

Purpose me 130 km west of Barcelona in a mid-altitude Mediterranean landscape (image in By means of a description of some of the p. 162). Founded in the 12th century, this actions already undertaken and some of impressive monastic citadel complex is an the proposals suggested for the coming outstanding example of mediaeval Cister- years, this paper discusses the main ini- cian architecture. The Monastery was ac- tiatives aimed at improving the integra- tive for 7 centuries, and had enormous spi tion of spiritual, cultural and natural val- ritual, cultural and political influence ues in the activities of the Monastery of throughout most of its history; indeed, in Poblet in Catalonia, Spain. The process began during the first Delos Initiative its heyday, Poblet was one of the most im- workshop, which was held in Montserrat portant Cistercian monasteries in Europe. in 2006, and has continued to evolve The Cistercian Order is a branch of the during the preparation of the Delos Initia- Benedictine family of Latin Christian mo- tive case-study. nastic orders. Established in the 12th century, it was well known in Western Eu- rope during the Middle Ages for inter alia Background promoting advanced sustainable tech- The Monastery of Santa Maria de Poblet is niques in agriculture, forestry and animal located in southern Catalonia, Spain, so husbandry, and, in particular, for its work

< Inner court of Santa Maria de Poblet Monastery, next to the old dorms, Catalonia, Spain 161 Summer view of the Monastery of Santa Maria de Poblet and surrounding landscape in reclaiming wasteland. It was also re- ods of fasting. The basic productive and nowned for its plain ascetic life-style, and organisational unit was the Cistercian the simple but extremely beautiful architec- farm where a small number of lay broth- ture of its buildings. Although there were ers worked and followed a life-style simi- some precedents in Europe, its farm- lar to that of the fathers —i.e. the monks based organisation is a distinctive feature who devoted themselves, above all, to of early Cistercian agriculture (Lekai 1987). prayer and contemplation.

The place name ‘Poblet’ is a Catalan deri- Monastic life at Poblet ended in 1835, vation of the Latin populetus, which refers when Spain’s ‘liberal’ government sup- to the riparian white poplar (Populus alba) pressed all the country’s monastic orders forest that grows along a nearby stream. for a second time and the Monastery was Since this tree has white bark, there may abandoned. The Spanish Government also be a symbolic relationship with the took over all Church properties and in the white habits of the Cistercians, who are years that followed the forests of Poblet, also known as ‘white monks’. which had been managed in a sustainable manner for centuries, were overexploi As a result of donations, the Monastic ted. In just a few decades, this extraordi- community came to own and / or man- nary forest had been razed to the ground age vast areas of land with distinct eco- by people from nearby villages, while the systems in the Eastern Iberian Peninsu- old monastery and its facilities were com- la, ranging from alpine meadows in the pletely devastated (Altisent 1974). Pyrenees, where sheep flocks spent the summer, to productive croplands and Fortunately, this lack of control lasted forests in central Catalonia and the la- only a few decades. Mindful of its out- goons on the Mediterranean coast that standing cultural value, various govern- provided the monks with fish during peri- ment bodies slowly began to restore the

162 Gothic cloister and bell tower

Monastery’s buildings in the mid 19th cen- a further 25 ha of forestland within walking tury. By 1871, most of Poblet’s forests had distance of the Monastery. The old Cister- become state property: the forestry de- cian farm, used by groups of monks at cer- partment implemented a very successful tain times of the year, is almost entirely restoration process and the Monastery powered by solar energy, while water is had regained much of its former splen- pumped from a nearby mountain stream. dour a century later (Martínez 2001).

In 1940, a group of four Cistercian monks Spiritual, cultural and natural values returned to Poblet and revived the mo- of the Monastery and the Park nastic community: the community grew slowly, and there are currently some 30 The Monastery of Santa Maria de Poblet monks under an Abbot living in the Mon- is a unique artistic achievement and one th astery. A brotherhood of the Monastery of the most perfect expressions of 12 -, th th —whose numbers will soon reach 400— 13 - and 14 -century Cistercian archi- has also been established, and the key el- tecture (image in p. 163). The abbey ements of this great medieval monastery contains architectural masterpieces from many historical periods, although its Ro- are again being put to the very uses they manesque and Gothic elements are of were built for six or seven centuries ago. particular note (image in p. 167). Poblet, Like most other historic monasteries in one of the largest and most complete of Spain, Poblet is currently the property of all Cistercian abbeys, also served over the Spanish government. The monks are the centuries as a royal palace and resi- allowed to use the buildings and are dence. It is a Royal Monastery, since it charged with its maintenance, but the com- was chosen by the kings of the ancient munity owns just 6 ha of gardens and vine- House of Aragon as home to their pan- yards in the vicinity of the monastery, plus theon during the 13th and 14th centuries.

163 The important archives of Montserrat Tar- cerrioides), Algerian oak (Q. canariensis), radellas i Macià and the Casa Ducal de sessile oak (Q. petraea), Pyrenean oak Medinaceli are kept in the former Abbot’s (Q. pyrenaica)– and accompanying trees Palace, which was built outside the Mon- such as the smooth-leaved elm (Ulmus astery’s perimeter walls during the 17th and minor), black poplar (Populus nigra), as- 18th centuries. In addition, the Monastery’s pen (Populus tremula), large-leaved lime museums offer a virtual tour of the Monas- (Tilia platyphyllos), holly (Ilex aquifollium), tery’s past and explain how the Monastery common yew (Taxus baccata), hazel (Co- operates today. These museums also rylus avellana) and the true service tree boast a large number of recovered exhibits (Sorbus domestica). Over 35 rare plant and bequests of great historical and artis- species are found in the forests of Poblet, tic value. The Monastery archives, which including a number of Iberian endemics, encompass almost eight centuries of its while the forest fauna is quite diverse, the history, are still almost intact, although largest mammals being the Roe Deer most of the original documents are now (Capreolus capreolus), Wild Boar (Sus kept in the National Archive in Madrid. scrofa) and Badger (Meles meles). They include extremely interesting documents relating to every aspect of community life and details on how the Cistercian Natural and cultural heritage monks managed their natural resources. conservation and education efforts

Poblet Monastery currently receives over Following suggestions from the former 150,000 visitors per year (image in p. 168), Abbot of Poblet, Father Maur Esteva , the majority of whom are attracted by its the Catalan Parliament passed a law in cultural heritage. And while only a small 1984 declaring the landscape around minority are drawn by its spiritual life, the the Monastery (c.2500 ha) to be a Natu- ral Site of National Importance. This pro- number of people willing to go on retreats tected area (henceforth: the Park) in- in the Monastery is growing. As a result, a cludes the most valuable forests as well new and larger guest house is currently as some vineyards in the lower-lying are- under construction outside the walls which as around the Monastery. Four years lat- will supplement the limited capacity of the er, a Decree established two managed two male guest houses within the walls with forest nature reserves covering some accommodation for another 50 families. 900 ha, one of which includes the only The main natural values of the Park are Pyrenean oak forest in Catalonia. linked to the surrounding Mediterranean forests, which include 2 types of ever- Father M. Esteva is now the General Abbot of the entire Cistercian Order. green oak forest communities, 3 different Law 22/1984. A Paratge Natural d’Iinterès Na- deciduous oak forest communities and cional (PNIN) is a type of protected area created one pine forest community. The dominant by Catalan law 12/1985 in natural areas. Current tree species are Holm or evergreen oak management practices correspond either to IUCN categories IV or V, depending on the zone. (Quercus ilex), various deciduous oaks — Decree 279/1998 established the managed nature re- Lusitanian oak (Quercus faginea), (Q.x. serves of Barranc del Tillar and Barranc de la Trinitat.

164 Partial map of the proposed larger protected area including the Monastery

Although 70% of the Park area is publicly In summer 2007, the Catalan Ministry of owned (a situation rare in Catalonia), ac- the Environment and Housing presented tive management did not begin until a long-awaited plan that will establish a 1999. Since then, the protected area has new and much larger natural park in the been looked after by a small manage- area, namely the Muntanyes de Prades ment team of four people plus four rang- and Poblet Natural Park, which will inclu ers; its 2007 budget was €772,000. The de the existing Park [Map 1]. A consulta- Park Board first met in 2001 and includes tion process to which the Poblet monas- representatives from the Catalan govern- tic community has made a number of con ment, the two local municipalities, local tributions began in the summer of 2007. NGOs and the Monastery itself. The In 1991, the Catalan Department of Edu- guiding service is used by around one cation launched a workshop on the ‘Me- thousand people a year. diaeval Cistercian Monasteries of Catalo- In 1991, at the behest of the Spanish gov- nia’ in a youth hostel in the Park. This fa- ernment, UNESCO classified the entire cility welcomes some 5,000 schoolchil- monastic complex of Poblet, including its dren aged 8 to 18 every year from all over surrounding gardens, courtyards and Catalonia who stay for 3-5 days to learn walls, as a Cultural World Heritage Site. in situ about the cultural, spiritual and According to Catalan legislation, the site is –more recently— natural heritage of Cis- a National Monument of Cultural Interest. tercian monasteries. They follow a very

Source: minutes of Park Board meetings. Camp d’Aprenentatge dels Monestirs del Cister. Bé Nacional d’Interès Cultural. Alberg de Joventut l’Espluga de Francolí.

165 thorough educational programme which tional services, as well as developing includes a number of pre- and post-stay its own facilities and programmes. activities. This facility is staffed by six teac A number of meetings have been held hers, four of whom are devoted to cultur- with bodies including the Park Board and al heritage and two to natural heritage. its management director, the Natural Heritage Directorate, the Tarragona Pro- Strategic aims vincial Council (Diputació de Tarragona), the teachers employed in the education The Poblet Monastery initiatives address facilities, the University of Barcelona and three broad issues and seek to: the Catalan Institute of Energy with a i) Improve the management of all the Mo view to achieving these aims. The meet- nastery’s facilities and lands through ings have opened up new vistas of po- the gradual application of criteria that tential cooperation through which the comply with concepts of environmen- Monastery can promote many of the ac- tal and social justice. This strategy has tions discussed in the following section. to be based on both secular principles of sustainability and Christian Cister- Actions cian principles. Only when every possible effort has been made to define, The main actions carried out to date are develop and implement these criteria as follows: will the Monastery feel that it has the • The Monastery has requested the moral authority to tell others how to im- Park Board for permission to proffer plement changes in their life-styles. itself as a case-study for the Delos in- ii) Promote the effective protection of the itiative, and sought the Board’s coop- rural landscape around the Monastery eration in preparing the case-study. as well as quality forest management • The Monastery has insisted on a solu- that seeks to improve the Monastery’s tion to the long-standing problem of ecological integrity and standards of the sewage that spills into a stream silence and beauty. The Monastery’s downstream of the monastery. As of direct responsibility is limited in this last summer, sewage has been piped case, although its representatives can to the nearest municipal sewage treat- influence the Park Board and other ment plant (L’Espluga de Francolí). governmental bodies. • A Memorandum of Understanding has iii) Develop —whenever feasible— an been drafted between the Monastery outreach strategy aimed at educating and the Diputació de Tarragona for interested visitors in environmental the preparation of an environmental values relating to spiritual principles. audit for the Monastery, which will This entails improving coordination combine the methodology of the local with the existing Cistercian Monaster- Agenda 21 with Cistercian principles. ies Workshop and the Park educa- The draft includes a detailed method-

166 ology adapted to the monastic com- - The first concerns solar photo-voltaic munity, the first of its kind in Spain. panels for producing electricity, which are to be located discreetly in • An agreement has been reached with the coach park outside the Monas- the University of Barcelona’s Institute tery, where they will screen vehicles of Water Research to study the mon- from the sun. Some 2000 m2 of pho- astery’s historic water systems (visi- to-voltaic panels will produce 250 ble and covered) and its water resources. A proposal for improving the kW; any excess will be sold. Monastery’s water management (by - The second relates to thermal / solar recycling waste water and collecting panels to produce hot water, which rain water) is to be prepared to allow are to be located in selected parts the Monastery to manage its water re- of the Monastery’s facilities (the sources in a sustainable manner. guest houses and monks’ dormito- • Several meetings have been held with ry, for example) and cover most of the authorities of the Directorate of the Monastery’s hot water needs. Catalan Natural Heritage to discuss • The Monastery has petitioned the Ca and explain the community’s concern talan Ministry of the Environment and over some current forest management Housing regarding the draft plan for th practices. On July 4 2007, an agree- the proposed Muntanyes de Prades ment was reached that will enable the and Poblet Natural Park, addressing Park’s management team to prepare the following issues: guidelines for forestry activities. - The Park’s concept and name • In 2006, the Catalan Institute of Ener- - The Park’s boundaries gy (ICAEN) prepared two proposals for the use of solar energy in the Mon- - The composition of the Park Board astery at the Monastery’s request: and Steering Committee

Main cloister, in which the Romanesque and Gothic styles are combined

167 Group of students entering the monastery

- The inclusion of intangible values in Another report has highlighted the im- the concept of cultural heritage portance of including intangible cultural and spiritual values among the Park’s - Park management goals and criteria objectives (Silene 2007). Three main the related to spiritual values mes have been developed: - Park facilities 1. A new definition of natural heritage that - Forest management in the Park includes all significant intangible cultur- More specifically, regarding the concept al values and, in particular, religious and name, the Monastery supports the and spiritual values. For seven centu- new enlarged Natural Park (a IUCN cate- ries, these values have formed the gory V protected area) and the inclusion basis of the life of the monastic com- of ‘Poblet’ in its title. munity and the existence of the Mon- astery and a number of shrines and Concerning the boundaries of the propo hermitages found within the bounda- sed new Natural Park, the Monastery has ries of the proposed Natural Park. included a report in its petitions, which 2. Specific proposals aimed at includ- proposes an alternative boundary that will ing spiritual and intangible cultural enlarge the new Park by including the area values in the draft plans at all relevant under greatest pressure from the growth levels: diagnoses, goals and objec- of the nearest urban centre —l’Espluga tives, management areas, facilities, de Francolí. Three criteria were identi- educational programmes, public use fied: (i) the need for the Monastery to be and signposting. protected visually, (ii) landscape quality, (iii) the importance of equating the 3. A set of proposals that will take the boundary with easily identifiable physical scope of the new definition of cultural features (Mallarach & Albertí 2007). heritage into consideration in all new

168 legal and planning instruments devel- lar energy plants and waste-water re- oped by the Natural Park. cycling to an organic vegetable garden) as soon as funding and other Regarding the composition of the future constraints allow. Park Board, the monastic community has requested to be formally represent- • Promoting the recovery of the riparian ed on both the General Board and Steer- forest along the stream using native ing Committee. plant species.

The main current aims of the Monastery • Establishing an organic vegetable include: garden using local organic seeds and local varieties of fruit tree once water • Preparing a strategic proposal for im- shortages are solved. The garden will proving the integration of spiritual, help conserve agro-biodiversity, pro- cultural and natural values into the en- duce healthy food for the monks and vironmental education and informa- their guests, and provide tasks for in- tion provided by the Monastery of terested guests to undertake. Poblet. The Father Abbot has requested that the Silene Association formu- • Preparing a forest management plan, late a proposal with regard to this aim, which seeks both to restore the integ- which will also include a draft plan for rity of the forests that have been over- a new interpretation centre. exploited in the past and to gradually transform the forests into more ma- • Including a new section on the Mon- ture structures with greater biodiversi- astery’s website (www.poblet.cat) ad ty and scenic value. dressing nature, environmental conservation and sustainability. • Building two interpretation centres, one in the outer walls, the other inside • Addressing the erosion in the gully the Monastery. The former will be de- that crosses the Monastery’s property voted to the history of the Monastery from north to south and —most im- and the management of its extensive portantly— restoring the white poplar riparian forest. natural resources prior to the nine- teenth century; the latter will focus on The main actions to be undertaken over explaining the meaning and signifi- the next five years include: cance of monastic life and its related • The gradual implementation of all the values (silence, beauty, serenity and projects and actions included in the interiority) in today’s social context. environmental audit (ranging from so- • Establishing a botanical garden with 128 plant species from the Holy Land, The two key planning instruments for natural protected areas in Catalonia are the so-called 110 of which have been identified in ‘Special Plan of Protection’ (Pla especial de pro the Bible by Professor Michael Zohary tecció), which defines the zoning and regulations (1982). The garden will include fruit applying in each zone, and the Master Mana gement Plan (Pla rector d’ús i gestió), which trees, crops, forest grasses, shrubs defines management strategies and goals. and trees, wetlands plants and a

169 number of species used in the prepa- astery have opened up, most of which will ration of medicines and perfumes. be promoted in the years to come. It is worth underlining the fact that the im- Conclusions plementation of these policies will satisfy Spanish and international recommenda- The Poblet case-study could play a sig- tions that intangible cultural and spiritual nificant role within the Delos Initiative as values should be taken into account in the a good example of a monastic commu- concepts, goals, objectives, management nity’s willingness to undertake a series of areas / guidelines and facilities both of the nature conservation and sustainability current natural protected area (especially actions that enjoy the support of an inter- via the specific activities that the Monas- national initiative aiming to integrate in- tery wants to promote) and the future Mu tangible values into nature conservation. ntanyes de Prades and Poblet Natural Park.

Poblet also exemplifies the historical cohe Of these planned activities, the most rel- rence of a community of monks with its evant to the Delos Initiative, apart from Christian, Benedictine and Cistercian ori- conservation, is the education of visitors gins. The monks have a clear desire to to the Monastery, where the aim is to in- work to foster respect for God’s Creation culcate in visitors a greater respect for and appreciate the surroundings of the nature stemming from spiritual criteria Monastery not only as a resource to be ca and values that seek to be consistent refully exploited, but also as a gift to be with those deeply-held beliefs that give passed on to future generations of monks. life its essential purpose. We believe that Seeking through its current and planned this unobtrusive but ever-present mis- activities to encompass every area of in- sion could be one of the greatest contri- teraction between the Monastery and the butions of monastic life to the men and natural world, from water to energy and women of our times. forest protection to waste treatment, the Since the Delos2 Workshop in 2007, the Monastery has nurtured an array of col- Monastery of Poblet has undertaken a nu laboration agreements in all these as- mber of actions, so as to improve its envi- pects. In order to obtain support for the ronmental coherence, mainly as far as en- se actions, representatives of the Mona ergy and water-use are concerned. How stery have held meetings with bodies in- ever, the most significant action, perhaps, cluding the Poblet Park Board, the Natu- has been a binding Declaration, adopted ral Heritage Directorate, the managing di- by the monastic community after a long rector of the Protected Site, the Diputació time of reflection during July 2009, which de Tarragona (provincial government), summarises both the theological and sci- the teachers in charge of the environmen- entific reasons for the ‘ecological conver- tal education facilities, a research team sion’ and details the strategic goals and from the University of Barcelona and the practical objectives. The Declaration, tran Catalan Institute of Energy. As a result, slated in many languages, can be down- new fields for cooperation with the Mon- loaded from the website of the Monastery.

170 References Altisent, A. (1974), Història de Poblet, Impremta Monàstica – Abadia de Poblet. Associació Silene (2007), Informe sobre la consideració del patrimoni cultural intangible en l’Avantprojecte de parc natural de les Muntanyes de Prades i de Poblet (unpublished report). Lekai L.F. (1987), Los cistercienses. Ideales y realidad, Biblioteca Herder, Barcelona. Mallarach, J.M. & Albertí, A. (2007), Proposta alternativa de límit del Parc Natural de les Mu ntanyes de Prades i de Poblet al sector de l’Espluga de Francolí (unpublished report). Martínez i Garcia, M. (2001), El bosc de Poblet al llarg dels anys, Centre d’Estudis de la Conca de Barberà. Zohary M. (1982), Plants of the Bible, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Websites - Abbey of Poblet: http://www.poblet.cat/index.php?&&&&ZW4%3D - Poblet Protected Area: http://mediambient.gencat.net/eng//el_medi/parcs_de_cata- lunya/poblet/inici.jsp - Workshop of the Cistercian Monasteries [Camp d’Aprenentage dels Monestirs del Cister] (only in Catalan):http://www.xtec.cat/cda-monestirs/ - UNESCO World Heritage Sites: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/518/documents/

The inner wall and royal towers in winter

171 172 Rila Monastery Natural Park Bulgaria

Josep-Maria Mallarach Sebastian Catanoiu

The Rila Monastery Natural Park, and the Rila National Park that surrounds it, constitute one of the largest and most significant protected areas in Europe. That the area has received ‘natural park’ status is due to the efforts of a Christian Church, namely the Bulgarian Orthodox Church. The Rila Monastery Natural Park provides us with a paradigm for the effective conservation of an area’s natural, spiritual and cultural heritage, and for the efficient integration of spiritual, cultural and natural values into both the decision-making process and communication with the public.

Rila Monastery was founded by Saint Ivan Rilsky in the early 10th century. That its founder was a hermit may explain the ‘holy unity’ or synergy that has always existed between the monastery and its natural surroundings. The Monastery owned and managed an extensive estate until 1947, when its properties came under the supervision and management of Bulgaria’s Communist government. After the fall of Communism, the land was returned to the Bulgarian Orthodox church in sections between 1998 and 2002. In 1983, UNESCO included Rila Monastery among its World Heritage Sites.

The Bulgarian people consider Rila Monastery, snuggled as it is in the bosom of Bulgaria’s most majestic mountain, to be their country’s holiest site. It is the sec-

< The landscape around Rila Monastery, Bulgaria 173 ond largest monastery in the Balkans, with a history that goes back a millennium. There are several holy sites in and around the Monastery including sacred springs, the cave of the founder and five hermitages. Its small community of monks are devoted to preserving their monastery.

For many centuries, Rila Monastery was a stronghold of the Bulgarian language and national culture and buttressed the Bulgarian people’s consciousness of their own identity. The first book on the history of the Bulgarian nation was written in Rila Monastery, which also houses one of the oldest and most important librar- ies in the Balkans.

The Natural Park has healthy ecosystems and spectacular mountain landscapes ranging in altitude from c.1,000 to 2,700 metres above sea level. It encompasses 28 lakes, most of which are of glacial origin, and outstanding forests of various types including beech, oak, spruce, and mixed forests, which number among the oldest in the country. Its forests and meadows are home to 36 native tree species and many endemic plants, 20 of which are unique to the area. The Park’s fauna is also diverse, and includes —at the top of the forest food chain— large wolf and brown bear populations.

In 2000, a Bulgarian Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources decree formally created the Natural Park of Rila Monastery National Park. Of the 25,000 ha included in the protected area, 19,000 are owned by the Church (Natural Park) and 3,600 are part of a state nature reserve.

The Natural Park’s management plan was drawn up in 2003 by an interdisciplinary team following extensive consultation with the Park’s management team. The main provisions of the management plan include a zoning system which incorporates spiritual values and the prohibition of hunting and harvesting, excepting a small quota to cover the needs of the monastic community. The main goals of the management plan relate to conserving the area’s spiritual, natural and cultural heritage; managing its natural resources in terms of tourism; and raising awareness through educational schemes. It also assigns importance to the need to effectively coordinate the activities of the competent ecclesiastical and state organisations with a view to preserving the unity that prevails between nature and the Ri- la Monastery, and to re-establishing the area as the epicentre of Bulgaria’s spiritual and cultural life.

174 Inner court of Rila Monastery

Acknowledgements We would like to thank the Natural Park director, Mr Avramov, and his management team for the information they provided us with during our visit.

Website http://www.rilamonastery.pmg-blg.com

175 176 The inclusion of a Tibetan Buddhist perspective in the management of the property of the Sakya Tashi Ling Monastery in Garraf Park, Catalonia, Spain Sakya Tashi Ling, El Garraf Park, Catalonia, Spain

Isabel Soria García

Acknowledgements on Espinach and Xavier Roget of the Barcelona County Parks Service, and to The author would like to express her Santi Llacuna, management director of gratitude to Josep María Mallarach for El Garraf Park, for their willingness to his guidance during the drafting stage participate in interviews and various of this paper and for reviewing it after- meetings; to Jordi Romero of the con- wards; to Jordi Sargatal, Miquel Rafa sulting firm X3 Estudis Ambientals for and Jordi Rofes from the Fundació Terri- his technical support and for the images tori i Paisatge. Caixa Catalunya for pro- he has provided; to the various stake- viding the opportunity to integrate Bud- holders interviewed, in particular the dhist cultural and spiritual values into the Head Council of Olivella; and, finally, to management plan they have sponsored; the Thubten Dhargye Ling Buddhist to Lama Jamyang Tashi Dorje Rinpoché, Centre, Madrid, for helping with the bib- Lama Dorje Dondrub and the monk liography and giving advice. Jamyang Richen, management director of the Monastery Trust, for proposing improvements to the management plan Introduction and for their invitations to the monastery; to the entire Sakya Tashi Ling com- The draft management plan for the munity for their kind hospitality; to Ram- Sakya Tashi Ling Monastery property,

< The Sakya Tashi Ling Monastery and the Garraf landscape, Catalonia, Spain 177 Location of the Sakya Tashi Ling property drawn up within the framework of the with the stakeholders of both the monas- Delos Initiative, went through various tic community and the natural park. stages before reaching its final form. This paper focuses on the process followed The background by the management plan and on the im- The Sakya Tashi Ling Monastery proper- provements made to it along the way. ty possesses significant natural, cultural Sakya Tashi Ling is a Buddhist Monas- and spiritual values. The monastic com- tery founded about a decade ago in the munity had repeatedly expressed an in- middle of El Garraf Park near Barcelona terest in attaining a better and more effi- in Catalonia, Spain. Improving the man- cient level of management of the natural agement plan meant developing a new area surrounding the monastery, and version, one created from a perspective this concern resulted in the creation of a in which spirituality and nature con- management plan. verged. This involved two different worldviews: the Western scientific conserva- At the first Delos Initiative workshop, tionist vision and the traditional Tibetan which was held in Montserrat in 2006, a Buddhist view. The methodological ap- monk representing the Sakya Tashi Ling proach adopted by this study mainly in- community asked for guidance on how volved conducting personal interviews to incorporate the spiritual and cultural

178 Aereal photo of the Sakya Tashi Ling property values of the Tibetan Buddhist tradition This initial plan followed the guidelines into a management plan for the monas- established by the Fundació Territori i tery property. At the time, a draft man- Paisatge, and was divided into the fol- agement plan had already been drawn lowing sections: up in cooperation with a local consulting • A description of the site: its natural, firm and sponsored by the Fundació ecological, social and economic char- Territori i Paisatge. Subsequently, both acteristics plus its cultural and land- the consulting firm and the Fundació scape heritage; Territori i Paisatge expressed their willingness to contribute to efforts aimed at • An evaluation of the current situation realising the vision expressed by the and a definition of management goals monastery and its representative within and objectives; and, the framework of the Delos Initiative. The • A definition of the projects and ac- initial management plan had focused tions to be adopted in order to achieve mainly on the physical and ecological the goals and objectives laid down in aspects of the site. the separate working plans.

The Fundació Territori i Paisatge is a private However, the inclusion of the Buddhist foundation set up by the Caixa Catalunya Saving Bank to support private or public organisations Tibetan worldview in any new manage- involved in nature or landscape conservation. ment plan would require the coordinated

179 efforts of organisations concerned with ing built near the monastery. The bid to nature conservation. Any attempt to syn- halt the ‘Plana Novella’ project has prov- thesise the actions of diverse organisa- en unsuccessful, as the plan had been tions such as the Delos Initiative, the approved prior to the establishment of Fundació Territori i Paisatge, Garraf Park the park (see map in p. 179). and the Sakya Tashi Ling Trust (Prevain One of the main reasons underlying the Trust), would have to take into account monastic community’s decision to select the potentially differing views and per- this area was that, with its almost com- spectives of these organisations. plete lack of tree cover, it was the only place near Barcelona that bore a similar- The framework ity to the Tibetan landscape. All the other The monastery is located in the middle coastal sierras in the area were forested. of El Garraf Park to the southwest of Bar- The Buddhist monastery is currently one celona. The park forms part of the green of the park’s top tourist attractions, and belt of protected natural areas in the Bar- welcomes about 40,000 visitors annually. celona Metropolitan Area, and is man- Most, attracted by the activities and aged by the Barcelona County Council courses offered by the monastic commu- Parks Service. The monastery property, nity, are interested in taking part in cultur- which is 136 ha in area, is managed by al and spiritual tourism. Visitors also the monastic community according to come to see the Palau Novella, a build- the guidelines set down in the Special ing of cultural importance in which most Protection Plan for El Garraf Park (hence- members of the community actually live. forth referred to as the park manage- The edifice, a typical Catalonian palace ment plan) (Source: Consultant X3 Es- that is both modernist and eclectic, was tudis Ambientals). constructed during the 1890s and was The greater part of Garraf Park has a typ- surrounded by a wall. It is now home to a ically dry, southern Mediterranean land- museum of Tibetan sacred art. scape. Its vegetation is garrigue, with The Sakya Tashi Ling community is made typical Mediterranean xerophytic flora up of seventeen permanent members found on limestone, and brolla, a variety who live at the monastery. They are nuns of scrub that grows on south-facing and monks who have devoted their lives slopes. Both types of vegetation have to a common life, the aim of which is to developed on top of a karstic morpholo- work for other people’s well-being and gy. Various forms of human activity over future life, in accordance with the teach- the last three millennia have contributed ings and beliefs of the Sakya School. to significant changes to the landscape. Today, a suburban residential area is be- It is worth noting that the monastic community enjoys a distinctive relationship According to Catalan legislation, this is the most with the nature that surrounds it. The Ti- common type of management plan for natural protected areas in Catalonia, and includes a betan Buddhist teachings and worldview zoning, regulation and action plan. promote positive attitudes and activities

180 towards nature conservation which differ Goals and objectives very much from the prevalent views of The main goal underlying the efforts to mainstream society in western Europe. produce a new management plan was to As a general principle, the monastic com- create a plan that would be fully consist- munity respects the rights of all beings ent with the spiritual values of the Sakya living in the natural world. Consequently, Tashi Ling community and the worldview a number of their proposals, such as one that governs its relationship with nature. calling for a stop to all forms of hunting This perspective would be consistent (an activity that is allowed in the park at with the principles guiding western sci- present), are not understood by park ence as well, and as a result would be managers or neighbours; in a few cases, deemed appropriate by the sponsors their proposals are even viewed as a and the park managers. threat. It appears that the lack of awareness on the part of the park managers re- This general goal would be achieved garding these spiritual and cultural val- through the attainment of a number of ues, coupled with misinterpritation con- specific objectives: cerning the relationship that the monks - To understand the links between the and nuns have with the natural world, of- monastic community and nature; ten lead to such misunderstandings. It is - To draft a management plan based therefore not surprising that the monas- on Tibetan Buddhist principles, sup- tery and some of its visitors have at times ported by western science; been considered part of a problem rather than elements that could generate new - To include new activities or projects and complementary values that would necessary for the furthering of the help lead to nature conservation. community’s aims;

Sakya Tashi Ling Monastery and the main stupa surrounded by prayer mills

181 Place of Naga´s offerings within the Sakya Tashi Ling Monastery

- To produce a document useful for world. Two questionnaires were used at mediation purposes among different this stage: one developed by the Delos stakeholders; Initiative for case studies that helped evaluate the physical site, and a second - To discuss the plan with all stakehold- that analysed spiritual values by focus- ers until a consensus is reached. ing on people’s in-depth experiences with(in) nature. This second questionnaire was prepared by the author while Methodology conducting a case study of Holy Island One of the best ways to understand the in Scotland, where another Tibetan Bud- underlying values of the relationship be- dhist community has settled (Soria 2007; tween the monastic community and na- see Appendix I). ture is to become involved in the daily life The openness of the members of the of the community and share its everyday community allowed for numerous con- concerns. Thus, after several preliminary versations to take place on some of the interviews and drafts, it was deemed daily environment-related habits of the time for a field trip. In the course of a community. In addition, it offered the op- one-week stay, a number of people were portunity for advice to be given on ways interviewed, including the leaders and in which the development of the area members of the monastic community could become even more sustainable. who had been given specific responsibil- One of the proposals included in the ities. Various Buddhist texts were also management plan is based on the use examined over the same period. In addi- of the three R’s: Reduce, Reuse and Re- tion, the opportunity arose to further ap- cycle. Furthermore, it is recommended preciate the rationale behind the Tibetan that several practices associated with Buddhists’ relationship with the natural water use be changed, and that a sus-

182 tainable approach be adopted concern- limited to a few modifications to the initial ing food, energy, transport and waste management plan required to introduce (such as using local products, avoiding relevant Buddhist values into the plan. products without recyclable packaging However, when the author began draft- and so forth). It is important to empha- ing the new chapter on the Buddhist sise that all of these recommendations worldview and started to examine the have been derived from and / or linked possible implications of these values, it to Tibetan Buddhist doctrines, such as became evident that the whole plan was the principle of ‘Chi-Sen’ —the universal in need of restructuring. Since the gener- responsibility or mindfulness, as this has al purpose of the initial plan had been been explained by the Dalai Lama. The defined according to other terms (see members of the community were very re- Table in p. 184), it seemed logical that a ceptive to all of these recommendations, variety of other, different management and began to implement them shortly objectives would arise as a result, and it afterwards. was deemed necessary to broaden the Once the spiritual values of the monastic plan to include new projects and community had been sufficiently under- activities. stood by the author, other key stakehold- As soon as a new draft of an integrated ers were interviewed. These included the management plan had been completed, director of management at the park, vari- it was presented to the main stakehold- ous neighbouring stakeholders within ers for review and evaluation. It was the park area (such as the mayor of the hoped that this new, extended plan Municipality of Olivella and the president would help build consensus between the of a neighbourhood association involved main stakeholders and the monastery. in a dispute with the monastery) and a number of visitors. Further data analysis revealed the interdependent and interac- Results tive relationships between the monastic community and other local stakeholders. The initial management plan, like others Relations between the parties involved of its kind, had been based on ecologi- were observed as ranging from good cal values and the constraints of the and frank to indifferent and even conflic- property, as well as on the park regulative. Whatever the case, all distinct views, tions in force at the time. The improved ideas and concerns should ideally be ful- version now included and incorporated ly understood before being incorporated Vajrayana cultural and spiritual values and integrated into any improved version linked to nature conservation. of a management plan. The new, revised plan begins with a de- After obtaining the necessary informa- tailed description of the monastic com- tion in situ, the author began working on munity before moving on to an exposi- the management plan. At the outset, it tion of the principles of Vajrayana Bud- was believed that this process would be dhism and an introduction to the tradi-

183 tional Tibetan Sciences. This is succeed- the monastery property to improve and ed by an account of how these principles further develop the spiritual practices of are —or will be— applied to the manage- the monastic community. In Buddhism, ment of the monastic property, and an nature conservation is completely inte- interpretation of the relationship between grated into spiritual improvement: “The nature and the monastic community. It Buddhist literature mentions the sanctity closes with an examination of principles of the environment as inspiring and bless- and guidelines derived from previous ing the practitioner, and in turn the practi- versions of the management plan. tioner’s spiritual realisation blessing the In keeping with the aforementioned environment” (Dalai Lama 2004). Thus, points, the primary aim of the new and the key principle of involving nature con- revised management plan focuses on servation in the inner improvement of the ‘implementing and enhancing the reli- monastic community forms the founda- gious value of the site in order to have a tion of the new management plan, which space to develop inner improvement and fully addresses the main concerns of the disseminate the practice and teachings community in its key objectives, which in- needed to achieve enlightenment’. This clude the protection and improvement of implies that several modifications (see natural values, the development of public Table in p. 186) will have to be made to use of the site in a respectful manner,

Differences between the initial and final management plans

184 and the recovery of certain traditional prove cooperative efforts targeted at land uses and activities. This last meas- conservation. Both the head of the Park ure will also provide a habitat for some Service and the management director of endangered species like Bonelli’s Eagle El Garraf Park exhibited a very open atti- (Hieraaetus fasciatus) and Hermann’s tude, agreeing to review the manage- Tortoise (Testudo hermanni). ment plan and showing a willingness to find common ground. The table summarises the key aspects of both the initial and final manage- After these meetings, the draft plan was ment plans. It shows the improvements given to both the Fundació Territori i offered by the new integrated version. Paisatge and the Barcelona County Parks Service for revision. A few weeks As is most likely evident from the table, later, the Parks Service offered some a different set of guiding values has now suggestions that took into account the been drawn up. This includes both initial consequences of the actions proposed values and some new, complementary in the revised plan on the overall aims of ones related to the Tibetan Buddhist Garraf Park. worldview such as the ‘development of meditation in nature for spiritual improvement’. Specific management goals, un- Conclusion der distinct management schemes, have been set and will be implemented The new integrated management plan with a view to promoting this new set of for the property of the Sakya Tashi Ling guiding values. Monastery defines a set of conservation management objectives that could be On 28 March 2007, a revised draft of fully supported and endorsed by both the new management plan was pre- the Sakya Tashi Ling Monastery and the sented to the monastic community. It managers of Garraf Park. was discussed with the Abbot of the monastery, the heads of the Fundació The table in p. 186 summarises the com- Territori i Paisatge and the consultancy, patibility and consistency of the key as- who all agreed with the manner in which pects introduced by the new manage- spiritual values were included and pre- ment plan. sented in the new management plan. It appears that the attempt to improve The participants expressed their satis- the management plan within the frame- faction with the new approach and en- work of the Delos Initiative has resulted dorsed it fully. in the successful integration of the re- The same document was presented to quirements and the spiritual and cultural the Barcelona County Parks Service, the values of the Buddhist community into agency responsible for Garraf Park. The the Park’s nature conservation strategy. main aim was to build consensus and At the same time, cooperation between find common ground between spiritual the managers of the park and the mo- and conservation values in order to im- nastic community have also improved.

185 GARRAF SAKYA TASHI LING NATURAL PARK MONASTERY CONSISTENCY

Establishment of a regime de- Development of the area’s Buddhist religious values in- signed to protect, spiritual value as a place clude the sacred value of na- conserve and im- for inner improvement and ture, resulting in respectful atti- prove the Park’s the diffusion of teachings

GENERAL GENERAL tudes towards nature. PURPOSE physical and rural and spiritual practices. environment. Natural resources The main driving force and artificial ele- —the spiritual values of the Both the monastery and park ments, generated communities— must be consider the relationship be- by human inter- considered; the spiritual tween Man and Nature to be vention down the values of the religious essential for nature conserva- ages have to be community must be action. For the monastery, this reconsidered as cepted in order to set na- lationship is not limited to the two parts of a ture management guide- physical environment— it also PREMISES complex interre- lines; guidelines must be encompasses the sacred di- lationship be- adapted to the require- mension in which spiritual val- tween Man and ments for the protection of ues play the main role. the Natural all living beings in the area. Environment. - The management objectives of the park can promote the development of local activities - The physical environ- such as agriculture and stock ment: The improvement raising in addition to the public of habitats and the local use of the park, as long as landscape these are compatible with nature conservation. The monas- - Public use: The improve- tery management plan has ment and planning of visi- been developed based on this tor flows to and from the Planning the use premise. The special relation- monastery and the impact of resources; the ship between the community of visitors, neighbours and development of and nature promotes conser- nature activities involv- vation values. ing the local - The recovery of some tra- - The management objectives community ditional management activ- of the monastery stem from the ities (e.g. beekeeping) Buddhist principles and values

MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES MANAGEMENT - The spiritual aspect: The that guide daily life in the com- improvement of positive munity. These principles sup- energy using various ritu- port land use zoning on the als, practices, sacred art property. Different land uses etc. are adopted according to the main objectives of protecting and restoring the natural and cultural values of the park. Compatibility and consistency of key aspects of the new Management Plan

186 References Dalai Lama (2004), “A Tibetan Buddhist Perspective on Spirit in Nature” in B. McDonald, (2004), Seeing God Everywhere: Essays on Nature and Conservation, World Wisdom Inc., Indiana.

Soria, I. (2007), “Holy Island of Arran, Scotland, United Kingdom” pp. 219-236, in J. M. Mallarach & T. Papayannis (eds.), Protected Areas and Spirituality. Proceedings of the First Workshop of The Delos Initiative – Montserrat 2006, PAM – IUCN.

Selected bibliography Dalai Lama (1997), El sentido de la vida desde la perspectiva budista, Colección Ecos, Barcelona.

Dalai Lama (2006), El universo en un solo átomo, cómo la unión entre ciencia y espiri- tualidad puede salvar el mundo, Random House Mondadari, Barcelona.

Kalu Rinpoche (2005), Fundamentos del Budismo Tibetano, Editorial Koirós, Barcelona. Milton, K. (2002), Loving Nature: Towards an Ecology of Emotion, Routledge, London and New York.

Palis, M. (1960), The Way and the Mountain, Peter Owen, London.

Palmer, M. & Finlay V. (2003), Faith in Conservation: New Approaches to Religions and Environment, The World Bank.

Taylor, B.R. (2005), The Encyclopaedia of Religion and Nature, Thoemmes Continu- um, Bristol.

Velasco, J.M. (2006), Introducción a la fenomenología de la religión, Editorial Trotta, Madrid.

Appendix Questionnaire 1: Delos Initiative Initial Pilot Site Questionnaire

1. Natural Values 1.1 What are the main elements of the natural heritage of the particular site? 1.2 Does the site enjoy institutional protection in view of its natural heritage values? 1.3 Who is responsible for managing and conserving the site? 1.4 What are the main activities related to its natural heritage values? 1.5 Are the local population and visitors to the protected area aware of and concerned about its natural values?

187 2. Spiritual and Cultural Values 2.1 What are the main spiritual and cultural values of the site? 2.2 Do these values relate to specific natural or anthropogenic elements. If yes, which elements? 2.3 Are the identified spiritual values related to a specific mainstream faith? 2.4 Are these spiritual values more pertinent to specific social groups? Are they recognised / understood by the public at large? 2.5 What body is responsible for conserving and enhancing the cultural and spiritual heritage in the area? 2.6 What are the main activities related to the spiritual and cultural values? 2.7 Is the population living in or visiting the protected area aware of and concerned about its spiritual and cultural values?

3. Development Pressures 3.1 What are the major economic activities in the area at present? 3.2 What human activities indicate a high degree of dynamism and expansion? 3.3 How do the current and activities and those under development impact on the natural environment? 3.4 How do the same activities impact on the spiritual and cultural aspects of the site? 3.5 Are there conflicts between conserving the natural heritage and protecting spiritual and cultural values? 3.6 Does land use planning exist for the area. If yes, is it effectively enforced?

4. Conservation Perspectives and Sustainability 4.1. What are the trends in the conservation of the natural heritage of the site? 4.2. What are the trends in the protection of the cultural and spiritual heritage? 4.3. Could spiritual values contribute to the conservation of the natural environment? How? 4.4 Could nature conservation legislation and management practices help safeguard the spiritual values of the site? How? 4.5. Is there cooperative action between the conservation of the natural heritage and the protection of spiritual and cultural values? Who are the main champions of each cause, and who would champion a more integrated approach? 4.6. How could a well-preserved natural and cultural / spiritual wealth contribute to a balanced socio-economic development of the area?

5. Recommendations 5.1 What gaps are there in our knowledge of the natural, spiritual and cultural heritage of the site, and how could these be filled? 5.2 How could a synergy be created among those responsible for nature conservation and management, on the one hand, and those involved with spiritual and

188 cultural heritage protection, on the other? How could such a collaborative effort be enlarged to include those responsible for guiding the socio-economic development of the area, as well? 5.3 Which legislative, planning, management and implementation tools could be used to facilitate an integrated approach to the conservation of both natural and cultural / spiritual heritage? 5.4 How could an integrated view of the site — one combining both spiritual / cultural aspects and natural heritage values as well as perspectives regarding sustainable development — be created with local communities, decision-makers, visitors and the general public at large?

Questionnaire 2: In-depth Interview

1. Are you a person who often feels close to nature? 2. Does this extend to a feeling that you belong to nature? 3. Are there places to which you feel a special sense of belonging? 4. Have you ever experienced a sense of belonging or connection to nature that you might describe as ‘sacred’? 5. Would you agree that a sense of belonging can be informed or inspired by a sense of sacredness? 6. Why do you think hermits and recluses often retreat to nature for inspiration? 7. Do you see Sakya Tashi Ling as a place where nature and the spiritual converge? In what way does this occur? 8. Do you think there is a relationship between nature and the spiritual? If so, does it have implications on how nature conservation is understood and managed?

Garraf landscape

189 190 Towards ecological management Reflections on the management of monastic lands and facilities

Josep-Maria Mallarach and Thymio Papayannis

Monastic lands fulfil the monasteries’ everyday needs. It and protected areas included areas reserved for habitation, cultivation and the supply of timber, wa- In recent years, there has been a notice- ter and other necessities. The rest of the able trend towards the secularisation of land, which often covered a considera- land in many parts of the world. In spite ble area, was left untouched and, in of this tendency, monastic communities many cases, remains in a state verging continue to own and manage large tracts on natural. Much of this land has since of land, many of which contain important habitats and species. This is commonly evolved into nature protection areas. the case in countries with Catholic or Or- In most European countries, monastic thodox Christian traditions, as well as in land has been expropriated at some those where Buddhism is a major reli- point by the state for social and / or po- gion. Land management by monastic litical reasons. An example of this was communities is less frequent in the case the mass confiscation of land belonging of Hinduism, Islam or Jainism. to religious institutions after the introduc- A section of this land —which in most cas- tion of Socialism into many countries in es had been bequeathed by pious rulers central and Eastern Europe. However, or wealthy landowners to monastic com- this changed with the demise of the So- munities— was traditionally set aside to viet Union in 1991, which was followed

< Biological cleansing instalations, Holly Convent of Chrysopigi, Crete, Greece 191 by a resurgence of religious worship wise management of their lands and fa- and a revival of monasticism in Eastern cilities. As a result, they often develop, Europe. At that point, efforts were made implement and maintain practices fa- to reclaim the land that had been lost, vourable to nature conservation. Argua- and in some instances these proved bly the most important of these is the successful. In another case, monastic profound respect for tradition that char- lands in Greece were expropriated af- acterises monasticism. This is related ter 1922 to house Greek immigrants to a unique sense of time, which en- from Asia Minor; these, however, were sures continuity and stability since the never returned. past is not lost and the future is to be gained; this view makes change ac- Regardless of what has happened to ceptable —but at a manageable rate. monastic lands to date, they remain significant for nature conservation for three Specifically, monastic communities fol- main reasons. Firstly, a large number of low time-tested rules of living that ensure protected areas (usually IUCN category sustainability by cultivating a long-term V) are to be found in Europe and Asia on vision. Christian monasticism, for exam- former or current monastic lands. Sec- ple, is based on principles and rules laid ondly, in many cases it was the monastic down by saints Basil and Benedict 16 communities themselves that instigated and 14 centuries ago respectively. In the and promoted the safeguarding of many case of Buddhism, the seeds are to be areas that are now under protection. In found even further back, despite Tibetan many instances this occurred as a result Buddhism being only six centuries old. of concern about the deterioration of the One of the key principles involved is as- natural environment around their monas- ceticism, which implies the use of natu- teries. Thirdly, many new monasteries ral resources to cover only essential have been built on existing protected ar- needs. It is often associated with the eas, usually natural parks —this is the absence of private property and, as a case in several natural regional parks in consequence, is linked to poverty, thus France, for example. A number of cases encouraging the personal traits of so- were presented at the Delos workshops briety and temperance. In a number of at Montserrat and Ouranoupolis in 2006 monastic orders —particularly in Ortho- and 2007 respectively, which touched dox Christianity— asceticism is rein- upon noteworthy examples of these dif- forced by the pursuit of self-sufficiency, ferent scenarios. which encourages the development of skills for the frugal management of lo- Prerequisites for sound cally-available resources. Consequent- ly, in many countries of Europe, monas- management tic communities have a long-estab- The beliefs and practices of most mo- lished tradition of using natural resourc- nastic communities help prepare them es prudently and of developing tech- for, and guide them in, the sensitive and nologies based on renewable energy.

192 One such example would be the Ca- ness of environmental issues and to dis- maldoli monks of Foreste Casentinesi seminate sound nature protection prac- (a national park in central Italy), who tices, mainly by example through the developed efficient, sustainable prac- practices and lifestyle adopted by mo- tices for the forests of the Apennine nastic communities. Mountains, and in so doing laid the In addition, many monastic communities groundwork for modern forestry regula- include a number of hermits living in iso- tions in Italy (Hughes 2009). lated locations outside the monasteries. Monastic communities are usually vege- Over the past two decades, hermitism tarian, although fish may be consumed has experienced a revival in countries in on major feast days. In Catholic monas- Western as well as Eastern Europe. In teries, meat is permitted for the weak France, for example, which is consid- and sick. Another benefit of a vegetarian ered a highly secularised country, there food regime is that it is generally accept- were over 200 Catholic hermits and three ed that it significantly reduces one’s en- schools to prepare individuals for this vironmental footprint. kind of lifestyle in 2001 (Muizon 2001). The hermit is the quintessential example Most monastic communities take part in of a deeply religious individual who lives such practices, and in doing so contrib- and prays in solitude with minimal re- ute to the sound stewardship of monas- sources and in profound harmony with tic lands. The majority of monasteries nature. St Francis of Assisi and St Sera- are governed according to a judicious phim of Sarov are well-known examples and balanced decision-making system of people who loved nature in general, rooted in ancient traditions. This system and large mammals in particular. usually applies the precautionary principle (the cardinal Christian virtue of pru- dentia), and procedures move slowly, Monastic lands as protected thus avoiding haste and undesirable de- areas velopments. A high level of discipline As a consequence of this positive ap- complements this diligence in decision- proach and its results, many of the Chris- making, and the entire undertaking is tian monastic lands could be classified, seen as an attempt to approach free- along general lines, as protected land- dom through obedience. As a result, scapes falling within IUCN category V once a decision is taken, all members of (Mallarach 2008). Hermitic domains, on the monastic community implement it which most extractive and other land us- without hesitation. es are not permitted, could be character- A further principle shared by most mo- ised as nature reserves in most instanc- nastic communities is hospitality to es, as stipulated by IUCN category III. guests. By allowing personal contact According to both the CBD and IUCN with pilgrims and visitors, this provides definitions of a protected area (Dudley an opportunity to raise guests’ aware- 2008), as long as the land is managed in

193 Refectory in Megalo Meteoro Monastery, Meteora, Greece adherence with the principles that apply nsylvania, Ohio and Indiana present a to such protected areas (as laid down somewhat different picture. These com for each category), it should be recog- munities have systematically and pru- nised as protected land, even if the pro- dently applied the precautionary princi- tection status has not been formally ple to new technologies and renewable established. energy. What has emerged is a distinctive, rural society, which is both socially In contrast, in countries where monasti- and economically resilient and very cism has been constrained or abolished close to nature. Although they consider for a period of time —as in the Protestant themselves ‘plain people’, they use effi- countries of Europe, in France and in cient technologies most of the world Spain— the impact on nature conserva- would consider advanced. The Amish tion has been extremely negative. For communities have succeeded in con- example, there are cases of exceptional serving large areas of beautiful and di- forests managed wisely for centuries by verse landscapes in the heart of the monastic communities being levelled American Corn Belt without receiving within a few years of being transferred to governmental subsidies or adopting private owners (as the case of the forest complicated strategies (Légeret 2000). of Poblet illustrates [Altisent 1974]). Amish communities have even hosted In the USA, the Amish (Protestant Men- US national solar conferences in recent nonite) communities established in Pen years.

For example, the Dissolution of the Monasteries In countries where Buddhist monastic in England and Wales between 1536 and 1540 communities have traditionally been by Henry VIII, and in Austria in 1782 by Joseph II, the son of Maria Theresa (Johnston 2000; Can- supported through alms provided by non 2004). members of their local society, monastic

194 Vineyards at Solan Monastery, France lands tend to include high-quality living case is that of the Zen Buddhist monas- quarters, which are usually very well mai tery of Plum Village, where walking medi- ntained. Tibet and the area of Ladak are tation in nature is taught. considered very fine examples of this. It should thus not come as a surprise Bhutan, a country which has kept the Ti- that several contemporary thinkers main- betan Buddhist tradition alive, has one tain that monastic communities —through of the best-planned protected area sys- their enduring principles and practices— tems in Asia. can provide us with important lessons in South Korea stands out among the how to deal with the global environmen- countries that have decided to create tal and sustainability crisis, and that as- protected areas in recent times. The na- ceticism could become one of the core tional park system in that country was concepts of the new ecology (Canon mostly established on monastic lands in 2004, Dubos 1974). agreement with monastic authorities (Ky- un-Koo Han, oral communication, 2007). Jirison National Park, the first such park Existing contradictions in the country, is considered to include Any objective assessment must, howev- the birthplace of Korean Buddhism. To- er, also take negative realities into ac- day, the park entrance fees go to the count. One cannot fail to recognise that monastic communities involved. not all the land managed by monastic Many of the new Buddhist monasteries communities is in a sound state with ef- established over the past forty years in fective protection in place for its natural, Europe and North America also aim to cultural and spiritual heritage. The rea- serve as examples of sound environ- sons this is so vary with the context, but mental policy (Semkyre 2008). A good it could be argued that the major prob-

195 lems faced in such cases have come even erode the spirituality of monastic about as a result of adopting modernity establishments, compromising the quali- in its various aspects without critically ty of the visit for pilgrims and other visi- examining it first. Thus, deciding to em- tors as a result. Examples would include ploy modern technologies, production the Monastery of Montserrat in Catalo- methods or facilities may not always be nia, Spain, where traffic jams mar major suitable for the specific environmental feast days, and the Meteora monasteries or landscape context or conditions, and in central Greece, which are crowded may lead, for example, to the abandon- with hundreds of buses and thousands ment of traditional handcrafting practic- of visitors at peak times. es and their replacement by highly On another level, as monks are individu- mechanised systems which often have als drawn from contemporary —and of- a negative impact on the environment. ten urban— society, they may be tempt- Machines powered by fossil fuels, such ed to yield to pressures exerted by the as automobiles, are perhaps the most materialistic society surrounding them. characteristic examples. Some may even go so far as to adopt These newly-introduced practices are behaviour patterns based on unneces- often encouraged by the temptation to sary consumption and unsound waste generate revenue quickly through the disposal which have clear negative im- adoption of unsustainable manage- plications for the environment. ment practices with regard to natural A careful look at these imprudent ten- resources (felling trees for timber, for dencies reveals two major contempo- example) or through the sale of real es- rary weaknesses that may be responsi- tate. The temptation is stronger in coun- ble for this situation. The first is weak tries where religious organisations are spiritual guidance within the monastic recovering after years of oppression community, which permits deviation and funds are required for the restora- from firm monastic principles. Abbot tion or construction of religious facili- Elissaios of the Simonopetra Monastery ties. Such examples have been noted on Mount Athos once remarked that a in Eastern Europe, and particularly in monastery is not a museum, but a con- Romania. temporary institution, which knows very For similar reasons, a misinterpretation well what it needs from the modern of the monastic duty of hospitality has world and can adapt it to its spiritual sometimes opened the gate to an exces- needs (Papayannis and Elissaios 1992). sive flow of visitors. In extreme cases, The second shortcoming is ignorance, this can degrade the natural environ- which does not allow some monastic ment, debase the cultural heritage and communities to fully understand the negative environmental and social im- “The churches have already begun to take steps pact of their actions. An example of this to use their new freedom to revitalise their com- would be the use of fossil fuels or non- munities and transform their nation in the light of their own particular perspectives” (Poppe 1991). renewable resources and materials. The

196 Delos Initiative and similar efforts can mote organic farming methods; the Or- provide help in this area. thodox Monastery of Chrysopigi on Crete; and the Catholic monastery of Rieunette, which is also in southern Contemporary challenges France. All three are also good examples and responses of monastic communities that show concern for the environment. It is clear that the custodians of sacred natural areas and conservation leaders Many monasteries have responded to must encourage and adopt a more seri- contemporary challenges by increasing ous approach to educating monastic their production of high-quality, organic communities in relation to the environ- food products (including beverages, ment. Such an effort would have to take cheese, jam and other goods) and tradi- into account every aspect of environ- tional handicrafts. These products are in- mental management, including monas- creasingly being marketed under distinct tery facilities and sustainable production monastic labels, as in the case of items practices like organic farming, the rais- produced by French and Romanian ing of livestock, timber certification and monasteries. The excellence of monastic fishing. products has been widely acknowledged in Europe; indeed, in Belgium, for in- On the positive side, there are a number stance, most beer and alcoholic bever- of monastic communities that have set a age producers market monastic brands fine example through the sound practic- under the name of abbeys that do not es they have adopted from the outset. even exist. These include the Orthodox Monastery of Solan in southern France, which spe- Any environmental education in monas- cialises in high-quality organic products tic communities should also be aimed at like wine and organises activities to pro- the pilgrims and visitors to these areas.

Vineyards near Iviron Monastery, Holy Mountain

197 Ideally, it should teach them to respect It could be argued that a common aim nature and become prudent guardians for monastic communities and visitors of the environment, employing spiritual alike should be to maintain —or restore, criteria and values related to deeply-held when necessary— the harmonious rela- beliefs that give life its ultimate purpose. tionship between monastic facilities, Such teaching by the monks themselves buildings and productive activities on the would not only strengthen their own be- one hand, and the environment on the liefs, but also promote the notion that other. This would involve paying careful monastic lands are not a ‘resource’ to be attention to the integrity and beauty of exploited, however carefully, but rather a the surrounding landscape, as well as to manifestation of God —a gift to be the invisible impact of actions on the lo- passed on in its entirety to future genera- cal environment. tions of monks and the faithful. The activities organised by the Monastery of Ca- Thus, in order to become —or remain— maldoli in Italy provide a fine example of respected role models in the sphere of the influence that a committed monastic nature conservation in addition to carry- community can have in this field (Hugh- ing out their religious function, monastic es 2009). communities need to strive to act in a manner which is fully consistent with their It is very interesting to note that the third beliefs vis-à-vis nature and creation. This Catholic and Buddhist interreligious / in- is even more challenging —and press- termonastic encounter held at the Cister- ing— in the midst of a global environ- cian Abbey of Our Lady of Gethsemani mental crisis exacerbated by contradic- in Kentucky (where Father Thomas Mer- ton lived for many years) in 2008 was tions on many levels. Such action should dedicated to the environment. We can include not only sound land manage- thus conclude that a large number of ment, but also interaction between the monasteries, especially ones located in monasteries and the natural world in are- protected areas, could follow this path, as ranging from water to energy and and that in doing so they could foster a from species protection to waste reduc- wide-ranging, interreligious monastic dition and treatment. The fact that some of alogue on the ecological management the most environmentally-aware monas- of monastic lands and facilities focused teries in Europe also number among the on common principles, mutual support world’s fastest-growing monastic com- and the dissemination of best practices munities can definitely be seen as an en- and know-how. couraging sign for the future.

198 References Altisent, A. (1974), Història de Poblet, Publicacions Monàstiques, Abadia de Poblet. Archimandrite Alexander (1996), Ecology and Monasticism, Alexander Press, Montreal. Cannon, J. (2004), A Dictionary of British History, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Johnston, W.M. (2000), Encyclopaedia of Monasticism, Taylor & Francis, Chicago & London. Dubos, R. (1974), Les dieux de l’écologie, Éditions Fayard, Paris. Hughes, P. Father and Pungetti, G. (2009), “Ecological and spiritual values of landscape: a reciprocal heritage and study”, in G. Pungetti, G. Oviedo and D. Hooke (eds.) Sacred Spe- cies and Sites, Lessons in Biocultural Conservation, Cambridge University, Cambridge. Dudley, N. (ed.) (2008), Guidelines for the Categorization of Protected Areas, IUCN, Gland & Cambridge. Légerat, J. (2000), L’énigme Amish. Vivre au XXIème siècle comme au XVIème, Labor Et Fides, Geneva. Mallarach, J.-M. “Protected Landscapes and Cultural and Spiritual Values: An Over- view,” in J.-M. Mallarach (ed.) (2008), Protected Landscapes and Cultural and Spiritu- al Values, IUCN, GTZ and Obra Social Caixa Catalunya. Marech, R. (2007), “Amish in Southern Md. Find Solar Power Plain Practical,” Baltimore Sun, May 18. Muizon, F. de (2001), Dans le sécret des ermites d’aujourd’hui, Ed. Nouvelle cité. Papayannis, T., and Elissaios, Archimandrite (1992), Maintaining Byzantine Traditions on Mount Athos (in Greek), Goulandris-Horn Foundation, Athens, Greece Pope, E.A. (1991), “The Role of Religion in the Romanian Revolution,” International Conference on The Role of Religion in Newly Pluralistic Societies in Eastern Europe, Bu- dapest, May 22-26, 1991. Semkyre, T. (2008), “Good Practices of Buddhist Monastic Communities in North America,” Third Interreligious / Intermonastic Conference, Abbey of Our Lady of Geth- semani, May 27-31, 2008.

Websites Interreligious Monastic Dialogue on the Environment (2008), http://monasticdialog. com/conference.php?id=117 McDermott, M. (2008), Renewable Energy Begun to be Embraced by India’s Hindu Temples, Science & Technology (alternative energy), 07 September 2008, http://www.treehugger.com “National Parks of South Korea”, New World Encyclopaedia, http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/National_parks_of_South_Korea 08 April 2009. Plum Village Zen Monastery, http://www.plumvillage.org

199 200 Part Three Achieving synergy between spiritual and conservation concerns

201 202 IUCN-UNESCO Guidelines for protected area managers on Sacred Natural Sites: rationale, process and consultation

Robert Wild

Abstract work has also been carried out on sacred natural sites by other organisations such The IUCN Specialist Group on Cultural as the World Wide Fund for Nature and and Spiritual Values of Protected Areas the Alliance for Religion and Conservation. works under the auspices of the IUCN Also of relevance to sacred natural sites is World Commission for Protected Areas the large body of work on common prop- (WPCA). Over recent years, it has been erty resource management and the col- promoting the conservation and manage- laborative management of protected are- ment of sacred natural sites and collabo- as; the recent recognition of Indigenous rating with the Man and the Biosphere and Community Conserved Areas as a le- Programme of UNESCO to develop gitimate form or protected area govern- guidelines for protected area manage- ance is very much a reflection of the les- ment, i.e. for managers and their agen- sons learnt from both. cies. The guidelines emerged out of a number of meetings starting in 1998 which The drafting process of the guidelines were organised by UNESCO and IUCN, related to sacred natural sites started in often in collaboration. These meetings 2003, and by 2005 a preliminary set of were held in India, Mexico, China, South working guidelines had been developed, Africa, Japan, the UK and now Greece made available on the internet and then (2007). Over a similar time period, related published by UNESCO (UNESCO 2003).

< A mural by Fr. Boucher Chisale at the Ngoni Arts Centre, Mua Mission, Malawi, depicting an elder, Gule Wamkule characters and a grove 203 During 2006-07, these guidelines were degradation implies a further loss of their developed further in preparation for their natural and cultural heritage. Further- publication in 2008 as one of the vol- more, the link between people and na- umes of the IUCN-WCPA ‘Protected Ar- ture at sacred natural sites can be seri- ea Best Practice Guideline Series’ (Wild ously damaged if the sites are degraded. and McLeod 2008). Draft versions were Increasing efforts are being made to represented for comment at meetings spe- duce the alarming loss of biodiversity cifically related to sacred natural sites in through, for example, the CBD 2010 bio- Mongolia, the UK and Greece, as well as diversity target, which is now a recog- at the second Latin American Congress nised target under Millennium Develop- on National Parks and other Protected ment Goal 7. At the same time, efforts to Areas held in Bariloche, Argentina in Oc- conserve aspects of human culture both tober 2007. In addition to drawing on tangible (e.g. historic buildings, temples, over 50 case studies relating to indige- cathedrals and mosques) and intangible nous and mainstream faiths, the guide- (e.g. languages, customs, spiritual val- lines were reviewed by indigenous park ues, songs and dances) are being un- managers and leaders as well as by indi- dertaken through, for example, the World viduals from the UN Permanent Forum Heritage Convention (1972) and the Liv- on Indigenous Issues. ing Heritage Convention (2003). The rec- These guidelines, then, are one manifes- ognition of ‘cultural services’ along with tation of a greater recognition of the his- provisioning and regulating services in torical and contemporary conservation the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment efforts of many communities across the (2005) highlights the importance of na- globe based on deep-rooted values that ture to human cultures. The effective con- stem from a deep appreciation of —and servation of sacred natural sites provides relationship with— the natural world. a potential strategy for the conservation of both nature and culture; if these sites were completely lost, it would represent Sacred natural sites: an incomparable tragedy for humankind. potential and threats

Recent research has shown that sacred Models for a new Human-Earth natural sites make a significant contribu- relationship tion to the conservation of both nature and culture (Ramakrishnan et al. 1998, It is now recognised by the scientific Harmon and Putney 2003, Bhagwat and community, and increasingly by some Rutte 2006, Dudley et al. 2005, UNESCO sectors within political leaderships, that 2006, Mallarach and Papayannis 2007). the current pattern of development can- At the same time, sacred sites face on- not be sustained. For example, humani- going degradation and loss (Malhotra et ty’s footprint is 21.9 ha/person, while the al. 2001 in Gokhale 2003), although this Earth’s biological capacity is, on aver- is less well-documented. As such, their age, only 15.7 ha/person: the ultimate re-

204 sult can only be net environmental degra- capital as possible into the engines of dation and loss (UNEP 2007). For the the industrial economy. These assump- footprint of humanity to be brought back tions, though, are fantastically at odds within the Earth’s productive capacity, a with scientific reality; human culture and new Human-Earth relationship is urgently its economic goals are, in pure scientific needed (Brown and Garver 2009). Sa- fact, a subset of the earth’s environment cred natural sites provide important in- and resources, and humanity is only one sights that may enable society at large to of millions of species that depend on understand how some human communi- them.” (Brown and Garver 2009). ties have lived in ways that have deeply Many traditional societies around the world respected nature. Often, these same recognise this actual ‘natural order’ or right communities have faced considerable relationship between the human economy challenges in their efforts to continue to and natural systems, and can provide follow these ways of life (see, for example, the paper on the San Francisco models for a return to a right relationship. Peaks pp. 47-60). These lessons from al- To take two examples from Mongolia and ternative cultural and developmental Australia respectively which are included models will assist in promoting a re- as case studies in the guidelines (Wild and newed and sustainable relationship be- McLeod 2008): in Mongolia, President tween people and the planet. Nambaryn Enkhbayar has shown national leadership by supporting the restitution and Until now, our global economic model pre- renewal of many sacred sites and efforts to sumes that the human economy is the ma- renew the Mongolians’ traditionally pro- jor system and that human society and the found respect of nature. Regarding com- environment are looked after if and when a munity and the economy, he has written: society (governed largely by economists) can seemingly afford it (image in p. 206). “In Eastern societies, especially in socie- Expressed in extreme terms, our dominant ties where nomadic culture is still alive economic view reduces animals, plants, and very much enriched by Buddhist cul- places and people to different types of ture, one can find very strong community capital or units of production. In actual fact, feeling. It is interesting for us to approach however, the human economy is a subset the question of a link between Buddhist of human society which is itself a subset of philosophy and economics from this our environment and ecology. Brown and point of view, because economics could Garver (2009) share this view, which they be explained as a science which deals persuasively express as follows. with how human beings can live better in communities.” Enkhbayar (2003). “The current system operates on the assumption that the earth’s environment is Mongolia is in the process of restituting a subset of the human economy, and its large number of sacred natural sites that the earth belongs to humans. If these that have been neglected, overexploited are the assumptions, it makes sense to and even abused for much of the last transfer as much of the earth’s natural century (UNESCO 2007). In the second

205 example, the Yolngu people of Northern uren et al. pp. 27-45)— through the Australia have played a leadership role in Dhimurru Indigenous Protected area. the recovery of Aboriginal land rights, Since the concept of Indigenous Protect- and are increasingly reorienting manage- ed Areas was first championed in the ear- ment to a traditional world view —which ly 1990s, over 23 declared Indigenous makes no distinction between spiritual Protected Areas have been established, values and the environment (Verschu- covering close to 17 million ha or 23 per

The relationships between the ecological, social and economic system.

206 cent of the National Reserve System volume). The promotion of the internation- (Australian Department of the Environ- al and national benefits of protected areas ment and Water Resources 2007). at the cost of local communities has led to deep conflicts between protected area agencies and communities; conflicts Protected areas which have threatened the status —and, and communities in some cases, even the existence— of some protected areas. The exclusion of Since the late 19th century, many nations cattle from Lake Mburo National Park, have established legally protected are- Uganda, for example, led to this last relic as. Currently, these cover over 12% of of the ancestral pastoralist landscape be- the global land area (Chape et al. 2005). coming meaningless to the pastoralists With the widespread adoption of the ‘Yel- themselves (Infield et al. 2008). The Ak- lowstone model’ of national park which agera National Park in Rwanda was re- typically excludes and even evicts indig- duced in size by 70% following the 1994 enous and local communities, protected genocide to accommodate returning pas- area agencies have largely overlooked toralists from a similar ethnic group to or ignored the sacred natural sites es- those at Lake Mburo (Kanyambiwa 1998, tablished by these same communities Plumptre et al. 2001); this lack of meaning which existed, in many cases, for hun- for a cattle-free landscape is likely to have dreds, if not thousands, of years prior to contributed to a lack of support for Ak- the establishment of modern protected agera National Park itself. areas. The world views held by dominant socio-political entities have often dis- The last thirty years have, however, seen counted indigenous sacred values. The a paradigm shift in the management se world views include scientific, materi- and establishment of protected areas, alist, socialist and certain groupings as well as a reconsideration of the con- within some mainstream faiths. As a re- cept of protected landscapes (Phillips sult of these dominant world views, pro- 2003, Borrini-Feyerabend et al. 2004, tected area agencies within many socio- Brown et al. 2007, Mallarach 2008). As political and national contexts across the such, increasing attention has been paid globe have not taken account of the sa- to improving the livelihoods of commu- cred natural sites of both indigenous peo- nities associated with protected areas ples and mainstream faiths. In the worst and to involving them in the manage- cases, protected area establishment has ment of these protected areas. Also, the been used as a tool for the repression of re-examination of the role of communi- minorities (West and Brechin 1991, Ste- ties in protected areas has shown that vens 1997). Restricting the access to and one of the main reasons these indige- use / management of these sites by their nous local communities have protected traditional custodians, has disconnected nature was to preserve the sacred val- communities from their history, culture ues, which they recognised, of areas of and landscape (San Francisco Peaks, this high biodiversity.

207 Faith and nature of a hold over communities. Of late, there has been a rediscovery of the nature eth- The greater acknowledgement of indige- ics of the mainstream faiths. A dialogue nous and local communities as potential between representatives of the main- partners in protected area management, stream faiths and conservationists (prima- coupled with a greater understanding of rily the WWF and the Alliance of Religion the significant biodiversity that sacred and Conservation), which started in Assisi natural sites often support, has led to a in 1986 has led to a renewed interest in re-evaluation of the contribution that sa- the environmental ethics contained within cred sites can make to the conservation all mainstream faiths, and led to declara- of nature. The last ten years has seen an tions on nature and ecology by 11 main- increasing volume of literature and con- stream faiths (Palmer and Finaly 2003). servation work focused largely on the sacred natural sites established by indige- It should be noted that in some sacred nous people and local communities (Ra- natural site situations the distinctions be- makrishnan et al. 1998, Harmon and tween indigenous, local and mainstream Putney 2003, Bhagwat and Rutte 2006, spiritual traditions can be rather blurred UNESCO 2006). At the same time, sacred as multiple groups share the same sa- natural sites are not the exclusive purview cred natural site, and there is often a lay- of the faith traditions of indigenous and lo- ering with later spiritual traditions adopt- cal communities. Nearly all the 11 main- ing many of the elements of earlier tradi- stream faiths also have well-established tions or existing alongside them and ac- sacred natural sites (Dudley et al. 2005, commodating them in local practice (for Mallarach and Papayannis 2007). an example from Sri Lanka, see Wick- Despite the existence of sacred natural ramsinghe 2003, 2005). sites associated with mainstream faiths, the nature ethics of many of these faiths have been largely ignored or forgotten. Culture, religion and During the 20th century, the rise of Com- development munism in Eastern Europe and Asia and As a rule, development efforts since secularism in the West has fuelled a de- World War II have taken little considera- cline in the influence of mainstream faiths tion of culture or religion. The main pre- in many areas. In the Soviet Union, East- sumption has been that Western-style ern Europe, Mongolia and China sup- development is superior to other devel- pression —sometimes violent— has shat- opment models, and that other cultures tered long-established faiths, some with constitute a block to development (Eade extensive sacred sites many of which 2002). While there has been increasing were also damaged. Likewise, religion in consideration of cultural aspects of de- the largely secular West now exerts less velopment in recent years, discussions

As identified by the Alliance for Religion and of spirituality have largely remained a de- Conservation. velopment taboo (Ver Beek 2002).

208 There is a small but increasing aware- protected areas operating in concert is ness, however, that development ancho closer to a reality than ever before. Har- red in the culture and norms of individual monisation of the management of pro- societies is more likely to be sustainable tected areas and sacred natural sites (Verhelst and Tyndale 2002). At the same can be achieved by two main routes: time, the global impact of the unsustaina- • Sympathetic and supportive manage- ble overuse and consumption of resourc- ment within protected areas: The ado es engendered by materialist industrial so ption of community supportive man- cieties following the Western development agement of sacred sites within gov- model can no longer be ignored. The cur ernment-protected areas; and rent impact of human activity on the natu- • Recognition and support outside pro- ral world indicates that many ecosystems tected areas: The sympathetic recog- are being heavily over-used, and that so nition and support of sacred sites ly- me components (e.g. global fisheries) are ing beyond government-protected ar- in the process of collapse (Millennium ea boundaries. Ecosystem Assessment 2005). This has led to the realisation of the need to come up with a new development model. Maintaining custodian autonomy Achieving this vision requires not only A new vision for protected areas the free, prior, and informed consent of and sacred natural sites custodians, but also maintaining or enhancing the autonomy of site custodi- One element of a new model might be ans. At the international level, the recog- the greater integration of natural and cul- nition of Indigenous and Community tural values in protected areas. The vi- Conserved Areas (ICCA) is a significant sion of sacred natural sites and legal step in this direction (Dudley 2008). At

Mua Headman and Gule dancers at their sacred grove, Gule Wamkule, a UNESCO Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity

209 the national level, many protected area small habitat patches for biodiversity con- authorities have not fully embraced the servation is now recognised, and long pe- new protected area paradigm, and their riods of minimal disturbance means that failure to recognise community claims sacred natural sites outside protected are- on sites within existing protected areas as have significant local biodiversity val- and their involvement in sacred natural ues, especially when they represent the sites outside protected areas are likely to remnants of more widespread vegetation. undermine custodian independence. A careful situation analysis is therefore required before action is taken to harmo- Sacred natural sites — guidelines nise protected areas with sacred natural for protected areas managers sites within them or nearby. Turning to the guidelines themselves, which evolved 2003-2008. Over 50 case studies on sacred natural sites have Extent of the challenge been presented at meetings organised Neither the total number of sacred natural by UNESCO, the IUCN or collaborating sites is known nor the number now within institutions. Specifically, these meetings the 12% of land contained within legal pro- have been held in India (Ramakrishnan tected areas. It has been estimated, how- et al. 1998), China (UNESCO 2003), ever, that there are between 150-200,000 Mexico (Pumarejo and Berges 2005) Ja- sacred groves in India alone (Gokhale pan (UNESCO 2006), Spain (Mallarach 2003, Chatterjee et al. 2004), while there and Papayannis, 2007), Mongolia are an estimated 1,900 sacred groves in (UNESCO 2007), Greece (Papayannis Ghana and some 800 sacred natural sites and Mallarach, this volume) and the UK. in Mongolia. Of course, several countries Other related work has also been re- will have just one or two; if one accepts ferred to, particularly the important re- the lower figure for India and an estimated cent work from the WWF and ARC relat- average of 500 sacred natural sites for the ing to protected areas including the re- remaining 191 countries on the UN list of port “Beyond Belief: Linking faiths and recognised nations, this would give a protected areas to support biodiversity speculative global estimate in the region conservation” (Dudley et al. 2005) as of a quarter of a million sacred natural well as their earlier efforts relating to faith sites —though this figure would, of course, and nature (Edwards and Palmer 1997, Palmer and Finlay 2003). require further research to validate. While many of these sites are small, some are Also of relevance to sacred natural sites quite extensive. However, since many is the large body of work on common have already been incorporated into legal property resource management (Ostrom protected areas, it is possible that they et al. 2002) and the collaborative man- may not contribute a substantial addition- agement of protected areas (Borrini-Fey- al area of land under conservation man- erabend et al. 2004), as well as the re- agement. Still, the importance of even cent recognition of Indigenous and Com-

210 munity Conserved Areas - ICCA (Dudley The recommendations of Dudley et al. 2008) as a legitimate form of protected (2005) with regard to the IUCN-UNESCO area governance which, as mentioned working guidelines (UNESCO 2007) cle above, is a reflection of the new lessons arly suggested that: learnt from both these spheres. • The current guidelines are useful but The original focus of the IUCN-UNESCO remain general; guidelines was the sacred natural sites of indigenous and local communities, and • The guidelines should be based on a this remains their primary scope. Some ‘learning portfolio’ of protected areas indigenous people have such a close re- containing sacred sites. lationship with their sacred natural sites that As published, the guidelines (Wild and the deterioration or destruction of those sites McLeod 2008) aimed to take these com- threatens their very existence. In addition, ments into account. It is envisaged that sacred natural sites related to indigenous the experience of applying these guide- and local communities are, in general, lines will be reviewed in a number of more vulnerable and under greater threat years, when the guidelines will be modi- than sacred natural sites associated with fied as required. mainstream faiths. During the drafting process, however, it was recognised that mainstream faiths care for many sacred Guidelines audience natural sites and have teachings relating to the relationship between humans and The guidelines are provided primarily to nature, and efforts were made to incorpo- assist protected area managers, espe- rate the experiences of the mainstream cially those concerned with sacred sites faiths into the guidelines (to some extent), located within the boundaries of their le- while retaining the focus on local commu- gally-established protected areas. Rec- nities and indigenous people. ognising the primacy of traditional custodians in managing their sites, it would be The Delos Initiative of the IUCN WCPA inappropriate for IUCN or UNESCO to Specialist Group on Cultural and Spiritu- al Values of Protected Areas has en- provide management advice regarding gaged with the task of analysing and un- sacred sites for which custodians have derstanding the diversity of sacred natu- successfully cared for many generations. ral sites related to mainstream faiths to It is anticipated that the guidelines will which the majority of humankind are re- promote cooperation between protected lated in one way or another. It has made area managers and custodians of sacred significant steps in this regard, particu- sites with a view to the enhanced conser- larly in technologically-developed coun- vation of these special places. While man- tries (see Mallarach and Papayannis agers of protected areas are the guide- 2007 and Papayannis and Mallarach this lines’ main focus, it is hoped that they will volume for the Montserrat (2006) and be of use to a wider group of stakehold- Ouranoupolis (2007) statements). ers. The guidelines are thus aimed at:

211 Rangers and co-workers of Dhimurru Indigenous PA, Australia and Director General of IUCN launching the IUCN Sacred Natural Sites Guidelines, during the World Conservation Congress in Barcelona

• Managers of individual protected are- • Other custodians, governments and as with sacred natural sites located biological or cultural support organi- either within them or nearby; sations that wish to support the conservation of sacred natural sites. • Managers of protected area systems who have sacred natural sites within The managers of protected areas were at or in the sphere of influence of their the centre point of discussion when de- network of protected areas; and veloping these guidelines. In terms of flow, the guidelines develop from the spe- • Natural resource ministries responsi- cific to the more general, from the local to ble for protected area agencies and the national level. For some of the broad- systems. er and national level issues, the main role Other stakeholders that may find these of site managers will be to advocate for guidelines useful include: policy changes based on the experiences in their individual protected areas. • Planning authorities responsible for land- use planning outside protected areas; It is also recognised that ‘technical guidelines’ and ‘best practice’ themselves stem • Traditional custodians who wish to from a Western, scientific, reductionist engage with environmental or protect- conservation culture (MacDonald 2004), ed area authorities to increase the and that attempting to marry these with protection of their sacred sites and the holistic and traditional-knowledge are either seeking or offering advice based cultures represented at sacred nat- on ecological management; ural sites is ambitious. Increasingly, how • NGOs and other agencies that pro- ever, protected area managers are willing vide support for the custodians of sa- to learn from the experience of traditional cred natural sites; custodians, while custodians of sacred

212 natural sites have begun requesting ad- concerning aspects of protected area vice from ecologists regarding the management, planning and zoning (in- environmental management of their sa- cluding buffer and support zones). cred natural sites. A good example of this One of the most challenging issues fac- is the Both Ways programme of the ing the improved conservation of sacred Dhimurru Protected Area in Northern Aus- natural sites is secrecy versus publicity. tralia (Verschuuren et al. pp. 27-45). In some cases, the sacred values are predicated upon the site being kept con- Format of the guidelines fidential from non-community, and some times certain community, members. Pub- The guidelines consist of 44 points (pre- licising sacred sites in this context may sented separately in Annex I for ease of lead to the unwanted attention of treas- appreciation) arranged under six guiding ure hunters, tourists in search of indige- principles to which the remainder of this nous rites, ‘new age’ celebrants seeking paper refers. The six principles of the a closer relationship with nature and core guidelines are: agents of proselytising faiths seeking con 1. Recognition ((5 guidelines) verts. In contexts where secrecy is not an 2. Planning (11 guidelines) issue, biodiversity inventory and research 3. Participation (5 guidelines) has led to greater publicity and conserva- 4. Knowledge and understanding tion. In the case of the Kaya sacred for- (8 guidelines) ests on the coast of Kenya, for example, 5. Management (10 guidelines) it has lead to their official recognition as 6. Rights (5 guidelines) national monuments and, in 2007, their inclusion on the World Heritage Register Brief outline of the six principles (Githitho 2003, 2006). In some countries, the protected area agencies appear to 1. Recognition lack the sensitivity to effectively recognise This section (five guidelines) discusses the sacred natural sites. Incorporating them important element of recognition. Appro- in protected areas systems may well thus priate recognition and support by govern- be counter productive. ments and other stakeholders is a critical step in the conservation of sacred natural 3. Participation sites. The free, prior and informed consent This principle (5 guidelines) refers to the of custodians is of the utmost importance. important issues of voluntary participa- It also discusses the recognition of sacred tion, stakeholder inclusion, conflict reso- natural sites as archetypal models of rela- lution and legitimacy. While participation tionships between Man and Nature. is now well-established as conservation practice, it has to be continually re-learnt, 2. Planning with the ideal end point being community The second principle addresses plan- empowerment and site management. ning. This cluster contains 11 guidelines Government institutions, in particular, are

213 often poor at participatory decision-mak- those contexts where poverty and popula ing, especially at a national policy level. tion pressure give rise to livelihood needs In some countries however, protected ar- and changes in community values which ea agencies use innovative contract and bring with them significant new pressures. indigenous park models. 6. Respect of rights 4. Knowledge and understanding The final principle addresses overall rights This section deals with a wide range of is- and an equity-based approach, includ- sues dealing with the knowledge and un- ing freedom of religion, and includes is- derstanding of sacred natural sites. Sensi- sues ranging from institutional analysis tive issues here include making sure cus- and rights-based approaches to tenure. todians are not forced to reveal knowl- Rights and tenure issues are often con- edge about their sacred sites, especially tested areas, especially by indigenous during the collecting of inventory data, and peoples. The recent UN Declaration of the need to ensure that multi-disciplinary the rights of indigenous peoples is a wel- teams are involved in the research. come step in that direction (UN 2007).

5. Management Comments are invited on Principle five covers a wide range of man- the guidelines agement issues ranging from access and tourism to the protection —and, where ap- The guidelines were published in 2008. propriate, the financing— of sacred natu- Having been tested in a number of repre- ral sites. Financing sacred sites is a sen- sentative protected areas worldwide, they sitive issue, and some have argued will be reviewed again in four years time. against this guideline being included at Any contribution to testing the guidelines all. It is, however, a critical issue in the sur is welcome, and relevant information vival of sacred natural sites, especially in should be forwarded to the editors.

Indigenous Ranger Marlangaj Yunupingu presents Julia Marton-Lefèvre with a Yidaki at the launch of the Sacred Natural Sites Guidelines, during the World Conservation Congress in Barcelona

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217 Annex 1 Principle and Guidelines for the Management of Sacred Natural Sites located in Legal- ly Recognised Protected Areas: Section 4 of: Wild, R.G. and McLeod, C. (eds.). 2008, Sacred Natural Sites: Guidelines for Protected Area Managers. IUCN-UNESCO. IUCN Best Practice Guidelines 16: IUCN Gland.

Principles and Guidelines for the Management of Sacred Natural Sites Located in Legally Recognised Protected Areas A working version of the guidelines (7 pages) was published in 20061 and has also been available on the internet since then. The present version builds upon the initial concepts and incorporates feedback received regarding the working version. It is envisaged that the current guidelines will be tested in field situations and will be reviewed and revised over the next four years.

In their current form, the guidelines are relatively detailed and prescriptive. The 44 guidance points are grouped into six principles. In terms of flow, they generally develop from the specific and local to the more general and national level. In relation to some of the guidelines at the regional or national scale, it is recommended that individual protected area managers advocate for appropriate, relevant policy changes that will improve management of sacred natural sites locally, nationally and globally.

1 Principles Principle1 Recognise sacred natural sites already located in protected areas. Principle 2 Integrate sacred natural sites located in protected areas into planning processes and management programmes. Principle 3 Promote stakeholder consent, participation, inclusion and collaboration. Principle 4 Encourage improved knowledge and understanding of sacred natural sites. Principle 5 Protect sacred natural sites while providing appropriate management access and use. Principle 6 Respect the rights of sacred natural site custodians within an appropriate framework of national policy.

2 Guidelines Principle 1: Recognise sacred natural sites already located in protected areas. Guideline 1.1 Natural and cultural values: Recognise that sacred natural sites are of vital importance to the safeguarding of natural and cultural values for current and future generations.

UNESCO, 2006, pp. 326–331

218 Guideline 1.2 Ecosystem services and human well-being: Recognise that sacred natural sites have great significance for the spiritual well-being of many people and that cultural and spiritual inspiration are part of the ecosystem services that nature provides. Guideline 1.3 Recognition: Initiate policies that formally recognise the existence of sacred natural sites within or near government or private protected areas and affirm the rights of traditional custodians to access and play an appropriate, ideally key, role in managing sacred natural sites now located within formal protected areas. Guideline 1.4 Consultation: Include the appropriate traditional cultural custodians, practitioners and leaders in all discussions and seek their consent regarding the recognition and management of sacred natural sites within or near protected areas. Guideline 1.5 Holistic models: Recognise that sacred natural sites integrate social, cultural, environmental and economic values into holistic management models that are part of the tangible and intangible heritage of humankind.

Principle 2: Integrate sacred natural sites located in protected areas into planning processes and management programmes. Guideline 2.1 Park planning: Initiate planning processes to revise management plans to include the management of sacred natural sites located inside protected area boundaries. Guideline 2.2 Identify sacred natural sites: Where secrecy is not an issue and in close collaboration and respecting the rights of traditional custodians, identify the location, nature, use and governance arrangements of sacred sites within and around protected areas as part of a participatory management planning process. Guideline 2.3 Respect confidentiality: Ensure that pressure is not exerted on custodians to reveal the location or other information about sacred natural sites and, whenever requested, establish mechanisms to safeguard confidential information shared with protected area agencies. Guideline 2.4 Demarcate or conceal: Where appropriate and to enhance protection, either clearly demarcate specific sacred natural sites, or alternatively, to respect the need for secrecy, locate sacred natural sites within larger strictly protected zones so exact locations remain confidential. Guideline 2.5 Zoning: Establish support, buffer and transition zones around and near sacred sites, especially those that are vulnerable to adverse external impacts. Guideline 2.6 Linkages and restoration: Create ecological corridors between sacred natural sites and other suitable areas of similar ecology for connectivity, and in degraded landscapes consider restoring sacred natural sites as an important initial step to reviving a wider area.

219 Guideline 2.7 Ecosystem approach: Adopt the ecosystem approach as the key strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way and also includes cultural and spiritual values. Guideline 2.8 Landscape approach: Take a landscape approach to sacred natural sites, recognising their role in wider cultural landscapes, protected area systems, ecological corridors and other land uses. Guideline 2.9 Support development planning recognition: Development planning authorities are the main planners of land use in areas outside many protected area systems. Seek their and other stake-holders’ support for the recognition of sacred natural sites in the wider countryside. Guideline 2.10 Protected area categories and governance: Recognise that sacred natural sites exist in all of the IUCN protected area categories and governance types, and that those that fall outside formal protected area systems can be recognised and supported through different legal and traditional mechanisms according to the desires of their custodians, including as community conserved areas when appropriate. Guideline 2.11 International dimension: Recognise that some sacred natural sites, and the cultures that hold them sacred, cross international boundaries and that some may be within or may surround existing or potential trans- boundary peace parks.

Principle 3: Promote stakeholder consent, participation, inclusion and collaboration. Guideline 3.1 Prior consent: Ascertain the free, prior and informed consent of appropriate custodians before including sacred natural sites within new formal protected areas and protected area systems and when developing management policies affecting sacred places. Guideline 3.2 Voluntary participation: Ensure that state or other stakeholder involvement in the management of sacred natural sites is with the consent and voluntary participation of appropriate custodians. Guideline 3.3 Inclusion: Make all efforts to ensure the full inclusion of all relevant custodians and key stake-holders, including marginalized parties, in decision making about sacred natural sites, and carefully define the processes for such decision making, including those related to higher level and national level policies. Guideline 3.4 Legitimacy: Recognise that different individuals and groups have different levels of legitimacy and authority in decision making about sacred natural sites. Guideline 3.5 Conflict management: Where relevant and appropriate, use conflict management, mediation and resolution methods to promote mutual

220 understanding between traditional custodians and more recent occu- pants, resource users and managers.

Principle 4: Encourage improved knowledge and understanding of sacred natural sites. Guideline 4.1 Multidisciplinary approach: Promote a multidisciplinary and integrated approach to the management of sacred natural sites calling on, for example, local elders, religious and spiritual leaders, local communities, protected area managers, natural and social scientists, artists, non- governmental organizations, and the private sector. Guideline 4.2 Integrated research: Develop an integrated biological and social research programme that studies biodiversity values, assesses the contribution of sacred natural sites to biodiversity conservation, and under- stands the social dimension, especially how culturally rooted behaviour has conserved biodiversity. Guideline 4.3 Traditional knowledge: Consistent with article 8(j) of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), support the respect, preservation, maintenance and use of the traditional knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities specifically regarding sacred natural sites. Guideline 4.4 Networking: Facilitate the meeting of, and sharing of information between, traditional custodians of sacred natural sites, their supporters, protected area managers and more recent occu- pants and users. Guideline 4.5 Communication and public awareness: Develop supportive communication, education and public awareness programmes and accommodate and integrate different ways of knowing, expression and appreciation in the development of policies and educational materials regarding the protection and management of sacred natural sites. Guideline 4.6 Inventories: Subject to the free, prior and informed consent of custodians, especially of vulnerable sites and consistent with the need for secrecy in specific cases, carry out regional, national and international inventories of sacred natural sites and support the inclusion of relevant information in the UN World Database on Protected Areas. Develop mechanisms for safeguarding information intended for limited distribution. Guideline 4.7 Cultural renewal: Recognise the role of sacred natural sites in maintaining and revitalizing the tangible and intangible heritage of local cultures, their diverse cultural expressions and the environmental ethics of indigenous, local and mainstream spiritual traditions. Guideline 4.8 Intercultural dialogue: Promote intercultural dialogue through the medium of sacred natural sites in efforts to build mutual understanding, respect, tolerance, reconciliation and peace.

221 Principle 5: Protect sacred natural sites while providing appropriate management access and use. Guideline 5.1 Access and use: Develop appropriate policies and practices that respect traditional custodian access and use, where sacred natural sites fall within formal protected areas. Guideline 5.2 Visitor pressures: Understand and manage visitor pressures and develop appropriate policies, rules, codes of conduct, facilities and practices for visitor access to sacred sites, making special provisions for pressures brought about by pilgrimages and other seasonal variations in usage. Guideline 5.3 Dialogue and respect: Encourage ongoing dialogue among the relevant spiritual traditions, community leaders and recreational users to control inappropriate use of sacred natural sites through both protected area regulations and public education programmes that promote respect for diverse cultural values. Guideline 5.4 Tourism: Well managed, responsible tourism provides the potential for economic benefits to indigenous and local communities, but tourism activities must be culturally appropriate, respectful and guided by the value systems of custodian communities. Wherever possible, support tourism enterprises that are owned and operated by indigenous and local communities, provided they have a proven record of environmental and cultural sensitivity. Guideline 5.5 Decision-making control: Strong efforts should be made to ensure that custodians of sacred natural sites retain decision-making control over tourist and other activities within such sites, and that checks and bal- ances are instituted to reduce damaging economic and other pressures from protected area programmes. Guideline 5.6 Cultural use: While ensuring that use is sustainable, do not impose un- necessary controls on the careful harvest or use of culturally significant animals and plants from within sacred natural sites. Base decisions on joint resources assessments and consensus decision making. Guideline 5.7 Protection: Enhance the protection of sacred natural sites by iden- tifying, researching, managing and mitigating overuse, sources of pollution, natural disasters, and the effects of climate change and other socially derived threats, such as vandalism and theft. Develop disaster management plans for unpredictable natural and human caused events. Guideline 5.8 Desecrations and re-sanctifying: Safeguard against the unintended or deliberate desecration of sacred natural sites and promote the recovery, regeneration and re-sanctifying of damaged sites where appropriate.

222 Guideline 5.9 Development pressures: Apply integrated environmental and social impact assessment procedures for developments affecting sacred natural sites and in the case of the land of indigenous and local communities support the application of the Convention on Biological Diversity’s Akwé: Kon Guidelines for minimizing the impacts of development actions. Guideline 5.10 Financing: Where appropriate, pay due attention to the suitable financing of sacred natural site management and protection, and develop mechanisms for generating and sharing revenue that take into account considerations of transparency, ethics, equity and sustainability. Rec- ognise that in many parts of the world poverty is a cause of the degradation of sacred natural sites.

Principle 6: Respect the rights of sacred natural site custodians within an appropriate framework of national policy. Guideline 6.1 Institutional analysis: Understand traditional management institutions and enable and strengthen the continued management of sacred natural sites by these institutions. Make appropriate arrangements for the adoption and management of sacred natural sites that have no current custodians, for example by heritage agencies. Guideline 6.2 Legal protection: Advocate for legal, policy and management changes that reduce human and natural threats to sacred natural sites, especially those not protected within national protected areas and other land planning frameworks. Guideline 6.3 Rights-based approach: Root the management of sacred natural sites in a rights-based approach respecting basic human rights, rights to freedom of religion and worship, and to self- development, self-government and self-determination as appropriate. Guideline 6.4 Confirm custodians’ rights: Support the recognition, within the overall national protected area framework, of the rights of custodians to their autonomous control and management of their sacred sites and guard against the imposition of conflicting dominant values. Guideline 6.5 Tenure: Where sacred natural sites have been incorporated within government or private protected areas in ways that have affected the tenure rights of their custodians, explore options for the devolution of such rights and for their long-term tenure security.

223 224 Sacred natural sites in developed countries

Thymio Papayannis

Sacred natural sites ia, Canada, Russia and the US. In smaller countries like Japan and most Europ Sacred sites served as the world’s oldest ean nations where the population density method of nature protection, conserving is considerably higher, only a limited num habitats and landscapes long before the ber of natural areas have been preserved, establishment of modern legally-protect- and these through appropriate policies ed areas. Although no systematic inven- and active management, in the main. tory has been made of these sites, it is estimated that there are roughly the Most of the inhabitants of technologically same number of sacred sights in the developed countries are either agnostic world as there are official protected are- or adhere to mainstream faiths. Most of as —in India alone, for example, there the developed countries of the ‘New are over 100,000 sacred groves (Dudley World’ still harbour remnants of their indigenous populations, many of which et al. 2005). maintain their traditional customs and Despite modernisation, most technologi- beliefs —examples would include the cally developed countries have maintai Aboriginal peoples of Australia, the Inuit ned a high level of biodiversity and large in Canada and Alaska, the Saami people expanses of natural areas. This is per- in Scandinavia, remnants of Native Amer- haps due to the low population densities icans in the US and a large number of in- in large parts of big countries like Austral- digenous people in Russian Siberia.

< Cantauque Monastery, Southeastern France 225 In addition, immigrants leaving their own Traditionally, however, both Christian countries for economic or political rea- and Buddhist monasteries have been sons have introduced their religions and established in remote natural areas beliefs into their developed host coun- which provide the monastic communi- tries, creating cultural and religious ties with a refuge from secular life and al- ‘pockets’ which can be concentrated in low them to focus on spiritual concerns. major urban centres or geographically Monasteries are usually located in moun- dispersed. Almost all of these spiritual tainous areas with forest cover, many of manifestations are related to specific which have now been granted protection places which have a sacred character status; Mt Athos, for instance, with its 20 for the believers, but which are also often monasteries is a World Heritage Site. recognised and respected by members The same is true of hermitages which, be of other faiths and the agnostic. Some of ing even more remote and inaccessible, these sacred places maintain a high de- tend to be still more deeply embedded in gree of biodiversity. protected areas. Examples would inclu Within the framework of the Delos Initiative, de the Agia Paraskevi monastery and re- all areas that merit a nature protection lated hermitages overhanging the Voido status —on a local, national or interna- matis Gorge in Pindos in Eastern Greece, the scetes of Valaam Island in the Kare- tional level— are considered protected lia region of the Russian Federation and areas, even if this protection status has even the Pelgye Ling Gompa Monastery not yet been legally confirmed in some built around Milarepa’s cave in Tibet. cases. The focus is thus on areas that are recognised as sacred by a main- Small religious buildings are also found stream religion or in accordance with in- in remote mountainous areas. Examples digenous beliefs and which are of value would include the chapels dedicated to because of their natural heritage values the Prophet Elijah (Profitis Ilias) atop high (which include biodiversity, geodiversity hills and mountains throughout the Greek and ecosystems). mainland and islands, as well as the numerous Romanesque chapels devoted Mainstream religions to St Michael in the Pyrenees.

In developed countries, many of the ma- Pilgrimage routes such as the Via Laureta jor religious establishments (such as na in Italy, the ways to St James (Santia- archdioceses, sees and the Vatican it- go) de Compostela in Southern France self) are based in large urban centres. and Northern Spain and the routes in Ja- pan’s Kii mountain range are often related According to the Convention on Biological Diver- to or run through protected natural areas. sity, a protected area is defined as “a geographically defined area which is designated or regulated and managed to achieve specific conser- Indigenous sites vation objectives”. As in the case of the Chrysopigi Monastery on While mainstream religions often express Crete and the Holy Island of Arran in Scotland. the sacredness of a place through the

226 Loreto Hill Sanctuary and the Santa Casas olive grove, Scossicci, Italy construction of religious edifices, for in- Current trends digenous peoples sacredness is inherent Sacred natural sites must be viewed in nature and in its elements (Possey within a broader context of the global so- 1999) and is made manifest in mountains, cial, cultural and economic develop- lakes and rivers but also in individual rocks, ments which can come together to trans- trees and animals. There are also sacred form or maintain the spiritual character of aspects to transient climatic events or the a given place or community (Palmer and perennial movement of the sun, moon Finlay 2003). and stars. Indigenous beliefs are thus very closely related to nature; however, One such major development is the because they do not leave large-scale, spread of multiculturalism in developed profound and permanent marks on na- countries. To a large extent, this is due to ture, they are hard to define and hence to a large increase in immigration —mainly, protect. Compared to the impressive but not only, from poorer developing monuments left by major indigenous civi- countries— which is expected to grow lisations in Central and South America, even more rapidly in the years to come Asia and Africa, the Aborigine peoples of due to the inevitable repercussions of Australia, the Native Americans of the US population growth, climate change and and Inuits of Canada and Greenland have the global economic crisis. A considera- left light imprints on the earth. Moreover, ble percentage of these economic and the sanctity and right to respect and pro- environmental immigrants are not absor tection of these sites are frequently con- bed into the social web of their host coun- tested —as in the well-known case of the tries, but tend to gravitate instead to- San Francisco Peaks in Arizona. wards their own ethnic, cultural or social groups, initially for support, but later on See pp. 47-60. as a way of preserving their ethnic and cu

227 ltural identity. There is thus a tendency for the neoliberal system with all it entails in these immigrants to retain their cultural terms of free markets, excessive con- and spiritual traditions, including their lan- sumption and a lack of financial control. guage; the spread of social liberalism means that this —except in cases where it Mainstream religions leads to political unrest— is judged accep table by the majority of the population. If one takes a closer look at mainstream religions, it is reasonable to conclude that In these same developed countries, they have been stewards of an ancient mainstream religions are challenged on and rich spiritual and cultural heritage for a social level by various ideologies and millennia. Most of these religions have beliefs which capitalise on the distance maintained their heritage intact as it is in- some of them maintain from contempo- extricably woven into the fabric of their rary realities, on their conservatism or on innermost beliefs. However, a few have their misusing their spiritual mandate to modernised their message and practic- further political aims (as in the case of es and come closer to people today. religious fundamentalism). In the not so distant past, mainstream re- In turn, indigenous beliefs within devel- ligions exerted a very powerful social oped countries are usually limited to (and political) influence, especially in small minorities. Such minorities are of- countries (like Greece, Russia and Italy), ten influenced by proselytising main- which still had a state religion in some stream religions, which leads to a di- form or other. This influence is declining verse mixture of spiritual currents which but still substantial, as churches still ex- may not be conducive to spiritual clarity ert a guiding role in social and political or to the maintenance of the initial cultur- matters for a considerable part of the al heritage, although it establishes new population. This influence is clearly high- patterns of heritage and gains high an- er in less technologically developed thropological interest. countries. Finally, one should take into account the The social role of mainstream religions growth of secularism, which is weakening and their structures should be viewed in both mainstream faiths and indigenous the light of their effective organisation and beliefs. Although a resurgence of spiritual the considerable human and financial re- quests after the collapse of materialistic sources they can mobilise. While there and hedonistic ideologies has been pre- are clearly differences between church- dicted, it is perhaps too early to assess es, they are all powerful social forces. the importance of this trend. Furthermore, it is especially difficult to estimate the This statement was written before the start of the long-term impact on spiritual matters of global economic crisis in October 2008. From 1.3 millennia for Islam to 5 millennia for Thus, the resurgence of Orthodox Christianity in Hinduism. former communist countries, from Russia to Al- In Greece for example, all clergy are public serv- bania, is a significant development. ants paid by the state.

228 Hermitage near Skitul Sihra, Vanatory Neamt Monastery, Romania

On the positive side, one must mention Buddhism, too, has been particularly sen the increasing sensitivity of mainstream sitive to protecting nature and caring for religions to social challenges including the natural environment, although this military conflict, genocide, poverty and has not improved the living conditions famine. Seeing themselves as stewards for the inhabitants of the countries where of the Creation, they are also becoming it is practised. increasingly sensitive to threats, pres- Early Christians displayed a profound sures and impacts on the environment, ambivalence towards the material world which has led to positive action. along with suspicion of the natural world (Burton-Christie 2000). Later, fol- Mainstream religions and the environment lowing the spread of Protestantism and the advent of mercantilism and, later, The way in which the major religions the industrial revolution, the accumula- have viewed and interpreted the natural tion of wealth —and, hence, material- environment have changed over time. ism— were appraised more highly (We- The Qur’an, for example, is rich in eco- ber 2002) and nature less so. Only re- logical teachings and provides guidance cently have the three main branches of on carefully managing the earth and its the Christian Churches reconsidered resources. Unfortunately, the Muslim their interpretation of Man’s right to faithful have often ignored these admo- ‘conquer the earth’, a concept rooted in nitions, and only recently has there been the anthropocentrism of the European a return to environmental prudence Renaissance, and begun collaborating among some followers of Islam. on a new position whereby any act that degrades or destroys nature —God’s As demonstrated by the Venice Declaration signed in 2005 by Pope Jean-Paul II and the Creation— is a sin. This is a good be- Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I. ginning, but concrete actions is now re-

229 quired to implement this new environ- sites can thus lead to the protection of mental sensitivity. entire cultural systems and the acknowl- edgment of these cultures’ role in the Within the present-day context of dwin- protection of the environment (Dudley et dling natural resources and a burgeoning al. 2005). world population, the lessons of monastic asceticism —as espoused by some of The situation has not been improved by the mainstream religions— are gaining interventions on the part of public author- ground. They consist of managing resou ities; even when well-meaning, such in- rces —and natural resources, in particu- terventions have often been insensitive lar– frugally to avoid excessive consump- and ‘paternalistic’, undermining the tra- tion, and of living practices that are in ditional social structures upon which in- harmony with nature. It is these lessons digenous peoples depend. that make contemporary monasticism at- Still, progress has been made. A number tractive to many people in today’s socie- of indigenous peoples have improved ty, or at least arouses their curiosity. their governance and organisation and acquired useful social skills, including the Indigenous faiths ability to plead their case and defend their rights. This has led to improved recogni- Indigenous peoples found it extremely dif tion and acceptance, and the winning of ficult to retain their cultural identity after the legal battles over property rights; these disastrous impact of colonialism, and ho positive developments have, however, mogenisation became widespread through been more evident in Australia, Canada, force or social / economic incentives. Eco- New Zealand and South American coun- nomic colonialism is, of course, still a re- tries like Bolivia and Columbia than they ality in parts of the developing world. have been in Brazil or the USA. Most indigenous peoples have left a lighter footstep on the earth than their General recommendations colonisers; and although this could be considered positive, it has made it ex- Certain suggestions can be made here in tremely difficult for indigenous people to relation to improving the management of sa indisputable proof their use and owner- cred natural sites in developed countries. ship of their land and win the right to le- There is an urgent need to establish an gally administer and manage it in the equitable partnership between custodians face of the pressures and challenges of of sacred sites and the managers of the contemporary development. protected natural areas in which they are Many sacred sites are also under threat often embedded. This partnership should due to cultural breakdown and change be based on a mutual recognition of the —modern development, in particular, is different philosophies (and, perhaps, ide- endangering both their number and in- ologies) espoused by the two sides and tegrity. The protection of indigenous the recognition that they are more often

230 complementary than conflicting. A prag- dence, as well as the need to respect and matic approach should also be adopted protect the environment, should be in- to resolving practical problems in a man- cluded in sermons on a regular basis. ner which avoids exclusion and conflict. On the other side, managers of protect- Two of the main spheres of conflict be- ed areas must also become sensitive to tween the custodians of sacred sites and cultural and spiritual concerns. This is the managers of protected natural areas particularly difficult, as most of them are land ownership and public land use have a background in the natural scienc- issues: such issues should be resolved es. However, major multilateral organisa- fairly and with a degree of broad-mind- tions devoted to the natural environment edness in a spirit of collaboration and (such as the Convention on Biological joint stewardship. Local communities Diversity and Ramsar) and international must also be involved in the process and conservation organisations (such as the allowed to protect their own interests, but IUCN and WWF) are working to bridge they must also realise the significant the gap between culture and nature, benefits accruing to the existence of sa- which will bear fruit in the long run. How- cred natural sites in their vicinity. ever, it is clear that much more public awareness work is needed on the na- That some of these sites have been glo- tional, regional and local levels. bally recognised —by being designated a World Heritage, Man and Biosphere or The participation of custodians of sacred Ramsar site— must also be taken into sites in the administrative processes of account, as it places them in a global protected areas will help both sides com- constituency. Managing the flow of visi- prehend the issues, identify potential con tors or pilgrims to these sites presents flicts and work towards joint solutions. major challenges that require careful and These benefits can be magnified still fur- sensitive management. ther if sacred site custodians are represe nted on the management body of the cor For mainstream religions responding protected area. This would both equate to recognition of their status Mainstream religions can only hope to as key stakeholders in the area, allow them achieve an optimal balance between natu a better understanding of the issues, and re protection and spiritual considerations provide a forum for their concerns. if they become more interested and invo lved in ecological matters. Within religious For indigenous faiths structures, the capacity for understanding The cultivation among society at large of environmental problems and participating a profound respect for the spiritual, cul- in their resolution must be deliberately tural and practical implications of the sa- and systematically developed —this is al- cred sites of indigenous peoples is a ready happening in some monastic communities. Crucial issues concerning eco- International Union for the Conservation of logical justice, responsibility and pru- Nature and the World Wide Fund for Nature.

231 sine qua non for their fair treatment. Chil- vation measures. The custodians of in- dren must be introduced to the concepts digenous sacred sites could thus be invit- at school level, while their conception ed to participate in protected areas man- should be broadened and deepened agement bodies on which they could be throughout their education. alloted at least a consultative role, and where the importance of their opinions Respect would lead to raised awareness could be acknowledged during the taking of the need to protect sacred indige- of decisions impacting on the manage- nous sites from development pressures ment of their sacred lands (Lee and and encroachment. It is evident that Schaaf 2003). In exchange, protected ar- such considerations must be incorporat- ea managers should be willing to provide ed into environmental impact assess- indigenous societies with the necessary ments at every appropriate level, from tools and scientific / technical knowledge projects to policies that may adversely they need to manage their land effectively affect indigenous sacred natural sites. and in an environmentally sensitive way Authorities and organisations responsible (Mallarach and Papayannis 2007). for environmental matters —and protect- Field experience must be acquired by ap ed areas management, in particular— plying the new Sacred Natural Sites Gui must be open-minded with regard to in- delines for Protected Area Managers, re digenous beliefs and traditions; they cently published by IUCN (Wild and should view them as a source of knowl- McLeod 2008). Success between conser edge and not dismiss them as mere su- vation and spirituality can be achieved if lo- perstitions. Indigenous know-how in the cal support is given to conservation efforts sphere of natural resource management and effective and trusting partnerships —e.g. aboriginal fire management tech- among all stakeholders are developed. niques (Szabo and Smyth 2003)— must be viewed on a par with scientific conser- After all, it is our common earth…

Meiji Jingu Shinto shrine in Tokyo, Japan

232 References Burton-Christie, D. (2000), Christianity and Ecology: Seeking the Well-Being of Earth and Humans, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.

CBD (1992), Convention on Biological Diversity (with annexes), Rio de Janeiro, 5 June 1992.

Dudley, N., Higgins-Zogib, L. and Mansourian, S. (2005), Beyond Belief, Linking Faiths and Protected Areas to Support Biodiversity Conservation, WWF, Equilibrium and The Alliance of Religions and Conservation (ARC), Gland and Manchester.

Lee, C. and Schaaf, T. (eds.) (2003), The Importance of Sacred Natural Sites for Biodi- versity Conservation, Proceedings of the Xishuangbanna Biosphere Reserve, People’s Republic of China 17-20 February 2003, UNESCO/MaB, Paris.

Mallarach, J. and Papayannis, T. (eds.) (2007), Protected Areas and Spirituality. Pro- ceedings of the First Workshop of the Delos Initiative, Montserrat, 23–26 November 2006, IUCN and Publicaciones de l’Abadia de Montserrat Gland and Montserrat.

Oviedo, G. and Jeanrenaud, S. (2007) “Protecting Sacred Natural Sites of Indigenous and Traditional Peoples” in J. M. Mallarach and T. Papayannis (eds.) Protected Areas and Spirituality. Proceedings of the First Workshop of the Delos Initiative, Montserrat, 23–26 November 2006, IUCN and Publicaciones de l’Abadia de Montserrat, Gland and Montserrat.

Palmer, P. and Finlay, V. (2003), Faith in Conservation: New Approaches to Religions and the Environment, Directions in Development, The World Bank, Washington D.C.

Possey, D.A. (ed.) (1999), Cultural and Spiritual Values of Biodiversity, Intermediate Technology Publications and UNEP, Nairobi.

Szabo, S. and Smyth, D. (2003), “Indigenous Protected Areas in Australia: Incorporat- ing Indigenous Owned Land into Australia’s National System of Protected Areas”, in H. Jaireth and D. Smyth (eds.), Innovative Governance: Indigenous Peoples, Local Com- munities and Protected Areas, New Delhi.

Weber, M. (2002), The Protestantism Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Blackwell, Oxford.

Wild, R. and McLeod, C. (eds.) (2008), Sacred Natural Sites: Guidelines for Protected Area Managers, IUCN, Gland.

233 234 Some thoughts on sacred sites, faith communities and indigenous peoples

Gonzalo Oviedo

Many of the problems pertaining to the ple, the vast majority of indigenous and spiritual systems and practices of indig- traditional cultures live in the tropical enous peoples in developed countries belt, from which developed countries also affect indigenous and traditional are virtually absent and where most na- peoples in developing countries. Howev- tions are affected by poverty and low er, it is important to understand and take standards of human well-being. From into account differences in the scale and a conservation perspective, the majori- complexity of the problems in the con- ty of conservation efforts occur in the text of conservation programmes. tropical belt because of the levels of biodiversity present in these regions. On I shall briefly discuss five points before a global scale, we can thus say that the making some recommendations: presence of indigenous and traditional 1. In many developing countries, indige- peoples and their belief systems and nous and traditional peoples and cul- practices in developing countries in the tures are comparatively more numer- tropics is also comparatively more sig- ous and represent a significant propor- nificant from a conservation perspective than their presence in developed tion of the population. This is a result of countries in temperate regions. many factors, among them history and differing degrees of urbanisation and 2. Numbers aside, the situation of indig- cultural / economic change. For exam- enous and traditional peoples in de-

< Patriarch Bartholomew in the Amazon, Brazil, where he shared the blessing of the river with an indigenous spiritual leader 235 veloping countries is generally more traditional peoples in developing difficult and more complex than it is countries is the problem of conflict for indigenous and traditional peoples with religious groups and institutions, in many developed countries, as the which can be a far thornier issue than former face greater poverty and in- in developed countries and which creased marginalisation as well as continues to be highly significant de- enjoying less of a voice and fewer spite certain advances made with re- rights. Of course, this does not mean gard to religious tolerance and legal that indigenous peoples face no prob- and political arrangements that rec- lems in developed countries —the ognise freedom of belief. This prob- grievances of the Aboriginal peoples lem largely originates in the associa- of Australia, the Maori of New Zea- tion between certain religious groups land, the Inuit of Canada and the / institutions and colonial powers. Dine’ in the US confirm that they, too, Thus, we have the role played by the face major challenges. However, the Catholic church in Spain and Portu- threat to cultural survival is compara- gal’s conquest of the Americas and, tively greater in developing countries in the modern era, the (mostly US- where indigenous and traditional peo- based) evangelical groups of various ple face a more complex mixture of denominations which employ aggres- marginalisation, discrimination, liveli- sive strategies to ‘convert’ indigenous hood insecurity, conflict and poverty. peoples in developing countries to Needless to say, this has tremendous Christianity —the Wycliffe Bible Trans- implications for the vitality and pros- lators, for instance, who define them- pects of traditional spirituality as it in- selves as ‘World Missions for Un- terrelates with nature conservation. Of reached People Groups’ and target course, every case in which a cul- isolated indigenous peoples, or the ture’s belief system and practices are New Tribes Missions, a sect with a facing erosion is cause for concern similar fundamentalist approach which “plants tribal churches among un- and a source of stress and suffering reached people groups”. The ‘mis- for the people in question, and com- sionary’ intentions of both the Catho- parisons can only be relative at a glo- lic Church, especially in the past, and bal level. It should also be borne in the present-day American evangelical mind that taken individually, despite sects are grounded in the “extirpation marginalisation and poverty, some of idolatry” and the “salvation” of in- traditional cultures in developing digenous peoples who are believed countries may be more vital than oth- to be “naturally condemned” because er declining indigenous cultures in, of their “paganism”. And while the lev- for example, the US. el of conflict may have diminished in 3. One of the fundamental issues that recent years as a result of progres- needs to be addressed in the context sive thinking on the part of various re- of sacred sites and indigenous and ligious communities of various affilia-

236 tions, it remains a near intractable has made more progress, with many problem in many places where indig- claims already settled and clearer enous and traditional peoples contin- mechanisms and processes in place, ue to be harassed and persecuted by as in the case of Aboriginal territories religious groups and sects, putting in Australia and New Zealand and of tremendous strain on indigenous spir- the Arctic. Conflicts and claims exist, ituality and indigenous cultures, and of course, but are comparatively few- sometimes on these groups’ very ca- er and less intractable than in devel- pacity to survive as cultures. oping countries.

4. The problem of the loss of rights of 5. The loss of rights relating to the tenure tenure and management in relation to and management of sacred sites sacred sites is extremely complicat- within protected areas, and the po- ed, and proposals for restoring these tential restitution of these rights, re- rights need to be examined with great mains an issue with no clear solution care. The loss of rights began in the in most developing countries, where colonial era and was, in many cases, the legal situation is more difficult than accompanied by acts of great vio- in developed countries. In the case of lence. If one thinks of the many sa- Europe, for example, the legislation cred sites that have been affected by governing protected areas generally the loss of rights in developing coun- allows for tenure rights exercised tries, one can only ask oneself how within the limitations of management much can be done to repair the dam- regulations. With some exceptions, age done. Ethics aside, this remains protected areas legislation in devel- a monumental question that needs to oped countries does not conflict con- be addressed in a realistic and prag- ceptually or philosophically with the matic way which does not raise ex- tenure rights of the inhabiting com- pectations that may never be met. munities. In most developed coun- This poses an especially difficult chal- tries, however, sacred site owners lenge for the conservation communi- have not been disempowered prima- ty, since, while we recognise the prob- rily through tenure rights, but rather lem and are supportive of the rights of through insensitive management ap- indigenous and traditional peoples proaches. In a sense, this makes it easier to find solutions. and the need to restore rights and compensate for losses, we also rec- In Latin America, Asia and Africa, pro- ognise that the issue is more to do tected areas legislation does conflict as with land tenure, politics and govern- a rule with local tenure and governance ance than with conservation, which rights. In most countries, the existing leg- limits our capacity to offer advise or islation governing protected areas ex- urge change. In developed countries, plicitly states that all lands within protect- the process of settling land tenure ised areas are state lands, and mandates sues in relation to indigenous peoples expropriation when legally-titled private

237 lands lie within them. Legally speaking, more massive and rapid way than ever it is therefore impossible under the current before and that, in many cases, there is systems to restore the rights of indigenous insufficient time for traditional cultures to and traditional peoples to their sacred adapt in their own terms. This is a major sites or —more broadly— to their lands problem of cultural change and govern- and territories within protected areas. ance that goes beyond sacred sites or traditional spirituality and impacts on the So what is to be done? Of course, we be- entire cultural and institutional context. lieve that protected areas legislation should be amended with regard to this matter, If I may return to the comments made in but given that this is not a priority for poli- point three above, there is still very ticians, change can only come about strong opposition on the ground —from slowly and on a small scale. So, given the general public as much as from reli- that changes are not easy to bring about gious institutions— to the recognition of and may have significant implications for indigenous spirituality as legitimate and a range of social groups, how can we im- equal in value to the spirituality of the prove the effectiveness of initiatives world’s major institutionalised religions. geared to promoting legislative change? The popularity of many dubious forms of beliefs and practices which are appar- Another key issue is the problem of the ently linked to traditional spirituality (di- erosion of traditional institutions. The sup viners, mediums, faith healers, etc.) pression and oppression of traditional in- makes the situation worse by reinforcing stitutions in colonial times, and later the equating of traditional spirituality with through the imposition of class / caste / superstition. ethnic politics, has had profound consequences for traditional cultures. There are Moreover, it is of critical importance ongoing political interests in keeping tra- worldwide, but especially in developing ditional institutions weak —cosmetic faça countries, that formal religious institu- des rather than instruments of real pow- tions become more open, ecumenical and tolerant and abandon their colonial er. We are thus faced once again with a ma attitude towards indigenous spirituality jor problem of governance that goes be- and their belief that indigenous people yond sacred sites or traditional spirituality. should ‘convert’ to a major world reli- Cultural change, too, especially across gion. If religious institutions continue to generations, is a complex factor which use the privileges they enjoy —wealth, impacts on traditional institutions. While public influence, access to political we certainly do not want to promote a power— to push through policies and rigid approach to cultural and institution- practices of benefit to them alone, there al change, as we have to recognise and can be no solution to this problem as accept change as part of the dynamic indigenous and traditional spirituality and diversity of cultures, it is nonetheless will continue to be undervalued, abused a fact that the patterns of global change and condemned. Moreover, legislative are affecting traditional institutions in a frameworks guaranteeing freedom of

238 religion have limited applicability to • Recognise the diversity of the world’s traditional spirituality in most develop- cultures and spiritualities as part of ing countries, where religious institu- the vitality of humankind and the vital- tions and sects use them to advance ity of the planet; their aggressive proselytism against tra- • Value all forms of spirituality, religious ditional spirituality. or non-religious, because they con- However, when religious institutions and nect humans to nature; leaders have become open, ecumeni- • Promote ecumenism among all faiths, cal, tolerant and sensitive, they have religions and forms of spirituality as made highly significant contributions to well as with the secular world and en- a new ethics of respect and inclusion. In courage dialogue centring on common 2006, HAH Patriarch Bartholomew of the values and approaches to improving Orthodox Church invited an indigenous human living on a sustainable planet; spiritual leader of the Amazon to bless the waters of the river where the ecologi- • Recognise that all forms of spirituality are susceptible to change; cal symposium he had organised was taking place. This gesture has immense • Apply a rights-based approach which symbolic value in theological, ethical respects the rights of all peoples and and political terms, and shows that far individuals to their own beliefs and spir- from weakening the world’s religions, itual values and practices, as long as healing the wounds created by their co- these practices do not harm others; lonial history actually gives the world’s • Recognise the universal rights of eve- major faiths a new historical perspective ry citizen of the world to a healthy en- by reconnecting them with the greatest vironment and sustainable develop- challenge of all: planetary survival. Reli- ment, regardless of their beliefs; gious institutions and leaders should not be afraid of becoming more ecumenical • Promote equity and provide support and open —rather than ‘losing souls’, for vulnerable or disadvantaged groups they will gain in respect and moral whose cultures and spiritual values authority. tend to be ignored or discriminated against; An ethical approach that fosters respect for the spiritual values of all human com- • Promote the integration of scientific munities, including the values of secular, knowledge and technical tools with non-religious spirituality, is critical for a traditional management systems ba sed on local values; planetary vision of sustainability in which powerful bonds exist among different • Take an enabling approach to com- cultures engaged in caring jointly for the munities and people with a view to planet. The conservation community strengthening local actions, institu- should thus be supportive of approach- tions, processes and communities es that: linked through spiritual traditions.

239 240 Environmental action by the Ecumenical Patriarchate

Theodota Nantsou

Religions are organised and structured • They advocate an ethical stance and systems of faith that unite large number caring for all creation; of people who share the same spiritual • Some of them own or manage areas beliefs. It can be argued, therefore, that or sites of great ecological value. religions are potentially crucial ‘players’ The separation of religion from secular in dealing with several contemporary en- life in modern societies means that reli- vironmental issues, since: gious leaders are not actively encour- • They address an ‘exclusive’ audi- aged to involve themselves in issues of ence; social concern beyond caring for the un- privileged and the dispossessed. Many • They can easily influence the faithful environmental organisations have thus and instil environmentally and social- sought to involve religion in their strug- ly responsible behaviours; gle to spread the word about nature • Numerous important facilities (wel- conservation and environmental action. fare foundations, social care institu- In the Christian world, the most prominent tions, communications media, edu- environmentally active Church leader is cational institutions, etc.) are operat- undoubtedly Bartholomew, the Ecumeni- ed on behalf of religious institutions; cal Patriarch of the Orthodox Church.

< HAH Patriarch Bartholomew during a fieldtrip in the Amazon, Brazil 241 The Orthodox connection A number of important initiatives have between faith and action gone on record as landmarks in the modern history of the Orthodox Church: It was in the mid nineteen eighties that WWF International began to collaborate • 1988: Ecological conference on Pat- th with the Ecumenical Patriarchate. No one mos to mark the 1900 anniversary of at the time could have foreseen how as- the writing of the Apocalypse. The tonishingly active the Ecumenical Patriar- powerful symbolism of the Book of Revelation and its environmental di- chate, which is based in Istanbul, would mension was the starting point for the soon become in environmental aware- most important inter-faith conference ness and conservation. Especially since on the environment to date. the enthronement of Patriarch Bartholom- ew in 1992, the Ecumenical Patriarchate • 1989: Proclamation of Orthodox ‘Day has definitely set the pace for Christian of Creation’ (Patriarch Demetrios) and environmental activism. “Patriarch Bar- the introduction of a special liturgy tholomew I, Archbishop of Constantinople blessing creation in its entirety. and New Rome, is the spiritual leader of • 1989-present day: Annual celebration 300 million Orthodox Christians around of Orthodox Creation Day & patriar- the world. He’s also extremely green, each chal messages. year taking church leaders of all denomi- • 1991: Ecological conference at the nations to areas of the world beset with Orthodox Academy of Crete. This was environmental problems —including the the first international environmental Amazon, the Arctic and the Danube. After conference co-organised by the Ecu- announcing, on an island in the Aegean, menical Patriarchate and WWF. that attacks on the environment should be considered sins, he called pollution of the • 1994-1998: The Halki summer ecolo world’s waters “a new Apocalypse” and gical seminars. led global calls for “creation care”. Way • 1995-present day: International envi- ahead of his time, he has made the environmental symposia. ronment an increasingly powerful strand of Christian thinking in Britain —and latter- • 1999: Establishment of the Halki Eco- logical Institute. ly the US— where traditionally right wing churches have followed his lead and now • Instigation of training seminars aim- openly counter President Bush’s stance. ing at building environmental conser- Bartholomew, 67, is now heavily influenc- vation awareness among clergy and ing the Pope and has shared a green theologians. stage with him several times in Rome. It all • Nature conservation and organic far suggests institutional Christianity is green- ming activities in monasteries. ing up fast after centuries of ambivalence and outright hostility”. • Collaboration with conservation organi sations such as WWF. In this context, John Vidal (2008). Ecumenical Patriarch Demetrios decla

242 red September 1st the Orthodox Day ronmental protection and conservation of Creation and was represented at thus far has been its organisation of a the Assisi meeting of religious leaders, series of important international sympo- which resulted in the Assisi declara- sia on ships sailing environmentally ‘trou- tions on Creation. Ecumenical Patriarch bled’ waters in significant ecosystems. Bartholomew expanded the Patriarcha Through these high-profile symposia, the te’s collaboration with WWF by means Patriarchate has addressed world lead- of the Halki ecological seminars, which ers and brought together leading figures the two bodies stage in collaboration. from the scientific, academic, political, civic and religious communities. The international symposia staged have been The Halki ecological seminars as follows:

The Theological School of Halki was for 1. ‘Aegean: Revelation and the Environ- ced to cease its operations in the 1970s ment’, September 1995. Organised by legislation passed by the Turkish Gov- under the joint auspices of Ecumeni- ernment. However, the informal re-open- cal Patriarch Bartholomew and the In- ing of the historic theological school as a ternational President of the Worldwide venue for ecological seminars serves as Fund for Nature, the Duke of Edin- a powerful symbol of the Ecumenical Pa- burgh, the symposium brought to- triarchate’s genuine concern for the envi- gether some 200 scientists, religious ronment. Aiming to unite the Christian leaders, philosophers, economists, churches in the battle against the global artists and policy makers to examine environmental crisis, the Ecumenical Pa- the interrelation of religion and the en- triarchate organised a series of summer vironment, and to bring the insights, seminars at the Theological School of knowledge, inspirational abilities and Halki in collaboration with WWF Interna- methods of religion and science to- tional. The seminars brought scientists, gether to protect the natural world on theologians, environmentalists and Church which all life depends from progres- leaders together to explore and promote sive deterioration and, consequently, commonly acceptable solutions to a se- to boost human welfare. The partici- ries of environment-related issues. The pants were from 32 countries and in- five Halki Ecological Seminars dealt with cluded representatives of the Chris- religious education (1994), environmen- tian, Muslim, Jewish, Hindu, Buddhist, tal ethics (1995), communications for the Jainist, Sikh, Zoroastrian and Bahai environment (1996), environmental jus- faiths. tice (1997) and poverty (1998). 2. ‘The Black Sea in Crisis’, September 1997. This second symposium on the general theme of Religion, Science International symposia and the Environment sought to identi- The Ecumenical Patriarchate’s greatest fy specific actions that could be un- contribution to the global effort for envi- dertaken with a particular focus on

243 the Black Sea as a region and an en- significant ecosystems of the Amazon vironment in crisis. basin and to stress their interconnect- edness and interaction with the life of 3. ‘Danube, a River of Life’, October local communities. 1999. The third symposium focused its attention on the Danube in a time 7. ‘The Arctic: Mirror of Life’, September of turbulence, tragedy and new op- 2007. Staged under the joint auspices portunities. Three months after NATO of Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew, bombing of the area, Ecumenical Pa- Jose´ Manuel Barroso, President of the triarch Bartholomew spoke on the European Commission and Kofi An- banks of the Danube at Novi Sad and nan, the former Secretary-General of stressed the human and the environ- the United Nations, this symposium fo mental dimensions of war. cused on climate change and the sen- 4. Adriatic Symposium, June 2002. The sitive ecosystems of the Arctic Circle. Adriatic Symposium addressed the et These symposia have provided an ever hical aspects of the environmental cri- more important platform for an enor- sis, with a special focus on the environ mous range of public figures (including mental problems facing the Adriatic. local leaders in all the areas visited) to 5. ‘The Baltic: A Common Heritage, A proclaim, share and develop a rich set of Shared Responsibility’, June 2003. ideas regarding the fundamental causes The symposium passed through five of the environmental crisis confronting countries in eight days with stops in contemporary societies. The fact that the Gdansk, Kaliningrad, Tallinn, Helsinki symposia have been held aboard ships and Stockholm. Plenary sessions and and that local people have been warmly working groups were held on board invited to attend has powerful affirmed ship with numerous shore visits. The the principle that humankind is “all in the symposium brought together 250 par- same boat” regardless of race, belief or ticipants —theologians, scientists, social status. In other words, no human policy makers, environmentalists and being will be able to avoid the conse- journalists— under the patronage of quences of a general environmental ca- His All Holiness the Ecumenical Patri- tastrophe. The first five symposia took arch and Romano Prodi, President of place in regions where different cultures, the European Commission. religions and political systems have in- 6. ‘Amazon: Source of Life’, July 2006. teracted peacefully or violently over ma Staged under the joint auspices of ny centuries. They served to draw inter- Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew national attention to a number of acute and Kofi Annan, Secretary-General of and growing challenges including chem- the United Nations, the sixth symposi- ical discharges into the Adriatic, dioxins um on Religion, Science and the En- in the Baltic, the debris of war in the Dan- vironment convened in Amazonia to ube and the depletion of marine life in focus on the sensitive and globally the Black Sea.

244 In the wake of these events, the Amazon like many indigenous cultures, Orthodox and Arctic regions were specifically cho- Christianity stresses that human beings sen for the 2006 and 2007 international are themselves part of the material world symposia respectively with a view to and the animal kingdom; in contrast, marking out new territory for the Patri- contemporary Western culture has often arch and the environmental dialogue he regarded the human being as a sort of has spearheaded. Both regions are at disembodied brain which can modify the the centre of a global debate on the natural world without fear of the conse- causes and consequences of climate quences. The Patriarch’s concern for the change and rising sea levels. In both re- future of the Brazilian rainforests and the gions, indigenous people have reason to melting of the Arctic ice cap was pro- be seriously concerned about their sur- foundly appreciated by the elected lead- vival and their cultural and economic fu- ers of those regions, and widely publi- ture, and risk numbering among the first cised around the world. victims of an ecological crisis which they had no part in causing. The Patriarch used these symposia to initiate a pro- The Orthodox paradigm of found and searching dialogue with the environmental responsibility indigenous peoples of the New World, in places where the arrival of organised The importance of the Ecumenical Patri- Christianity often went hand in hand with archate’s green activism is not restricted rapacious and brutal colonisation. As to simply passing on the ‘right’ solutions the Patriarch has pointed out, Orthodox to a new audience. What is more signifi- Christianity can discern in the culture of cant is that the leader of the Orthodox indigenous peoples many indispensable world has developed a coherent and values which have been forgotten in the modern —if not novel— theology for the heartland of ‘Christian civilisation’. And conservation of Creation. The classifica-

HAH Patriarch Bartholomew and symposium participants at sea in the Arctic

245 tion, for example, of deliberate damage It is crucial that the leader of the Ortho- to Creation as a major sin has made a dox Church, the Ecumenical Patriarchate, clear statement to the Orthodox faithful should have led the way in involving the that environmentally responsible behav- Orthodox world in addressing the global iour has more profound existential di- environmental crisis. Given that national mensions that make it more than simply Orthodox churches, including the Church a personal choice. The Orthodox Primate of Greece, have been involved in scan- is therefore promoting a new and green- dals involving the abuse of nature and er way of life for the world’s 300 million have failed to take any conservation initi- Orthodox Christians which blends per- atives of their own, the paradigm pro- fectly with the oldest of the Orthodox tra- moted by the Orthodox primate has set ditions and, in turn, facilitates a genuine an environmentally responsible example and life-long association between Chris- for the Orthodox faithful. tians and the environmental cause. The active environmental concern em- It is worth quoting part of a recent mes- bodied by Ecumenical Patriarch Bar- sage from Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholo tholomew has now become an integral mew to WWF Greece concerning the glo- part of Orthodox church life. The conver- bal dimensions of ‘ecological sin’: “Since sion of monastic buildings into models sin is disobeying the will of the Lord as well of sustainability, organic farming in monas the cause of evil, then deliberate environ asteries and the incorporation of envi- mental damage is indeed a sin. Indeed, it ronmental messages into religious edu- is hard to think of any other sin that is as cation are practices that are now em- universally destructive in its impact as the bedded in the everyday life of the Ortho- desecration of the sanctity of Creation. dox Church. The Holy Convent of Chrys- One need only consider the conseque opigi in Chania, Crete has not only led nces of deeds that undermine the envi- the way in this respect, it has provided a ronment for all the living creatures and not paradigm for environmentally sustaina- just one or two individuals, since we are ble monastic life. well aware that the elements of our world The Ecumenical Patriarchate has be- are all interdependent. Of course, ecologi- come a global leader in promoting con- cal destruction has another unique di- servation and sustainability through reli- mension, since it deprives future genera- gion. Orthodox Churches worldwide can tions of the chance to live in a healthy and and must become important stakehold- balanced manner in the beautiful world ers in the global environmental move- God has created. For this reason, it is ex- ment, both as spiritual communities and ceptionally significant that the Church act as owners and managers of ecologically to avoid any further abuse and corruption significant lands and buildings. And while of the world, which humanity has been the Ecumenical Patriarch’s calls for envi- called on to guard and not destroy”. ronmental action have already borne fruit,

Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople Bar- there is still a long road to be travelled to tholomew I (2006). their application on a large scale.

246 References John Vidal (2008), “50 people who could save the planet”, Guardian Unlimited 05/01/2008.

Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople Bartholomew I (2006), “Our stance towards the environment is a spiritual issue”, Living Planet Magazine, issue 4, WWF Greece, pp. 12-16.

Religion, Science and the Environment”, http://www.rsesymposia.org (Accessed 13/04/09). Information on all the international symposia staged by the Ecumenical Patriarchate.

Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (1997), The environment and religious education: presentations and reports from the Summer Seminar at Halki, 1994, Militos Editions, Istanbul.

Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (1997), The environment and ethics: presentations and reports from the Summer Seminar at Halki, 1995, Militos Editions, Istanbul.

Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (1992), So that God’s creation might live: the Orthodox church responds to the ecological crisis: proceedings of the inter-Ortho- dox conference on environmental protection held at the Orthodox Academy of Crete in November 1991, ICOREC-WWF-Syndesmos. n.p.

Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (1999), The Halki Ecological Institute working with the Black Sea Environmental Journalism Workshop: a handbook addressed to workshop participants, Istanbul.

Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (1990), Orthodoxy and the Ecological Cri- sis, WWF International / World Conservation Centre, Gland.

247 248 The Ouranoupolis Statement1 on sacred natural sites in technologically developed countries

TAKING INTO ACCOUNT the inspiring mes The participants of the workshop arrived sage of HAH the Ecumenical Patriarch Bart at the following conclusions: holomew to the Workshop participants;

NOTING the positive content of the wel- Lessons from the case studies coming addresses to the Delos2 Work- shop by the representatives of the Holy presented at the Workshop Community of Mt. Athos and of the Pre- All parties involved in sacred natural sites fecture of Halkidiki; within protected areas should be encour- CONSIDERING the contributions to the aged to resolve in an equitable manner Workshop of the 22 participants from 11 legal and land and resource ownership countries in the form of case studies, pa- and use problems, as a prerequisite to pers and discussions; achieving collaboration and synergy.

EVALUATING the work carried out in the A rights-based approach and the em- framework of the Delos Initiative during powerment of local communities should the past year; be promoted in all cases.

Conclusions of a Delos Initiative Workshop held in Ou Through appropriate methods, the mutu- ranoupolis (Greece) on 24-28 October 2007 within the framework of IUCN/WCPA and its Specialist Group al awareness, sensitivity and capacity of on Cultural and Spiritual Values of Protected Areas. both custodians of sacred sites and pro-

249 tected area managers -as well as other (as it is already since 1992) and for interested parties- should be cultivated, nature should be encouraged, thus leading to a common approach for con- recognising its integrated character. serving all relevant natural, cultural and - The efforts of the Holy Convent of spiritual values. Chrysopigi in Chania, Crete, to protect In this context, the establishment of joint ap its surrounding natural and cultural ar- proaches of research and learning among ea from tourist and development pres- the key sides should be promoted. sures should be strengthened with the collaboration of local authorities. The custodians of sacred sites should be fully involved in the development of International conventions and organisa- management plans for protected are- tions could play a positive role in sup- as, as well as participation in their porting internationally recognised sacred management structures, and their con- natural sites and should be encouraged tribution should be recognised and to intensify their efforts for this purpose. encouraged. The right of custodians of sacred sites to Management of monastic lands limit access to certain areas should be Managers of protected areas, as well as respected and the appropriate meas- relevant policy-makers, must be encour- ures should be included in management aged to respect the sanctity of Monastic planning and public use, together with sites and lands under their care and take restrictions to visitor access in highly them into consideration in planning, sensitive natural areas. management and evaluation. In addition, the participants of the Work- Monastic Communities must also be en- shop agreed on the following specific couraged to manage their lands and fa- points: cilities in an ecologically sustainable and - The efforts of the Native American na- equitable manner. tions that are fighting to protect the For this purpose, a joint and integrated Holy San Francisco Peaks from ski approach to management planning and resort development should be sup- evaluation is required, which should be ported. developed with participation from both - The Government of South Korea and sides. the Convention on Wetlands should Monastic sacred sites can provide useful be encouraged to recognise the Ma- inputs to education and public aware- ni-san tidal flats as Ramsar wetland of ness and their contribution should be en- international importance, thus contrib- couraged in related protected areas. uting to their conservation. In addition, the principles and practice - The efforts to designate the Solovetsky of monastic asceticism may provide World Heritage Site both for culture profound lessons towards ecological

250 life styles and the sustainable use of noupolis Workshop, together with the natural resources -as demonstrated by proceedings of the Montserrat Work- the experience of the Holy Convent of shop, for dissemination during the WCC, Chrysopigi. as a contribution of the Delos Initiative to the ongoing dialogue on natural and cul- In this context, the positive initiatives of tural / spiritual values and to the imple- the Holy Community of Mt. Athos in preparing a special environmental study mentation of conservation approaches and a strategic plan for the entire auton- that are sensitive to the cultures and val- omous territory, as well as measures for ues of all communities. its implementation, through the estab- The Delos Initiative should contribute to lishment of a management body under the ongoing UNESCO / IUCN process for the Holy Monastic Community, with the preparing guidance on sacred natural support of competent scientists and sites to be completed in 2008. In addi- government agencies, were noted with tion, the Delos Initiative should continue appreciation. its systematic work for developing further guidance during the triennium 2008-2010 on the specificities of sacred natural sites Guidance for sacred natural in developed countries mainly for main- sites in developed countries stream religions. Efforts should be strengthened to sensi- Additional case studies of sacred natu- tise mainstream faiths -both authorities ral sites should be analyzed in the and followers- to nature conservation framework of the Initiative, with the and broader environmental issues. goals to obtain more balanced geo- The potential contribution of protected graphical distribution, greater repre- natural areas to the conservation of sa- sentativity of faiths and the recognition cred sites and vice versa should be of successful examples, which can dis- enhanced. seminate best practices and inspire emulation. Particular respect and care should be addressed to indigenous sacred sites in Naturally, the Delos Initiative is expected developed countries, which should be to contribute substantially to the appro- safeguarded from insensitive develop- priate events of the 2008 World Conser- ment pressures. vation Congress, within the framework of the WCPA Specialist Group on Cultural and Spiritual Values of Protected Areas. The Delos Initiative towards WCC2 The Initiative should examine potential Priority should be given to the publica- synergy in its work with related internation of the proceedings of the Oura- tional conventions and organisations,

IUCN Fourth World Conservation Congress, Bar- and especially with the World Heritage celona, Catalonia (Spain), October 2008. Convention.

251 Appreciation ning and Public Works and of the Prefec- ture of Halkidiki (Northern Greece). Profound recognition is due of the broad and creative role played by HAH the The hospitable and highly informative re- Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew in ception of participants in the sacred bringing together faiths in favour of the monasteries of Varlaam in Meteora (Thes Creation and the conservation of the nat- saly) and of the Assumption in Ormylia ural environment, and sincere gratitude (Halkidiki) is also appreciated. is expressed for his message of advice Special thanks are addressed to Med-INA to the Delos2 Workshop. (the Mediterranean Institute for Nature and Appreciation is also due of the official Anthropos) for having organised the work- participation in the Workshop of the Holy shop with efficiency and sensitivity and Community of Mt. Athos, of the Greek having covered its costs with the support Ministry of Environment, Physical Plan- of the A.G. Leventis Foundation.

252 Olive grove of the Holly Convent of Chrysopigi, Crete, Greece

253 254 Appendices

Appendix I: Workshop participants and authors

Jeneda Benally P.O. Box 1744 Flagstaff, AZ 86002 USA

Ivan N. Bolotov Dr. Sc. (Biology), Deputy Director of Research, Institute of Ecological Problems of the North The Ural branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (INEP UB RAS) nab. Severnoy Dviny, 23 163061, Arkhangelsk Russian Federation

Sebastian Catanoiu Park Manager National Forest Administration-Romsilva Vanatori Neamt Nature Park Administration Romania

255 Christos Chryssomalis Ministry for the Environment, Energy and Climate Change General Direction of Environment Mesogeion and Trikalon 36 115 27 Athens Greece

Alexander Davydov Head of the Laboratory of Nature Protected Areas and Ecology of Culture Institute of Ecological Problems of the North The Ural branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (INEP UB RAS) nab. Severnoy Dviny, 23 163061, Arkhangelsk Russian Federation

Angeliki Foutri Planner-Sustainable Developer Med-INA Secretariat 23, Voukourestiou Str. 106 71 Athens Greece

Father Gregorios Representative of the Holy Community of Mt Athos Gregoriou Monastery Karyes 630 87 Mt Athos

Lawrence Hamilton Senior Advisor Mountain Biome, World Commission on Protected Areas/IUCN Charlotte, Vermont, 05445 USA

Kyung-Koo HAN Ph. D. Division of International Studies Kookmin University 861-1 Jeongneung-dong, Seongbuk-gu Seoul S. Korea 136-702

Father Peter Hughes OSB Cam Sacred Hermitage of Camaldoli 52010 Camaldoli (AR) Italy

256 Petros Kakouros Forester Greek Biotope / Wetland Centre Po Box 60394 57001 Thermi Greece Charalampos Katsimpas Ministry for the Environment, Energy and Climate Change General Direction of Environment Mesogeion and Trikalon 36 115 27 Athens Greece Konstantinos Kontos Professor School of Forestry & Natural Environment Aristotle University of Thessaloniki 541 24 Thessaloniki Greece Franco Locatelli National Park of the Casentine Forests Mount Falterona and Campigna Palazzo Nefetti Via Nefetti 3 47018 Santa Sofia (FO) Italy Irini Lyratzaki Social Anthropologist Med-INA Secretariat 23, Voukourestiou Str. 106 71 Athens Greece Josep Maria Mallarach Environmental consultant Silene Association Av. Colòmbia, 7, 5è C 1 7800 Olot, Catalonia Spain Mawalan II Marika Dhimurru Aboriginal Corporation PO Box 1551 Nhulunbuy NT, 0881 Australia

257 Galina V. Mikhailova Ph.D. Senior Staff Scientist Laboratory of Nature Protected Areas and Ecology of Culture Institute of Ecological Problems of the North The Ural branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (INEP UB RAS) nab. Severnoy Dviny, 23 163061, Arkhangelsk Russian Federation Theodota Nantsou Policy Officer WWF Greece 26, Filellinon Street 105 58 Athens Greece Gonzalo Oviedo IUCN Senior Advisor - Social Policy Rue Mauvernay 28 Gland 1196 Switzerland Thymio Papayannis Architect, planner, environmentalist Director of Med-INA (Mediterranean Institute for Nature and Anthropos) 23 Voucourestiou Street, 10671 Athens Greece Ioannis Philippou Professor School of Forestry & Natural Environment Aristotle University of Thessaloniki 541 24 Thessaloniki Greece Dr Gloria Pungetti Cambridge Centre for Landscape and People Director University of Cambridge Downing Site, Cambridge CB2 3EN United Kingdom Isabel Soria Garcia Forestry Engineer c/ Diego de León 45, 3ºA 28006 Madrid Spain

258 Sister Theosemni Holy Convent of Chrysopigi Chania 73100 Crete Greece

Mother Superior Theoxeni Holy Convent of Chrysopigi Chania 73100 Crete Greece

Demetrios Tziritis Vice Prefect Halkidiki Prefecture Polygyros Halkididikis 631 00 Greece

Bas Verschuuren Deputy Leader CSVPA / TF Researcher Nature & Culture EarthCollective (FSD) PRESENCE Facilitator Wingerd 28 5667 AK, Geldrop The Netherlands

Robert Wild Chair, CSVPA, Amberley Kingsmuir Drive, Peebles Scottish Borders, EH45 9AA UK www.csvpa.org

Phil Wise Parks and Wildlife Northern Territory PO Box 1551 Nhulunbuy, NT Australia

Zakia Zouanat Ph Cultural and Social Anthropology Researcher at the ‘Institute de Etudes Africaines’ University Mohammed V Rabat Morocco

For further information please contact: [email protected].

259 Appendix II: Case studies presented during the Workshop Providing guidance for sacred natural sites in developed countries Case studies presented during the workshop

Case-study Location Buila Vinturarita Romania Chrysopigi Convent Crete-Greece Dhimurru Australia Foreste Casentinesi Italy Holy San Francisco Peaks Arizona-USA Jabal La‘lâm Morocco Mani-San Mountain South Korea Mt. Athos Halkidiki-Greece Poblet Monastery Spain Rila Monastery Bulgaria Sakya Tashi Ling Monastery Spain Solovetsky Islands Russian Federation

Appendix III: Acknowledgements The editors of this volume wish to express their gratitude to HAH The Ecumenical Patri- arch Bartholomew I for placing the Ouranoupolis Workshop under his aegis, as well as to the Holy Community of Mt. Athos and the Prefecture of Halkidiki for their moral support.

Thanks are due to Med-INA for organising and funding the Workshop through private donations and to the Bodossakis Foundation in Athens for its financial contribution to the publication of the workshop proceedings.

The Workshop participants and authors of this publication merit commendation for their significant contribution. Thanks are also due to the following persons for their contribution to the editing and publication of the book: Irini Lyratzaki and Stefanos Do- douras (Med-INA) for the initial review and editing of the texts, Michael Eleftheriou for the final editing of the texts and edition supervision, Pavlina Alexandropoulou for de- signing the publication and I. Peppas A.B.E.E. for printing and binding the book.

The special role of Irini Lyratzaki in co-ordinating all the activities necessary for the realisation of this publication must be particularly mentioned.

260 Photo credits by chapter Opening statement by the representative of the Prefecture of Halkidiki - Vice-Prefect Tziritis p 8 by Bas Verschuuren Opening statement by the representative of the Holy Community of Mt. Athos - Father Gregorios p 10 by Josep-Maria Mallarach Introduction pp 12, 15 and 22 by Bas Verschuuren p 17 by Irini Lyratzaki p 19 by Josep-Maria Mallarach Analysis of case studies p 24 by Alexander Davydov Power on this land; managing sacred sites at Dhimurru Indigenous Protected Area p 26 by Bas Verschuuren p 28 Smith 2007 pp 32 and 42 from the Daily Telegraph, 19 May 1969 pp 33 and 39 from the Dhimurru files p 35 by Buku-larrngay Mulka Centre and Mawalan II Marika Sacred versus secular in the San Francisco Peaks pp 46 and 50 by Lawrence Hamilton p 48 by Jeneda Benally pp 49 and 53 by the U.S. Forest Service p 55 by the Save the Peaks Coalition p 56 by Calvin Johnson The National Park of the Casentine Forests pp 60 and 65 by Gloria Pungetti ‘Abd al-Salâm ibn Mashîsh and Jabal La‘lâm Site pp 66 and 74 by Josep-Maria Mallarach p 73 by Zakia Zouanat Sacred Mountain of GanghwaIsland pp 76-87 by Kyung-Koo Han Solovetsky islands – A holy land surrounded by the Arctic Ocean pp 88, 93, 95 and 102 by Alexander Davydov pp 90, 94 and 98 by Boris Shishlo p 96 [right] by Valentina Davydova p 96 [left] by Yury Brodsky Management of monastic lands and facilities p 104 by Josep-Maria Mallarach

The protected area of the Peninsula of the Athos Holy Mountain pp 106, 109 and 121 by Ioannis Philippou p 113 by Thymio Papayannis

261 Landscape conservation actions in Holy Mountain pp 126-133 by Petros Kakouros Buila-Vânturarit,a National Park - The gates of heaven pp 136-151 by Sebastian Catanoiu An integrated ecological approach to monastic land: The case of the Holy Convent of Chrysopigi, Crete pp 152-159 by the Holy Convent of Chrysopigi Initiatives taken by the Cistercian Monastery of Poblet to improve the integration of spiritual, cultural and environmental values pp 160, 162, 163, 168 and 171 from the Archives of the Monastery of Poblet p 167 by Josep-Maria Mallarach Rila Monastery Natural Park pp 171 and 175 by Sebastian Catanoiu The Inclusion of a Tibetan Buddhist, perspective in the management of the property of the Sakya Tashi Ling Monastery in Garraf Park p 176 by Isabel Soria pp 178 and 179 Consultant X3 Estudis ambientals at www.dechen.org/mx/traditions/ sakya.html; 2007 pp 181, 182 188 by Josep-Maria Mallarach Reflections on the management of monastic lands and facilities p 190 by the Holy Convent of Chrysopigi p 194 by Irini Lyratzaki p 195 and 197 Josep-Maria Mallarach Achieving synergy between spiritual and conservation concerns p 200 by Irini Lyratzaki IUCN-UNESCO Guidelines for protected area management on Sacred Natural Sites: rationale, process and consultation p 202 by Robert Wild pp 209 and 212 by L. Slade Sacred natural sites in developed countries pp 224 and 229 by Josep-Maria Mallarach p 227 by Chiara Serenelli p 232 by Thymio Papayannis Some thoughts on sacred sites, faith communities and indigenous peoples p 234 by Thymio Papayannis Environmental action by the Ecumenical Patriarchate p 240 by Ivy Nanopoulou p 245 by Thymio Papayannis Ouranoupolis Statement p 252 by the Holy Convent of Chrysopigi

262 263 IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas

The Sacred Dimension of Protected Areas Proceedings of the Second Workshop of the Delos Initiative - Ouranoupolis 2007

Edited by Thymio Papayannis and Josep-Maria Mallarach

INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE

WORLD HEADQUARTERS Rue Mauverney 28 1196 Gland, Switzerland [email protected] Tel +41 22 999 0000 Fax +41 22 999 0002 www.iucn.org The Sacred Dimension of Protected Areas Ouranoupolis 2007