CENSUS OF INDIA 1961

VOLUME XX-PART VI-No. 25

HIMACHAL PRADESH

A V iZlage Survey of BIR

lVlandi Sadar TehsiJ, Mandi District

llbvestigation and Draft Guidance and Final Draft by by DHARAM PAL KAPUR RIKHI RAM SHARMA ASSISTANT SUPERINTEND]]NT OF CENSUS OPERATIONS

Editor RAM CHANDRA PAL SINGH of the Indian Administrative Service SUPERINTENDENT OF CENSUS OPERATIONS, HDIACHAL PRAD}1SH BIR NOTt ONAL MAP

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(i) - CONTENTS

PAGE

FOREWORD -...... (i-ii)

PREFACE •• ,1 ... ' (iii) I. THE VILLAGE 1 Introduction-History-Market-Communication Flora-Fauna­ Residential Pattern-Cremation Ground-Source of Water Supply­ , Physical Aspects-Climate

H. THE PEOPLE 6

Population-Languages~~ouse Type-Household Goods-Dress­ Ornaments-Utensils-Fdo't1: 'and, Drinks-Birth, Marriage and Death Customs

HI. ECONOMY .... ' IL·· :!_,. 22 Economic Resources- Non Workers - Income-Expenditure-In­ debtedness-Agriculture-Agricultural Implements-Pest and Diseases -Organisation of Man Power-Animal Husbandry-Household Indus­ tries-Co-operative Societies and Panchayats

lV. SOCIAL AND C~LTURAL LIFE 40 I ~tion Comparison with 1961-Age and Sex Wise Distribution Birth and Death-Family Structure-Inheritance of Property-Un­ touchability-Status of Women-Temples-Fairs and Festivals-Com­ mon BeliefiS and Superstitions-Witch Craft-Education-Medical /

V. CONCLUSION 51 APPENDICES 52 Appendix I-Extract from Forest Working Plan for Mandi State Forests Appendix II-Rainfall Record of Mandi. Appendix III-Extract from Linguistic Survey of India.

LB(N)6SCOHP-2,a)

FOREWORD

Apart from laying the foundations of .A brief account of the tests of selection demography in this subcontinent a hundred Will ~elp to explain. A minimum of thirty­ years of the Indian Census has al~o produced five VIllages was to be chosen with great care· 'elaborate and scholarly accounts of the to ~epresent adequately geographical, occu­ variegated phenomena of Indian life sorne­ p~tI~mal and eyen ethnic diversity, of this tir:nes .with no statistics attached, but usually mInImUm of thIrty-five, the distribution was, with Ju.st ~nough statistics to give empirical to be as follows: underpInnIng to their conclusions'. In a country, largely illiterate, where statistical (a) At least eight villages were to be so or numerical comprehension of even such a selected that each of them would contaIn. simple thing as age was liable to be inaccu­ one. dominant c?mmunity with one predomI­ rate, an understanding of the social struc­ natIng occupation, e.g., fishermen, forest ture. was essential. It was more necessary to workers, jhum cultivators, potters, weaver:>, attam a broad understanding of what was salt-maker~, quar!y: workers etc. A village happening around oneself than to wrap one­ should have a mInImUm popUlation of 400. the optimum being between 500 and 700. ' self .up in 'st~tistic.al ingenuity', or 'mathe­ matICal mampulatIOn'. This explains why (b) At least seven villages were to be of the Indian Census came to be interested in numerically prominent Scheduled Tribe::; of 'many by-paths' and 'nearly every branch of t~e State. Each village could represent a par­ scholarship, from anthropology and sociology tIcular tribe. The minimum population to geography and religion'. should be 400, the optimum being between 500 and '700. In the last few decades the Census has increasingly turned its efforts to the presen­ (c) The third group of villages should tation of village statistics. This suits the each be of fair size, of an old and settled cha­ temper of the times as well as our polit;cal racter and contain variegated occupations and and economic structure. For even as we have be, if possible, multi-ethnic in composition. a great deal of centralization on the one hand By fair size was meant a population of 500-- and decentralization on the other, my 700. persons or more. The village ~hou]_d colleagues thought it would be a welcome? maInly depend on agriculture and be suffi­ continuation of the Census tradition. to try ciently away from the major !'-ources of to invest the dry bones of village statistics modern communication such as the district: with flesh and blood accounts of social administrative headquarters and business structure and social change. It was accord­ centres. It should be roughly a day's journey ingly decided to select a few villages ill) from above places. The villages were to be every State for special study, where per­ selected with an eye to variation in terms sonal observation would be brought to bear of size, proximity to ,Pity and other means on the interpretation of statistics to find (Jut of modern communication, nearness to hills, how much of a village was static and yet jungles and major rivers. Thus there was to changing and how fast the winds of change be a regional distribution throu~hout the were blowing and from where, State of this category of villages. If however, a particular district contained significant J:tandomness of selection was, therefore, ecological variations within its area, more eschewed. There was no intention to build than one village in the district might be up ~ picture for the whole State in quanti­ selected to study the special adjw:tments to tative terms on the basis of villages select­ thel1l. ed statistically at random. The selection was avowedly purposive; the object being as It is a unique feature of these VIllage sur­ much to find out what was happening and veys that they rapidly outgrew their original how fast to those villages which had fewer terms of reference, as my colleagues warm­ reasons to choose change and more to ed up to their work. This proved for them remain lodged in the past as to discover how an absorbing voyage of discovery and their the more 'normal' types of villages werc' infectious enthusiasm compelled me to en­ changing. They were to be primarily type large the inquiry's scope again and again. studies which, by virtue of their number It was just as well-eautLously to ff'el one's and distribution, would also give the reader way about at first and then venture further a 'feel' of what was going on and some kind afield, and although it accounts to some of a map of the country. extent for a certain unawareness in the (i) (ii)

'quality and coverage of the monographs, it their attention to this field and the import­ served to compensate the purely honorary ance of tracing social change through a num­ and extra,mural rigours of the task. For, ber of well-devised statistical tables was the Survey, along with its many '3.ncillaries once again recognised. This itself presupposed like the survey of fairs and festivals, of small a fresh survey of villages already done; but and rural industry and others, was an it was worth the trouble in view of the possi­ 'extra', over and above the crushing load of bilities that a close analysis of statistics the 1961 Census. offered, and also because the 'consanguinity' schedule remained to be canvassed. By November 1961~ however, more was expected It might be of interest to recount bricf1y of these surveys than ever before. There was the stages by which the Survey enlarged its dissatisfaction on the one hand with too many scope. At the first Census Conference in Sep­ general statements and Ii growing desire on tember, 1959 the Survey set itself the task the other to draw conclusions from sta­ of what might be called a record in situ of tistics, to regard social and economic material traits, like settlement patterns of data as interrelated processes, and finally the village; house types; diet; dn'ss; orna­ to examine the social and economic processes ments and foot-wear; furniture and storing set in motion through land reforms and vessels; common means of transport of goods other laws, legislative and admin.l.strat.:ve and passengers; domestication of animals m.easures, technological and cultural change. and birds; markets attended; w\)fship of Fmally, a study camp was organised in the deities; festivals and fairs. There were to last week of December, 1961 wh '~n the whole be recordings, of course, of cultural and field was carefully gone through OVEr again social traits and occupational mobility. Thh; and a programme worked out clos~ly !mit­ was followed up in March, ~960 by two speci­ ting the various aims of the Survey togeti'.f'r. men schedules, one for each houselwld, The Social Studies Section oi the Census the other for the village as a whole, which, Commission rend~red assistance to State apart from spelling out the mode of inquiry Superintendents by way of scrutiny and suggested in the September 1~59 ~onference, technical comment on the fraI'lC of Survey introduced groups of questIOns aimed at and presentation of results. sensing changes in attitudes and "!J8havi.:)Ur in such fields as marriage, inheritance, move­ This gradual unfolding of the aims of the able and immoveable propertYi, industry, in­ Survey prevented my colleagues from adopt­ debtedness, education, community life and ing as many villages as they ha-:l originally collective activity, social disabilities forums intended to. But I believe that what l"l:l:ly .of appeal over disputes, village leadershp, have been lost in quantity has been more I;han .and organi1sation of cultural life. It was now made up for in quality. This is, pa­ plainly the intention to provide adequate haps, for the first time that such a Survey statistical. support to empirical 'feel', to ap­ has been conducted in any country, and that proach qualitative change th~ough :;,tatisti~al purely as a labour of love. It has succeeded quantities. It had been dIfficult to gIve in attaining what it fiet out to achieve; to thought to the importance of 'jl1St enough construct a map of village India's social statistics to give empirical underpinning to structure. One hopes that the volumes of conclusion', at a time when my colleagues this Survey will help to retain for the Ind'an were straining themselves to the utmost for Census its title to 'the most fruitful single the success of the main Census operations, source of information about the ('.)untry'. but once the census count itself was left Apart from other features, it will perhaps behind in March, 1961, a series of three be conceded that the Survey has set ulJ a new regional seminars in Trivandrum (May 1961J, Census standard in pictorial and gra}Jhic Darjeeling and Srinagar (June 1961) restored documentation.

New Delhi ASOK MITHA ..July 30, 1964. Registrar Genera!, India PREFACE

In our monograph series Bir represents other castes living in the village will reveal Mandi Sadar tehsil. It is only 9 kms from certain aspects of life which give an idea Mandi town, the District Headquarters. Its how they live and behave with each other. selection for socio-economic survey was In this publication we have tried to give an made keeping in view the general pattern of idea about the interdependence of castes. Peo­ life representative of an average type of vil­ ple have the opportunity of availaing of the lage in the Tehsil. ProximIty to the town facilities slUch as better education for their and the post Independence Changes are children and better medical facilities nearest the main factors which have some signifi­ their homesi. cant bearing on the general conditions of life of the villagers. Some of the tillNEI of I would like to convey my warm gratitude' land in Bir were only tenants as the land to all those who rendered useful cooperation belonged to the business community of in bringing out this monograph. Mandi town, but after the Himachal Pradesh Abolition of big landed estates and Land I hope this little piece olf work like others, Reforms Act 1955 the tenants got the opportu­ will come up to the expectations of the lovers­ nit~ to acquire the proprietory rights after of the Census Publications. paymg a nominal amount as compensation. Bir iSI a medium sized village predominant­ ly inhabited by Rajputs. Their study with RAM CHANDRA PAL SINGH

(iii)

I The Village

Market Introduction Bir is a small village just six miles from The yillage has o?ly one shop. A Rajput MandL It lies on a hill-top behind the hospi­ belo.z:gmg to the vlllage' runs it. Tobacco, tal, facing the Mandi-Pathankot road run­ condlmen.ts, ghee, kerosene, sarson oil, s?ap, gram~, sug~.r, sugar drops, pulses, sta­ ning on the oppos,ite bank of river Beas. Gan­ tlOnery artIdes, Jaggery and other mislCella­ pati road runs through the Civil. Hospital neou~ arti~les of day-to-day use are avail­ MandL At a distance of about two miles, a abl~ m thIS shop. The co-operative society kacha n arrow track along Garud ka nala as­ whIch .hasl a small office and a store at Lag cends to the top of the hilL This hill is known deals m controlled articles. The villagers as 'Gandharv-ka Kwal'. To reach the village one has to walk a couple of miles more. On n:ake use of the village shop in case of neces­ the way one has a good fascinating view of Slty, otherwise their main market is at Mandi and the adjoining villages. Mandi. Th~ villagers have their suppliers call~d modIs the~e. They purchase everything The village is inhabited mainly by two cas­ whIch .they reqUlr~ from the modi's. shop and tes; Rajputs and Chamars with two house­ carry It to the VIllage. Sometimes, the vil­ holds of Hesis. The economy of the village.. Jagers are found carrying even vegetables primarily depends on agriculture, charac­ and earthen-pois: purohased from the town. It.erised\ by old practices of farming. Cha­ The commodities which the villagers sell in mars are engaged in their traditional work the town are fire-wood, gliee and sometime of shoe-making. Apart from working in their grains. Some families from the area but not own fields, they work also as agricultural la­ from Bi~, sell milk also. The articl~s which they purchase, are cloth, pig-Iron for agricul­ bourers. Villagersl visit Mandi frequently. l Some are emplo'Yed in Government Offices. tural implements, utensils, vegetables oils A few young men are receiving. in and other articles of day-to-day use ~hich trai~ing they can afford and carry to the village. Rates the Sericulture Centre at M~dl. Hesls have no land. They go to Mandi to play their mu­ in the town are lower than in the village shop. sical instrumen;ts to earn livelihood. Communication Bir is surrounded by other villages of Tun­ gal illaqua. It represents cultural, social and The nearest bus stop is at Manch, at a dis­ ectJnomical aspects of the area. The villagers tance of six miles. Man~i is furiher linked by have their own rural atmospherE: which is a net-work of roads wIth oUter tehsil head­ marked by their trend towards education, quarters and the stat~ capital at Simla. It is social contacts with each other and inclina­ also connected with Rupar by a beautiful tion towards modern changes. In Mandi pucca road which runs through Bilaspur town there is marked tendency to parade the where one can have a grand view of the post independence achievements, but the vil­ artificial lake GobindJ Sagar created as a re­ lage gives the impression of being neglected. sult of Builddng of Bhakra Dam. The nea­ rest rail-head is Jogindar Nagar, 35 miles History away from MandL The distance between Mandi and Bir has to be covered on foot. History of the village is neither known to the villagers nor it is available in the Re­ Transport is a big prdblem that the villa­ venue records. It iSI, howeveT, said that it gers have to face. This needs improvement. was a barren land whioh was granted by the The footpath is narrow and the climbing is then ruler to the fore~fathers of the present quite tough. Mules do not ply. Everything ownerc; of the land. The inhabitants of the has to be carried on hrlman back. Men and village came from the surrounding yillages women carrying loads of fire-wood on their to the village to till the land. The land is said heads are often seen on their way to town. During monsoOtns and rains,.. the track be­ to have been the abodel of a minolI" hill-god known as 'Bir'. It is on this account :that the comes very slippery and difficult to cross. village acquired this .name. Villagers inform There is no post-office in the village. Branch that in his snO!W-white clothes, Bir has been post-office at village Dheon covers it. The encountered. by many of them late at night. L/B(N)6SCORP-3 2

mail is delivered on every third day. The vil­ s:elled, one-seeded, size of peas. Leaves used lagers do not make much use of this branch as fodder and bark for fiore. .post-office. They vislit Mandi town quite fre­ quently al1d receive their mail care of some Brahami---'Hydrocotyle asiatica-Is a small body residing in the town. prostrate herbs with alternate stipulate sim­ pl.e leaves. It is perennial, succulent, very Flora slIgh.tly velvety, stems prostrate, rooting at the Jomts, branches zigzag erect· leaves 1_ The flora Qf the village and the slUrround­ 2~ inches, kidney shaped or circ~lar, rou~d ing area has been collected from the Range" toothed, . long-stalked, shining, stipule~ Officer, MandL The description of the plants small. ThIS 'pl~nt is supposed to be used in and trees has been taken from (Plants: of the leprosy, . as It IS a cutaneous stimulant and Punjab) by C. J. Bamber, M.V.O. Colonel, alternatIve. The leaves are sometimes used Indian MedicaL Service, F..ellow of the Lin- as a pot herb. nean Society: - ' .Chil-Pinus longifolia-It is a large tree A1Cha-Rubus bifloruSl- A large shrub WIth alternate ex~tipulate simple leaves. with alternate stipulate compound leaves; L~aves. are :t:eedle-hke .. Bark is corky and in branches spreading with many prickles. th~n CrISp pIeces, ~eddIsh-brown, inner bark Fruit is round with a column in the centre brIck red. Leaves III cluster of 3, light green, coveTed with 20-30 very small drupes, suc­ sheaths grey) Gandabaroza, turpentine and culent, sweet, red, Or orange, a minute stone ~ar are obtamed from this tree. The wood in each drupe, pitted. IS much used, but rots in the wet. Aru-Prunus persica-A tree with alter­ Dary,-Puni.ca granatum-A shrub with nate stipulate simple leaves. Bark is brownish Oppo~lte exsbp'l:1late simple leaves, petals - and .rough. Branches are thick; leaves ob­ u~umted. Bark IS dark grey, branchlets often long-lanceolate. Fruit is round, velvety, spmous; leav~s 1-2t inches long, sometimes fleshy and edible. It is sweet, green with a hardly OpposIte or clustered. Flowers vivid tinge of red when ripe, stone deeply and ir­ red, fruit round with a thick reddish brown regularly furrowed and thick. leatherr rind, crowned by the calyx, seeds, angled m ruby red flesh with sweetish astrin­ BaikhaL-Prinsepia utiliSl-A medium siz­ gent juice. The bark is used as a tan a dye ed plant, staggling, smooth, spinous, spines and a vermifuge. ' often leafy. Leaves are narrow, lanceolate and dark green. Flowers white. Oil is expres­ Dodani-Sapindus mukorossi-A tree with sed from the seeds and is used for illuminat­ alternate exstipulate compound leaves with ing, and as an external remedy in rheuma- p~tals ununited. Bark is grey; leaves even tism. pmnate, crowded at the ends of branches. Flowers white or purple in branching race­ Ban-Quercus incana-It is a large tree mes, ~etals 4, as a rule fringed with hairs' with alternate stipulate simple leaves. The and wlth 2 woolly scales on each side of the ~eavesl when young pinkish and woolly all ~talk. Fruit fleshy, round, one seeded, cover­ over, whe,n mature dark greeri and smooth mg saponaceous, wrinkled when dry, yellow :above, white Otr grey woolly beneath. The see~ ~lack, loose in the fruit when dry. wood used as fuel. FrUlt IS commonly used instead of soap for washing clothes. Beuns-Salix Wallichiana-Large bark, greenish grey, young parts velvety or woolly Drek-Melia azedarach-A medium sized becoming nearly smooth; leaves 2-5 inches tree. Bar~ ~mooth, dark grey; leaves bipin­ long, margins usually even, green and hairy nate or tnpmnate. Flowers lilac, sweet scent­ ab.ove, white silky velvet beneath. Bark used ed in branching racemes. Fruit yellow round for making rope. wrinkled, 5-seeded. The leaves are ~sed a~ BireL-Grewia Oppositifolia-A medium fodder and wood as timber. sized tree with alternate stipulate simple leaves. Bark is ash coloured, herbaceous GandheLu-Murraya Koenigii-It is a small parts more or less with stellate hairs; leaves strong scented tree with brown bark, usual­ 3 inches long in two rows along branches. ly velvety or woolly. Flowers white in termi­ Stipules more than 1/3 inch, linear, soon fal­ nal .flat-topped ~ranching rac~mes, sepals 5. li,ng off; flowers in short clust-er$, opposite to FrUlt black, wrmkled, seeds embedded in a leaves, white to yellow; drupes smooth or gummy substance. The leaves are stomachic -thinly hairy; fleshy, dark green, nuts one- and used to flavour curries. 3

Jhamirdi-Citrus medica-A large shrub ches and young stem covered with conical with bark greenish grey, smooth, long axil­ princkles; leaves digitate; flowers appearing lary spines. Fruit oblong or round, rind thick before the leaves, crimson or yellow, calyx or thin, yellow when ripe pulp cellular and leathery, silky felted within; stamens many, juicy, usually acid. Used for making pickles. joined below into a tube; capsule oblong, downy, green seeds smooth covered with Kakkare-Pistacia integerrima-Tree with silky wool. A very handsome forest tree. bark rough grey, large crooked galls, kakri­ Pod bearing. . singi, fohn on the leaves in automn and are sold as medicine. Flowers are small, red. Seeds are membranous coated. The heart , Taur-Bauhinia Vahlii-A very large tree. wood is used for carving and furniture. woody, sterns and branches one to two hund­ red feet long, two tendrils at the end of KasmaL-Berberis lycium-A small shrub branchlets, young parts rusty or grey-vel­ with bark white, leaves sessile; narrowly vety; leaves 4-18 inches across, deeply lanceolate. Berry ovoid violet, covered with notched, divided to 1/3rd of its length into a blqpm. Rasout, an extract from the root, 2 blunt lobes, almost leathery, dark green is used as a febrifuge. and slightly hairy above, belted beneath. Flowers white, in dense terminal long-stalk­ Khata malara-Rumex hastatus-It is a ed flat-topped racemes. This plant produces herb, erect with alternate stipulate lobbed a good fibre. Leaves are used as plates and leaves petals none. It is medium sized, root for making leaf umbrellas. perennial, stems and branches grooved, smooth; leaves stalked, 3 lobed, 2 lobes pro­ jecting backwards, narrow or hot lobed, Toot-Morus alba-A small tree; leaves broadly triangular. This plant is used as pot ovate, pointed, toothed; flowers on spikes, herb. fruiting spikes (berries) white or red, sweet" short, ovoid, consisting of fleshy calyces. Malora-Polygonum alatum-Small to each containing seed. The wood is used as medium ilze herb, annual, very variable, timber and fruits eaten. with shoft broad-winged leaf stalk; flowers minute, white, purplish or red in heads, the Tirmira-Zanthoxylum alatum-A large leaves are used as an application to swellings. shrub, strongly aromatic, bark corky, strong Ohi-Ajlbizzia stipulata-A modium sized prickles on the branches, leaf stalks and tree, bark grey, with short vertical wrinkles midribs of leaves and leaflets, branches dot­ crossed by deeper horizontal cracks, stipules ted with white spects; leaves unequally pinnate, two stipular spines at the base of latge, sharp-pointed, flowers odourless, y~l­ lo,",c;h white, stamens tinged with red. Wood the winged leaf stalk, gland-dotted, margin used tithber. with a few small "teeth; flowers small, yellow, :is crowded on small velvety laieral branching PipaZ-Ficus religiosa-A large tree, usual­ racemes; fruit small, pale, red, round drupes, ly epiphytal, smooth; leaves leathery, .shin­ one seed in each carpel, .black shining, used ing above, based broad, poit long, leaf stalk as a condiment; the btanches are used as slender, fruit sessile in pairs. smooth, depres­ tooth brushes. sed, spheroidal, dark purple when ripe. A sacred tree. Fauna Papri-Podophyllum emodi-A herb of small to medium size, perennial, smooth, suc­ The information regarding fauna; found in culent, rootstock creeping; scaly, 2 leaved, the village and the surrounding areas has flower stalk 6-18 inches; leafy above; flower been obtained from the Range-officer of solitary, white, rarely pink, soon falling off, Forests. The_description-has been taken from stigma crest like; berry ovoid, edible, seed 'Strendale's Mammalia: of India' by Frank small many. It is used as a purgative. Finn and 'Popular Hand-book of Indian Birds' by Hugh Whistler, F.Z.S. Phegli-Tylophora hirsuta-A perennial tree, twining, twining stem stout, d.ensely ANIMALS-BAGH, CHITRA OR MIRAG-LEOP~D felyed, hairs reflexed; leaves ovate or ovate­ lanceolate, short or long-pointed, velvety or -FELIS PARDUS PANTHER felted on both surfaces, base round. Fruit is A: clean, long limbe.q, though compact edible. body, hair clos1e and -short:, --Cslour pale fulvo­ Simbal-Bombax malabaricum-A large res yellow with clearly defined spots in roset­ tree. Trunk more or less buttressed, bran­ tes. Leopa.rd~ R!'!! eo,od climber, and much L/B(N)6SCOHP-3(a) 4 more active in springing than tiger. They are Eern-Flying fox-Pteropus edwardsil--A more courageous, and more independent of very large tail-less fox-head bat with black water. Their prey consists of practically any­ wings about four feet in expanse and a body thing they can capture, and they will often length of seven to ten inches fur black and keep a part of the kill-up in a tree. tan, the lighter colour in front. Bandar-Rhesus monkey-Innus or Maca... Kakar-Cervulus muntjac-Commonly eus rhesus-Short, close side whispers, no found in the hi!] forest and seldom goes beared, hair on head lying straight back, higher than 6,000 feet. It is about one yard tail not more than half length of head and long. Tail about as long as head. Coat close body. Coat brown becoming redder or yel­ and very sleek, bright bay with black streaks lower behind. Face and other bare parts along the face-ridges i,nside, throat groin, flesh-coloured or red. and under side of tail white. It is very subtle Chakchundar-Musk rat-Distinguished in its movements ca'I'ying head low and from an ordinary rat by its long snout, very creeping like a seasal. It eats meat of all small eyes, comparatively short tail, small kinds greedily. Its call in a coarse sharp bark ears and 'bluish grey fur. The snout, whenever it takes its name of barking deer. ears, feet, and tail are flesh coloured, and BIRDs-Kau-Common house crow-Cor­ about four inches. The musk-rat has been vus splendens Vicillot-Upper parts brownish knOiWn to eat bread, and to tackle a large live to ashy tinged across the shoulders and frog and a scorpian. sometimes also the crown with vinousred. The male has a short blunt spar above the Cham-gadar-bat-Cynotercus margina­ hind toe. tus-Brown, either yellowish or greyish, in tint, wings dusky brown, ears edged with Black Partridge-Francolinus Linnacus:­ white. It hands upon c1ustell' of trees. It is very A typical partridge found in thick voracious, specially favouring plantains, ground cover, and attracting attention by its quavas and mangoes and will eat them more extra-ordinary creating call. Top of the head than its own weight in three hours, the food and nape blackish-brown, the feathers broad­ passing through its body almost unchanged. ly edged with pale brown anq.on the nape with white. The food consists o"{ grain, seeds, Ghoru Or Pij-Goral-Nemorkacdus goral green shoots, ants and various insects. -It is much like a drab she-goat with white throat and dark spinal and leg-stipes, tail Chirian-House Sparro,vs-Passer Domes­ also black. Horns nearly parallel coat rather ticus Linnecus'-Length six inches. Male, top coarse. It is a common animal between 3,000 of head ashy grey, bordered from above the and 8,000 feet, often lives near habitati?ns. eye with chest-nut which gradually encro­ and is not easily driven away by shootmg. ached until the whole hind neck, back and Although not herding like a true goat, it is shoulders are chest nut streaked with black. often found in pairs or small parties of about Female, A pale fufous-white streak streaked half a dozen, feeding in mm,ning and even­ with black and fufous on the upper back. ing, and frequently at various situation Titar-Impeyan pheasant, kolsa-white cres­ either rocky, wo~ded or grassy. ted kalij, More peacock, shikra-Pine marten Giddar-Canis aureus-Smaller than an and other kinds of birds are found. ordinary dog with shorter ears and tail.. Co­ Residential Pattern lour tan with a mixture of black alone, tlp of The village can be divided into three resi­ tail bla~k. It is a best known animal both dential settlements. In the first, there are as prowler and scavenge~. It is mi~chievouSi only three or four houses: The buil~iing on.e too occasionally, and WIll comrmt havoc comes-across while entermg the vlllage. IS amongst poultry and young kids and la~n.l~s. the school. This is only two roomed-hut As a general rule, it is harmless, :timId like structure with a spacious ground facing creature. It takes readily to vegetablesl too. it Next is the Patwar-khana. It was under Corn is one of the things chiefly affected. construction. There is a shop and the house Lakkar bagha-Hyaena striata-A la~ge of the shop-keeper. The main abadi is loca­ ted O'll the outer side of a valley which re­ animal, dog-like in general form, bu~ WIth stripped coat and long moustaches hke a mains dry most of t~e year. The abad~ is .a cat. Coat coarse and rather rough, dull grey cluster of houses diVIded by a lane. ThIS dI­ stripped with black or b~own. The, !Iyaena vision is on the basis of the two main c!'lstes is solitary animal, generally fQ..und m open residing illi the village. The houses of Ra]puts country, haunting rocks 3;nd. low 'Cover, and and Hesis are on one side as one enters the hiding by day in cayes ~r 1.n Its own barrows. main abadi. The Chamarsl have their houses It is very destructIve to a:~. to the other side. The houses have grown up 5 in cluster with little or no planning. There during shortage Harijans get water from are no proper lanes· and the dwellings are other drinking sources. linked with each other through rough and ill­ Physical Aspects marked passages. Apart from these two, there For physical aspects, Forest Working is a hamlet known as Lag at about half a mile Plan for Mandi State Forest1" by R. Macla­ from the village. There are four houses, offi­ gan Gorrie, D. Sc., I.F.S. is quoted as in Ap­ ces of Pan.chayat and Cooperative Societies pendix. and a tailor's shop. Climate Cremation Ground Bir is situated at the height of about 4,000 feet above sea level. There, the SIUIIlmer is The Chamars have their cremation ground moderate whereas the winter is a bit severe. in Garud ka nala. This ~s nearby the village. Gandheru .arid Gandharav forests lie close to The Rajputs carry their deads to MandL the village. These forests have also some They cremate the body on the bank of river effect on the climate of the village. Beas. This place is known a 'Dhara-ri Nari'. The village experience light snow-falls· some times. It would be interesting to give rain­ Source of Water Supply fall data from the nearest sourCe that is The two main castes, Chamars and Rajputs Mandi in the Appendix. The average ye~rly have separate bowlies from where they fetch rainfall of the village is between 50 to 70 water for drinking purposes. Sometimes inches. II The People

Population These Rajputs do not inter-dine and in­ ter-drink with the Chamars and Hessis of Bir is inhabited by three castes. These the village. They do not even take part in are Rajputs, Chamars and: He.sis ..The caste­ their festivities and sorrows. They do not wise break-up of the population 18:- inter-marry in the same gotra. The marria­ ges are contracted within the village and in the nearby villages. There being no Brah­ No. of Community House· Persons Males Females man residing in the village, a purohit from holds Mandi is epgaged to perform the religious. a:ituals. 1 2 3 4- 5

Rajputs 20 155 73 82 Chamars-According to the population of .. the village, the Chamars have second place . Chamars 14 133 67 66 Out of the total households of 36, fourteen be­ Hesia 2 13 7 6 long to them. Their population is 133 persons consisting of 67 males and 66 femalesl. Their percentage comes to 44.17. The actual origin Total 86 801 147 154 of these Chamars is not known to them. Their ' major occupation is agriculture. A few are engaged in their traditional occupation of Brief notes on each castes are:- shoemaking. Two Chamars are getting train­ ing in weaving at MandL A few are emp­ R.ajputs-Rajputs are the pre-d.ominant loyed as peon. Many work as labourers at caste living in the village. Out of a total of Mandi. One is a carpenter. Their women­ thirty-six households, twenty belong to folk, besides helping their menfolk in agri­ them. Their total population is 155 persons cultural operations, sell fire-wood at Mandi consisting of 73 males and 82 females. The town. All of them profess themselves to be­ actual origin of these Rajputs. and the place long to Bhardwai Gotra. Shoe-makers call from where they came to the vil1age_i~ not themselves 'mochi'. Other simply say that. known. They are of the view that they'be­ they are Chamars. A trend has been found in longed to the surrounding villages. They other villages that Chamars hesitate to call came to the village to till the land which themselves as such. Generally they likE' to belonged to residents of Mandi town. Now be called Rajputs. No such trend is found in many Rajputs possesss their own land. Bir. Sub-divisions and gotra-wise break-up of the Rajput households is as under:- Chamars are invited by Rajputs on various ceremonies. The feasts are served to them outside the house. The Chamars have their Sub·division Gotra No of Houe. separate bowli for the supply of drinking' holds water. Rajputs do not make use of this bowli. Similarly Chamars are not permitted to make use of bowli belonging to Rajputs. Baid .. Gaur 7 llhargani .. llhardwaj .. 1 Hesi-There are only two households of" Hewni .. Bhardwaj .. 3 Hesis. Their popUlation is thirteen persons 2 consisting of sleven males and six females. Jaryal Shandtl The Hesis do not possess land. They are en­ Lagwar .. Bhardwaj .. 1 gaged as musician. At the time of harvesting, Kondlya 2 they go from house to house to play the Mohila mu.sic. In return, they get food-grains. Hes­ Sokohu .. Kashyap 3 --. is marry within the same gotra They pro-· Rana ., Kashyap ., -...._ ..... t 'fess themselves to belong to Kondlya gotra. Widow remarriage is common among them_ 7

Languages three rooms. One of the wings can be with­ Mandeali is spoken in the village. Ex­ o~t any ,room. The roofing is gabbled with hIpp~d ends. Ventilation and window are tract from 'Linguistic Survey of India' col­ provIded both in· inner and outer walls The lected and edited by Sir G.R. Grierson, ~ourt-y~rd is semipucca. It is used for' dry- K.C.S.l., Ph. D., I.C.S. (Ret d) shall be 01 in­ 109 grams. The let-out for the drains is terest to the readers. These are given in Ap­ through the open side. The CU' type' houses pendix III of the monograph. are a few in the village. House Type There are thirty six households in Bir. 'U Type Houses-These have two wingS' Except one or two houses, all are shared by one larger than the other. Each wing has a more than one households. The house co;n­ vera!ldah towards the inner side facing the struction there is. influe;nced by the avaIl­ spacIous Ciurt-yard. The court-yard is gene­ ability oil'lalCal materiJi;ll, theiphysical as~cts rally kac4_a. The larger wing has two to three of the village and the prevalent tradltlons :rooms ?f different sizes. Approach . to the in the a.rea. The houses, grouped in a cll;1s­ house IS through the verandah Or through ter are generally single storeyed. the SIze the court-yard. To maintain the privacy and layout of the houses vary accor.ding to t~e houses face towards the opposite direc~ the economical status and the reqUlrement h?n of the street. RO!Jfing is gabbled with of the owners. We find four types of houses hIpped ends. Most of the houses in the vil­ in the village. These are Chawki type, hou­ lage are of 'L' type. ses with 'U' and 'L' shape lay-out. The four:th type is houses with single wing. Houses with Single Wing-Those who can­ Chawki Type-These houses have four not afford a bigger house construct such wings which enclose a spacious court-;yard. type of houses. These houses have two to Every wing has a verandah towar~s the llln~r three room~ with a verandah in £r,ont. The side o.f the house. The entrance IS left. III court-yard IS smaller. To maintain the pri­ the middle or at one corner of the wmg v~cy, the back of the house face towards the facing the village street. In a few houses, VIllage street. Such houses are' not many. entrance is direct through verandah, but in others it is through the court-yard. These :rb~ villagers possess limited land. The hnuses have gabbled roofs with one slope to­ sod IS dry and not so fertile. Efforts' are wards the outer side of the house and the made to utiljse minimum land for purposes other towards: the court-yard. The court­ other than agriculture. The houses have yard is generally pucca, paved with thick therefore, been constructed in a cluster

tributed to all present. After this is over, the to the ridge. The joint at the ridge is cover­ raisling of the'foundatiOlIl starts with masonry ed by giving over-lap over the slates fixed work. The stones used are of random shape in the opposite slope. The houses in the vil­ and size. Mud mortar is extensively used for lages are generally without ceiling. masonry work. The clay found in the village is of good quality for construction work. The This is followed by work in the interior of shaping of structure also starts with the the house. Both sides of the walls are plas­ raising of the foundation. The thickness of tered with thick layer of clay mixed with walls up to the plinth level is the same as of cow dung. When dry, white washing of the base of the foundation. The off-set sys­ makol is done. In a few houses, loshti is ap­ tem is not in vogue i.n the village. The plinth plied in the lower portion of walls in the level is kept upto the level of the verandah. interior side. It varies from one and a half feet to two feet. After the completion of the walls upto Mandla & Kyari-In the housesl of Rajputs, this level, the portions in between the_walls a Mandla is provided in the centre of the is filled with flints, irregular pieces of stones court-yard. Mandla is a big piece of Sit one, and clay. This brings the floor in level with chiselled into three stepped slabs. Its base the walls upto plinth lever The floor is then and top 'are fiat with square surface. The rammed thoroughly to ensure the firmness. upper-most slab is the smallest in size and lo,wer-mos-t, the biggest. On one side of Side by side, the carpenter goes on prepar­ the upper most slab, an image of Ganesha ing the door and window frames. The sec­ is carved. Mandla is worshipped daily by a tion of door and window frames is kept 3" married woman, in the mor.ning. A :fiew x4". Grooves Or rebates for fixing the door houses have Kyari. It is a stone structure of shutters are not provided. These are fixed by about Ii' x Ii' x 4' size. Its top surface is used means of pivots provided at the bottom and as bed for growing tulsi plants. Kyari and top corners of the doo,r, frames. In a few Mandla have religious sanctity. These are houses newly constructed, hinged doors with not found in the houses belonging to Cha­ penelled shutters are provided. , The size of mars and Hesis. wind'(Jws vary from house to house. The In One of the cor,ners, a small round de­ doors in old houses are 3' x 4'. In ,new hou­ pression is carved in one of the stones. This ses, the size is 3' x 5'. pit sel:'ves as pestle for pounding paddy. The villagers cover verandah with bamboo matt­ Door frames are then placed at t~e prop.os­ ings. This corvered portion is used as kitchen. ed places. Construction of walls IS ca~ned

for the construction of house. Clay and about five miles. stones are available in sufficient quantity near by viHage. The stones they use iSI of in­ In a few houses fine slates have been used. ferior type, though better stone is available These are fetched from Mandi. Carriage within the radius of 5 miles. Bamboo is avai­ charges come to Rs. 12/- to Rs. 15/- per able in the village. A few villagers have hundred. The rates of the slates are: bamboo trees in their own fields. Othersl pur­ Size Rates chase at the rate of Re. 1/-'per pole. For;tim­ S" x 16" Rs. 16 per hundred ber, the vmagers make USIe of the trees grown 95 X IS" Rs. 18 per hundred in their own fields. They are right-holders 10* X 2W Rs. 20 per hundred in Gandhiru Foresrt: which is at a dis-tance Of about 2 miles. According to this right, The slates used in the village are gene­ the villagers enjoy the right of ob­ ralhr (If 10" x 20" size. taining trees from forest on concessional The houses are consrt:ructed on indh.>idua1 rates. In return they have to help the De­ basis. All the expenditure has to be borne partment ir.. prot€cting of the forests from by the owner of the house. Community h~lp fire and similar calamities. The required on reciprocal basis is rendered for fetchmg number of tree·s are sanctioned by the Forest the material: Free meals have Ito be served to Department on the recommendation of the those who come to render free help. illaqua Panchayat. The slates uSled are coarse, The following table gives break-up of

Number of Number Number Households With two rooms With three rooms With four rooms With five rooms Households of of with one room rooms family r--""----, ~-, ,.----A---..., ,.------"----, ,....--.--"----, members' -- No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of House· fa.nuly house· family house· family house· family house- family holds members holds members holds members holds members holds members

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Chama.rs 21 133 62 4 51 1 20 Hetllli 2 -13 2 13 ." Rajputs 61 185 2 4 S 43 2 20 5 67 3 31

Tota.l 84 .301 13 79 12 94 2 20 6 77 3 31

The total population of the village iSI 301 Dara. --oJ Random stones persons. They possess 84 rooms. Each room Dhehar _ Sill Dwar Sakha. .. Door frame!! is thus shared by 3.6 persons. 133 chamars. Gara .. Mud mOrtar have 21 rooms, and so, each room is shared Gawain Cow shed by 6.3 Chamars. 13 hesis have got 4 rooms. Jirde · . Bamboo mating Similarly 155 Rajputs possess 61 rooms, and Kandh .. Walls Kainchi .. Truss the average comes to 2.54 Rajputs occupying Laatha .. _Ridge pole each :room. From these figures it is clear t.hat Kari .. Purlin the Chamars are in worst plight, though Raj­ Kursi · . Corbal stone puts .a~r.d Resis are also not in any happy Newn Foundation position. Obra Small side room Ota Verandah Palre · . Door shutters Local names for the various parts of the Per·swan .. Steps house and material used for c~nstruction are, Raak Thick flat stones. Ratha · . Stone layer Angan .. Courtyard Shangar Door ohains Bharti' Filling Takki .>.wiUdow Bhind . . Plinth level Thamh ., VeraIlCla.h poles Chakka. ., Slates Teer Niqhe L/B(N)6SCOHP-4 10

Household Goods houses n.or they have money to spare for the The interior of the houses are scantly fur­ purpose. Luxuries are, in fact, unkhown to nished. Neither the villagers have so much them. The table indicates the details of the accommodation that they can furnish their household goods possessed:

No. of Households possessing Caste Cot Chair Table Mirror Bench Stool Wallo Shelf

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Rajputs 18 3 2 20 3 18 Chamars 4 14 1 7 Hesis 1

Total 22 3 34 2 3 26

- Out cd: total of 36 hous.eholds, 18 house­ with two meals a day. The outer walls of this holds of Rajputs and 4 Chamars possess conta~ne\l" are plastered with cow dung. Capa­ cots. Non€' of the Resis has any cot. The city of a container varies from four to eight cots possessed by the villagers have bamboo mound. Its height varies from four to sa.x feet. frames with wooden legs. The thin jute str­ Besides these, kothari are used fOir storing ing is used for weaving the top of the cots. grains. These> are strong big tectangular Niwar, being comparatively costly, is rarely boxes of thick wooden planks. The thick­ used. Only four Rajputs have Niwar cots. hess of planks varies from H to 2 inches. Chairs are poslsessed by 3 hO\l.sehol~. of Raj­ Every household possessesl a ghurtu to grind puts. Whenever more chairs are required, the the grains. The rice is husked by means of villagers bring them from the Panchayat ukhal and murha. Similarly, every house­ Ghar and school. Generally people sit on the hold possessesl a hurricane lantern or the ordi­ floor with a piece of gunny bag or a mat un­ nary type of wick lamp. There is no radio­ der them. These mats are made locally by set with any of the house-hold. A few have the women folk. Khajra plants> are in abun­ torcheS. TheTe is no i'dea in keeping a bicy­ dance in the nearby forests. The women cle or a bullock-cart. Changers, winnowing 'fetch bundles of leaves of these plants. These fans and bamboo baskets are found in al­ leaves are dried and woven into mats. most every household. Wooden seats or Paltr~s are· also used, for sit- ting purpose...... Dress Onl v two house-holds possess tables. qf­ The villagers dress simply. They use cotton ten, villagers make use of wooden packmg and woollen clothes. In summer, the pea­

to the courts. Now the use of turban is dis­ like to adorn the border of dopatta with appearing fast. A turban 'can be of any agree­ twinkling half moons and stars of metal. able colour. Shawl and Pattu-Shawl may be of pash­ Banyan-A vest is called Blanyan. mina or wool, and may have borders of black, Shirts-Shirts of common types with or blue or red colours. Some women wear pattus without collar are used. Coarse white or of black and white checks in winter. coloured khaddar, drill an"d twill cloth is used. Villagers are particular to have poc­ Kameez-A shirt with collars and sleeves kets in the shirt. The' shirt with collar has like men's shirts. It has buttons in the front and a side pocket. The young women prefer sleeves with cuffs. The shirt of the other shirts like those- worn in cities. The cloth pattern has rectangular bottom and the used is printed or plain. sleeves without cuffs. Koti-A waist coat with the back of the Bush Shirts-readymade bush-shirts of same cloth. It is made of woollen cloth or common type are worn hy the youngsrters. knitting wool which they purchase f;om Jawahar Jacket-Waist coat buttoned up MandL to neck. It is made of gabroo,n, coarse khad­ Salwar-The young women wear Salwar. dar and woollen patti. The· pattern and the cut of the Salwar is the Sadri-It is a waist coat and may be of same as elsewhere. The cloth used is of cotton or woollen cloth depending on the coarse, cheaper and of inferior quality. season. It is common with the elders .though Coloured cloth is preferred. young men also wear it during winter months. Suthan-Suthan is popular among oid women. It is tight at the anklets and a hit Pull-avers-Common type of pull-overs loose over the thighs. Suthan of black suff are with sleeves or without sleevesi. These is preferred. are either purchased ready made or knitted by the women. The wool used sometimes is Tailoring-The villagers get their clothes of sheep kept by the villagers. tailored at MandL A tailor from the town also opens a temporary shop in the village Coat-Woollen coats of coarse tweed or for a few days at the time of harvest. His locally made patties are used in winter. charges are:- Elders have liking for buttoned-up coats but the youngsters prefer to wear frock coats. Men's shirt Re. 0.62 Coats of cotton cloth are used in summer. Pyjama Re. 0.37 LOWER GARMENTS Cotton Coat /' Rs. 6.00 Kachha-An underwear made of course khaddar or grey militia. Kachha of stripped Woollen Coat Rs. 9.00 cloth are very common. Waist Coat Rs. 2.00 Knicker-These are shorts and worn by the school boysi. These form part of their Women's Shirt Re. 0.75 uniform and are of khaki or blUE: drill. Salwar Re. 0.50 Pyjama-It is made of plain lathha, gab­ roon and stripped cloth. In winter, pyjama Ornaments is made of coarse khaddar, militia cloth and woollen patti. Among elders, loose fit pyjama The natural urge of a woman to look at her is popular. The youngsters have liking for best is reflected in her penchant for orna­ pyjama of loose bottom. mer.ts and jewellery with which she adorns: herself. Apart from the love, the jewellery­ Women's dress consists of:­ reflects the material well being of a person. Dopatta-This is a head-gear. Coloured The more the ornaments, the better off a dopattas are common. The cloth used is person is: consider.e.P to be E:conomi .. - malmal, khaddar, shafoon and any other cally. The ornaments WOi11 by the wo.man dyed coarse cloth. A Rajput widow wears are many. but one may not be able to afford dopatta of white colour. Sometimes women all of them. 'l;'hese are of traditional desi!;(IlS. L/B(N)6SCO-4a 12 and heavy. Excepting a few light orna­ It is made of silver or bronze sheet. It is worn ments of gold, all ar(1 made of silver. With eith'er round the neck or round the arm. the passage of time, liking for lighter orna­ Kantha-Another name for it is 'Har'. It ments of new desd.gns is developing and the is a heavy ty:r:;e of necklace of silver. It has traditionally heavy pieces are going out of various designs and weighs 15 to 25 tolas. uSle. The ornaments are purchased from Man­ di where a number of gold and sHver-smiths Kanthi--An ornament worn tight around the neck. It has also various designs, and have their shops. The ornaments commonly weighs one to one and a half tala. used are;- Locket-A lighter type of necklace of Chauk-This is a hemispherical hollow silver or gold. It weighs one to two tolas. ornament made of silver with designs em­ bossed all round it. It -is worn by all ORNAMENTS FOR WRIS'i' married ladies, young Or old, at the top of Bangan-Ordinary glass bangles. the head. It weighs four to six tolas. Karohhu-Round hollow bracelets iike Clip--A silver or brass hair pin fastened Snangan. A pair weighs five to ten tolas. just above the ears. These keep the hair in Snangan-Solid round bracelets of silver place. with some pattern like the lion head at the Shingar Patti or Dora-A silver or gold or­ ends. A pair weighs ten to fifteen tolas. nament worn round the forehead. It is a chain MISCELLANEOUS ORNAMENTS of small fiat beads. It weights three to four Arsi-A silver thumb-ring with a train­ tolas. gular Or round looking glass fixed on a sil­ Teek-Is a silver or gold ornament trian­ ver sllab of the same shape. It weighs H to 2 gular in shape. It -is studded with a trian­ tolas. gular mirror. It is faste:qed 'to the hair by Dand-Khurkni-A silver tooth prick. means of a chain. It rests on the fore-head. The weight of the ornament is one to one Kan-Khurkrvi-Thin silver bar with its one and a half tolas. end shaped like a small spoon. It is used for extracting the ears wax. ORNAMENTS FOR EAR Jhumku-An,other type of ear'-rings of Mundri-Gold Or silver finger ring of half silver weighing one to two tolas. to one tala. Kan bala-An ear-ring of big size. A pair N anties-Small ear-rings of gold worn by weighs two to four tolas. the men. Kan balyan-A set of 4 to 5 small ear­ Panzeb-Silver anklets twelve to fifteen rings worn in each ear. These are silver tolas in weight. ornaments and a set weighs 4 to 6 tolas. Phul-Silver rings for toes. Kan-phul-A bunch of silver flowers Utensils weighing one to one and a half tala. In Bir. both earthen and metallic utensils Kante-Another type of ear-rings of gold. are used. There being no potter or a shop A pair weighs half to one tala. dealing in metallic utensils in thE. village or nearby, the utensils are purchased from ORNAMENTS FOR NOSE MandL The metallic utensils are used for Bala-A big nosle-ring of silver. It weighs cooking and serving the food. The earthen­ three to five tolas. pots are used for storing and boiling Lashi, for storing some sour dishes, pickles and Balu-A small ring of gold. It is studded ghee, or for fetching water' and preparing with small imitation pearls. It weighs one to 'Dharubari' or Lugri. one and a half tola. The metallic utensils are gen"erally of bra!ls, Laung-A sort of bigger tilli with a bigger aluminium, iron and bronze alloy (Kansa). top studded with three or four imitation The metallic utensils commonly used in stones. the village are:- Ti~li-A tiny cylinder of gold studded with Balti-Iron bucket for fetching and stor­ a tiny imitation pearl at one~end. 1--- ing water. ORNAMENTS FOR NECR Baltuwin-A big metallic round utensil Jantar-In fact it is no't an ornament. It is used for boiling rice and vegetables in more a small thin rectangular container of a tawiz. quantity when there is a general feast. 13

Chimta-Iron tong. daily work, ~me .fin~s variatio~ in the timings of thelr dally In-take. RaJPuts, who Daba.-It is a metal utensil with a ~at work in the field throughout 'the day, take bottom used for cooking vegetables and n~e. their meals four times a day whereas, the Its mouth and the bottom has the same dla­ Chamars have their\ meals three times a meter. Its body is barrel-shaped. day, there being no difference in the type of meals. Deg-It is a metallic utensil used for "Storing water. The chief staples of food of the village Bir are maize, wheat, rice and koda. Rice Glass-Brass tumbler. and maize are very favourite grains. Maize Gharolu or Bantu-Brass pitcher. is taken from September 1ill April and May Gagar-Round brass pitcher. along"'lith koda. Arter that.., wh;e'at harvest Karchhi-Service spoon. matures and for the rest of period, wheat is consumed in the form cf bread. Rice is Lap or ChClmcha-Spoon. taken almost once a day throughout the Ko1toru-Bowls of brass or bronze alloy year but when the stock ot rice is exhaust.­ for serving vegetables. ed, the peasant depends on other cereals like wheat, koda and maize. Bt!fo'l'e going Lundha-A iron pan tasla. to their morning work, the men folk have Lota-Brass utensil for drinking water. some ,bread which is genera11y remainder of night re-past. No vegetable is taken in Parat-An iIon or brass round disc with the morning. The bread is taken with tea walls around, used for kneading flour. or a pinch of salt This is called 'Nohl:!!u'. At noon, they take full meals. This consists Patila-Brass utensH used for cooking of Dal Bhat- (pulseS! and rice) and Jho1. vegetables. Juice of Jhamirdi (a sour fruit) or Namuan Tarmarah-It is a big brass utensil used (galgal) and pickles are also taken along­ for heating water. with the1ir· meals. In the evening, when the peasants return to their homes after Tawa-Iron pan for baking bread. their day's work, they again· feel \1oharu-A round metallic utensil with urge for taking meals. This time, the meals round thick bottom and narrow mouth, used consist of bread' which is the carryover of for cooking pulses and other eatables which lunch, pulses and ves;retables whioh the vil­ take sufficient time for cooking. lagers grow in their kitchen gardens or bring from ;Mandi town whepever they f! Earthen Utensils-Ghara-Earthen pit­ there. To this mea!, the villagers give the cher fOT keeping the water cool. name of 'Dopehari'. At night, the villagers Handi-Pitcher of small size used for boil­ take their dinner which consists of breac '4ng water. and boiled or fried) vegetables. The vege­ ta bles which the villagt§rs grow in their Kanartu-Earthen trough. ki tchen gardens, .are pumpkin, cucumber, ladyfingers, galgal (Namuan), Paillr, Jha­ Kunda-An earthen trough used for put­ mirdi, Gangheri Sadaphal, Sars.on-Ita-saag. ting milk to turn it into curd. spinach, kachRllu-ke-patte and dhaniya etc. Marit Ban-An earthen jar to store pickles. The veget1!_bles are generally grown in the village during the :rainy season. Naroru-Wooden bowl used for storing sour dishes and vegetables. Apart from the daily routine diet 'Nhich has already been described, the villagers Food and Drinks prepare some special dishes which are dis­ There are two main castes in Bir, Rajputs cussed as under:- and Chamars. Rajputs depend entirely on Askloos-Askloos are also prepared on agricultme, but there are a few individuals festive occasions. Rice is ground into flour who are employed in Government Offices as and the ground flour is mixed with water to peons or on other jobs. Chamars, in addi­ form a pagte. This is poured in the holes of tion to their traditional profession of sboe­ a'mould made Of stone slab. The mo'Uld is making, work as labourers at MandL sell "then covered with a s:rab' '8f..stohe and heat fire-wood, which they cut from the nearby is applied, when baked, tllese are eaten. forest and also are employed i11 their agri­ 'These are 'baked either by' mixing ghe~i and '

Babroos-Babroos or malpuras are pre~ Birth, Marriage and Death Customs pared by the villagers· on the festive occa~ sions which will be discussed later on in Birth RituaLs-Before the birth of a child the chapter pertaining to 'Social and Cultu~ takes place, pregnant mother has to undergo ral Life'. Babroos are prepared by kneading the Ahawin ceremony in caSe of the first Maida into thin. paste. To this paste, sugar child. She also takes maximum precautions iSi added to taste. The paste, when put in to avoid abortion and miscarriage. Among boiling ghee attain round and flat soope. the Rajputs, a pregnant woman is not allow­ ed to go to the burning ground or to a Bhaturus-As part of their daily diet, the stream and to a lonely place not frequently villagers do not take ordinary chapaties. visited by people. She is neither permitted Instead they prepare bhaturus. Bhaturus to see a dead body nor any dreadful sight. are thick loaves prepared-from leavened! wheat According to the villagers, these sights leave flour. The kneaded flour is allowed to fer­ behind evil effects on the child in womb. ment for a number of hours depending on Similarly, when a w0lpjm IS in advanced stage temperature. When the flour gets fermented of pregnancy, she shuns doing any such work to the required degree, the kneaded flour is that involves physical exertion. She does not turned into round thick loaves. Then these attend to cattle, does not go to fields to as­ are baked on the pan. ~ sist her men folk. This is not, however, true in the case of the Chamar women. They at­ Bhallas-Bhallas are prepared in the vil~ te~d to all their routine duties till the time' lage on 'Bissu' and! 'Sair' festivals. These of delivey. are prepared from urd-ki-dal which is well The Ahawin ceremony takes place on the soaked in water and ground into paste. Spi­ beginning of eighth month of pregnancy. An ces and salt are added to the paste and then auspicious day is flxed by the purohit. In the beaten thoroughly. Then small balls are for­ morning, on tha:t dRY, the pJ:egnant woman, med of the paste where-after the balls are accompanied by her nearest relatives and the shaped into rings of desired size. These rings purohit, to go to the village of h!"r parents. In are then fried in ghee. Bir, marriages are contracted in the near-by villages. The pregnant women have, therefore, Jhol-·rhe villagers add Jhol to the plain not to go too far-off distances for observing rice which is taken with pulses. This Jhol Ahawin ceremony. The party carries with it adds taste and! iSI prepared by boiling Lassi (Skimmed curd) and adding turmeric, salt necessary provisions and a goat. In the des­ and spices to taste. tined village, they en-camp nearby a bowli or a spring. The pregnant woman takes bath Khir-Khir is either prepared on the festi­ with the spring water and puts on new vals or during the Shradh to which the clotlies presented by her parents. The puro­ villagers call Xanyaukat'. It is served to the hit worships the spring and the nav-grah Brahamins during the Shradh. Khir is pre­ while the pregnant woman keeps sitting in pared by boiling rice in milk instead of front of him. At night, the goat is sacrificed water. Sugar is also added. and the' entire party observe jagra. They keep themselves busy in singing bhajans. Pakori- The process of preparing Pakori A feast is! held on the next day. Meat IS the same as 'Bhallas' except that the balls of the sacrificed goat is served. The skull, how of the paste of 'Mash-ki-dal' given the shape ever, goes to the purohit. In addition to this, of small round cakes instead of rings. These he gets Rupee one and four annas and the old cakes are baked on the iron pan then boiled clothes of the pregnant woman. The party In Lassi. proceeds back ,to the village when the feast is over. Villagers are of the view that the Potandas-Potandas or puras are prepared child is likely to be deaf, dumb, or have some by the villagerS! on (l festival called 'Potanda other def.ormity, if this ceremony is not per­ saja'. For potandas, maida or ordinary wheat fO'l"med. They also informed! that the obser­ flour is turned into a thin paste. The'll a small vance of this ceremony is declining day by quantity of ghee is applied to the hot iron day. pan and the thin paste of wheat flour is At the time of delivery the pregnant wo­ plastered on the pan by means of a pad of man is made to lie on floor in one of the cloth. When this thin layer--Qi_fiour paste be­ rooms reserved for the purpose. Her bedding comes well baked, potanda becomes ready for consists of a matre5S pad with Qld ra~j or eating purpose. Potanda is generally taken paral and an old pattu or a dohru. The with milk or khir. woman is completely segregated. Excepting 15

the women attending on her no one is allow­ sixteenth day: This day is known as 'Gun­ ed to enter into the room. The Development trara'. On this day, the house is cleaned. Department has employed a mid-wife to con­ Panch-grabh, a mixture of curd, milk, ghee, duct the delivery cases. Her head-quarter is Ganga Jal and gunter is sprinkled in the in the adjoining village, two miles away house. Every member of the house-hold from Bir. The midwife is said to be untrain­ takes bath. The utensils are cleaned. Women ed. The villagers, therefore prefer old and wash and do their hair. The mother and the experienced women of the village to conduct child are given bath and new clothes. the delivery cases rather than to employ The purohit is called in to perform the rites. the mid-wife for the purpose. Occasionally, Ganeslha is worshipped and the sacred services of trained and experienced mid-wife fire fed by mango 01' pipal wood it lit. from Mandi are also secured. Her fee was On this day, the bhiyai of the male child Rs. 7-50 but now it has been ra:sed to Rs. 12 is made. Bhiyai is a small cone about plus food-grains and clothes. six inches in circumference at the base and Among Rajputs, the male members are about four inches in neight. The .purohit not allowed to enter the room until the chants mantras by means of which the Chhat ceremony is performed. This ceremony bhiyai is supposed to be invested with life. is observed on the sixth day. Chamars do not The female relatives fetch water from the observe it. On this day, the mother is given bowli. Cowdung IIllixed with a few drops bath. The purohit is called. Havan is perform­ of water from each pot, is plastered on the ed and nav-grah worshipped. A feast on bhiyai. The bhiyai is preserved through­ small scale is thrown to the nearest rela­ out the life-span of the child. It is tives. Gunter is sprinkled all over the house. worshipped on every birth day and at the The elderrly persons pointed out that the ban time of marriage. The bhiyai is consigned on males on entering the room of confine­ to the wateFs of Beas on the death of the ment is dying out now. The young fathers man concerned. The parents of the new do not resist the temptation of having a look born child throw a feast to the relatives at their tiny new-comer. On the birth of ~ and friends. The kith and kins, who gather son time is noted and conveyed to purohIt on the occasion, have the first glimpse Of Th~ purohit then prepares the horoscope. the child. As a token of kinship and relation Chamars do not note the time and no horo­ with the household, they present some coins scope is prepared in their case. ranging from four annas to a rupee are given to the child. The mother's parents As long as the woman is confined to bed, send clothes and a piece of jewellery, if everyone who touches her, has to take _bath. they can afford, to the mother. Clothes are Either the woman who conducts the delIvery also sent to the child. The kamins who or some other woman engaged for the pur­ perform menial jobs for the household, pose, attends to the new-born baby and the come to offer drub. The offering of drub mother during the period of confi:;teIl!'€nt. conveys the congratulations. For offer­ After the delivery, the mother IS gIVen ing drub, the Chamar _,.gets four annas, warm pure desi ghee to drink as much as the Lahar also four annas, Majhara gets two she can. During the period of confinement. annas and the N al gets rupee one and four which lasts till the purification takes place. annas. All these kamins except the Chamars the mother is fed upon rich diet. Kohani, a come from other villages. Hesi also does not mixture of dry fruits like almonds, chhohara, miss his chanoe. He comes with his shehnai cocoanut and dakh fried in ghee, is given -to play on and gets some grains' and money. from time to time. Babroos and lugra are There are no fixed rates for him. The kith and also given. After Chhat, the mother is permi­ kins also convey their badhai and in return ted to have usual diet consisting of wheat the children get money ranging from one to bread and bhat. But ghee is still given to four annas. her to enable her to recoupe her strength. After child birth. the mother may be given The child is given solid food six months des[ ghee from four to ten Kilos depending after the birth. The ceremony is known as upon how much the family can afford. The lugru. On an auspicious day fixed by the baby is breast fed. To keep the bowls in or­ purohit lugro is, prepared a.nd the child der he is made to suck Garsut and Bal- J e­ is made to lick a bit of it after performing wa~-Ghutti which is purchased from bazar. a minor ceremony. Kheelf, bread, fruits, Garsut is prepared from ajwain and other sweets and milk are placed ~f"9re the child. thin.gs. Whichever thing he touches, indicates his Rajputs celebrate the purification on the taste in future life. Similarly articles like . thirteenth day and the Chamars on the books, pen, sword, coilis and 3c'ales are 16 placed. The thing which it catches hold of is cleaned, thin mixture ot" cow-dung and fin'it, is supposed to suggest the profession water is sprinkled. The walls are plastered which the child may follow one day. It is with loshti. The ceremony is conducted by after this day, that the child can be taken the purohit who also acts as '"'Guru' of the outside the house. For Nam-Karan-Sanskar, boy who is to be given the sacred thread. no uniform day is fixed. It can be observed The boy is made to take bath and to attire on the Lugru day and in othe'r cases on the as a yogi. He wears a pair of· wooden san­ Gunter day. Yet in another cases, it can b~ dals, a dhoti or a part an, ear-rings fashioned observed on any auspicious day fixed by the out of kneaded flour, a jholi of white long purohit. On this day, havan Is performed and cloth. He puts on a mirgchhala i.e. the skin nav-grahs worshipped. The purohit suggests of a deer. In his hands, he carries a wooden the first letter ~nd accordingly some suitable phowari and a staff. Then after a minor name beginning with the first letter sugges­ ritual, he receives Guru-mantra which is. ted by the priest is chosen and given to the Gayatri Mantra. He also recetves J aneo and child. wears it over his left shoulder and under his. Mundan Ceremony-The hair-cutting cere­ right arm. The Guru also gives him sermons mony of a male child takes place at the ages that he should protect his brahamcharya, of twO' and a half, five, seven and nine years. should devote to his studies, obey hi3 parentsr The ceremony is known as 'Jarolan' or 'Jat should get up early in the morning and offer dena'. The hair of a child cannot be cut daily prayers. He should clean his hands until this ceremony is observed. In practice, thrice with mud after answering the call of however, this belief is on the decline. Gene­ nature. He should suspend the .J an~o over rally hair cut for the first time is kept pre­ hh ears while going for making water or for served. Whenever, they find suitable oppor­ answering the call of nature. He should not tunity, the family deity called kulaj is climb up a tree and avoid swimming across visited and thQ hair offered with a minor a river. ceremony. Kulaj is a family deity. Jat cere­ Then the boy is made to beg for bhichha i.e. mony is observed both by Rajputs and alms. All the women and relatives assembled Chamars. The Rajputs have their kulaj at on the occasion, offer him alms consisting Naina Devi, at Rawalsar and at Deo Dhar. The of sohagis. This is followed by a feast. Chamars have Sidhs as their kulaj. For Marriage Ceremony-In the village Bir, Rajputs, the ceremony is performed by the following forms of marriages are pre­ family purohit. Havan is performed, Nav­ valent:- grah and Ganesha are worshipped while mantras are chanted by the purohit. The Dharam Pun-In this type of man:iage, barber cut the hair with a pair of scissors, the partents given their daughter in marriage leaving J attu on boy's head. J attu is a bunch without receiving any payment for her of hair commonly known as 'Bodi'. The daughter from the parents of the boy, or barber gets old clothes of the boy alongwith from the boy in case he has no 'parents. the fee amounting to eleven takkas. The hair, This type of marriage is common only so cut are preserved. On this day, the rela­ among Rajputs. . tives, friends and n~ighbours are served Bata Sata-This type of marriage oan with a feast. On the next day, a party con­ easily be termed as 'Marriage by "t~xchange'. sisting of nearest relatives and the purohit In this type of marriage, series of marriHges proceed to the place of kulaj. There, the are contracted among the relatives of both hair is! offered: to kulaj and a goat is sacri­ bride and bride-groo~, but no money is in­ ficed. A formal feast is held and then the volved. for contracting such marriages. ceremot)y varies from Rs. 300 to 400. Followmg can be the best example of this The Chamars also celebrate the later part type of marriage:- . of the ceremony in the same way. They do not at all observe the part except that the 'A' betrothes his daughter to the son of hair cut for the first time ,are preserved with ·B', who gives his niece to the brother of a bandha of Rs. 1.25 and a cocoanut. 'e', who gives his sister to the son of 'D', who giyes his daughter in marriage to the Janeo Ceremony-Janeo, the sacred thread nephew of :A'. In this type- of marriage, it is worn by the Hindus of higher caste. This; can be pOSSIble that all the persons 'A' 'B', ceremony is held at the age of nine or eleven. 'C' and 'D' involved In the chain may not In village Bir, this ceremony is generally belong to the same Village. Such marriages observed alongwith the marriage by the Raj­ are common both among Rajputs and puts only. The ceremony takes plac;e in Chamars. These marriages are contracted the court-yard of tl~e house. The eourt-yard when .parties cannot afford to pay the price 17

.of the bride. When asked whether such a silver ornament to the gi.rl. The cost of contracts involve disputes, the villagers in­ the ornament depends upon one's economic formed that there is every possibility, but resources. This ornament is generally a there existed .no such case in the village. 'Balu' (Nose-ring), weighing one to two The liklihood of the dispute is that the one tolas. The system is called 'Rupna Dena'. ·of the parties backs out and then it becomes Th~n t~e girl's father makes a public decla­ .impossible to keep up the other claims intact. ratIOn III the presence of his kith and kins, The position can become really difficult if to this effect. Gur is ·distributed. The cere­ one or more marriages in the series have :nony is obs,erved only when the marriage already materialised. IS to be of Dharam Pun' type. While con­ Ghar Jwantru or Kamsi-In this type of tracting marriages by 'Bata Sata' 'Ghar marriage, the bride-groom serves in the Jwa~tru' or 'Barina', the terms' for the house of thE: bride's parents. The period is marnage are settled before the betrothal is agreed upon oy mutual consent. On com­ :uade public. In cas~ of Barina, the money pletion of this period which is' generally IS recelved by the glrl's parents in shape of ab9ut eight years, the bride-groom becomes ornament~ which they give to the girl when entitled to his bride. Only one such case the marriage takes place. Sometimes, the -exists in the village among Chamars. The parents of the boy have also to bear the villagers infolimed that this form of mar­ marriage expenses of the girl. It was a riage is hardly popular as there is every custom among the vj]}agers that the betro­ liklihood of breaches. Therefore, it is on the thal used to' be settled well before the .decline. This system is found among marriage and the instances of break-up wer~ not rare. Now this system is on the -Chamars only. declme and the marriages take place within Barina--In this form of marriage, the a year or- so after the betrothal. rather of the girl accepts money for his daughter., The price involved is fixed by After the engagement, the boy's parents mutual agreement between the two parties. or the representatives accompanied by the In the village, this type of marriage is con­ representatives of girl's side consult the tracted only among Chamars. ~Nhile sur­ purohit and fix the day for marriage. This veying the village, the' Investigator could IS Clalled 'Biyah joranra'. The marriage cere­ gather that this type is also prevalent mony starts ten to fifteen days before -among the Rajputs also, but when they the actual date of the marriage with mar­ Nere asked, they did not come out with the riage songs which will be re,produced in illiormation. They say that they do not sell the Appendix. TEe women from the neigh­ their daughters. The ~ricEl' charged for a bourhood and having relations with the \{irl among the Chamars ranges from househoId gather for the purpose. They sing Rs. 300 to Rs. 500. the songs for an hour or half. While de­ Both among Rajputs and Chamars, the parting, gur and soaked grams fried III mustard o~l are distributed among the ladies. marriage is contracted outside blood groups, The marnage songs .ate sung daily in the in the near-by villages. There does not exist late evening. _When the marriage ap­ -even a single case of consanguinity or inter­ proaches near, the relatives, friends and caste marriage. In the past, marriage used neighbours. are contacted per~onaUy by a to be contracted, when the boy was of ten representative of the household and invita­ to twelve years old and the girl of eight to tions to attend the function are extended to ten years. Now the marriages are con­ them. This is termea 'Ne.ondra Panra'. tracted at the age of sixteen to twenty-two years in the case of boys and twelve to One or two days before the marriage the eighteen years in the case of girls. The relatives of bride-groom and the bride initiative is not taken by the father or gather in the house of the maternal uncle brothers of the girls. On the other hand, it of the bride-groom. The purohits of both is the boy's father or in the absence of­ the parties read out the detailed programm~ father, his next kin Or guardian who ap­ (Mahurat) of every important item of the proaches the girl's father for this purpose. marriage. Then ~oth the parties confirm In case, the boy's father has no direct con­ these and those who attend the function tract with the girl's father, he generally get Gur.' This is 'Lagnotri Likhna'. Th~ secures the assistance of some influential purohit of the bride-groom accompanied by persons who accompany him and recom­ the barber proceeds ""to- the Bride's parents' mend his case. This system, is called as house and deliver the LagnOtri. Some of the 'Rabari Dena':When the girl's father agrees h(;mseholds mark the marriage ceremony to the proposal, the boy's father presents with (Sat Narayan Ki Katha'. This item of ''''WL'B(N'6SCORP-5 18 the marriage is not necessary. Only those vegetables. A:f"ter the Tel ceremony is over, who can afford, observe it. On this day, some the bride-groom again worships Ganesha, members who desire so, keep fast uptil where-after, the barber does his hair-cutting. night. The invitees gather and hear 'Sat Then he takes bath. His old clothes go to Narayan Ki Katha'. It is read out by the the barber. In the bride's parents' house, purohit. After the katha is over, the invitees similar formalities are observed. The get 'Parshad' and leave for their homes. On clothes of the bride go to the Nain (wife at this day, a ceremony known as 'Kulaj the barber) who does the bride's hair. In Thapna' is ,also performed. 'Kulaj' has al­ case the 'Mahurat' of departure of the ready been defined while discussing Mundan marriage party does not fall on the same ceremony. One of the ladies who keep fast, day, the bride-groom leaves his house ac­ dips her hand in vermillion water and re­ companied by the procession for another produces impression of her hand on a piece house or to his maternal uncle's house, if of yellow cloth. At night, the ladies keep it happens to be in the village or in the awake late. They keep themselves busy in nearby village. Before doing so, the bride­ singing song in honour of their 'Kulaj'. groom wears new clothes presented by his in-laws, pagri and sehra. It was a custom On the first day of the ceremony, the in the village that the bride-groom used to bride and the bride-groom are given bath suck the breasts of his mother before Ieav-­ .at their respective homes. Mehndi is applied mg his house, but this is done rarely now to the hands of the bride. Then Tel cere­ and is meeting decline. While leaving the mony takes place. First of all women gather house, the ladies who generally are aunts in one of the rooms fixed for the purpose. or the bride-groom, wave arti over him. There, rough figures of bride and bride­ This is done twice while the purohit goes groom On the wall with vermillion water on Chanting the mantras meant for the are drawn. This ceremony is known as 'Dehra Belna' and is performed Pot the time ceremony. fixed for the purpose. A Phiri, wooden 'On the fixed day and at fixed time, the structure with four legs of about six ilnches bride-groom proceeds to the village of his in length with a platform, is placed just father-in-Iaws. He goes in a palki accom­ below the wall where the figures are drawn. panied by the marriage party. The musicians The Pihri is plastered with 'Loshti' and also accompany him. There, the party is Image of Ganesha is placed in it. This image received by the father and other relatives is worshipped by the bride and the bride­ of the bride and are made to stay in a groom at their respective houses while the house already arranged by the in-laws, purohit chants mantras connected with the near their own house. At appointed time, ceremony. After this, Torans are fixed on the bride-groom along with his marriage­ the door of the room where image of party proceeds to his in-laws house where Ganesha is installed, and at the main gate he is received by the aunts of the bride with of the house. At the bride's parents' house, Arti. On the gate, these ladies worship him 'Bedi' is fixed in the court-yard in addition and the father-in-law and mother-in-law to the 'Torans'. Torans are thin poles of receive him and wash his feet. Then the Simbal wood. Alongwith Torans, stems of party is made to worship the Ganesha. banana are also fixed. The expenses of Bedi After performance of the marriage, the and Torans are borne by the maternal uncles main features of which are 'Lagna', 'Ph ere' , of the bride and bride-groom. The poles OD 'Muhn Dakhai' and 'Bedi', the marriage­ Toran and Bedi are dyed in yellow and! party is served with lunch. On this day, reddish colours. Then the bride and the the bride-groom and the parents of the bride-groOirIl sit with two bowls of leaves bride observe fast until the ceremonies are containing sOme vermillion and mustard over. After 'Phere' ceremony, the bride­ oil and a bunch of Dub grass. The head groom is made to have a glimpse of the face dress of the bride consists of a Dopatta of of bride. The ceremony i5 known as 'Muhn rsddish colour with a ring made of a sort U ghrai'. After this, the boy's side present of straw known as Munjh. The bride-groom the girl with new clothes and ornaments wears cap with the same ring of Munjh. and the ceremony is known as 'Bagga'. The The bride wears a nose-ring al5o. 'l'he in­ container of these clothes and jewellery is vitees visit the house and apply some ver­ called 'Baggeri-Patari'. There is a system million to the fore-head of the bride or of giving dowery which consists of a f~w bride-groom and put some oil with- the buncll pieces of silver ornaments and a cot WIth of grass blades On the head. Those who a formal bedding. The bedding consists of come for the purpose, are feasted. The menu a quilt, pilloW, bed-sheet and mattre~s of consists of boiled rice, pulses and one or two inferior cloth and cotton. The expendIture 19

-on dowery comes to Rs. 150 to Rs. 300. As a wise marriages take place in the nearby matter of course, the wedding party stays villages. Marriages with relatives is not as guests of bride's parents, for one or two contracted. However, there are instances of days. When the ceremony is over, -the 'Barat marriages within the same 'Gotra' among (wedding-party) known as 'Janitrus' comes Chamars. So far as the marriage expenditure back with the bride in a palki accompanied is concerned, the boy's side has to incur by their relatives. It is a custom among the more, since they have to arrange for the villagers that it is the bride-grooms' palki ornaments and clothes both for the bride which should follow the palki of the bride. and the bride-groom. The expenditure, on The whole procession however follows the the marriage of a Rajput boy ranges from musicians. The musical instruments in the Rs. 1,500 to Rs. 3,000. The approximate expen­ village consist of dhol, nigara, shehnai and diture over a girl's marriage has been calcu­ dafla. lated by a Rajput household upto Rs. 1,000 When they reach the bride-groom's house, to 2,000. Among Chamars, the expenditure arti is performed at the entrance. The is a bit less. A Chamar manage~. to 'get his couple is taken inside the house with a dori son or a daughter married within Rs. 1,000. (red cotton string) round 'the bride's back. Widow Re-marriage-Widow re-marnage The bride at this time is clad in a 'Lahan­ is not allowed among the Rajputs. It, how­ chora', a special dress worn by the bride. It ever, exist among the Chamars, but it takes covers whole of the body from head down place with the near relative or brother 01 to ankles of the bride. The couple then the deceased husband. There are two such worship Ganesha. A game known as 'Dudh cases among the Chamars of the village. Mundri' is then played by the When widow re-marriage is contracted with bride and bride-:groom. A pot containing other than the brother of the deceased hus­ milky water and curd is placed before them band. it is called Dharewa Karewa. In case and the sister-in-law throws a ring known of re-marriage with. the brother of the de­ as 'Mundri' into the pot from above and ceased husband, it is called Jhanjhrara. In both of them try to' hunt for it. Who-so-ever the two cases in the vilage. the youn­ finds it, is supposed to be superior to the ger brothers, have appropriated the widows other in their future life. The grand feast of their deceased elder brothers. There is one known as 'Bari Dham' or 'Andel' is served case among the 'furis where a woman was on the next day to the invitees who are the married thrice after the death of her two for­ relatives, friends and neighbours of the, mer husbands. household. The feast is extended to the Polyandry is not pr.actised !n the village. Kamins who belong to Scheduled Castes, but A few cases of polygamy are found, but it is they are -not allowed to mix with the others not also popular, while the feast is being served. What the The following table shows that out of to­ villagers do is that they make them sit in tal of 147 mal'es and 154 females, 74 males the open place outside the house, and the and 70 females are un-married. The meals are served to them there. The Rajputs majority of these never-married persons are do not, however, join the feasts given by from age-group of 0 to 14 years. In this age­ the Chamars. After the feast, the bride group. only 3 women are married. This indi­ returns wfth her brother or uncle who stay cates that early marriages are not in vogue there for the purpose, to her parents' house. in the village. In age-group 15 to 34 years, The bride-groom goes to the house of his out of 50 men and 45 women, 34 men and 42 in-laws and brings back the bride on an women are married. This shows that mar­ auspicious day. riages are generally cohtracted at the age There is no convention prevailing in the above 15 years. In age-group 35 to 59 village to obtain permission of the boy or years, no one is un-married. Similarly no the girl for marriage. There are only a few one is un-married in the age-group of 60 cases of marriages within the village, other- years and over. Age-Groups (Years) Total Population Never Married Married Widowed Unspecified statuB ..A...... , r-..A.--; ,..-..A.-----, ~ ,-----"-__...... , P 11'1 F M 1)' M F M F M P 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 10 l:a 1.2

.A.1l"S" SOl 14'7 154 74 70 69 71 3_ 13 1 o to l' 131 59 "12 59 69 3 .,,- III to S' ,95 50 45 15 1 34 42 .. !I 1 311 to 1111 52 26 26 25 22 1 4 ·60 an<1 0.,. 23 12 11 10 4 2 7 L/B(N)6SCOHP-5(a) 20

Death Ceremony-When a person is in his Acharaj' of the villagers of Bir resides al-. death-bed, he is made to give away in MandL He is caned for when necessity charity, a cow or some cash symbolit;;ing arises. The shroud is torn near the mouth the price of a cow, grains, clothes, of the dead body and panjratni and ghee utensils and some cash. This is not true are poured into it. The nearest kinsmen for Chamars. However, every Rajput generally the eldest son lits the fire near follows it. The quantity depends on the head of the body and subsequently on one's economic position. Ganges water, gold, all sides. 'Thus the pyre is oompletely lit. munga, etc., and panjratan are placed in his After the head of the dead body is burnt~ mouth before he dies. It is in-auspicious if the mourners throw pieces of sandal wood one dies while lying on the cot. To avoid it, on the pyre and pay their last homage to the dying person is removed from the room deceased. Thereafter, they go to their res-· and laid on the floor of the verandah. This pective homes where they take bath and' is known as 'Barah-jo-kadhana'. The floor is change their clothes. first plastered with cow~dung and til, drubh and kungu are sprinkled on it. Bed consists of blankets only. These can be On the third day, the kinsmen of the de­ washed and used agrain. The dying ceased accompanied by the Acharaj go to man is laid on the pattu with his the Shamshan-ghat, wash the ashes with head towards the north. The 'Diva Mansana' water and pick up all the bones. The bigger ceremony also takes place before the death. bones are called 'Chhais' and are thrown Earthen, or wheat-flour lamps are· give:r;t in into the water. This ceremony is called 'Chhai dhona'. The smaller oanes are called alms, and one is kept burning da~ and. mg?t 'Astu' or 'Phul'. These are washed with for ten days. While the corpse IS lymg In -_the house, the ladies related to the deceased, Ganges water and put in a silk bag and put on white dhoties and collect round the thrown into the Ganges at Hardwar before .dead body and weep loudly. While doing Dasand, i.e. tenth day after the death. ThOSE: so they relate the qualities of the deceased. who can afford to go to Hardwar, taRe- This is called 'Chhuna'. The corpse is bathed I 'Astus' with them, otherwise, these are kept and is made to wear new clothes. It preserved until the household nnds some· one going to Hardwar. In such case, the· is cremated as soon as possible if it be restriction of sending them to Hardwar that of a person more than 28. m~nths within ten days is not observed. Pinds are old. Below this age, the dead body IS. eIther daily offered till the dasand, one pind on buried or sunk by .adding some weIght to the first day, two on the second day and so. the Ibody, in river Beas. Af~er tl:e corpse on. On the tenth day, ten pinds are offered is bathed, it is placed on ~ bIer. It IS, cove:ed and all the relatives wash their clothes anci with a Doshala or Chaddar. The first pmd utensils and sprinkle Ganges water and is placed on the deceased's breast. The Gunter (cow's urine) in the house. The· bier is then lifted on shoulders of four ·near Kirya ceremony takes place op the thir­ kinsmen who wear dhoties and go bare­ teenth 'day after the death. Till this day,. footed. ' While carrying the body, it~ fe~t the kinsmen of the deceased take one meal should point outwards. -A sec?nd pmd IS a day. They are forbidden the use of heeng .. offered as the body' reaches mId-way bet­ On the Kirya day, full clothes, a cot and ween the house and the Shamshan ghat. For utensils are given to the Acharaj. This cere­ Bir this place is near about the place where mony is known as 'Dhini'. 360 pinds are· on~ has to cross the Nala of Garud. The offered on this day for the whole of the third pind is offered at the Shamshan-ghat. year. The near relatives of the deceased also bring some chabina and give it to the· When an old man dies, a pice, da_ru, members of the bereaved family, after this akhrot, grain etc, are thrown over the ble~. day they begin to take two meals a day. This ceremony is known as 'Phasa~a satna. The Heeng ceremony takes place on the The mourners carry wood alongwlth them seventeenth day. On this day, there is a' to the Shamshan-ghat. The pyre should be feast and the mourning is over. arranged north to south. When the pyre has been constructed, the .Shawl is removed. It becomes the property of Raur who leads On the first, second and death-ann4ver-· the procession and play. up?n the con.ch saries, 'Dhins' are given to the Acharaj. shell (Sankh). The AcharaJ also acco_~pall1e~ These anniversaries are called 'PahH barski',. the procession. He chants ver.~~ 'RaIn: nam 'Duji Barski' and 'Tiji Barski' respectively. sat hai', 'Hari-ka-nam sat hal . ~e IS the The fourth anniversary is known as 'Chau­ barkha'. Dhins is given to the Acharaj, full:. man who performs, the death rites. The 21 suit of clotheS! are given to a purohit and are burnt with him. If a man falls from a his wife and feast is held. After the Chau­ tree and dies, or if a man dies before the barkha, Snaradha is pel'formed annually. pre-death ceremonies have been performed, the deceased is called a 'Pret' and it is A few superstitions are linked with death. believed that he remains a 'Pret' until cer­ Every month has five days of Panchaks. In tain rites are performed at Kurukshetar, and case, a person dies in the Panchaks, it is Hardwar. In case, the household cannot believed that five persons will die in the afford to send some one to Hardwar, a near future from the same house and to human image is made and a diva lit before avoid it, five images made 'of barley-flour it. III Economy

Economic resources one carpenter and two Hesis who earn their livelihood by playing on Shehnai from house Agriculture IS the pivot ar01,md which the to house. A few youngsters are receiving .economy of the villagers revolves. About 92 training in sericulture at Mandi. per cent of households possess land and culti­ vate it. Other factors like manual labour. The women folk attend to agriculture, do village industry which mainly consists of spinning work and make mats, beside doing shoe making gorvernment and private ser­ other odd jobs in the household. The table vice, fire-wood selling and ghee selling and gives the statistical data about the workers ..hop-keeping supplement it. Then there is and non-workers in the village.

Total Population Workers Non-Workers .Age Group r- ...... A.. P M F P M F P M F All ages 301 147 154 132 82 50 169 65 104 {l-14 131 59 72 -- ., 131 59 72 15-34 96 50 46 77 45 32 19 3 14 35--59 52 26 26 44 26 18 8 .. 8 <60 and over 22 12 10 11 11 11 1 10

The total population of the village is 301 are workers, and 169 persons, 65 males and persons 147 males and 154 females. Out of 104 females are non-workers. The percentage them 132 persons, 82 males and 5"0 females of workers comes out to about 44 percent. I The break-up of the population according to the occupations is:-

Occupational Occupation 2 Occupation 3 Age Group Agriculture SerVice Service and Agriculture ,.------.__ .A.. ___ --, r---'----_A..------, .A..-- .., P M F P M F P M F

All ages 85 37 48 6 6 3 3 '()-14 .. .. 15-34 54 23 31 5 S 2 2 :35--59 23 5 18 1 1 1 1 60 and over 9 9

Occupation 4 Occupation 5 Occupation 6 Agriculture and Labour Agriculture and Shop Musician Age Group r-----~'~----, r-----~~----...... -'------. P M F P M F p M Ii'

All ages 13 12 1 1 3 3 0-14 . .. 15-34 7 7 1 1 35-59 5 4- 1 1 1 2 2 ~O and ovor 4 4

Occupation 7 Occupation 8 Occupation 9 Occupa.tion 10 Age ('roup Agriculture and Agriculture and Labour Carpentry Shoemaking r------.~-----.., .--~----, P M F P :M F P M F P 'M .,.

-'11 ages 2 2 9 9 4 3 1 6 II 0--14. - .-.- - 15--34, .. 6 6 2 1 1 3 3 ~5--59 1 3 3 1 1 3 :11 60 and over

22 23

The percentage of workers in age group The household own 1 acre land and have 0-14 is nil. This age-gmup includes infants leased in 5 acres. The cattle wealth of the who cannot do any work. The other reason household consi~ts of bullocks 2, cows 2, for non-workers in this group is that this bufalloes 2, she oalveS! 2 and he-calf 1, goats. group also includes school going children. and sheep 14. Thos'e who do not go to school tend to the grazing of cattles. Sobha, the head of the household is an old man of 80 years, but he still continues to The percentage of workers in age-group work in his fields. Two of the three sons of 15 to 34 years comes to about 80. In age-group Sobha are employed as peons at MandL Rat­ 35 to 59 years, it comes to about 85 whereas tan Singh, the third son of Sobha, knoWs. in age-group 60 and over the percentage is carpentry. According to the statement given about 50 peT cent. The ratio between men and by Sobha, the annual produce which they get women workers works! out to 41 to 25 against from the land is:- the ratio of their population of 21 to 22. Women assist their men in every agricultu­ Paddy 13 maunds ral operations except ploughing. They attend Maize 10 maunds to their usual house-hold duties, make khajra mats, knit pull-overs. It has been seen that Wheat 9 maunds thE' women of Chamars also sell fire wood in Mash 1/2 ma1..l,nd the town, though they do not come out with Koda 6 maunds this information. Chamar women also assist their men in making shoes. They do embroi­ Apart from this produce, the household dry work of tila on the upper part of the has an annual income of about Rs. 2J200. shoes. The house hold paysl Rs. 2 as land revenue. Apart from -this they have to pay Us. 15 The male workers with service as their and l~ maunds of grains for the land they profession are employed in Government Offi­ have leased in. Two sons of Devya, Tek ces. Most of them return to the village at Chand and Roshan are studying in 4th and night. They help the other members of the 2nd class in the local school. On education. household in agricultural work, whenever they spend little. Sobha informed that the they get time. No one in the village has produce which they get from the land is not come out with the information that they sell sufficient and they have to spend most of ghee, but it is gathered by the Investigator their income on the purchase of food-grains. that there are a couple of households which do once a while. It is not their full time oc~ The hOUSEhold has to pay Rs. 600 as debt cupation. To have a fair knowledge of the Which was incurred by them on account of village economy, it would be interesting to marriage of a daughter of Sobha. The source discuss the economic - conditions of a few from which loan was obtained has not been households. Five households including 2 of disclosed, but the interest is being paid at Rajputs, 2 of Chamars and 1 of a Hesi have the rate of 20 per cent per annum. been selected for the purpose. Now, it will be_ worthwhile to discuss a Let us take up a Rajp-ut household. The Chamar household. There is one Chuhrya. House No. is 11 and the head of the house­ No. of his house is 57. His family compositinn hold is Sobha. It is a joint family and the is:- composition of the family is:- S1. Name Relation to the Sex Age in Sl. Name Relation to Age in No. Head of M/F complete No. the Head of Sex complete Household Years the Household MjF Years (last "' (last birthda.y) -----,...___:birthday) 1 Sohha .. Self l\{ sO 2 Devyl\ Son M 36 1 Ohuhrya .. .. Self M 32 3 Rattan Son M 23 2 DilaRam Brother M 24 4 Sher Singh Son .M 21 :3 Shukri .. Wife F 27 5 Bhikhamu Wife F 74 4 Surtu .. ., Brother's wife F 23 1} 6 Damodri Son's wife F 29 5 Ram Dass .. Son M 7 Jai Vandi Son's wife F 19 6 Balu .. Son M 5 8 Tek Chand Son's son M 9 7 Durga .. .. _~n M 1 9 Roahan ., Son's aon M 7 8 Hari Singh ., Bro"th~f!... !lOn M 5 10 Govind ., Son's BOn M 3 9 Santra Brother's 11 Krishna .. .. Son's daughter F 5 daughter F 1 12 Khemi . , Son's daughter F 0 10 Ohuhi .. Mother F 60 24

The household possesses only one acre of does not possess any land, and the live-stock land and the live-stock with the household with them is as under:- is:- Cows 2 Bulls 2 He calves 2 Cows 2 The head of the household is neither em­ He-Calf 1 ployed anywhere nor does any manual She-calf 1 labour. So the question arises as to how he earns his livelihood. He has large family to Chuhrya, the head of the household is en­ support. One of his daughter Dhani and two gaged in agriculture and his traditional vil­ of his sons, Amru and Brestu are studying lage industry is sho'e making. His brother in the Jocal school in 2nd, 2nd and 1st Class Dila Ram is employed in Military_and stays respectively. Naturally, it must be quite a away from the village. Chuhrya is assisted handsome of amount which is required to by the women folk tn his agricultural ope­ fulfill his day to day needs. To achieve his rations. Though the head of the household ends what he does is that he has a round of does not indicate that the women folk ad' his villages with his Shehnai, visits some of the household carry loads of fire wood to Mandi houses, play upon his instruments and col­ town for sale, but it appears to be true. The lects grains which must be sufficient for the household owns one acre of land and pay daily consumption of his family, and td meet Rs. 1.87 as land revenue. According to state­ the other miscellaneous expe.nditure of ments made by Chuhrya, the annual pro­ the household. The household has not to pay duce of their land is:- any debt. Maize 4 maunds Now let us take another household of Raj­ puts. The head of the household is Jethu. Wheat 2 maunds The house number is 72. The family composi­ tion is ~s under:- Paddy 1 maund The annual income excluding the produce Sl. Name Relation to Sex Age in No. theHead of M/F complete i'rom the land has been stated about the House. Years (last Rs. 1.500. This income includes the money hold birthday) 'Sent by Dila Ram his brother. Like Sobha, the land with the household is not sufficient. 1 Jethu .. Self M 65 2 Bhagat .. .. Son M 27 'The most of money is therefore, spent on 3 Hirda .. Son M 26 foodgrains. Only one male child, Ram Dass, 4 Karam Singh .. Son M 17 'One of three sons of Chuhrya, is srtudying in 5 Kadshi .. .. Wife F 55 '2nd class in the local primary school. The 6 Budhi .. Daughter F 13 7 Kagdu .. .. Son's wife F 26 household declares itself sufficient ana has 8 Narbada .. Son's not to pay any debts. daughter F 5 9 Bimla .. Son's Now let us discuss a 'Hesi' household. daughter F 2 There is one Mastu. He is head of the, house­ 10 Darumti .. .. Son's wife F 23 11 "Ruko Son's hold. His family composlition is as under:- daughter F 4 12 DaJipa .• ., Son's son M 0 13 Manohali Son's wife F 16 Name Relation to 14 Kashalya Son"s 81. Sex Age in daughter F 0 No. the Head of MfF complete. the House. Years (last hold birthday) The household possesses about 5 acres as their own land and 4/5 acres of land leased 1 Mastu .. Self M 40 in. The live-stock with the household is as 2 Kolda .. Wife F 31 under:- 3 Kamala ., .. Daughter F 13 4 Dhaui .. Daughter F 11 Buffaloes 2 5 Amru Son M 10 She-caJv~s of buffalo 2 6 Brestu .. .. Son M 8 7 Soma .. Daughter F 2 Cows 4 8 Mmti .. Son M 4 4 9 Bhau .. Son ~- 0 Bulls He-calves 2 The number of house of which Mastu is the Sheep 5 'head of house~hold is 83. The household Goats 20 25

Jethu the head of the household and his The household possesses 4 acres of their youngest son Karam Singh are wholly em­ own land Cl4Ud live-stock with them iSI as ployed in their agricultural operations. under:- Bhagat, the eldest son is employed as a man­ Bulls 4 ual labourer and Hirda is a peon at Mandi. The approximate annual produce which they Cow 1 _get from their land is:- Buff~o 1 Koda 10 maunds Sidhu, the head of the household is em­ Maiz'e 26 maunds ployed for the whole time, in his agricultu­ Mash 1 maunds ral operations. His wife Khanu do a little bit of labour and earns money. Haru, the .eldest Paddy 22 maunds son is insane. Second son, Lalman is the Wheat 21 maunds only Matriculate in the village. He is em­ The hous.ehO'ld pay land revenue of ployed in Military. Kahan, the brother of Rs. 16, Extra income from the service and Sidhu is employed outside the Mandi district labour has stated about Rs. 1,100 peT an­ in private service. Kunan, the youngest son num. of Siqhu is receiving education in the village. No one, from the household is receiving Siaglu where there exists a middle school. He is in eighth class. The annual produce education. The household has to pay Rs. 1,100 which the household get from the land is:- as debt which they incurred for the marria­ ges in the family and treatment. Koda 3 maunds To have a better idea about the village eco­ Maize 9 maunds nomy, let us take household No. 23, one Mash 1 maund mOfe household of ChamarSi. The head of the­ Paddy 17 maunds household is Sidhu. ,The family composition of Sidhu is as under:- Wheat 7 maunds The othe'r income: of the household Relation to Age in amounts to about Rs. 2,000 per annum. SI. Name the Head of complete No. 'the House. Sex Years (last The household pays land revenue of about hold M/F birthday) Rs. 12. Most of the expenditure incurred by the household is on the purchase of food­ 1 Sidhu Self 1\1 53 grains. They have to pay debt of Rs. 800 2 Khanu Wife F 51 3 Haru - Son M 27 which was incurred on account of marriages 4 LfI.Imau Son M 23 of the sons of Sidhu, over the treatment of 5 Kahan Brother M 35 Haru for his insanity and to purchase of 6 Kunan Son M 16 land. 7 Gyahri Son's wife F 25 8 Homa Son's Non Workers daughter F 0 9 Sukri Son's wife F 21 Workers engaged in various activities 10 Shankru .• Mother F 90 have fully been discussed. N owewe may dis­ 11 Mathru .. Brother's wife F 15 cuss th~ non-workers.""The table gives details about them.

Dependents, infants Persons enaaged in Full time students and children not Age Group Total non.workers household uties or children attending school and attending school persons permanently disabled --, '----, ,----A------., P M F M F M F M F

All ages 169 65 104 30 28 7 37 67 0--14 131 59 72 ..25 7 34 66 15-34- 19 5 14 14 3 2 36-59 8 8 8

60 and over • 11 1 10 8 1 ~

LjB(N}6SCOHP-6 26

Out of the total population of 301 persons comes within the income-group of Rs. 26 169 are non-workers. Out of these 169 non­ to Rs. 50 per month. Four households of workers 65 are males and 1(J4 females. Rajputs, having their source of income from Tweny five boys and 7 girls in the age-group agriculture, agriculture and labour service 0-14 are full time students. Similarly, in and agriculture fall within the income group age-group 15-34 years, 3 boys are students. 0.£ Rs. 51 to Rs. 75 per month. Among In all, there are 34 students belonging to the Chamars 2 households engaged in village. Persons. engaged in household duties agriculture and labour, 1 engaged in agricul­ only, are 14 women in age-group 15-34 ture labour and service fall in the income­ years, 8 in age-group 35 to 59 years, and 8 in group of Rs. 51 to Rs. 75 per month. age-group 60 years anti over. Persons falling Both the households of Hesi also have their in the category of 'dependents, infants a,nd monthly income falling in this group. In in­ children not attending the school' and per­ come group Rs. 76 to Rs. 100 per month sons permanently disabled, are 34 males and there is. one hoqsehold of Rajputs having its 65 females in age-group 0-14 years 2 men in !;Duree of income from service only. The the age-group 15-34 ye1ars and 1 man and 2 Chamars have their two households, one en­ women in age-group of 60 years and over. gaged in agriculture and labour and the other labour and service in this income Income group. Out of 36 households 23 fall in income group of Rs. 101 and over per month. These The villagers are reluctant to come out include 14 households of Rajputs and 9 with the information regarding their in­ households of Chamars. The source of in­ eomes and the figures quoted in the table come of these households includes agricul­ may be takeh to give a very rough idea. ture, service, l

Househ01d.s in the range of --.,. llain Subsidiary Source of Income Below Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.50 51-75 76·100 101 and above

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 RA-?pUT Agoioulture _o\grioulture 1 Servioe • Service Agrioulture . -Carpenter service and labour Agriculture, carpenter .. 1 Agriculture Shopkeeper Agriculture, shopkeeper 1 Agriculture Labourer Agriculture, labourer 2 Agriculture Se1'vice . Agriculture, serVice :l Agriculture Labourer and service Agriculture, labourer 4 Service Agrioulture and labourer Scrvice, agriculture Z Service Agriculture SerVice and agriculture CHMIAR Agriculture Labourer Agriculture, labourer 2 Agriculture Labourer and service Agriculture, labourer 4, Labourer Service. Labourer and serVice 1 Labourer Cobbler and service' Labourer and cobbler Agrioulture Service and carpentry Agriculture, service Agriculture Cobbler Agriculture, cobble1, service and ~ labourer. Agriculture Cobbler Agriculture, cobbler and service -1 -. RESI Musician --Musician 2 27

Expenditure dard is concerned, it costs very little. The The average monthly expenditure per expenditure as returned in the table depictsl household represents amount spent by the nominal school fees, books and stationery. household on main items like food, clothing, No one from the village is studying in the education and other items. The 'other items', college. mclude expenditure on travelling, religious <:eremonies, recreations, amusements, light­ The villagers try to adjust their expendi­ ing, fuel, medical aid and agricultural opera­ ture within their income, but still the bor­ tions. The table would show that the main rowing cannot be dispensed with in a society. item of expenditure is on the food articles Except for a few, the day to day expendi­ which gradually increase with the economi­ .ture of all the households is met from their cal condition of the household. Though the income. At times they-have to borrow on ac­ villagers posse.ss land, but i.t is no~ suffi~.ient count of IIfarriages, repairs ana construction to meet out their demand of foodgrains for of houses and treatment of patients suffering the whole of the year. There may be a few from prolonged disease. If the present times -exceptions, but most of the huoseholds have are able to influence them .to cut short their to purchase extra grains. The expenditure marriage and death expenditure, it would on education is little, because so far as the help in establishing their economy on a bet­ -education upto the primary or middle stan- ter footing. Average Monthly Expend{ture by Income Groups

Below Rs. 50 ;Ets.51-75 Re.76-100 Rs. 101 and over Items '1:>£ Expenditure . r----A-----. =------"-----'-, No. of Average No. of Average '"'No.of Average No. of Average House- Expen- House- Expen- House- Expen- House. Expen:- holds diture holds diture holds diture holds diture

1 2 - 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 RAJPUT Food . 1 29·40 4 40·99 1 41·66 14 112·60 Clothing 1 4·16 4 10·41 1 12'50 14 20·83 Educaticlfl 2 '66 9 1·99 Others 1 2·16 4 5·58 1 14'75 14 25·44 CH.A:MAR Food • 3 41·06 2 41·66 9 96·10 Clothing 3 12·58 2 16·46 9 17·83 Education 1 '41 2 ·16 ~ 2·41 Others 3 6'75 2 20'16 9 -24'52 HESI Food . 2 43·33 -Clothing 2 4·33 Education 1 1·25 -others 2 1'91 lndebtedness The table shows that the villagers are not Out of 36 households in the village 12 are in the habit of -taking loan un-necessarily, under debt. The table gives the details of in­ The majority of the households had to bor­

Number of Households and extent of land r------~------,------,------___ ,~ Community Nature ofintereet No 5 5--10 10--20 21--50 51 1 to 2'5 to 5 to 10 on land land cents cents cents cents cents 2 ,4 4,9 10 acres &, and to 1 acres acres acres above below aere

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Ra.iput I, Land owned 1 s 10 2, Land held d'rect from Government under less substan­ tial than owner­ ship.

3. Land held from 0,0 private persons or institutioDs. 4. Land given out to private persons or institutions. Chaomar 1. Land owned 1 2 8 1 2 2. Land held .direct from government under less substan· , iarthan ownership. 3. Land held from private persons or institutions. 4. Land given out to private persons or institutions. Hesi 1. Land owned 2 2. Land held direct from government under less substan. tial than ownership 3. Land held from privat.. persons or institutions. 4. Land given out to private persons or institution.

Total 3 2 2 8 9 12 -----~------Figures in the above table would show households possess 2.5 to 4.9 acres and 12 that out of 36 households in the village only households possess 5 to 10 acres of lar:.d. 3 households including one of a Rajput and There is not a single household which pos­ two of Resis, do nO,t possess any land. Among sess more than 10 acres of land, Again, the the rest 33 households, 2 households possess break-up of the households engaged in culti­ land 21 to 50 centsf 2 households 51 cents to 1 vation, indus-try or business belonging to the acre, 8 .households possess ;t to 2.4 acres, 9 household is as under:-- Households Total Hou~eholds Households Households engaged in Households Household­ Hou~('hold" number of engaged in engaged in engaged in cultivation engaged in engaged in engaged in households cultivation industry business industry & cultivation & cultivation & indu'trY"lId only only only business industry businese businees _ 3 1 2 4 5 6 7 s 36 22 5 1 29

The above table gives description only in Before we discuss over the matter further, respect of 28 households. Remaining 8 house­ the land utilization statement supplied by holds are en.gaged in .music (all HeSii are' en­ the Patwari of the village is reproduced gaged in this trade), service and agriculture below. This information has been procured and labour and agriculture. for the last nine years. LAND UTILIZATION STATEMENT

Th~ figures are in acreM.~

Sall Kul Jungal Bania,. Arazi Baniar Chiralld J.a.nd Current Other Nett Total Area (Year) Bhu· (Forest) & gail' brai kabal mustkil under fallow fallow area crop. sown gaulic mumkin agraj kasht digar Misc. land lap.d sown ped more Ka·hetra- (Barren Zeraiti (culti. (Per. trees area than phal & Un. (land vable manent crop' once (Total culti. put to waste pasu~re and geo· vab"') Non. land) grazmg groveR gra. agricul. 19,nd) not phic area) tura use) included

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

1952.53 185 4 32 136 206 70 (Gail'. (Un. (Un. (Un. Mumkin) (Khandi. irri- irri .. irri_ ater. gated gated gated ~tony land) land) land) land) 1~:53-54 185 12 32 138 218 8() (B) (S.L.) (U.I.) (U.I.) (U.I.) 4(G.M.) 1954.55 188 .. 4(G.M.) 33(S.L.) 139 198 5~ 12 (b) (U.I.) (U.I.) (U.I.) 1955.56 188 .. 4(G.M.) .. 33(S.L.) 139 223 8<1- 12(B) (V.I.) (V.I.) (V.I.) 1956·57 188 .. 4(G.M.) .. 33(S.L.) 139 245 106 12(B) (V.I.) (V.I.) (v.I.i 1957-58 -188 .. 4(G.M.) 33(S.L.) 141 244 103 12(B) (V.I.) (V.I.) (V.I.) 1958.59 195 4(G.M.) 1 33(S.L.) 5 138 215 76 14(B) (V.I.) (V.I.) (V.I.) 1959.60 197 4(G.M.) 1 33(S.L.) 2 143 206 63 l4(B) (V.I.) (V.I.) (V.I.) 1960·61 197 4(G.M.) 1 33(S.L.) 144 229 81i I4(B) (V.I.) (V.I.) (U.I.) The above abbreviations are explained as under· :- (G.M.) Gair Mumkin (Vncultivable) (B) Beed (Tcrrace) (S.L.) Stony Land (U.I.)-Non.irrignted.

The table indicates that the area of the 1960-61 it remained the same. This increase in village in the years 1952-53 and 1953-54 was the area of the village has also been attri~ 185 acres. The village did not and does not buted to the minor adjustments in revenue include any forest. The net area sown w::-:s records. Net area sown during these years 136 and 138 acres. During the years was 138, 143 and 144 acres. The total erop­ 1954-55, 1955-56, 1956-57 and 1957-58 the ped area was 215, 206 and 229 acres. There is area of the village increased to 188 c.cres r. 0 permanent pasture-land in the village and from 185 acres during the previous years. Khandiater (land full of stones and peb­ This was due to certain changes in the reve ... bles) of 33 acres. Before the year 1954-55 nue record. There was also increase in net this type of land consisted of 32 acres. For area sown. It being 139, 139, 139 and 141 the variation in the net area sown and total acres. The total cropped area also found an cropped area during one particular year to increase. It being 198, 223, 245 and 244 the ar:other, no specific reason is assigned by' acres. From 188 acres in 1957-58 the area of the VIllagers or the Patwari. The latest area village increased to 195 acres in 1958-59 and figure of the land under cultivation in the to 197 acres in the year 1959-60. In the year village is 144 acres. The total number of the households- in the village being 36, the In viHage Bir, both crops, Kharif and Rabi average land holding of the country being are harves,ted. The Kharif crops are paddy, 7.5 acres and that of the adjoining States of­ maize, kodra, mash and kolath and those Punjab, U.P. being 12 and 2.5 acres res­ harvested in Rabi are wheat, barley and pectively, according to the land holding tobacco. To have a full view of these crops, Census conduded in 1956 by the Govern­ the Jinaswar statement supplied by the ment of India. Patwari is reproduced as under:-

RABI CROP

Year Nat.ure Crop' harvested Total Area of of land ,- '- rrop crop failed Wheat(W) Barley.(B) Tobacco (T) Onion (0) ha.rvested

2 3 4, 5 6 7 8

1953 N.r. 43/28 43 28 1954 N.r. 79 3 1 83 1955 N.r. 61 2 1 64 1.956 N.r. 83 5 88 ]957 N.!. 85 1 86 1958 N.!. 104 2 106 1959 N.I. 75 3 78 1960 N.r. 60 1 2 ·62 1961 N.r. 84 1 85

Year Total Deduct Balance correct Total assessment Incident of Keftya'tt babat aam area sown area that has area in which of harvest assessment on mall fasal aur khasu been sown more crops were sown area of crops waje indraj kharaba than onoe harvested

9 10 11 12 13 14 Rs. Rs. Rs. 1953 71 71 84 1·18 WO'50 1954 83 83. 85 1·05 WO'81 BO'81 TO'87 1955 64 64 85 1·33 WO'87 BO'87 TO'87 1956 88 88 85 0·95 WO'81 BO'81 1957 86 86 85 0'98 W9·95 Bl'OO 1958 106 106 85 0·80 WO'87 BO'87 1959 78 78 86 1·10 WO·S7 BO'87 1960 62 62 86 1·39 WO'87 BO'87 TO'S7 1961 85 0; 85 1·07 WO·81 00·'8

NOTEs-I. 'W' stands for wheat. 2. 'B' stands for barley. 3. 'T' st,!l.nds fo']: tobacco. 4. '0' st'ands for onion. 5. 'N.I.' atlJ,nds for Non-irrigated. 6. The above areas are in a~;;:--- 31

KHARIF CROP

Year Nature Crops harvested Total Area. ofland oJ crop of Paddy Maize Koda Mash Kolath Kachalu... harvested crop fa.iled 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1952 N.!. 50 23 58 3 1 135 1953 N.r. 65 21 44 4 1 135 1954 N.r. 51 20 56 6 1 134 1955 N.r. 55 29 40 11 135' 1956 B.r. 51 48 38 12 159 1957 N.r. 41 41 50 6 138 1958 N.r. 44 40 53 137 1959 N.r. 38 4!J. 63 144- 1960 N.r. 50 43 50 1 144 1961 N.I. 50 38 46 144

Year Total Deduct -Balance Total Tnsident Kefiyatt babat aam haal fa·qal aUf area. area. correct assessment of assess· khasuB waje ina.raj kharaba sown that has been area in of ment on sown more whioh orops harvest area of crope than once were sown • harve~ted 1 11 12 13 14 15 16 Ra. 1952 135 315 169 1'25 P Mz Kd 0·81 0·81 0·75 Ms Kt 0·75 0·75 1953 135 315 169 1·25 P Mz Kd 0'87 0'81 0·87 Ms Kt. 0·75 0·75 1954 . 134 134 171 1·28 P Mz Kd 0'87 0·94 ./ Ms ~ Kt 0·75 0·75 1955 135 135 171 ] . 27 -P Mz Kd 0·94 0'94 0·94 Me 0·81 1956 159 159 17l 1·07 P Mz Kd 0·9 0.\)4 0·94 J\Is 0:87' 1957 138 138 171 1.23 P Mz Kd 0'88 0·88 0·88 :!\{~ 0'88 1958 137 137 173 1'26 P Mz Kd 0·88 0'88 0·88 1959 144 144, 180 1'25 P ]\Iz Kd 0'87 0'87 0·8.7 1960 144 144 183 1'25 P Mz Kd 0'87 0'87 0·87 1961 144 144 183 r'25 P Mz Kd 0'S7- 0'87 0·87 NOl:ES :- 1. 'P' stands for paddy, 'Mz' for maize, 'Kd' for koda, 'Ms' for ma,h, 'Kt· for kolath and 'KI' for kachalu. 2. The above areas are in acres. 3. Figures in oolumns 15 and 16 indicate rupoes. 32

The Habi crops produced in the village' April-Chiatra/Vaisakha Harvesting of barley. The field are wheat, barley, tobacco ar.d onions. The for maize are manured, ploughed for the third time and levelled. area under cultivation for barley, tobacco Preparation of soil for paddyl. and onions had been negligible. From 1953 May-Vaisakha/.Jy",istha Threshing and winnowing of onwards, onion was cultivated only in one barley. Harvesting of wheat. acre during the year 1961. Tobacco was Threshing and winnowing of cultivated during the years 1954, 1955 and wheat. Preparing fields for Koda. Sowing of Koda. Pre­ 1960. The area under cultivation was one paring of soil for maize. Sowing acre each year. Similarly, acreage under of maize. Harrowing and level­ barley cultivation was 3, 2, 5, 1, 3 r,nd 1 ling of paddy fields. during the years, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1958, JUne--Jyaistha/Asadha Winnowing of wheat.. Light 1959 and 1960 respectively. Keeping these harrowing with donalth of Koda fields. Light harrowing figures in view it can safely be said that the of paddy fields. main Rab'i crop of the village BiT is wheat July-Asadha/Shravana Harrowihg of Koda fields for only. It also becomes clear that the:-e .the thircl and. fourth time with has been no particulal change m donalth. Sowing of mash and the cropping pattern in Rabi crops kolath. Harrowing of maize fields. Hoeing and weeding of since 1953 except in the year 1961 paddy fields .. when a new crop of onion was added. AUjiust-Shravana/Bhadra Hoeing a.nd 'weedlhg of Koda The variation in the total area under culti~ fields. Hoeing and weeding of vation was also negligible except for the maize. Hon'owing and levelling year 1958 when it touched the highest of paddy fields. acreage of 106 as compared to 86 in 1957 and September-Bhadra/ Cleaning of fields for wheat an,d 88 in 1956. 'The Patwari of the village and AshviDa barle.lC- Hoeing of mash and kolath. Ripenmg of ma.ize crop. Weeding the villagers when asked for the rea~ons of in paddy fields. Harvesting of this increase in area, could not explam any~ maize. thing about it. However, this aCireage de..., Ootober-Ashvina/ First ploughing of barley and crea'sed subsequently to 78 in the fol~wing Kartika WIleat fields. Prepa.ration of soil year 1959 and to 62 in the year 1960. In the for sowmgwheat and barley. Har­ vesting of Koda crop. Threshing year'1953 the total area sown for Rabi crops of maize. Harvesting of paddy. was 71 c~res, but the area which pr?duc~d November-Kartika! Threshing of paddy, manuring of crop was 43 acres only. The crop faIled m Margashirsha wheat and barley fields. Plougb_ the remaining area of 28 acres. The cause ing for the second time and for this failure is attributed to the less an?­ levelling of wheat and barley fields. Sowing of wheat and untimely rains. The ent.ire lan~ ,:-nder CUltI­ barley. vation in the village, 1S non-ungated. ~he December-MargashirshaJ Weeding of barley and wheat agriculturists depend totally upon the rams. Pausa fields. Threshing of grains from The statement shows that from 1953 onwards the maize cobs. it was only once in the year 1953 when the RAE! CRops-Barley-Hordaum Vulgare-It rains failed. is a minor crop. From the Jinswar statement, The Kharif crops produced in the village, it is clear that the land under barley culti­ -are p addy , maize , koda , mash, kolath and vation varied from 1 to 3 acres. The average kachalu. yield of barley in the village is 4 to 5 maunds per acre. Practices cdil:nected with agric.u~t1fre. eaten- . der of agricuttura! actwtttes The sowing and harvesting mo;nths coin­ _p safMaghB.. Preparing and manuring of p!ota .January au for tobacco. Deep ploughing, cide with ihose of wheat. There being no cleaning of soil for maize an~ facilities for irrigat'ion, the maturity of the paddy. Threshing of padd:J; If crop depends on the rains in winter. The the peasants have spare time. farming practices of barley are the same as those of wheat. .:Februa.ry-Magha/ Weeding in wheat and !>arley fields. Manuring the .kItohen Phalguna gardens for Bowing ,,:egetables. Wheat-Terticum sativum-Wheat is the Preparing fields for OnIons. Bur- ning of waste material like de~d main Rabi crop of the village. About a week roots of ·.karla and grass In after harvesting paddy in the beginning of paddy fields. October, the land is ploughed deep. Clods 'M,o.roh_Phalguna!Chaitra Hoeing of tobacco. Thinning?f are broken and the unwanted material re~ - wheat plan~ 'Wh~re gr_owth IS moved. The roots of paddy plants are left thick. Second plo~hmg for maize. Sowing of omon. Weed­ over in the fields. These serve as manure. ing of wheat. After cleaning the land, organic manure 33

In sufficient quantity is added and manure mixed thorol:lghly. In the end of May, the seed sown· by scattering it by broadcast after a shower of rams, the seed is sown by method. Then the land is ploughed and level~ broadcast method. led. In one bigha 4 to 5 pathas of seed is sown. These operations, are completed to~ Again after a shower of rains, towards the wards the end of Novemoer. middle of June, harrowing is done with the After about twenty to twenty five days, help of donalth. The weeds are also re­ wheat seeds start germinating. No hoeing is moved. Hoeing and weeding with khilni is done in the village for wheat, but the weeds !:l.gain done in the end of June. This is follow­ are removed in March. The plant is about. ed by light ploughing in the end of July. In six inches high in December and these are August, weeds are again removed and hoeing thinned where the growth is dense. done with khllni. The crop ripens in September and is har­ By the end of A1Jril, the crop ripes and vested in the end of the month. The villagers the harvesting seaSO;Jl~ starts in May. The plants are cut with sickles, from the middle including women enter the fields and cut ·of the stem, small bundles are prepared and the fully grown maize plants, bundles are fetched to the threshing fioor. These are dried made and carried home. Here, all the mem­ for 4 to 5 days and then the threshing work bers of the household collect and remove the starts. The dried plants are spread over the cobs from the plants. The cobs are dried in floor and the cattle are made to tread over the threshing ground, courtyard of the house them. Then by winnowing the rhaft' is re­ and at any other safe and sunny ground. moved. When completely dried, the grains are sepa­ rated by beating the cobs with sticks. KHARIF CROPS Paddy-Oryza-After harvesting Koda in Koda-After harvesting wheat in May,­ OctOber the soil is kept fallow. In the month ·the soil is ploughed and cleaned of of January, the soil is ploughed deep. Peb­ unwanted material like pebbles, stones, bles and weeds are removed. The women weeds and dead roots. Levelling is done folk clean the hedges. Dry roots of Kada with Sohaga. The seed is sown by broadcast. grass and other plants are collected in the ing method in the end of May. After sowing nerds and burnt. The ash is spread over and the soil is again ploughed and levelled. In the soil is levelled with sohaga after a week. the middle of June harrowing is done. Pebbles and other unwanted material are This operation is repeated four timeSi again removed. Then the land is kept as it is. after an interval of 15 days. At In the beginning of April after a shower of the time of fourth 'Donalth' which is rains farmers make three parties. One party 'Cja].~dl ~Chohar dena\( ,~eQs of (Mash and goes on scattering the seed by broadcasting Kolath are also SO'W1l in the space left oven method. The second party goes on ploughing in between the plants of Koda. This opera­ ,md the third party keep them busy in level­ tioIt is done towards the end of July. In the ling the land. Before these operations the middle of August, hoeing with khilni is done land is lightly ploughed and cleaned. Five and the weeds are removed. The crop ripens days after sowing harrowing with donalth in Octob_er. Only cobs are removed by- means is done and the soil levelled with sohaga of sickle, from the plants. Threshing is done After a shower of rains harrowing ~nd by beating the- cobs with sticks. Koda is le-velling is again repeated. This is :':~J>eated -said to be ever-lasting grain, and the people in the end of June and August when weeds keep it stored for many years. The average are also removed. Weeding is repeated in the yield of Koda in the village is 6 to 7 maunds beginning of September. The crop ripes in 'per acre. October, and harvested in the end of the Maize-Zea Mays-Maize is a main crop. It month. forms the staple food. Every effort is mf,lde The plants are cut from the bottom and -to have a good crop of maize. The Sloil is spread over the field. In November when ploughed deep in January. Grass and other these plants get dried after four or five plants are removed from the hedges. Then days!, bundles are made and carried· to the land is levelled. It is then kept fallow. In threshing ground. There, they are stored M arch the soil is again ploughed and levelled in heaps made in such a manner that rains. with sohaga. Organic and farm manure in may not damage the grains. In December sufficient quantity; is added in April. The soil or January, when the villagers have no is again ploughed for the third time and other work to do th~eshing is- -taken up. L/B(N)6SCOHP-7 34

The plants are spread on the ground and Implement r,tJ Cbohar 4th harrowing for K,?da. Maize Maize borer, Ble"ter, beatle Agricultural implements Paddy Rice Hi.;pa, Rice lug, Peddy binct. nice beatle The tools and equipment used by the vil­ Wheat White aut, rats V.'h~at ru

Animal Husbandry Live Stock-The table gives the position of live-stock possessed by the villagers

C0WS He·calves She·calves Goats Sheep Buffalo Bulla Poultry birds r----''----, r----''----, ,---''------, r-____..)'------, ,.---A-----, ,---..A.------, ,---.A..-, --'I.... Caste No. No. No. No. No. No. No. r- No. ----... of of of of of of of of House· Total House. Total House- Total .House, Tl?tal House. Total House· Total House Total House. Total holds No. holds No. holds No. holds No. holds No. holds No. holds No. holds No.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 ·16 17

Rajput 19 53 13 28 8 12 8 125 13 66 12 25 17 51 Chamar 12 24 4 6 2 3 1 14 2 3 5 6 13 28 3 8 Besi 1 2 1 2

Ou t of total of 36 households, 32 house­ hay and sometime oil cakes and chokar. The holds possess cows. The total number of villagers give salt to the cattle to lick. ,cows in the village is 79. Thus each house­ hold has more than two cows. Thirteen Sheep and Goats-There are 139 goats and .households of Rajputs, 4 households of 69 sheep in the village. These are purchased Chamars and one household of Hesi have from Gaddis who wander near about in 36 he-calves. Ten households possess 15 _she­ winter, for 10 to 12 rupees. Generally, these calves. 31 buffaloes are possessed by 12 are purchm::ed as kids and lambs at Rs. 1 Q households of Rajputs and 5 of Chamars. or 12 per head and are also slOld at a hand­ Thirty households have 79 bulls. Poultry some price of Rs. 40 to 50 per goat. Apart birds are possessed by Chamars only. Three from fetching money, th,e goats are good households have 8 birds. There are 139 goats source of supply of manure: The sheep arc and 69 sheep possessed by 24 households. reared for obtaining wool which the villa­ The milch cattle with the villagers gers spin and make cloth and pattoos. are thus plenty in number. The yield from these cattle is low ranging from 8 to 12 The cattle are kept in sheds during the chhataks per day. Poultry birds are not popu­ night, Thes~ sheds are a hut sort of cons­ lar in the village. This can be a good indus­ truction with thatched roofs. Some of the try if the villagers are induced to keep these sheds have bamboo walls. Every household birds. They have a ready market at Mandi possessing cattle, has a shed adjacent to the for poultry produce. main house. The villagers keep the sheds clean, but the construction of the sheds are The villagers buy their buffaloes, cows such that they are dingy dump and dark. and bulls from Bhangrotu and Suket at the The breed! of the cattle in the village is time of Nalwari fair. They also sell their the s.oune{> as in other hill viII ages. unwanted cattle to the traders who come from Rupar, Hoshiarpur and Haryana. Most­ ly these traders purchase calves and weak Household Industries bulls of hill breed at cheap price. They feed these cattle well and sell at handsome price The prominent housepold: industry in the next year. A pair of good desi bullocks may village is tanning and shoe-making. It is 'cost 300 to 500. The villlagers go in for cheap practised by 9 house~lOlds of Cham~rs. Five of them have tannmg and shoe-makmg bullocks, costing Rs. 200 to 300 a pair. as primary occupation. Apart from this, the Buffaloes-There are 31 buffaloes in the ladies of the village spin wool, make mats village. These are owned by 12 households kha!jara chatais and binas (seats) of maize of Rajputs and 5 of Chamars. All these buffa­ stalk. A couple of .boys are receiving train­ !oes are of pahari breed. The buffaloes gene­ ing in sericulture at MandL These boys are rally start yielding milk at the age of 3. to of the view that there will be no scope_ior 4 years and continue for 8 to 9 years. Dally their work in the village and they shall milk yield per buffalo is 3 to 5 seers. A prefer to be employea sOlll.e-where after the pahari buffalo cost Rs. 200 to Rs. 300. The completion of their training-:-A villager had cattle are given green leaves, grass, dried! a loom some ten years ago, but, then he I../B(N)6SCO:H.P - 7a 36

aied and the work was not attended to by Carpentry-There is only one carpenter in any body. The loom was still lying in his the. village. l\part from the wooden parts of house. agncultural lmplements the carpenter is en­ Tanning and Shoe-making-The dead gaged in the construction of houses. In Bir buffaloes are the pre-requisite of the carpenter is paid in cash and the wages vary Chamars engaged: in tanning and shoe­ from Rs. 5 to Rs. 6 per day. The tools used making. In return, the ChamaI' has to give are usual which consist of a saw, tesa, ,two pairs of desi shoes to the owner of the files, randa, barma, nihan, hammers. zam­ buffaloe. After removing the skin from' the moor, sanni, pendulum and a spirit level dead animal, it is dried thoroughly in the and ~ measuring tape or foot-measure. sun fbI" 5 to 7 days. Then it is kept immersed in water containing lim~, for 3 to 5 days. Basket-making-There is one basket. This is followed by cleaning the skin maker in village Deodha, a mile from the thoroughly. For this purpose, the skin is village. The villagers employ him when kept in running water for 8 to 10 days. It is they feel the need of baskets etc. In addi-· then again kept immersed in water contain­ tion to the meals for the full day his charges ing powdered leaves of ambIa trees. Then are:- the skin is filled with water containing bark of ban and sarna tree and kept suspended Basket-2 seers of grains for a basket for two to three days. The tanning process of capacity of 20 seers. is complete after drying the skin thorough­ Changer-8 seers of grains. ly. Jirda-2 seers per yard. Besides making ordinary desi juta, the - shoe-makers of Bir also prepare jutas hav­ Obnu-4 seers. ing beautiful tilla -embroideTY. The raw ma­ Peru-2 seers of grains for a peru of 20 terial used for making sJwes consists of lea­ seers capacity. ther, golden thread and ordinary thread. The ·tools used are:- Winnowing Fan-4 seers. 1. Mungri for beating the leather The raw material I.e. bamboo is supplied by the villagers. The technique of making all 2. Rambi for cutting the leather these articles is the same as else-where. 3. Kundi for stitching Khajra mats-A plant known as khajra is found in abundance in the forests near the 4. Laplayar for punching village. Women folk set out early in the shoe frame morning and come back near-about noon­ 5. Furma time with a heap of khajra leaves on their 5. Shil a slab of stone heaQ:. These leaves are then dried and woven with hand to make a beautiful mat. 7. Fali cutting is done on it. No instrument is used for making these mats. Some times, these leaves are dyed by 8. Jamoor for stretching the leather boiling them in water to which red or blue­ or green dye purchased from Mandi is added. 9. Sansi "for stretching the leather These d:yed leaves are used to weave various patterns. 10. Punch for slotting. Co-operative Societies and Panchayats The process of making shoes is universal and simple. For soling, thick leather is used Bahudya Sehkari Sabha Samiti, Bir-Thc and it is prepared separately first. Then the Multipurpose Co-operative Society, Bir has upper part is cut according to the required been functioning under the name and style design. Embroidery is done by the women of Bahudaya Sehkari Sabha Samiti. Bir and when the upper is ready, it is stitched since 20th November, 1955 with its office at with bottom already prepa'red. Generally Lag. This society covers all the villages payment is made in grains. For one pair of' included in the Panchayat Circle, Tarnoh. mardana (male) juta, the cobbler gets The objectives of the society are:- 6 kg. of grains alnd for a pair of Zenana (female) juta 5 Kg. of grains. Fnrr-repairs, (1) To advance loans to the members to the cobbler gets about 19 kg. of grains at the purchase land, bulls, agricultural time of harvesting. implements and seeds. 37

(2) To advance loans for the construc­ ana men of' influence to settle the dispute. tion and repairs of the houses. Each party used to have one or two spokes­ (3) To anange the purchase and sale ot men who represented the case before these household farming requirements elders. After hearing both the parties, th~ and produce of the members. decision was given and the arbitration .so appOinted was obviously dissolved. The (4) To make provisions of educational decision made by them used, however, to be assistance and recreational facilities binding on both the parties. In case a party to its members. violated the decision, the other party again (5) To fa'Cilitate the supply of controlled could approach the members of the arbitra­ articles to the members and the tion to make the decision effective. villagers. Such org'arusations .had no legal instru­ At the time of its establishment the ments to get the decisions made by them slociety had 17 members with each having effective, but the villagers explain that no one share of Rs. 10 and: Re. 1 as membership one could dare to disobey. There was always fee. Thus the society started with a capital fear of ex-communication. Chamars had no of Rs. 187. The managing committee of the, separate traditional Panchayat of their own. society comprises of a Presddent, a Vice­ They too used to approach the elderly men President, Treasurer and four members. among Rajputs, However, they had their This managing committee is called the Board own spokesmen. of Directors. They decide the policies of the .With the opening of statutory Panchayats society and the Secretary who gets an annual which have legal sanctions, these traditional honorarium of Rs. 200 maintains the recorcis. Panchayats have gone into background, The There is a part-time Chawkidar-cum-peon! ca.ses are generaUy, now referred to the who is paid Rs. 75 per year. In 1955, th~ Gram Panchayat. society had 4 members from Bir. At present the num.ber of members of the society is Gram and Nyaya Panchayats,-The Gram 56 which include 5 from Bir. These are Panchayat, Tamoh, which includes Bir Mangsaru, Narain, Devi Ram, Khanu and came into existence on the 1st Januli'J;y, 1955. Ghaula. Two of them are Chamars. No one It has its office at Lag, a hamlet of the vil­ from the ,village is a member of Board of lage. The villages which are covered by this. Directors. Panchayat Circle are:- The society can advance maXImum loan 1. Arthhi upto Rs. 500. In case the loan is less than 2. Bari Rs. 100, it i.,,> recovered in two instalments 3. Barnyari If at the time of harvesting. it exceeds 4. Bhaled Rs. 100, it is recovered in two years in four instalments. Uptil now, the Society has 5. Bibhru advanced Rs. 900 to 8 members. The society 6. Bir has received Rs. 450 as subsidy from the 7. Chamarhwan Government. Balance in hand with Society 8. Dhanyari is Rs. 85.58. 9. Dhewn The society has a mle Depot for the sale 10. Gadyara of sugar, rice and rock salt. The stock with Society is sugar worth Rs. 119, 8 bags of 11. Jalon gur worth Rs. 116 and rice worth Rs. 103. 12. Jajar The villagers do not appear to be happy 13. Jamanra with the working of the' society. They say 14 ..Tandrora that only a few are benefited and the majo­ 15. Kathayana rity of the members and the villagers in general have no say. 16. Khad Kalyana 17. Kuthar Traditional Panchayats-Trad'itional Pan­ chayats used to be a forceful organisation in 18. Kukri Khad the village before the formation of statutory 1Y. Kuttar Panchayats. Various matters arising out of 20. Laswai Khad cattle tres-pass, field demarcations, family 21. Ropri quarrels and other minor disputes used to 2~. Sadoh be decided in such Panohayats. These t!sed to be, temporary members, and appointed to 2;j. Sakarwahn decide a paTticular dispute. The parties 24. Tarnoh under dispute approached the village elders 25. Thafa'. 38

The total members of the Panchayat are 11. )'Taintenance of all such roads, 'kater 21 which includes Pradhan and Up-Pradhan, courses and hydroelectric installa­ Members from the village are Mangsaru, tions the management of which has Shiv Ram. Phinu. Mrs. Chamari and Mrs. been undertaken by the Panchayat Naiku. The present members were elected with the sanction of the State in March. 1958. For the election the entire Government. circle was divided into eight constituencies. Members to Gram Panchayat, Prad:han and 12. Necessary financial or labour con­ Vp-Pradhan are elected by show of hand. In tribution fOtI' the construction of Nayaya Panchayat, the number of members public roads, or water courses is 15 and there is only one member f'rom the within the Gram Sabha area under 'Village Bir. This Panchay.at was ,established the development programme of the in February, 1959. The members of Nayaya State Government. Panchayat are also elected by show of hands. Sarpanch and Naib-Sarpanch are further 13. Fulfilling any other obligation im~ elected by the elected members. posed by any other law on a Gram Sabha. In Himachal Pradesh, the working of the • Panchayats is governed by the Himachal There are a few discretionary functions Pradesh Panchayat Raj Act of 1952. The of Panchayat. These include:- "owers, functions and the ju'risdiction of' Panchayats have been described as:- (a) Planting and maintaining trees at the sides of public streets and in 1. ConstructioiI1, repair, maintenance, other public places. cleaning and lighting of public streets. (b) The improved breediulg and medical 2. Sanitation and taking curative and treatment of cattle and prevention preventive measures in respect of of disease in them. infectious diseases and epidemic. (c) Organizing subject to rules prescrib­ ed, a village volunteer force for 3. Heglstering births, deaths and marri­ watch and ward, for assisting Gram ages and maintenance of the regis­ ters. Panchayat and N ayaya Panchayat in the discharge of their functions ,4. Regulating places for disposal of and for the services of summons. dead bodies of human beings and and notices issued by them. animals and of other offensive matters. (d) Prohibiting or regulating the curing, tanning and dying of skins within :5. Regulation of melas and markets 220 yards of the abadi. within its area except those manag­ (e) Setting up organisations to promote ed by the State Government.. good will and social harmony bet­ 15. Establishing and maintaining pri­ ween different communities. mary schools for 'boys and girls. (f) Maintenance and regulation of public '7 . .l!;stablishment, management and radios. care of common grazing grounds and land fur the common benefit of the Under the Himachal Pradesh Panchayat persons residing within its jurisdic­ Raj Act, the jurisdiction of Nyaya Panch a·· tion. yat shall extend to any suit of the following description if its value does not exceed one' l\. Construction, repair and maintenance huno:red rupees:- of public wells, tanks and ponds for' the supply of water' fur drinking, (a)' A suit for money due on contract washing and bathing purposes, and other than a contract in respect of regulation of sources of water sup­ immovable property. ply fbr drinking purposes. (b) A suit for the recovery of movable g. Assisting the development of agri­ property ov for the value thereof. culture, commerce' and industry. (c) A suit for compensation for wrong­ 10. The maintenance oi- ..sllch records fully taking or damaging a movable relating to cattle census, -p'bpulation property. and other -statistics as may be pres­ (d) A suit for damages caused by cattle cribed. tres-pass. ' 39

A case can be presented to the Panchayat the witness, the Panchayat decided that either in writing or orally. The Gram Pan­ Reshmu was at fault ahd was fined Rs. 10' chayat tries .reconciliation for three months for misbehaviour. Reshmu duly paid the fine f'ailing which it issues a certificate and the levied upon him. party persues in Nyaya Panchayat. The budget of the Panchayat for the- year The achievement of Gram Panchayat, 1961-62 was:- Tarnoh a're: 1. Construction of 8 bowlies in villages Income Bir, Jamanra, Kathyana, Kuthar, Nalhog and Khad Kalyana. Rs. Opening balance 2. Laying of 2,000 feet long pipe line in 1,615' village Kbad Kalyana. Aid from Block 3~5· Pay grants 780 3. Construction of 2 mile foot path. Swai 4. Construction of' additional room in 548, school building, Bir. Local rate '," Nyaya Panchayat 100 The Panchayat has a library of 274 books. Donations 25, It maintains implements which are loaned to the villagers when village paths and roads Shamjhota Samiti. ]00 are to be constructed by contributory labour. Miscellaneous 150' Simila'rly, there are some musical instru­ Shramdan 1,754 ments and fumiture articles which the vil­ lagers can make use of. Expenditure In all 11 Diwani and 44 criminal cases came up before the ·Panchayat. Out of these Rent of building ]20 45 cases were disposed of by the Samjhota Pay 78U Committee appointed: by the Gram Pancha­ yat and these cases ended in compromise. Construction of Panchayat build­ Out of 10 cases referred to the Nyaya Pan­ mg 2,000 chayat, 9 more cases ended in compromise and in one' criminal case, the accused was Construction of bowlies 1,79!}' tined Rs. 10. In this criminal case Kesar Furniture 5f1 Singh of Sadoh village was -the complain­ ant and Reshmu from the same village was Sports Goods 25 respondent. the quarrel was over a kuhh T.A 100 Reshmu diverted the kuhI to his fields while according to the Ioeal customs it was the Radio 75 tum of Kesar Singh to use the kuhl for the Irrigation of his fields at that particular time Tea Set and period. This dispute led to exchange of Cots 50 hot words --and Kesar Singh filed the case with the Panchayat. From the statements of Miscellaneous l!:!S IV Social and Cultural Life

Population Comparison with 1961 the population comes to 301 persons, 147 According to 1951 Census, the population men and 154 women. of the village was 191 persons. In 1961 it increased to 261. The percentage increase Age and Sex-wise Distribution comes to 36.6'5. According to the figures col­ The table indicates the age-wise distribu­ lected by the' Investigator during the survey, tion of the population: Total of all ,ages 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 2~29 30-34 35-44 45-59 60 & over ,r---A---, r--''-., ,-''---, ,.-''--1 , ..... A __ ., ,-''--, ,-"---., ,-'''-----, ,-''-., ,-''---, ,-.A.____, P M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F .M F M F

301'147 154 21 29 22 27 16 16 16 16 11 19 17 14 6 7 12 13 14 13 12 10

Birth and Death The families have been divided into four The figures obtained from the birth and types. These are simple, intermediate, joint

'Total No. of House 2-3 4-6 7-9 10 Members and Holds Single Member Membe1'll Members Members above ,--~ ,---''-----, r--'~ ,---''------, H.H. M F H.H.M F H.H. 1Il: F H.H. M F RH. M F

86 2 1 3 3 4, 9 23 24 8 33 31 14 87 94

40 41

The figures in the table indicate that there jungle. She attend'S to the cattle and live­ are only two households with a single stock, milk them and churn curd to extract member each. Three households have 2 to :3 butter. The ChamaT women sell fuel in the members each. There are 9 households with town and it adds to the economy. 4 to 6 members each and 8 households with 7 to 9 members each. Households with 10 Temple members and above are maximum. This again confirm that the villagers prefer joint The fact that the village is so close to family system. Mandi and the villagers have frequent con­ tacts in the town, has hardly any bearing on Inheritance of Property the social and cultural life of the villagers. The villag.e has usual rural atmosphere The Hindu Law of Succession Act has which is marked by the trend: of the vil­ been enforced by Government, but in actual lagers towards modern changes. The villagers munda band is prevalent in the village. have their own beliefs and superstitions. According to this sons inherited: the property They believe in various Hindu gods. The in equal shares. Daughters had no right over prominent are; Shiva, Kali, Tarna Mata, Ram, the property. In case of man leaving behind Krishna, Durga, various Birs and the local a widow, the property was distributed in deities Bala Kamhesar and Kamrah. The. equal shares among the widow and the sons. villagers have recently built a small shrine­ Thus if a man left behind four sons and: a over the image of Kamrah. This god has an widow, the property was to be distrib.uted interesting legend which is associated with in five equal shares. Generally the wIdow the epic age of Mahabharata. mother joins one of her sons. Then he sup­ poris her. H2' enjoys her share of property:.. In Dwaper Yug, during the time of Maha­ bharata, there _}Vas a great king named Untouchab'ility Rattan J achha. He was known as on_e of the mightiest king of that period. Being famous Castism has deep roots in Hindu society. for his generosity, no one went empty This village is in no way a dHferent o~e. On handed from his palace. Anything, a' beggar the basis of two main castes there, It had desired was granted to him by the king. By been divided into two sections. These are such virtue of hiSt, the king had attained Chamars and Rajputs. Rajputs are called super-natural. power. Unfortunately, this Zamindars by the Chamars. Chamars are was the period when Kaurwas and' Pandwas Scheduled Castes. They are considered infe­ were at daggers drawn and the war was rior by the Rajputs. They do not inter-drink considered inevitable. Victory was sure to and inter-dine with them. They do not attend the sJde which could make the great king their functions and festivals. On the other Rattan Jachha as their ally. Both the rivals hand Rajputs mvite the _Chamars to ~easts Kaurwas and Pandwas approached him, but held on various ceremonies like marnages. Kaurwas could secure the alliance. This was They are, however served outside t~e hous~. a great setback to the Pandwas and they had Entry to the only temple in the VIllage IS to make the counter plans. They had a con­ prohibited for them. Both the castes. h~ve ference and after ,long discussions it was separate bowlie-s for the supply of drmking decid:ed that Lord Krishna should be con­ water. A Chamar cannot make use of the sulted to suggest some counter action. bowli belonging to the Rajputs. Similarly, ~ Yudhistra and Arjuna were deputed for the Rajput shuns drinking water of the bowh project. They begged Lord Krishna to guide belonging to Chamars. them. After a lot of thinking a plan was status of Women drawn _up that the generosity of the kind Rattan J achhal should: be made use of. It was Women play a most important pa'rt in then :Iecided th.it Arjuna should disguise running the household:. Beside being the himself as a beggar and call upon him for house-wives, the women in the village help alms. their men folk in every walk of life. Except for ploughing" the women assist men in all On the next day Arjuna disguised himself other agricultural operations. She also con­ as beggar and went to the palace of Rattan tributes towards the economy of the house J achha. T.h e king in his usual way came out by employing herself in household du~!es to receive the beggar. He asked him to let and household industry. She weaves khaJra him know the name of! the-article the beg­ matf 'tnd binasj knits pull-overs and other gar wanted in alms. The begg~Arjuna­ such things. She fetches water from the informed the king that the article which he bowli, brings fodder for the cattle from the wanted was very- dea-r to him and he would L/B(N)6SCOHP-S 42

not like to part with that. He would, there­ him that the Pand:was would worship him as fore, not disclose his desire until the king one of their gods if he acceded to their promised to fulfil it. The king, thereupon, r~quest. On pursuation of Lord Krishna. informed the beggar that it was not an ordi­ Rattan J achha stopped laughing and the nary man to whom he had come, but it was the Pandwas could attain their victory. greatest king Rattan Jachha who was known for his generosity and from whose door::; no The Pandwas, thus started worshipping' beggar had so far gone empty handed. The Rattan J achha as a god. It is said that one· tradition would be kept intact in his case day, Rattan Jachha gave vision to .the Pand­ too and anything he d:esired would be grant­ was and asked them to install his idol in some ed to him. Then the beggar disclosed his de­ sacred place. To do this Pandwas started on sire and asked the king to give him his head. journey to find out the sacred place and rea­ The king was astonished to know it. He ched Kamrah which is in Mandi district. They became suspicious about the beggar, whom found the place suitable and installed the he doubtea, was someone from the Pandwas. idol of Rattan Jachha there. It is why God He then set his super-natural powers to Jachha acquired the name of Kamrah Dev. work and by virtue of them could know that It is said that the Pandwas while on their it was Arjuna who had come to betray him. journery to Kamrah, took rest at many' pla­ Already he had given his words to help the ces. They installed a token image of J achha Kaurwas in the war. On the other hand, he wherever they took rest. Bir is one of the had to give his head to the beggar who was places where Pandwasl took rest. Thus an Arjuna, the enemy of the Kaurwas. The image was installed there also. king was, therefore, in aJ fix as how to fulfil his promise with both Kaurwas ana the Guggar--There is a shrine of Gugga on the­ beggar. In case he gave his head to the way to village from Mandi. The villagers beggar, it was not_ possible for him to help have great faith in Gugga and narrate an Kaurwas in war against Pandwas and if he interesting legend:- did not give his head- to the beggar, he had to back out his words. He wanted to keep In Marwar, there were two sisters named his words with both the parties and after a Kasla and Basla. Neither: of them had any good deal of thinking, the king told the -child. To have one, Basla' meditated in beggar that he would give his head to him honour of Lord Brahma for -twelve years provided it was pres·e-rved and placed: on a continuously. But her desire remained un­ high platform to be constructed at the sight fulfilled. Again she meditated: in honour of of the war, so that it could have the full Lqrd Vishnu, for twelve years more, but to view of the war field. Arjuna promise

Bala Kamhesar-Bala Kamhesar is a minor Balak Rupi. This confusion would seem to god and is said to be the one of the kins of show that the veneration of the Siddhs is a Kamrah. In the village, a small shrine of branch of Shivaism. this god is found. Villagers could not narrate The domesti~, shrine of a Siddh usually any legend of this shrine. They, however, stands on a solIn: base about four feet f'rom have faith in t4is god. They offer a jagra, the ground. It is .open in the front and is every third year on Baisakhi in honour of roofed with slates. Sometimes the shrine this god. In the morning dhoop and babroos contains an image and sometimes only the night. foot-marks of the Siddh. Such marks have also sacrifice a goat. At night hymns are been described as those-of' Budha but the are offered to the deity. Some households identification is very improbable, a~d it may sung and villagers keep awake till mid- be noted they are not peculiar to the Kulaj-Every household has a family god Siddhs. At the main approaches to the vil­ which is known as Kulaj. The villagers have l~ge, or ~t a short distance from a temple, Budha Bingal, N aina Devi and Prasar as plllars Wlll often be seen surmounted with their family gods. The temple of Bud:ha a fiat slab of stone on which are caryed Bingal is at about seven miles from Mandi foot-marks, a tiger and a trident. These are towards Jogindarnagar. The Temple of Naina sacred to Devi and their object is generally Devi is at Rawalsar, about 17 miles from to invoke her power against any evil influ­ MandL Hair preserved at the time of hair ence which may approach the temple or cutting ceremony are offered to Kulaj. A village. Sometimes such pillars appear to goat is sacrificed and a feast held. represent the path by which the presiding Bir-The village is said to have acquired spirit has entered his temple, or to act as its name from the word Bir. People are of sign-posts by which he may find his way view that the village was the abode of a when he goes on a journey. -Bir, which they think is a good spirit. Some To return to the shrines of the Siddhs, are of the opinion that Bir is also a minor the symbolic offerings usually seen there god which guard the villagers against evil are the pastoral crook, the wooden sandals iplrits. There are a few villagers who said of the ascetic and his wooden a'rm-rest that they came across Bir guiding them late which, when not in use, he carries over his at night. He is clad in snow-white robe and shoulder. The first fruits of harvest are ensure the safety of the villagers while they: offered at the shrine and: a Siddh is suppos­ happen to go out at night. Bir is worshipped ed to protect his votaries from illness and on Sur~day by offering dhoop and rote. other calamities. He often possesses people Sidhs-The villagers believe in various and this is a sign that they must devote. Sidhs. The cult of Sidhs has been described themselves to his service. The symbol of in 'Punjab Gazetteers' Mandi State, 1920 dedication is a pair of diminutive silver Volume XII-A. The relevant extract repro­ horns attached to a thread worn round: the duced might be of interest. neck. These are worn for the rest of man's­ "The Siddhs are widely venerated, and lif'e, and he must also make regular offerings a.s in Hoshiarpur their shrines are often at the shrine of the Siddh, but generally no found on the tops of hills. The compiler of other services are demanded. Sometimes, the Hoshiarpur Gazetteer describes them when a suppliant vows an offering to the god as the local diVinities of the out Himalayas if a certain boon is granted, he will wear a and to a limited extent this is true of the necklet either of string or rice-straw until western and northern parts of Mandi, but the compact has been fulfilled by both they are practically unknown in the higher parties. He is then at liberty to remove it. hills and even where their cult is popular, The IOQal shrines of the Siddhs are greatly there are as much household as local deities. frequented by women, Sunday being the The origin of the cult is obscure. Some des­ most popular day of worship. Like Nar cribe the Siddhs as holy men, but they are Singh, the Siddh bestows progeny, and often found associated with Shiva worship children vouchsafed in answer to prayer are and this is particularly the case in the often dedicated to him, the silver horns­ Bhangal and neighbouring waziris where a being fastened round their necks soon after famous shrine of Balak Rupi is situated. birth. They are henceforth the sevaks or This god: is generally recognised as manifes-; servants of the god. Again, a Siddh is pro­ tation of Shiva. But in the courtyard of mised that a vigil will be kept in his name most houses in the tract is a small shrine of if' he grants some request, and should he do' the type usually dedicated to affi

Haritalika-This falls on the 3rd day Dussehra-This is a famous festival which after the amawasya of Bhadra. Women falls in Ashvina. Villagers celebrate Ram's keep fast on this day. It is believed that fast victory over Ravana. On this day delicious on this day i~vokes the blessings of Shiva dishes are prepared. These are askloos, .for the sa,fety and welfare of' the husbands. patandas and kheer. Parvati kept this fast and got Shiva, as her husband. By keeping this fast, the girls hope Diwali-Diwali is celebrated all over the to get good husbands. hills in somewhat the same manner. It falls in Kartika usually fifteen days after Dus­ Pathar Chauth-Pathar Chauth f'alls on sehra. It is said that on the return of Rama the 4th day of Shukal-paksh in Bhadra. from 14 years' exile, the public of Ayodhya People believe that if they see the moon on held a big celebration. They cleaned their this day, they are likely to fall prey of houses and the city. The paths and roads some false accusation. If' at all some one were decorated. Sweets were distributed sees the moon by mistake, the evil effect is and at night the city was illuminated. Since warded off by instigating someone to abuse then this is celebrated as a festival. Now him and to achieve this end stones are goddess' Laxmi is worshipped. thrown on the roofs of neighbouring houses. In the evening, villagers prepare special Naturally this invites abuses and so the dishes and exchange them with friends and curse is supposed to have no effect. relatives. Earthen lamps in which sarson oil Gugga Naumi-It falls on the 9th day at is used, are lit. The villageI;s make big grass black half in the month of Bhadra. The balls and lit them. A string is attached to villagers go to the shrine of Gugga and pay such a grass ball and every male member of homage to the deity. the household whirls the burning grass baH by holding it the other end of the string. The Janam Ashtami_-It falls on the 8th day of dishes prepared on this day are halwa, patan­ the dark half in the month of Sravana or das, babroos, kheer and askloos. Bhadra. Almost every adult in the house keeps fast. On this day Lord Krishna was Barluj-This falls on the next day of born and in some houses a swing carrying Diwali. On this day the -agricultural imple­ an idol or image of the Lord is hung. The ments are worshipped by the villagers. household deities are worshipped at mid­ Shop-keeper worships his scale and account night and 1Jhalahar taken. Kirtans are held. books. The students their books, copies, pen and pencil. Babroos and bhallas are offered Sair-It is one of the chief festivals to the local deity which is also worshipped. which the villagers celebrate. It falls on the first day of Ashvina. At previous Hoi Hatthi-This festival falls before night a basket containing galgal, doob Diwali. The women keep fast on this day .grass and a maize cob is placed in one of the for the welfare of their children. They draw rooms. A maize cob is also placed in every rough figures on the wall and worship it. Toom and it is a must for everyone to have This is hoi workship. The mothers apply the darshan of the cob early in the next vermilion to their sons and offer them morn~ng. Babroos are prepared and offered luchis. \ to Sair. Children enjoy a game of walnuts. Bhai Dooj-This falls on the third day Women and children wear new clothes. after Diwali. This is a festival ofl brothers Special dish of this day is kheer along and sisters. The sisters apply vermilion on with babroos. This day marks the end of the fore-heads of their brothers. They also the rainy season and the villagers thank the offer sweets, pan and supari, and crushed God of rains for not failing them. ,cocoanut to their brothers. In return, the Navratras-Nine Navratras faU in the brothers give money, clothes and other pre­ month of Ashvina. These are auspicious days sents to their sisters. for starting any new work. Engagements Lohri-It falls on the 1st of Magha a few are made in Navrat1cas. Havan and paath to days before Lohri, girls below seven year~ achieve some boon are performed in these of age go from door to door and sing Lohri days. In Mandi town a fair at Tarna Devi _songs. Tn return they get some money or Temple is held. Villagers also attend this, Gur. Sesamum and gur balls are relished fair. on this day. These balls are called Tiloae. Durga Ashtami-It falls on._the 8th day of The women keep fast. At night fire is lit. N avratras. Havan is performed on-this day The special dish of Lohri is khichri-a hotch and 9 unmarried girls are worshipped. Halwa potch of pulses and rice taken with ghee. is prepared and offered to these girls. Women Shivratri-This flestival comes in the keep fast and eat only phalahar. month of Phalguna and is celebrated in 47 honour of Lord Shiva. The villagers keep tor harvesting Sunday. If a new land is to fast on this day. It is said that on this day be ploughed for the first time, a goat is Lord Shiva married the daughter of Hima­ sacrificed. At each harvesting purohit of the chal. On this marriage the devotees of Shiva household gets 5 pa,thas of grains. Similarly rejoiced and kept fast. Among the villagers grains are offered to local deity. Other Shivratri is considered the best day. for beliefls are:- marriage ceremony. Women are prohibited to comb their hair. Ho'li-This festival also falls in Phalguna wash clothes and do stitching work on a and marks the end of winter. A few days festival day. All these things are also prohi­ before Holi, the boys go from house to house bited on a day when someone from the and collect fuel which they bum on the 'house goes on al long. journey. crossings of the village paths. The villagers The house should not be swept after some celebrate Holi by playing, with coloured one from the house leaves the house for long water and powder. At night a big fire is journey. burnt. After taking bath, it is be'lieved to be good Holi is as,sociated with Prahlad and his if some water is offered to sun towards the aunt Ho1ika. Prahlad was the son of Harinya­ sun. kashyap who had proclaimed himself as god and had prohibited the worship of Lord It is considered bad if a fruit or flower is Vishnu. But his son Prahlad did not ~ccept plucked after sun set. it and became a devout follower of Vishnu. It is considered bad to borrow salt from Hannyakashyap tried his best to . kill him anyone-. by hurling him down from a hlgh moun­ tain and by many other means, but every To place a-shoe up side down is consider­ time Prahlad had a miraculous escape on ed a bad omen. account of divine help. Prahlad had an To start on a long journey on Sunday is aunt, his father's sister, Holika by na:ne, avoided. who had acquired by some means the mIra­ culous power that fire would not harm J:ler. To come across an empty pitcher, a naked She offered to Harinyakashyap her serVlces person, widow, a Brahmin with tika on his to enable him to get rid of Prahlad who was forehead, fighting dogs and a snake are proving to be thorn in his side. So one ~ay considered bad omens to start on a journey. she got built a huge pyre of wood cunnmg­ To come across a pitcher full of water, ly hidden under the gaily decorated seat on unmarried girl, a cow, a milk-maid are good which she sat. She sent for Prahlad ~nd omens to start on a journey. took him in her lap and started caressmg him. Meantime, as already planned, the pyre To kill (Jj snake is considered inauspicious. was put to fire. All exPected that Prahlad would be consumed by the fire and Holika Witch Craft by virtue of the mjraculous power she en­ People believe in witch-craft. An extract joyed would remain unseatl?-~d. When from Mandi Gazetteer is reproduced below: Prahlad saw this he started reclbn& Lord Vishnu's prayer and this had the des~red re­ "Mandi and Suket have always been sult. Prahlad escaped from -the blazz~ng fire famous for their witches. The Ghoghar-ki­ unharmed and Holika notwithstandmg the dhar not far from .Jhatingri, is notorious for immunity she had hitherto enjoyed the battle which nmges there on the 16th from fire, was reduced to ashes. To commem?", Bhadon each year. The combatants are the rate this event, Holi is celebrated and a ~lg gods and the' witches. If the former win, log fire iSi burnt in. the evening to symbolIse there will be little sickness during the yea,r but the crops will be poor; if the latter ar~ the burning of Hohka. victoriou:" the harvest will be bountiful, but Common Beliefs and Superstitions there WIll be many deaths amongst the people. On the night of battle the graziers A good many beliefs and superstitions remove their cattle f'rom near the place on prevail in the village. Many of them are the ridge where the riyal hosts assemble common in most of hill villages, but- these and the peasants are crlways careful not to might be of interest to the readers. go outside after night fall.~he doors are No agricultural operation is performed on securely bolted, thorn branches placed a saja', the first day of Vikra.~i month. For before them, charms nailed on the lintels sowing Tuesday is the ausplcIOUS day and and mustard seed sprinkled on the fields 48

and around the houses and the cattle sheds, These practices are now rarely followed; That ~ight one should always sleep on the but persons who are suspected of witchcraft left sIde, for otherwise witch may snatch are carefully avoided. Only a few months away one's heart. Fever contracted that day ago the writer received a petition from a is 'witch's fever', and very difficult to cure' woman living in a village from which the if it is shaman off before the Diwali, th~ spirit of the local deity had fled. Disgusted patient will die, with his subjects he had run away and his Formerly, several methods were practised diviner could not in consequence come for the detection of witches. The most under the divine afflatus. The ~illagers popular was the water test. A woman suspected the petitioner having bewitched suspected to witchcraft was tied in a blanket the god and she complained that they were and then thrown into a pond. If she sank, ill-treating her. She protested her innocence, sbe was innocent; but then she rarely sur­ bringing a counter charge against the vived the treatment; ifl she floated, as all diviner's wife; who she alleged to be th~ witches do, she was put to death. So, in any cause of all the trouble. Finally she asked -case, she gave no further trouble. Trial by that the police should be allowed to investi­ Qrdeal was sometimes adopted. Two balls of gate according to ancient custom and to flour, one containing gold and the other punish the guilty one. The request, it need silver, were placed in a vessel of water. The hardly be added, was not granted." suspect was bathed and made to stand on a sacred square. She then picked out one of Education the balls, silver proclaiming her innocence Villagers are quite aware that only the while gold confirmed her guilt. Or gain when education can brighten the future of their a witch was kn::>wn to be doing mischief, children and the village. A few, however, the women orf the neighbourhood were explain that it is difficult flar them to spare paraded before a gur or diviner 6f the god, the children to attend the school. They say, who was in a state of ecstasy. Each woman they shall have no one to tend to the graz­ spat on the ground as she passed, and if ing of the cattle, if they do so. Anyhow. by the gur took no notice she left with an un­ and by these people. will be forced to realise blemished character; but if the gur spring­ that for children, education is more impor­ ing forward 'began to wallop her with his. tant than grazing the cattle·. The table gives iron scourge, then she was proved a witch the figures regarding literacy in the vil­ and was lucky if she escaped with her life. lage:-

Age groups Tutal PopUlation Illiterate Literate without Primary or Matric or educational Basic Higher Standa.rd Secondary ,.-__-'L.-----, ,.--A.--, ,.--.A..---, ,.--A.-...... , ,.---A..-, P M F M F M F M F .M: Ji'

.All ages 301 147 154 85 146 41 8 19 2 0-14 131 59 72 32 65 23 7 4 15-34 95 50 45 22 44 13 13 2 35-59 52 26 26 19 26 5 2

~o and Over 23 12 11 12 11

Out of a total population of 301 persons, Government Junior Basic School, Bir­ '70 persons, including 62 men and 8 women There is a Junior Basic School in the vil­ are literate. The literacy percentage comes -lage. The school was opened in 1955 when to about 23 which is low. There are two villagers raised some funds through contri­ matriculates and 19 men who are primary bution. The school 'Was taken over by the or basic pass. 41 men aA.d__ 8 women Government in 1958. The present staff of are literate without educational ~tandard. the school is 2 Matrie Basie trained and 1 This includes students belonging to. the Middle J.B. teacher. Villages from which village. the students read in this school are 49

Kathiana, Dheun, Gadiada, Deoha, Kutla, has been almost totally eradicated. Some­ Dhar, Khanet, Lote', Jamannu, Bhared, time there may be a case of typhoid or Khaprera, Parwar, Uprela Tarnoh, Lag, Bad­ pneumonia. There is no case of T.B. or V.D.. gaon, Dibharu and B·alhori. All these vil­ The village has been covered under the lages are within a radius of about 2 miles. Na,tional Malaria Eradication Programme. Crafts taught in the school are weaving and Under the scheme regular D.D.T. spraying mud toy making. The strength of school is is done by the department. The villagers 71 students which also includes 54 boys and have ClI general complaint about the havoC" 17 girls. Class-wise strength is 14 boys and created by the rats. They say that the num­ 7 girls in 1st class, 13 boys and 7 girls in ber of rats has increased due to the death second, 16 boys and 2 girls in 3rd, 5 boys of cats on account of eating rats poisoned by and 1 girl in 4th and 6 boys in fifth class. D.D.T. A team of B.C.G. had also a round The strength of' students during correspond­ of the village for their tests. Necessary pre­ ing period in past two years was 60 includ·· venUve measures were taken by them in ing 50 boys and 10 girls and 57 including suspected cases which were found carryin~ 53 boys and 4 girls. Thus there is a gradual the germs of the disease. rise in the number of students each year. For minor ailments, instead of running to· School Building-The present school the town for treatment, the villagers try building is the same which was constructed their own indigenous method. by the villagers by free labour and funds raised through donations. It is a two roomed Fever-For ordinary fever simple concoc­ building with a small veranciah. The roof is tion of chhoti ilaichi IS gievn. This is prepar­ thatched and: leaks. It is in dilapidated ed by boiling 1 to 5 ilaichi in water. When condition and cOan give way any time if water is reduced to !th quantity, the con­ proper repairs are not taken up. Classes are tents are allowed to cool. If fever is due t() generally held on the ground facing the disorders of st6mach ajwain is also ad­ ded. building. In the event of at shower the school has to be closed. The Panchayat of the vil­ For fevers due to bad cold, a packet of lage has been able to dbtain Rs 1,600 as ready made joshanda purchased from Mandi aid for the addition of a new room and re­ is boiled in about a half seer of water_ pair of the existing building. The construc­ When it iS1 reduced to about 2 chhataks, it is tion of the new room was in progress and the strained through a cloth and administered Up-Pradhan of' the ~anchayat. who is. fro.m to the patient. The residue is preserved for the village was takIng good mterest m Its the second doze after which it is sometimes completion. thrown out. Medical For fevers due to cold. bari ilaichi, ajwain,. The villagers have faith in. all types ?f mulathi bana£asa dried albukhara, gur and treatment including allopathlC, ayurvedIc saunf a~d boiled in water which is given to. and jantar mantar. They have no knowledge the patient. about the homoeopathy, as this type of Cough-For cough any of the following treatment is not popular in the en.ti.re area. may be taken- Even at Mandi there was no prachhon~r of 1. Mulathi is given to suck. homoeopathy 3 to 4 year~ back. ~here IS no practitioner of any type m the VIllage. The 2. Honey dissolved in luke warm water. nearest place where medi~al facilit~es ~re available is the Civil HospItal, Mandl WhICh 3. Pepper and magh pipal mixed in is on their way to Mandi. ~nstead of car;ry­ honey. ing the patient to the hospItal, any.r?labve 4. Extract of Ajwain. of the patient going to the town, VlSlts the hospital. He explains the. ~isease to t1?-e 5. Jang'iharar, rind of pomegranate are doctor and gets the medlCme. In certaI.n powdered and mixed with ash of cases., when patient .does not ~ecover, he .IS maize cobs. This powder is given got admitted as an mdoor patIent. The VIl­ with honey. lagers also rely upon ~hopu '!aid t? a gre~t Sore Throat-Banafasa is heated in extent. Whenever a VIllager 1.S serIOusly. III sman quantity of water and tied around the someone runs to Mandi to brmg the Vald. throat. Saline gargles also.....r~lieve the sore thr-oat. - The common diseases in the village are fevers common cold, cough, influenza, dr­ Tooth-ache-Tobacco or chillies are filled senter'y and sometimes diarrhoea. Malana in the cavity. 50

Stomach-ache-Harar, ajwain and mitha Boils-Linseeds, soap, onion and gur are -saunf, Guma salt are powdered and given to ground to form a thick paste. The mixture the patient. is roasted in mustard oil and applied on the boil. Eye-sore-A mixture of Rasaunt and honey are applied for eye troubles. Family Planning-The villagers under­ Ear-trouble-Luke-warm mustard or til stand the implications of having a big -oil give relief in ear troubles. family. It appears that little measures have Simple cut or wound-The sufferer is ask­ been taken in this direction by the authori­ -ed to urinate on the wound. Haldi or ashes ties in the village. The villagers may adopt .of a silk cloth are another remedies also ap­ the measures if efforts are made to educate plied on the cut. them al}d the appliances supplied. V CONCLUSION

Bir though 9 Kilometers from Mandi, the avail of this facility provided they have the district headquarters is s,ughtly touched by means. urban influence. Untouchability has been abo­ Major economy of the village revolves lished under the law, but in actual practice around agriculture but nearness of the town there is no going away from the old practices, is an impOTtant factor to supplement their Chamars are not allowed to enter the houses income by selling milk, fuel wood and avail­ of Rajputs nor there is a common water ing of other employment avenues which source. They do not inter-dine or inter­ usually exist in towns. Their frequent vi­ ~moke but there iSI co-operation among both sits to the town and closer contacts with the castes. Chamars are .invariably invited the urban people keep them abreast of all by Rajputs on all important occasions like happenings or a few among them who are marriages and births and they are carrying literate may also be a bit aware of the on their traditional work. They are treated political changes and thus cfa~m s,ome as an important section of the society. importance in the village. Otherwise' at pre­ With the spread of education people are be­ sent there are no visible signs that the gene-, coming conscious about the education of ral condition of the village or its residents their children. To-day one can see the child­ is set for a change for the better. One or two­ ren going to the school with satchels s,lung among them may at some distant future be over their shoulders; formerly they were -able to be ratherr well off than others but seen in the grazing fields with sticks in their such exceptions do not add to the prosperity hands tending cattle. There is only a primary or material well being of the village as! a school in the village which caterrs to the need whole. Bir, therefore, though lying on the of their elementary education. Facilities fOT fringe of a town, has nothing much to gain higher education are available at Mandi and and cannot expect any change for the better the villagers are in advantageous position to in the near fuIure.

L/B(N)6SCOHP-9 APPENDICES

APPENDIX I

Extract from Forest~ Working PLan for Mandi State Forests by R. Machlagan Govie, D.Sc., l.F.S.

Configration :-Th~ Beas enters Mandi Beas between Mandi town and the Kangra from the Kulu valley by -a specular gorg~, border, and which is itself and outlier of the and flows west to Mandi town, where it turns main Dhaula dhar to the north. abruptly north, later twisting gradually west­ Geology : -The chief geological feature is ward again to enter Kangra district near the boundary fault which separates the youn­ Sandhol. ItSI main right bank tributaries, the ger sedimentary character has been altered ChuIi, Uhl and Luni, rise in the high hills of and is no longer recognizable. This' fault line the Kulu and Banghal bG'rder to the North, runs almost north and'south through Jogin­ while on its left bank, the main side-streams dernagar, Drong, Mancl,i tawn and west of are the Trithan, Ghori, Bakhli, Jiuni and Su­ the Balli plains to Sundarnttgar in Suket. To keti, which rise in the Sutlej-Bess water-shed the west of this line are found the conglo­ in the southeast, and the Soni which drains ~erates, sand-stones, gritsl and occasional the lower hills in the west. hme-stone beds of the Nahan and Sabathu The State te:t1r'itory is roughly dilamond groups of the Simla series, all definitely sedi­ shaped with the south-east and north-west mentary and only slightly altered by earth extremities in high hill tracts, which run up preSE:lUre. To the east 0.£ this line and compris­ to 13,000 feet on the fianks of the great ing of most of the hillier country, are slates Dhauladhar range in the north and to near­ and shales., gritty and laminated but older se­ ly 11,000 feet at some points on the Sutlej- . dimentary rocks of the Himalayan series. In Beas water-shed west of tne Jalori Pass. addition, and often closely mixed up with the The whole of the eastern half of the State slate and shale, are metamorphic rocks of between these ranges is decidedly moun­ which the commonest are mica schist dar­ tainous. The Beas running in a deep gorge ker hcmblend schist and qua~tzite ~hich in many places 5,000 feet below points is a sort of crystalline and very hard sand­ which are less than two miles map distance stone; ~ll of these yield a much more pow­ from the river. South of Mandi, the valley dery sml than the slates. Two other special of Suketi forms the Balh plains the only types of rocks are (i) the massive chiffsl of really! fiat piece of ground in the whole greenish basalt which from thE' crest of the State, and west of this is series of lower upper Ghogar dhar and the Hathipur-Mand­ rolling hills rising to about 4,000 ft. The r~. precipices. along the Kulu boundary, and :forests occur at all elevations from 3,000 to (n) the greemsh caps which constitute practi­ :11,000 feet. cally all the hillS! above 7,000 feet in Seraj and Nahan ranges, and again in the higher The water-shed between these Beas tri­ parts of Uhl basin; these are all ont':liers from butaries all tend to form a series of ridges the great metaphoric moss which makes up Tunning North North-west to South South­ the High Himalayas to the North. ,east aoross the State, but severed in the From silvi-cultural stand point, there is middle by the gorge of the Beas itself. not very much difference in the values of the Some of the more important have not gene­ not very much difference in the values of the -rally accepted name, for instance, the Sutlej­ Sloils derived from those different rocks, ex­ Beas water-shed in variously known as Kam­ cept that the percentage of clay is very Tunag dhar, Konjira dhar and Shikari dhar higher west of the boundary fault than it is while the spur of Dhaula. dhar on the Kulu lborder ,haSi half a dozen diffen nt names bet­ elsew:here. This the soil of the lower western -ween Nargu peak in the north and Tung Devi chi! forests is a hard and shallow and clay which when heavily grazed after rain, be~ peak above the Largi gorge. T-he only feature c?mes absolutely puddled, compact and ste­ with the widely accepted name Is"--the Gho­ rIle for lack of proper aeration. The sandier ,gar dhar which separates the Uhl from the soils of the higher hills, am the other hand, 52 53

do not bind but break down to :;l powder un­ whole period of slow Himalayan uplift i.e. der heavy grazing, bading to rapid erosion they have always been at work on which from all pastures and frequently to the com­ they found originally to be the weaker plete loss of all soil by gullying down to bare rocks hence they have remained in thesIe rock. The soil from the slates and shales oc­ shaley .clefts which now form gaps between ,cupies on intermediate position between the blocks of :the gneiss cap. Good quality these two other types, as it usually contains suate is extracted from many such places, an appreciable amount of clay. The grey but much of the slate used in the villages rubby loam which is common soil derived is coarse and brittle so it can only be used from the black slates and shales is! more in thick and heavy slabs, requiring vecy friable than the red clays, but more cohe­ heavy timber frames to support them. sive than the yellow gneissose sandsl. Under cultivation or heavy grazing, the soil losses Another characteristic of the junction from this middle type are enormously heavy, between the gneiss cap and the shales is as is well seen in the steeper slopes through­ large deposits of kaemalite, or iron are', in out Harabagh range. Juini, Bakhali, Churi and Uhl val­ A confusing but common feature in the leys, the commercial development of which Mandi hills is that contorted beds of sehisty may provide an opportunity' for using hi­ slates are found at the bottoms of natas, therto undeveloped oak wood. The iron are lying below the gneissose layers which form is a soft flaky ferruginous quartzite, almost the upper water:sheds, as in Devi dhar, Chau­ like graphite in appearance. It was worked rasni and Magru. Being below, one would ex­ by local dhaugris until the Forest- Settlement pect those slate beds to be older than the put a stop to this because it was unecono­ gneiss, but this is not SOl. The real explanation mic as compared with bazar iron, and the is that these mountain streams have remain­ use of dark for charcoal had become a se­ ed in the same channels throughout the rious nuisance.

APPENDIX II Rain-fall record of·Mandi (in inches)

Year ..A.-- Name of Month r- . ~ 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 19b7 1958 1959 1960 1961

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

in. mm. mm. mm. January .. 3·44 2·96 4-·87 3·4-2 3·62 3·62 2·10 mm. 53·8 llS·3 February 2-61 0·69 7·85 0·70 0-4-2 0·4-2 0·26 in. I3S·0 MfLrch 2·61 0·53 1·23 2·57 3·06 3·06 i·3S in. 42·2 81·7 10·6

April 1-4.5 1·30 1-1;7 2·71 2·7~ 34·3 mm. 14·7 24·4- 43·1 May 0·27 1·33 0·.19 1·15 3·27 3·27 25·9 !Um. 44·0 8·1 26·2 June 9·00 7·53 3·83 2·44 5·64 5·64 35·5 mm. 40·5 87·3 137-13 - .July 8·36 29·66 2.1·06 19·60 ~4·a 24·14- 778·6 mm. 441·4 572·0 779·9

August 22-28 17·40 20·55 20·62 7·80 7·80 417·1 mm. 341·9 497·7 439-1 September 1·72 2·71 8·97 10·43 7-49 7·49 ]70·1 mm. 254·7 194·9 152·1 -OcLober 28-64- 1-95 1·95 38·6 mm. 57·6 10·2 39·0 November 1·10 1·10 -11·1-- _ 14·2 Deuember 1-18 1-03 2·39 2·37 2·37 70- I) mID. 29·2 1·3

APPENDIX III 'Extract from Ling.uistic Survey of India by Sir G. R. Greirson'

THE MANDl GROUP Where spoken-The sterile of Mandi lies Mandeali, and will not be considered sepa­ between Kulu and the district of Kangra. rately in these pages. Any important dia­ Immediately to its south lies the State of lectic peculiarities will be dealt with in Suket, which is separated from the Simla describing the· standard dialect. For the pur­ Hill States by the river Sutlaj. North of poses of this survey no separate specimens Mandi lies the Chhota Bahghal canton of were received f'or Northern Mandeali or the Kangra district, as explained ante (P. Chhota Banghali, and the only available 6699, footnote~. This canton is almost unin­ authority for these is the account given by habited, and is divided into two portions by the Rev. T. Grahame Bailey in the State a mountain chain running north and south. Gazetteer and reprinted in his languages of The language of the few inhabitants of the the Northern Himalayas. Published by the 18th hamlets of the Eastern portion of Royal Asiatic Society in the year 1908. Chhota Banghal is Kului more or less mix­ Mr. Bailey says that ther:e are said to be ed with Mandeali, while that of the western three dialects of 'Suketi but that this is portion is the Kangri. form of the Dogra evidently an over refinement. The dialects dialect Punjabi. These facts must be known are named Pahar, Dhar and Bahal. Any in order to understand the dialectic division information available regarding these three - of Mandeali. will be given under the head of Suketi. The language of Mandi is called -Mande­ The people or this tract are prejudiced ali, and that of Suket is called Suketi, the against learning foreign languages, and this two being cl?sely connected. accounts for the" accuracy and consistence with which the specimens given below have The mountainous South Eastern portion of been recorded. Mandeali is evidently a Mandi is Mandeali dialect. The Kulu Siraj IS dialect that has a standard to which its immediately to its East, but the language is speakers endeavour to adhere. not Siraji. It is Mandeali slightly mixed with that lang'uage, and is called Mandeali No separate returns. have been received Pahari. Mandeali proper is spoken over the from Northern Mandeali or for Chhota rest of the State, and Mr. Bailey recognizes Bangha1i; both being included under the three varieties of it. The first is that spoken general head of Mandeali. The total number in the main portion of the State south of the of speakers of this Group has been returned river Bias excluding the Mandeali Pahari as follows:- tract. This' is the standard dialect north of Mandeali 150,000 the Bias }Vhat Mr. Bailey calls Northern Mandeali Pahari 10,000 Mandeali and in the extreI!le north of the State is ,the Chhota Banghali dialect, spoken Suketi 52,184 in a portion of Chhota Banghal which belongs administratively to MandL The two Total 212,184 latter differ very slightly from standard 55

LIST OF 1961 CENSUS PUBLICATIONS OF HIMACHAL PRADESH

ViLLAGE SURVEY MONOGRAPHS District Chamba District Mahasu Chitrarj, Chamba Tehsil (Price Rs. 3.60) Shakrori, Seoni Sub-Tehsil (Price Rs. 3.00) Devi Kothi, Chaurah Teh!Sil (Price Rs. 3.10) Maingal, Chamba Tehsil Bata-1, Arki Tehsil (Price Rs. 2.45) Shathala, Kumharsain Sub-Tehsil (Price Lakkar Mandi, Bhattiyat Tehsil Rs. 5.50) Hatli, Bhattiyat Tehsil (Price Rs. 3.15) Delath, Rampur Tehsil Brahmaur, Brahmaur Sub-Tehsil (Price Rs. 4.20) Chergaon, Rohru Tehsil (Price Rs. 4.65) Kupha, Parmas, Malet and Karoti Gijari, Theog Tehsil (Price Rs. 2.45) (Thamoh). Pangi Sub-Tehsil (JPrice Chaunri, Kasumpti Tehsil • Rs. 4.40) Basal, Solon Tehsil (Price Rs. 4.10) District Mandi Chaupal, Chaupal Tehsil Chauntra, J ongindarnagar Tehsil (Price District Sirmur Rs. 3.25) Rajana, Rainka Tehsil (Price Rs. 5.75) Bir, Mandi Sadar Tehsil (Present) Mo'ginand, Nahan Tehsil (Price Re. 3.75) Kot, Sarkaghat Tehsil (Price Rs. 4.05) _ Kolar, Paonta Tehsil (Price Rs. 3.45) Panjain, Chichqt Tehsil Kamrao, Paonta Tehsil (Price Rs. 3.20Y Nalag, Sundarnagar Tehsil (Price Re. 1.00) District Kinnaur Pangna, Karsog Tehsil (Price Rs. 2.95) Kothi, Kalpa Sub-Division (Price Rs. 3.55) District Bilaspur Nachar, Nachar Sub-Division. (Price Dabhla, Dari and Ghamarwin Tehsil Rs. 4.05) Deoli, Bilaspur Sadar Tehsil Kanum, POO Sub-Division (Price Rs. 8.70)

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS 1961 Census Report, Volume XX-Himachal Pradesh, will be in the following parts- I-A General Report V-B(II) A study of Gaddi Scheduled Tribes I-B Report on Vital Statistics of the Decade and affiliated castes by Prof. William H. including reprints Newell (Price Rs. 2.90) I-C ,Subsidiary Tables VI Village Survey Monographs (31 Villa­ II-A General Population Tables and Pri­ ges) . mary Census Abstracts (Price Rs. 1.75) 1I-B Economic Tables (Price Rs. 5.50) VII-A Survey of handicrafts II-C Cultural & Migration Tables (Price VII-A(l) Go;_td and Silver Ornaments Rs. 7.50). (Price RSI. m.DO) III Household Economic Tables (Price VII-A(n) Art of Weaving (Price Rs. 8.25) Rs. 3.60) VII-B Fairs and Festivals (Price Rs. 17.90) IV Report on Housing and Establishments (Price Rs' 15.50) VIII-A Administration Report-EnumeTa- V-A Special Tables on Scheduled Castes tion (for official use only) and Scheduled Tribes (including re­ VIII-B Administration. Report-Tabulation prints (Price Rs. 6.35) (for official us~ onlyf-- - V-B(I) Ethnographic notes on Scheduled Castes & Scheduled Tribes IX Maps (Atlas), 56

1961 CENSUS HIMACHAL PRADESH GOVENRMENT PUBLICATIONS

District Handbook-Chamba (Price Rs. 6.90) District Handbook--:-Mandi District Handbook-Bilaslpur (Price Rs. 6.05) _];)istrict Handbook-Mahasu District Ha,ndbook-Sirmur District Handbook-Kinnaur (Price Rs. 4.80)

LfB(N)6SCOHP-500-10.4 69-(([.~· Municipal Park with clock tower at Mandi. A Bridge on the Khud.

A small basket for domestic use made of rice stalks. A N agaZ plant used for making baskets. . :. -; Bu.:ih ~ ~1rn--'lhSed · JOT ' oasketi rhdJdng. ... Banana plants A village belle

Dry grass piled for winter use Paddy fields

Goats OkhZi ,,'.- Village musicians

,

V Wage deity Grinding flour .""

An old. house ." .... , "' \

.. ... ~ .

Improvised rain coat .' Lotus leaves