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Implications of Age and Diet on Canine Cerebral Cortex Transcription.Pdf Neurobiology of Aging 30 (2009) 1314–1326 Implications of age and diet on canine cerebral cortex transcription Kelly S. Swanson a,b,c,∗, Brittany M. Vester a, Carolyn J. Apanavicius a, Naomi A. Kirby c, Lawrence B. Schook a,b a Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois, 1207 W. Gregory Drive, 162 Animal Sciences Laboratory, Urbana, IL 61801, United States b Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801, United States c Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801, United States Received 29 May 2007; received in revised form 18 October 2007; accepted 27 October 2007 Available online 20 February 2008 Abstract Mechanisms contributing to age-related cognitive decline are poorly defined. Thus, we used canine microarrays to compare gene expression profiles of brain tissue from geriatric and young adult dogs. Cerebral cortex samples were collected from six geriatric (12-year old) and six young adult (1-year old) female beagles after being fed one of two diets (animal protein-based versus plant-protein based) for 12 months. RNA samples were hybridized to Affymetrix GeneChip® Canine Genome Arrays. Statistical analyses indicated that the age had the greatest impact on gene expression, with 963 transcripts differentially expressed in geriatric dogs. Although not as robust as age, diet affected mRNA abundance of 140 transcripts. As demonstrated in aged rodents and humans, geriatric dogs had increased expression of genes associated with inflammation, stress response, and calcium homeostasis and decreased expression of genes associated with neuropeptide signaling and synaptic transmission. In addition to its existing strengths, availability of gene sequence information and commercial microarrays make the canine a powerful model for studying the effects of aging on cognitive function. © 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Keywords: Aging; Brain; Canine; Microarray 1. Introduction To gain a better understanding of brain aging, techniques capable of identifying specific molecular processes have been With age, numerous anatomic and functional changes utilized recently. With the advent of microarray technology, are known to occur within brain tissue and contribute to which enables the measurement of thousands of gene tran- cognitive decline. Decreased brain mass, increased ven- scripts simultaneously, researchers have been able to obtain tricular size, demyelination, neuroaxonal degeneration, and a global view of brain gene expression. Thus far, microarrays decreased cholinergic activity are just a few characteristics of have been used to study aged brain tissue of mice (Jiang et al., the aging canine brain (Borras et al., 1999; Su et al., 1998). 2001; Lee et al., 2000; Weindruch et al., 2002) and humans While numerous factors such as amyloid precursor protein (Erraji-Benchekroun et al., 2005; Lu et al., 2004). From these (APP), ␤-amyloid (A␤), tau protein, and lipofuscin have been initial experiments, aged brain tissue has been reported to linked with cognitive decline and neurodegenerative diseases, have increased expression of genes associated with inflamma- few mechanisms by which they contribute to disease have tory response, oxidative stress, and DNA repair. Conversely, been demonstrated. aged brain tissue has reduced neurotrophic support, mito- chondrial function, and synaptic plasticity. These initial experiments have identified several genes and biological ∗ pathways that may act as targets for dietary or drug inter- Corresponding author at: Department of Animal Sciences, University of vention. Illinois, 1207 W. Gregory Dr., 162 Animal Sciences Laboratory, Urbana, IL 61801, United States. Tel.: +1 217 333 4189; fax: +1 217 333 7861. Dietary intervention is arguably the most important envi- E-mail address: [email protected] (K.S. Swanson). ronmental factor affecting the aging process. Variouschanges 0197-4580/$ – see front matter © 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2007.10.017 K.S. Swanson et al. / Neurobiology of Aging 30 (2009) 1314–1326 1315 to diet have been shown to impact tissue aging and life was to compare gene expression profiles of cerebral cortex expectancy. The effects of caloric restriction, the only inter- tissue from geriatric compared with young adult canines. vention shown to slow the intrinsic rate of aging in mammals Previously we demonstrated that a diet based on animal (Weindruch and Walford, 1988), has been shown to benefi- protein, containing high concentrations of fat and low con- cially affect age-related decline in psychomotor and spatial centrations of fiber, altered whole body metabolism as memory tasks (Ingram et al., 1987), reduce age-associated compared with a plant protein-based diet containing mod- loss of dendritic spines (Moroi-Fetters et al., 1989), and erate amounts of fat and fiber (Swanson et al., 2004). For reduce neuronal degeneration (Duan and Mattson, 1999). example, blood cholesterol was affected by age and diet, with A major focus of the transcriptional profiling experiments old dogs and dogs fed the high-fat diet having greater blood reported by Lee et al. (2000) and Weindruch et al. (2002) was cholesterol concentrations. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and to evaluate the effects of caloric restriction on brain tissue corticosteroid-induced alkaline phosphatase (CALP), an gene expression profiles. In those studies, caloric restric- isoenzyme unique to dogs, were also influenced by age and tion was reported to attenuate many of the negative changes diet. In particular, geriatric dogs fed the high-fat diet had in gene expression that occur with increased age, including increasing ALP concentrations over time, which was primar- inflammatory and stress response genes. ily due to a dramatic increase (∼5-fold) in CALP compared Besides caloric restriction, other dietary factors are known with geriatric dogs fed the low-fat diet. This study extends to affect tissue aging and may be used to maintain brain those findings to determine changes in cerebral transcrip- health. Dietary fat and cholesterol inclusion levels and fatty tional activity as a function of diet and age. acid type may impact cognitive development and the effects of aging on brain health. It has been reported that both the generation and clearance of A␤ are regulated by cholesterol, 2. Materials and methods which modulates the processing of both APP and A␤. Ele- vated cholesterol level increases A␤ in cellular and most 2.1. Animals and diets animal models and is a risk factor for Alzheimer’s dis- ease (AD) (Jarvik et al., 1995). Dietary fat intake has also Six geriatric (average age = 11.1-year old at baseline; Ken- been associated with psychosocial and cognitive function nelwood Inc., Champaign, IL) and six weanling (8-week old in young children. While total fat and saturated fat intake at baseline; Marshall Farms USA, Inc., North Rose, NY) were unrelated to performance on achievement and intelli- female beagles were used in this experiment. Three dogs of gence tests, cholesterol and polyunsaturated fatty acid intakes each age were assigned to one of two dietary treatments. Diets were associated with decreased and increased performance, tested in this experiment were previously shown to manip- respectively (Zhang et al., 2005). ulate energy metabolism, including cholesterol metabolism, While numerous rodent models may be used to study brain as reported elsewhere (Kuzmuk et al., 2005; Swanson et al., aging, the utility of the aged dog model has been demon- 2004). Dry kibble diets were manufactured by Wenger Man- strated by several research groups over the past decade. The ufacturing Company (Sabetha, KS) as described by Swanson dog model has several advantages, in that they: (1) share et al. (2004) and fed for 12 months. many of the same environmental conditions with humans; (2) One diet was an animal-protein-based diet (APB) and can perform a sophisticated repertoire of complex cognitive was composed primarily of highly digestible ingredients and behaviors; (3) show many of the same pathological changes animal-derived protein and fat sources (brewer’s rice, poultry as humans; and (4) develop neuropathologic changes that by-product meal, poultry fat) and was formulated to contain are significantly associated with cognitive decline (Cotman 28% protein, 23% fat, and 5% dietary fiber. The other diet was et al., 2002). Aged dogs have been shown to develop many a plant-protein-based diet (PPB) and was composed primar- of the same neurological features as elderly humans. Briefly, ily of moderately digestible plant-derived ingredients (corn, decreased frontal lobe volume (Tapp et al., 2004), ventric- soybean meal, wheat middlings, and meat and bone meal) ular enlargement (Su et al., 1998), ␤-amyloid accumulation and was formulated to contain 26% protein, 11% fat, and (Borras et al., 1999; Tapp et al., 2004), and lipofuscin accu- 15% dietary fiber. Although the two diets were very differ- mulation (Borras et al., 1999) have been demonstrated in aged ent in terms of ingredient and chemical composition, both dogs. Moreover, the neuropathologic changes that occur with were formulated to meet or exceed all nutrient requirements age are associated with cognitive changes (Chan et al., 2002; for canine growth according to the Association of American Milgram et al., 1994; Tapp et al., 2003) and behavioral alter- Feed Control Officials (AAFCO, 2007). Youngdogs were fed ations (Siwak et al., 2001, 2003) in dogs as they are in elderly ad libitum to allow
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