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How and Why Did the Phd Degree Evolve Into Its Modern Form?

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How and Why Did the Phd Degree Evolve Into Its Modern Form? How and why did the PhD degree evolve into its modern form? David Gordon World Federation for Medical Education Copenhagen • Organisation of this talk – Universities in Europe before 1500 – The structure of four faculties – Higher degrees in these faculties – why? – The doctorate in philosophy, to match other doctorates – The employment of holders of the PhD, and higher qualifications (habilitation etc.) – The modern PhD – Parts of the history that remain – Germany? Scandinavia? Russia? UK? ….. Universities in Europe before 1500 • Founded by Emperors and Popes (long after universities in the Arabic world…) • Bologna (1088), Paris (1200?), Oxford (1200?), Cambridge (~1209), Salamanca, Coimbra, Prague, Krakow, Vienna (1365), Pécs, Heidelberg (1386) …. • For the education of future leaders of society, particularly clergy, lawyers, doctors and administrators The structure of four faculties • Theology • Law (often in two parts) • Medicine • Philosophy – the study of science, and of the arts What did a higher degree mean? – masters and doctors (1) • The bachelor degree was a very basic level of learning – maybe like an 18-year old school leaver today • The master degree was evidence that you had “mastered” your subject • A doctorate was gained by scholarship rather than research and was evidence that you could teach (“doctor” = “teacher”) as well as being qualified to practise in your subject • Note – achievement rather than time What did a higher degree mean? – masters and doctors (2) • Theology – doctor of theology (or similar) • Law – doctor of canon law, or of civil law • Medicine – MD – and in all these “higher” faculties, admission to the profession granted by the doctorate • Philosophy – – no doctorates – a bachelor degree in “philosophy” sometimes needed before enrolment in one of the “higher” faculties When and where did the pressure for a doctorate in philosophy happen? • The PhD was not unknown (Paris ~1200?) • In Germany, between ~1750 – 1850 particularly at the University of Berlin (founded 1810 by von Humboldt) • Why? – an ambitious young land-owning and administrative group: – why should the other faculties award doctorates, and not philosophy? – reduced interest in theology The outcome • The acceptance that doctorates could be awarded in the philosophical faculty • Soon becoming a favoured – often essential – qualification for a higher cultural, administrative or political position (as a theological qualification had been in the middle ages) • Often scholarship more than research The employment of holders of the PhD, and higher qualifications • If a doctorate in theology, or law, was a licence to teach, then was a PhD a licence to teach? • Concerns over the pressure of more and more well qualified young men (… yes …) wishing a career in teaching, and sometimes in research • Therefore, the development of a higher academic qualification – the habilitation Habilitation – when and where • Germany, the German-influenced countries (central Europe, Scandinavia, etc.) • Ideas that are accepted, evolve, spread and persist … are probably good ideas, at least in part? • But – is this extra step between the start of an academic career (the PhD) and highest appointment (a professorship) really necessary? • Can the inhibition to international careers that it causes be justified? The development of the modern PhD (1) • In the mid-late 19th century, students from the USA and elsewhere began to appreciate the value of a degree that recognised their higher academic ability – • - particularly in research • Hence the introduction of the PhD into USA universities from the 1860s onward • Later elsewhere (~1910 in the UK) The development of the modern PhD (2) • In the late 19th century, and increasing recognition of the social and economic importance of research – chemistry, engineering, textiles, sociology etc. – and of the value of well-educated and research capable young people • Increasingly (and continuing even today) seen as an entry qualification into an academic career • The incomplete resolution of the potential conflict between scholarship and research Historical remnants (1) • Germany and related countries – The habilitation – “A PhD in clinical medicine is not possible! Verboten!” – An uncertain conflict between the PhD and the habilitation as the crucial entry point to an academic career • Scandinavia – Graduates from a first degree being only candidates for the next stage Historical remnants (2) • UK – The master’s degree as, effectively, the first degree in some universities – Higher doctorates – not just in theology, medicine and law, but also science (ScD), literature (LittD) and so on – some surviving as “scholarship” until <50 years ago • Russia and Russian-influenced countries – The CandSci degree, and higher doctorates Conclusions of this talk • Background – Universities in Europe before 1500 – The structure of four faculties – Higher degrees in these faculties – why? – The doctorate in philosophy, to match other doctorates – The employment of holders of the PhD, and higher qualifications (habilitation etc.) – The modern PhD – Parts of the history that remain – Germany? Scandinavia? Russia? UK? ….. • We are not in a static position: academic degree structures, including the PhD, continue to evolve, and this is the cause of many initiatives, including those about standards for the PhD .
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