The Process of Change in India and Nepal
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£ apmg Apnis Ajisejoj iueiudo|8A8Q |Bjny ; v !Vd3N QNV VIQNI 30NVHO dO SS300Hd 3H1 :AHlS3HOd AUOlVdlOllUVd ODI Rural Development Forestry Study Guide series Intended to be used at undergraduate and postgraduate degree course level, as well as in short courses and at workshops, they will be of interest to policy-makers, mid- level professionals and programme co-ordinators. The other titles in the series are: 1: The Organisation of Small-Scale Tree Nurseries: Studies from Africa, Asia and Latin America Edwin Shanks and Jane Carter Examines the managerial and organisational aspects of supporting small-scale nurseries and explores the benefits and advantages of decentralisation. Illustrated with case studies from Tanzania, Bolivia, Vietnam, Kenya, Nepal and Sudan. 152pp 1994 £10.95 ISBN 0 85003 202 4 paper 2. Recent Approaches to Participatory Forest Resource Assessment Jane Carter Analyses recent experience in participatory approaches to forest resource assessment, from mapping to complex inventories of many species, for use in the study of rural development forestry up to Masters Degree level. Chapters in the book provide detailed case studies from Nigeria, Ecuador, Mexico, Ghana, Nepal, Indonesia, and Uganda and are supplemented by discussion chapters. The introduction sets the need for participatory forest resource assessment in the context of general developments in forestry, while the concluding chapters draw lessons from the case study material and from other documented field experience. 344pp 1996 £14.95 ISBN 0 85003 232 6 paper Available from ODI Publications, Overseas Development Institute, Regent's College, Inner Circle, Regent's Park, London NW1 4NS Participatory Forestry: The Process of Change in India and Nepal Mary Hobley Participatory Forestry: The Process of Change in India and Nepal Mary Hobley Rural Development Forestry Study Guide 3 Rural Development Forestry Network Overseas Development Institute London 1996 © Overseas Development Institute 1996 * First published 1996 Published by the Overseas Development Institute, Regent's College, Inner Circle, Regent's Park, London NW1 4NS All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without the written permission of the publisher. ISBN 0 85003 204 0 Typeset by Discript, London Printed by Russell Press Ltd, Nottingham Cataloguing in Publication Data for this book is available from the British Library. The research for and production of this book has been supported and financed by: The European Commission DG VIII Project No: Ref B7-5040/91/Q46 Forestry Research Programme, University of Oxford, Halifax House, 6 South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3UB Voluntary Service Overseas, 317 Putney Bridge Road, London SW15 2PN, UK Contents List of Tables vi List of Figures viii List of Boxes ix List of Photographs and Illustrations xii Acronyms xiv Foreword: Arvind Khare xvi Acknowledgements xix Contributors xxi 1 Why Participatory Forestry? 1 2 The Four Ages of Indian Forestry: Colonialism, Commercialism, Conservation and Collaboration 25 3 From Forests to Forestry. The Three Ages of Forestry in Nepal: Privatisation, Nationalisation and Populism Mary Hobley and Yam Malla 65 4 Local Participation and Management Partnerships 93 5 Who Benefits? 137 6 The New Silviculture: India and Nepal Jeff Campbell and B.M.S. Rathore and Peter Branney 175 7 The New Institution 211 8 A New Pragmatic Forestry or another Development Bandwagon? Man/ Hobley and Eva Wollenberg 243 Bibliography 261 Glossary 288 A From Passive to Active Participation: Group Exercise 292 B Group Formation Process 298 C Who are the Stakeholders? 300 D Challenging Assumptions 302 E Participatory Forest Management Planning Exercise 306 F Discussion Questions 309 G Participatory Forest Management: Videos Verity Smith 312 H Information Sources 327 Index 330 List of Tables Table 1.1 The typology of change 3 Table 1.2 A typology of participation: how people participate in development programmes and projects 8 Table 2.1 Four stages of industrial forestry 51 Table 2.2 Policy statement comparison 1894-1988 62 Table 2.3 What is new about joint forest management? 63 Table 3.1 Development of the Forest Department 73 Table 3.2 The number of user groups formed and the area under community forest in Nepal 89 Table 3.3 The emergence of participatory forestry in India and Nepal: 1800s to 1990s 90 Table 4.1 A continuum of stakeholders 98 Table 4.2 The continuum of joint practice for different forest management objectives 103 Table 4.3 Current status of forest user group establishment in 4 hill districts 107 Table 4.4 From plenty to scarcity 115 Table 4.5 Why small farmers do and do not plant and protect trees 115 Table 5.1 Comparison between upland and plains villages and factors affecting potential for collective action 165 Table 5.2 Analysis of joint forest management resolutions 168 Table 5.3 Power and benefits in joint forest management 170 Table 6.1 Technology and forest management matrix 177 Table 6.2 Forest user group characteristics in the Koshi Hills 206 Table 6.3 Criteria affecting the effectiveness and interest of FUGs as forest managers 206 Table 7.1 A problem list of forestry-related institutional constraints 212 VI Table 7.2 Participatory forestry as a lever for organisational change: from old to new 214 Table 7.3 A typology of some of the main NGO and GO roles 229 Table 7.4 The planning framework 240 Table E.I Participatory forest management and planning matrix 308 VH List of Figures Figure 1.1 India 21 Figure 1.2 Nepal . 24 Figure 4.1 A framework for institutional analysis 93 Figure 4.2 The forest management continuum 101 Figure 6.1 Silvicultural diversity 179 Figure 6.2 Malpone's Management Plan 179 Figure 6.3 Sketch map of Mainakhop Giddhekhop Community Forest, Dhankuta District 199 Figure 6.4 Pine Forest Management Chart 202 Figure 7.1 Three-legged stool 227 Figure 7.2 Inter-institutional relationships in JFM 228 V1IL List of Boxes Box 1.1 Terminology for Participatory Forestry 16 Box 1.2 Why Is 'Social' Important in Forestry? 17 Box 1.3 Forests of India 22 Box 1.4 Nepal's Forest Types 23 Box 2.1 Conflicts and Contradictions in Colonial Forestry Policy 30 Box 2.2 Characteristics of Colonial Forestry in India 33 Box 2.3 User Rights Admitted in Demarcated Protected Forests: Mandi and Suket States 38 Box 2.4 Vana Dukha Nivarana Sabha (1886) to the Forest Satyagraha (1930) 47 Box 2.5 How Many Faces Are There to Social Forestry? 54 Box 2.6 Waste' as a Gift 56 Box 2.7 Criticisms of the Social Forestry Era 57 Box 2.8 Principles of Joint Forest Management 59 Box 2.9 From Conflict to Cooperation 60 Box 2.10 Current Status of Joint Forest Management 61 Box 2.11 Chronology of Official Responses, 1952-94 64 Box 3.1 The Jungle Barrier 66 Box 3.2 Community Forestry: Its Origins 70 Box 3.3 Local Management Practices 71 Box 3.4 From Common to Privatised to Open-access Property 72 Box 3.5 The Eight Steps to Disaster 77 Box 3.6 Whither the Trees and Soil? 78 Box 3.7 Disaster Hits the Environment . 78 Box 3.8 The Mana-pathi System 87 Box 3.9 The Forest Act of 1993 88 Box 4.1 Stakeholders and the World Bank 96 Box 4.2 How Robust are Local Forest Management and Protection Institutions: Criteria for Assessment 104 IX Box 4.3 The Form of Forest Management and Institutional Arrangement 108 Box 4.4 Boundaries and Control 112 Box 4.5 Strategies for Resolving Access Conflicts Between Primary and Secondary Users 113 Box 4.6 Tree Planting in Response to Livelihood Security 116 Box 4.7 Users' and Forests' Boundaries: Who Is In and Who Is Out? 121 Box 4.8 Peer Review: the Case of the 'Ghaunle Sabha' 122 Box 4.9 The Staff and Red Turban 123 Box 4.10 Regulation of Access 125 Box 4.11 User Group Formation 126 Box 4.12 Forest Guards and Villagers 128 Box 4.13 The Use of Study Tours to Encourage Experience Exchange 128 Box 4.14 Internal Conflict-Resolution Mechanisms 130 Box 4.15 Failure of the Gram Panchayat System Failure of JFM Organisations 133 Box 4.16 Indicators of Institutional Maturity 135 Box 4.17 Criteria for Assessing Quality of Participation 135 Box 5.1 How the Needs of the Poor Are Ignored 140 Box 5.2 Equity, Conflict, Representation and Indigenous Organisations 142 Box 5.3 Structure of User Committees 142 Box 5.4 Is Proximity the Only Criterion? An Example from Haryana, India 144 Box 5.5 Who Are the Users? 145 Box 5.6 Livelihoods Versus Rights 145 Box 5.7 Women as Forest Offenders 149 Box 5.8 Impurity and the Removal of Women from Domestic Life 150 Box 5.9 Agroforestry Training for Farmers 150 Box 5.10 A Women's User Group 151 Box 5.11 Issues in Community Forestry in the Tarai 155 Box 5.12 Tenure Insecurity and Implications for the Community Forestry Programme 155 Box 5.13 Bauhinia Leaf Plate Collectors 158 Box 5.14 The Tarai Community Forestry Project 159 Box 5.15 Taungya and its Problems 160 Box 5.16 Failed Community Forestry Plantations 161 Box 5.17 Conditions for Success: Case study 1 162 Box 5.18 Conditions for Success: Case study 2 163 Box 5.19 Hills Versus Tarai: Some Realities 164 Box 5.20 The Harvest 167 Box 6.1 Principles of Innovative Silviculture and Management 178 Box 6.2 Participatory Silvicultural Planning Practice in West Bengal 178 Box 6.3 Is it Coppice with Standards or Conversion to High Forest? 180 Box 6.4 From Monoculture to Species Rich Natural Forests: The Experience of the NACFP 184 Box 6.5 Outstanding Questions about Forest Regeneration 185 Box 6.6 Translated Section of the Constitution of Mainakhop Giddhekhop Community Forest User Group, Dhankuta District 196 Box 6.7 Characteristics