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The Well of the Past: Reinterpreting Secularism After 9/11

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The Well of the Past: Reinterpreting Secularism After 9/11 The Well of the Past: Reinterpreting Secularism after 9/11 Lailufar Yasmin MA (Georgia State University) MSocSci (University of Dhaka) BSocSci (Hons) (University of Dhaka) This thesis is presented in the fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Modern History, Politics and International Relations Faculty of Arts Macquarie University Sydney August 2015 Table of Contents Table of Contents .................................................................................................... iii List of Tables ........................................................................................................ vii Abstract ................................................................................................................... ix Declaration .............................................................................................................. xi Acknowledgements ............................................................................................... xiii Dedication ............................................................................................................ xvii Introduction: The Well of the Past and 9/11 ........................................ 1 The Central Argument ............................................................................................. 9 Secularism as a Standard of Civilization ............................................................... 11 The Securitization of Religion and the Construction of Threat ............................ 17 Conceptual Framework: Who is International Relations For? ............................. 25 Thesis Outline........................................................................................................ 27 Chapter 1: Secularism: ‘The Great Invention of the West’ ............... 33 The Beginning of Religion-based Politics .............................................................. 39 Secularism as the Accommodation of Religious Differences ............................... 42 Secularity as an Areligious Concept ...................................................................... 46 Secularism: ‘The Great Invention of the West’ ..................................................... 49 The invention of secularism: accommodating religious difference .............. 50 Secularity as a Christian Concept? ........................................................................ 53 Secularity: an Islamic invention? ................................................................... 55 Contemporary Expressions of Secularism in the West ......................................... 59 Chapter 2: The Ottomans and Turkey: the Costs of Misrecognition .......................................................................................... 63 The Construction of Turkish Identity as the Bearer of Ottoman Heritage ........... 66 The Ottoman Empire as a Ghazi state ........................................................... 67 Transformation in the Ottoman Empire: external pressure or internal iv development? ................................................................................................ 69 Ottomanism and the Consolidation of the Identity of a ‘Turk’ ............................ 72 Creating a ‘civilized identity’—Turkey in the European Jacket ............................ 76 Kemalism—a rupture from or continuation of the Ottoman past? .............. 79 The Philosophical Roots of Turkish Nationalism: Ziya Gokalp and Yusuf Akcura ............................................................................................................. 81 The Idea of ‘Europe’ and the Ottoman Empire .................................................... 85 Turkey’s Drive for EU Membership ....................................................................... 91 Turkey as Europe’s Other ...................................................................................... 94 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 100 Chapter 3: An Islam-Modernist Synthesis: Turkey’s Quest for a New Identity in the Post 9/11 Era....................................................... 103 Kemalist Ideology and the Birth of Turkey ......................................................... 105 State Reforms and Women’s Liberation as a New Identity Creation ................. 110 Turkish Identity and Secularism .......................................................................... 113 The Turkish-Islamic Synthesis ............................................................................. 116 Democracy and the Rise of Islamic Elements in Turkish Politics ........................ 118 The Rise of the AK Parti....................................................................................... 124 Imperial Memories and the Identity of Turkey................................................... 127 Turkish Assertion of Identity and the Foreign Policy of the AK Parti ................. 130 Turkey’s relationship with Israel ................................................................... 132 Between Modernity and Islam—the Dilemma of Turkish Identity .................... 135 Chapter 4: Bengal and Bangladesh: Trapped in History ................ 139 Who are the Bengal Muslims? ............................................................................ 142 The Indian Independence Movement and the Construction of Hindu-Muslim Separateness in Bengal .................................................................................. 145 The Bengal Divide of 1905 and the Rise in Political Consciousness of the Muslims of Bengal ......................................................................................... 148 The State of Pakistan and the Issue of Religion .................................................. 159 The unequal relationship between East and West ............................................. 161 v The question of regional autonomy .............................................................. 164 The 1965 Indo-Pakistan War and a further isolation of East Pakistan .......... 165 The tumultuous politics of the 1960s ............................................................ 166 The Creation of Identity during the Pakistani Era: the Emergence of the Myth of Golden Bengal ........................................................................................... 167 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 172 Chapter 5: Creating the Ontological Category of Nationhood for Bengali Muslims: Secularism as a Self-Serving Ideology for Bangladesh ............................................................................................... 175 The Constitutional Creation of a Secular and Bengali Identity ........................... 177 The Practice of Secularism: Importing Religion in the Guise of Secularism ....... 180 The Rise of Overt Religiosity: the Regimes of Zia and Ershad ............................ 185 The Return to Democracy and the Beginning of Confrontational Politics ......... 190 The Return to a Secular Bengali Identity ............................................................ 194 The Trial of War Criminals and the Politicization of Identity .............................. 198 Conclusion: Secularism as a Political Weapon of Identity Creation ................... 200 Chapter 6: The Global Covenant of Being Civilized: Secular Options for Turkey and Bangladesh ....................................................................... 205 What is Secularism: The Contradiction between the State and Political Elites in Turkey ...................................................................................................... 207 The AK Parti and the rise of passive secularism .......................................... 207 The headscarf issue and the AK Parti .......................................................... 211 Secularists versus Islamists in Turkey ................................................................. 213 Bangladesh: the Rise of Islam-based Political Parties and Islamic Extremism ... 214 Changes in the social fabric of Bangladesh ................................................. 216 The Growth of Islam-based Political Parties and Intolerance ............................ 220 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 224 Chapter 7: Rethinking Secularism .......................................................... 227 Revisiting the Secularization Thesis: Post-Secularism ........................................ 228 From Post-Secularism to Multiple Secularisms ................................................... 232 vi Multiple Secularisms: Islam as a Marker of Identity ........................................... 234 Sharia Law and the West: a model for secularism? ..................................... 235 Identity Claims and Islamism .............................................................................. 237 Conclusion ............................................................................................... 245 The Conformation of Sovereignty and Secularism as Areligious Concepts ........ 246 The Struggle for Recognition and its Impact on Politics in the Islamic World .... 252 The Lessons from Turkey and Bangladesh .......................................................... 255 Bibliography ................................................................................................................
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