Social Studies Collection No. 34
The Transition to Adulthood in Spain 34Economic Crisis and Late Emancipation
Almudena Moreno Mínguez (coordinator) Antonio López Peláez Sagrario Segado Sánchez-Cabezudo
1 Welfare Projects. The spirit of ”la Caixa”. Social Studies Collection No. 34
The Transition to Adulthood in Spain Economic Crisis and Late Emancipation
Almudena Moreno Mínguez (coordinator) Antonio López Peláez Sagrario Segado Sánchez-Cabezudo
With the collaboration of Alberto Juliá Cano Enrique Crespo Ballesteros Publication: ”la Caixa” Welfare Projects
Author: Almudena Moreno Mínguez (coord.), Antonio López Peláez, Sagrario Segado Sánchez-Cabezudo
Translated by: Jed Rosenstein
Design and layout: cege
Coordination of publication: Fellowship Programs and Social Studies
© Almudena Moreno Mínguez, Antonio López Peláez, Sagrario Segado Sánchez-Cabezudo © ”la Caixa” Welfare Projects, 2012 Av. Diagonal, 621 - 08028 Barcelona Almudena Moreno Mínguez is Professor of Sociology at the visiting scholar at the School of Social Welfare (University of University of Valladolid, Spain. She has a PhD in sociology from California, Berkeley, USA), the University at Potsdam (Germany) the Autonomous University of Barcelona and is the author of and Americana University in Nicaragua. He is the director of many publications on young people, family change, welfare Comunitania. International Journal of Social Work and Social states and the situation of women. She has been a visiting scholar Sciences. He recently served as editor of the monograph «Juventud at Oxford University, the University of Turin, the University of y trabajo social» [Youth and Social Work], (Revista de Estudios de Chicago and the University of Gothenburg. Most recently she Juventud 97, 2012). edited the monograph «Family well-being: European perspectives» (Social Indicators Research 49, 2012), and she has published Sagrario Segado Sánchez-Cabezudo is an assistant articles in European Societies, Revista de Educación and Young: professor of Social Work and Social Services at the Universidad Nordic Journal of Youth Research, among others. She is the co- Nacional de Educación a Distancia, UNED [National Distance author of the Informe de Juventud [Youth Report] 2008. Education University]. He has a PhD in social work and a bachelor’s degree in psychology. His research is focused on the analysis of Antonio López Peláez is a Full Professor of Social Work social problems in families, youth and childhood and on methods and Social Services in the Department of Social Work, Faculty of of social intervention. He has been a visiting researcher at the Law, of the Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, University of California and the University of Potsdam. His recent UNED [National Distance Education University], the largest publications include Nuevas tendencias en trabajo social con public university in Spain. He has a PhD in Philosophy and familias: una propuesta para la práctica desde el empowerment [New Sociology. His research interests include: analysis of social trends in social work with families: a proposal for an empowerment- problems of interculturality, methods of social intervention, based practice] (2011). intersections of new technologies and social work. He has been T
Introduction Presentation III. II. I.
able ofContents 3.4. 3.3. 3.2. 3.1. Family andresidential transitions 2.4. 2.3. 2.2. 2.1. 1.3. 1.2. 1.1. Background andjustification for thestudy from acomparativeperspective The processes oftransition toadulthoodinEurope of transitionstoadulthood Theoretical framework: the interpretative context ofthestudy Structure Hypothesis, andmethodology objectives Lifestyles and family typologies Lifestyles and family typologies Forming acouple andafamily of crisis inemancipationpathstimes Determining factors people inSpain Emancipation andresidential transitions ofyoung School to work transitions among young peopleinEurope Lifestyles ofEurope’s young people into adulthood ofentry Social assessmentoftransitional markers analysis a typological Attitudinal profiles toward transitions to adulthood: Transitional modelsindifferent ofwelfare types regimes of young people andindividualisation:thenewsituation Destandardisation theoretical paradigmsMajor ontransitions to adulthood
66 61 53 49 49 40 35 28 27 22 19 15 26 14 13 10 9 9 7 Conclusion
Indexoftablesandgraphs Bibliography Methodologicalappendix V.
IV. g
Specific conclusions 5.5. 5.4. 5.3. 5.2. Challenges for the 21st century Challenges for the21stcentury 5.1. Young people’s transitions,socialservicesandpolicies 4.4. 4.3. 4.2. 4.1. School toworktransitionsandhealth eneral conclusions The needfor youth policiesintimesofeconomic crisis From to NGOs:atwo-way socialservices street? people andpreventing inyoung vulnerability Social services What istherole ofsocialservices? Young andfailed transitions: people, participation Social policy andyoung people’sSocial policy transitions The importance ofeducation,employment andhealth The importance Young people’s health and overqualification Integration professional inthelabourmarket, careers Young people’s transitions by educationlevel andgender 115 115 113 111 109 105 117 138 127 124 121 99 96 92 87 82 73 71
Table of Contents Presentation eoe oe ifcl t fn a tbe o ta poie the provides that job stable a find to difficult more become has it time,as same old.years Atthe thirty to close are they until home parents’ their leave not do people youngaverage on that traditionally associated with adult life. In Spain, statistics indicate in the age at which young people take on the tasks and functions delay significant a seen havewe decades recent in example,For difficult process. have paths life turned possible the transition to of adulthood into a diversity complex and the potentially and future the about grandparents.However,and parents their of uncertainties those consumer and personal than greaterincomparably aretoday people young of freedoms and opportunities educational The the in participants active becoming in improvement ofsociety. them and engage opportunities and have must development personal people their foster and stimulate that incentives young things accomplish these To objectives. and priorities future their establish and projects life their define adulthood, of responsibilities the assume to prepareindividualswhich in life in stage theYouth is 7 in theway young people approach adultresponsibilities. crisis is transforming, or perhaps accentuating, economic certain tendencies the which to extent the analyse they Secondly, case. Spanish the of specificities the identifying and models different distinguishing countries, European other of that with situation Spanish the compare they First, perspective. dual a from so do They people. young Spanish among adulthood to transition the in involvedprocesses main the review study this of authors The generations. thus, increasing the risk of social exclusion and conflict with older people need to young confidenceconstruct the viable undermine projects can to opportunity achieve of independence, lack This insecurity. increasing and been opportunities reducing adulthood, to has Spain that transition the of difficulty crisis the increased has 2008 sincesuffering employment and economic The are well into theirthirties. consequence, they a until childrenhaving delaying up end couplesyoung many As increased. have training and education to dedicated years the independent, become to needed resources
Presentation national levels, together with a review of European and regional local, the at governments on focuses analysis Their youngof intopeople society. processthe facilitating insertion of The authors also analyse youth policies and their effectiveness in face in becoming independent and in carrying out adult roles in roles adult out carrying in and independent becoming in face Caixa” ”la Foundation the seeks of to provide Collection data on Studies the difficulties Social young people the study, this With increase itseffectiveness. to changed be can policy which in ways examine they Finally, Union policy. 8 o ol te elbig f on pol, u as te future the also growth andcohesiveness but ofoursociety. people, young of well-being the only not the family and the labour market, key processes which determine Welfare Projects andChiefExecutive O Executive of”laCaixa” Director J aime LanaspaGatnau ”la Caixa” Foundation Barcelona, July2012 fficer ofthe
Presentation Introduction I ntr o d u cti n
Background and justification for the study One of the most important changes we go through in life is the process of integration into adulthood. Although the meaning In a time of deep transformation, with an economic crisis that has and stages of this process have changed, there are still clear hit young people particularly hard, it has become a priority to steps in the process to acquire autonomy and take on the analyse their transition to adulthood. In this period of economic responsibilities of independence. Today, these changes occur in instability, young people around the world are calling for change a social environment characterised by individualisation and de- in the social model of globalisation and the mechanisms of standardisation. By individualisation, we refer to the progressive political and institutional representation which have hitherto separation of personal decisions from traditional social norms guided the capitalist economic system. that determined the life trajectories of young people in the past, such as leaving the family home, finishing school, entering the While our objective is not to analyse the well-known 15-M labour market, forming a relationship and having children (Beck movement, which has been led by young people in Spain, it is and Beck Gernsheim, 2003; Meil, 2011). The concept of de- closely related to this. We aim to describe and contextualise the standardisation refers to the process by which individuals follow economic, employment and family situation of young people more complex paths, apart from traditional linear and and to understand how they construct their biographical projects. conventional trajectories. This is reflected in the fact that young The key analytical contribution of this study is to help us better adults may often change their personal and social situation. For understand the motivations of young people and to interpret the example, they can drop out of school and go back later, leave actions of a group often stigmatised by public opinion and the home and return, have multiple jobs, multiple partners, start a mass media, unfairly labelled as the ‘neither-nor generation’, family, separate, and create a new one (López Blasco, 2005; ‘numb generation’, ‘Peter Pan generation’ or ‘lost generation’. Machado, 2007).
9 research. previous by analysed partially been only have which origin, and sex country, by differences important are There way. same the in situation this experiencing are people young all not Europe, in trend general a is this Although transitions. residential, work and on family impact their and family the and market labour the state, welfare the of role the about questions raises people young of situation employment and economic worsening The subjects the both on atlarge. andsociety themselves makers aswell asonpolicy conditions these of impact the explain autonomy and independence. Through such analysis we hope to acquire to seek crisis, economic of situation a in caught people, young which in conditions institutional and normative cultural, A of important. analysis principal aim of especially this study is to present the economic, individual, comparative is countries a and crisis situations economic individual of period this In 2010). (Kathleen, strengthened been has profession, and stable a couple finding certain and a family, assuming forming home, delay leaving to as such trend responsibilities, the clear: are implications The future. the about uncertainty greater even to leading thus that has characterised the situation of youth in Spain for decades, crisis has only economic intensified current the the people, economic young insecurity For and policies. social limiteddependence public and market labour declining a of result the instability, young people. of We are situation in a family period of and growing economic economic and employment social, the on impact Moreover, changes in modern welfare states have also had a clear 10 dependence on the family, in combination with a welfare state welfare a with combination in family, the on dependence Moreover,youngpeople’sSpanish of distinctiveness cultural the the school-to-work transition. make or relationship a form home, family the leave to adopted and origin (autochthonous or immigrant) determine the strategies Factorsgender,as such age, level,education employment status settings, which decisively influence family their and transitions to cultural adulthood. institutional, different in live people following: young the is research our of point starting theoretical The slight trend toward earlier emancipation that had begunalready tobased on dependence emerge.on the family and has neutralised a In other words, the crisis has contributed to consolidating a thelifestyle family (with the consequent delay in dependence on precarious employmentleaving and by marked already the parental home). wereSpain in peopleyoung of lives currentthecrisis beforethe that argue We case? the this is Why time. over stable remained impact on young people’s limited emancipation a from had the hasfamily, institutional protection, insufficient and whichcrisis has youngofpeople Spain,in compounded currenttheby economic identify followinghypothesis: to Thevulnerability thatcharacterises thelives us allowingcharacteristics that are specific framework,to Spain. European comparative a people’sadulthoodinyoungSpanish transitions to of analysis single path to adulthood. In this study we are going to focus on the people’s lives are shaped by multiple transitional processes withto school no to work and family ‘transitions’, as we believe that young Based on these preliminary considerations we have chosen to refer Hypothesis, andmethodology objectives O urstudy is based on the
Introduction the fundamental milestones that make up the stages of transition of analysis the around organised is here presented research The the risks and challenges of modern society. torespond they which inways the on expectationsand their on the on consequences unforeseenopportunities young people havehave in constructing their may adult lives, factors these of and economic young people face Spanish from a transversal situations cultural, perspective. different The interaction the explain of to factors impactinstitutional the combining analysis, that has allowed us to carry out a descriptive and comprehensive We have chosen a broad theoretical and methodological approach course oflife. and may refer to multipletransitional pathsandsituationsinthe concept of youth/youngthe adulthood can be that defined in many true ways is it range, age this in adulthood youth/young of While for operational analysis we have chosen to define the stage transition to adulthood is taking increasingly longer to complete. the that young believe we as on age, of years permit) 34 and data 16 between people (where study this in focus we reason imposition’.this ‘byFor youth and of prolongation of paradigm the economic to choice’ be ‘by youth mayof prolongation worsening of crisis paradigm the the changing to due the group or this of situation Still, people employment young couples. by headed cohabiting households single-person as the toautonomy, such and independence of forms obstacle new of emergence an been not last has however, the This, years. during twenty Spain in people young among emancipation residential of pattern homogeneous relatively a of maintenance the part in people,explain youngfor support little provides that 11 f aiy rniin aog pns yug epe The people: young Spanish among transitions family of having children and life style in order to formation, explain couplethe particularities to regard in transitions family describe To 4- variables. status on residential emancipation, taking into account the above the influence of factors such as education level and employment sex, by years ten last nationality and age the group. The overultimate goal has adults been to interpret young emancipated of have used an indicator which shows the changes in the percentage as of part the process of integration into adult life: To this end we 3.- To examine the residential transitions of Spanish young people factors the different contributing to thelate emancipationofSpanishyoung adults. explain to in us enable people will young This countries: among European home family the leaving in education levels and employment status and trends related to Todifferences2.- typologies, family comparativeof a analysis do of young peopleinSpainandotherEuropean countries. and to understand the differences between the transition trends countries European other in counterparts their to comparison how in adulthood interpret to transitions to understand people possible This young Spanish it working): make begin will and analysis school comparative finish to age the children; at (age Europeans and partner a haveto age the adult; an markers considered is one young which transitional how main the of assess analysis and understand comparative a do To 1.- in thefollowing objectives: to adulthood from a gender perspective, and can be summarised
Introduction longitudinal perspective, following the life course a apply toover aim our not was It transitions. of generations analysis longitudinal dynamic a than rather milestones, transitional of analysis static approach. transversal a do to chosen havewesources, a the of characteristics the Given applying and sources European and national both from data secondary interpreting and gathering Toachieve we objectives these have quantitativeused methods, people. young of emancipation late the – study this in identified factors tosupport young people, helps to explain – along with the other This institutional framework, youth. which provides on only limited and lines residual action EU of context the in youth Spanish to government and services social by paid attention scant the social vulnerability among young people. in Europe and the role of social services in policies youth the of overview an context provide we objective of final a As increasing 6.- self-perceived healthandpoverty. the as such indicators through people young of health their of the state examine also will we characterise this, to relation In over-qualification. that and under- of impact the precariousness as well as adulthood, into integration and vulnerability young people in order to identify the main factors generating the 5.- To analyse the education and employment situation of Spanish available. was data when perspective Europeancomparative a introduced have We typologies. family and pregnancy first at age fertility, of measures summary rates, marriage cohabitation), (e.g.marriage, partnerships of types were used indicators demographic Our purpose is to reveal 12 nesadn te urn stain f on pol ad the future that liesahead. and people young of situation current the understanding for task fundamental a remains markers transitional of analysis the future, the for expectations of lack people’s young Spanish of sense the in 2009) Calvo, (Gil ‘irrelevant’ somewhat become have transitions Although perspective. European comparative a introduced have we permitted, data Where people. young at aimed policies public of context the family,within a and couple a of formation the and integration market labour home, family mark milestones in the life of a young person, such methodological as leaving the and that transitions those on focus to theoretical chosen haveWe perspectives. different from approached be can adulthood to people’stransitions young of analysis The crisis, ofourstudy. theobjective between 16 and 34 years of age in the current period of economic comprehensive source of of data on the transitions situation of no young is people there However, the decades. recent in on people young María Spanish Santa Fundación the and Institute Youth Spanish the by out carried been have studies Numerous Active Survey. Economically the 2004-2009, Population Survey Survey and other sources, such as the National Health Life of Quality Living Conditions (EU-SILC). As for the Spanish data, we used the Labour European (ESS), European the and Survey (ELS) Survey Social European the as such the objectives and are from different on European statistical sources based selected were variables and indicators The research. our of objectives the and used sources of type the analysis, this of perspective Europeancomparative the given cohort, birth by nion Statistics on Income and Income on Statistics Union
Introduction actual actual role of such policies and services in transitions the analyse to to is objective ultimate adulthood.The people. young at aimed evaluate the impact this has on youth policies and social services secondly,to and resources, and priorities services social analyse to first, perspectives: two from issue this explore to is aim The services. social of perspective the from Spain in and Europe in and age the fifth gender,chapter we briefly review social policies on for In young transitions.people’speople young based affect these how and nationality, inequalities are there whether education, emancipation: of employment, process health and poverty. the The basic objective in is to analyse people young of fourth chapter, we discuss the In key chapter. previous variables the in that revealed they affect attitudes the the with vulnerability youngpeople’sof reality contrastschapterthe this short, In lives this chapter we also discuss indicators related to family typologies. the in emancipation of Spanish time young people, by over age, sex and behaviourorigin. In of patterns analysing on focus we employment situation of this group in and Europe. education In the the and third lifestyles chapter family at look also We labour market. the entering and parent a becoming partner, a having as such adulthood, define that markers the toward Europeans a do we youngof attitudes and comparativeexpectations the of analysis chapter second the interpretive In adopted. the have present we framework to order in adulthood to transitions a critical analysis of the various existing theoretical approaches on offers and contextualises chapter first The above. described premises analytical the to responds study this of structure The ofthisstudy Structure 13 for generational replacement to occur. and,opportunities therefore, without the resources or prospects generationcitizensnew of from becominggeneration awithout the in this people prevent to objective: clear very a youngwith state welfare Spanish for policies their and exacerbates services social which reassess crisis, economic to necessary is it situation, this dependence.In of and vulnerability situation a in home, finding work and forming a family of their own, particularly summarises the challenges young people in Spain face in leaving The last chapter presents the major conclusions of this study and
Introduction I. Theoretical framework: the interpretative context of transitions to adulthood oo d o ad u lth
In our increasingly diverse and cosmopolitan welfare societies, by many researchers, is that the transition to adult life is taking longer which since 2008 have been suffering a severe economic crisis, to complete and is characterised by a plurality of behaviours. young people face an increasingly complex future. It seems that However, there are significant and sometimes contradictory t o f transiti o ns t there is no longer one single linear path to follow in their transition differences in the way this is interpreted in the social sciences. to adulthood. Both success and failure are being redefined, and Therefore, any analysis of these issues must begin with a review of o nte x this transition is taking longer to complete. How do we explain the main areas of research that have attempted to explain the this? Is it possible to open up the ‘black box’ and see what is meaning of these transitions to adulthood. In addition, as Spain is a happening within the processes that take place in the transition part of the European Union, this must be done from a comparative to adulthood? How are these processes affecting young people’s perspective. Given the nature of our work, we will focus only on some potential to become participating citizens, have careers and of the most important theories. Our approach encompasses the develop their life projects? Answering these questions will help institutional context (structure) in which these processes occur and us to describe and interpret what is happening in our democratic considers the socio-historical conditions (economic, cultural, social, societies and to establish social policies to intervene in their familial and institutional) and individual circumstances (sex, age, development. In this chapter, we analyse the most important education, nationality) in which young people pass into adulthood. theoretical debates on transitions to adulthood, providing the foundation for the examination of the fundamental issues we will First, we will briefly describe the main theoretical approaches to be analysing in this study. transitions to adulthood. Then we will discuss what we consider to be two key processes affecting the lives of young people today: The rapid social change resulting from the processes of individualisation and destandardisation. To conclude this chapter, individualisation and destandardisation has transformed the we will analyse the similarities and differences observed in the c T he o retical framew o rk : the interpretative meaning of the transition to adulthood. One initial effect, observed study of youth transitions in several European Union countries.
14 complex andfragmented. conceptual difficulties arise when these processes become more processes occur in a synchronised and standardised manner. The these when problematic not is adulthood totransitions defining family to According a children). forming having and and couple a career), (forming a beginning and job a finding labour the into integrating market and acquiring home), economic independence (finishing studies, own parental one’s form the to (leaving home independence residential acquiring of G and policy public housing, resources etal.,2010). (Becker status, employment education, (G as such factors of impact the on been has focus the perspective, home parental the G leaving and family of of process meaning the (i.e. with partnership associated changes that 1.1. post-modern values. This would include family behaviours associated with the increase in divorce, unmarried divorce, in increase couples livingtogether, children being bornoutsideofmarriage, etc.the with associated behaviours family include would This values. post-modern and post-materialist of rise the with and values in changes with associated patterns family new by characterised 1 the of perspective the From transition, demographic experts. the among consensus any reached having process,without this of meaning an years extensive recent body of In adulthood’.literature has to been ‘transition produced on by the ambivalent meant is what Before considering the theoretical debate, it is necessary to define t
o adulthood oldscheider, 1999; Billari and Liefbroer, 2010). From an economic alland (1991) defined the transition to adulthood as the period the as adulthood totransition the defined (1991) alland Van de Kaa (2002) referred to the ‘second demographic transition’ in the industrialised countries as a process a as countries industrialised the transition’in ‘seconddemographic the to referred (2002) Kaa Vande paMajor theoretical r arae r oaiain hv hd n the on had have cohabitation) or marriage 1 analysts have emphasised the impact impact the emphasised have analysts adigms ontr lshie and oldscheider ansition G second alland, 15 question of why young people in Spain leave the family home family the leave Spain in people young why of question the on analyses rigorous contributing adulthood, to transition people’syoung about written been has decades,recentmuch In the latest interpretive positions adopted insociology. and date, to research main threethe together draw can adulthood, that theories to transitions about debates traditional the at look will we research, our to relevant perspectives theoretical as such authors of approaches analytical the or theories conflict functionalism, developed, which are integrated into broader paradigms such as have approaches theoretical several youth, of sociology the of field the in emancipation youth of phenomenon the Toanalyse family home, but rather with multiple interdependent processes. the leaving with associated only not is independent Becoming themselves. people young for and sociology for meaning new on takes home parental the Leaving sequence. for this identity of and outside look autonomy own they their acquire Instead, to family. ways alternative a starting and independence economicjob, acquiring a finding school, finishing home, family Young people no longer follow the linear sequence of leaving the heterogeneous (Blossfeld, 2005). extremely become have adulthood to transitions control, and manage to complex more become and significantly increased Requena, 2006). In a globalised context in which social risks have 2003; emancipation (Pais, the whole of a as lengthening process the and diversity their by have which adulthood,changed considerably in recent decades, are today to characterised transitions that agree Researchers iddens, Beck and Bourdieu. Summarising the Summarising Bourdieu. and Beck Giddens, l av, 05 Snl, 2005; Singly, 2005; Calvo, Gil
Theoretical framework: the interpretative context of transitions to adulthood associatedtransitionthewithwork, schoolfromforminglifeto a determinants institutional and social the from freedom greater which he calls these (2004), Arnettyoung livespeople,ofthe period in new achanges tomaypoint to According responsibility. of rejection they make, based on leisure and consumption practices and their choicesof result a people’sisyoung lifeadult into delayedentry international comparative data seeking to confirm the thesis that interestingprovides Arnett (2004). theory ‘emergingadulthood’ resources. An interpretation of this trend can be found in Arnett’s and ethnicity, as well as the availabilitygender of ofinfluences culturalsocial the benefits and conditionsand economic public and unemployment,workingprecarious as such factorsstructural of influencethe underindependently albeitchoose,people young a common trend across Europe, is related to the new lifestyles that choice of young people themselves. This delay, which has become the asemancipation in delay the explainsfirst perspectives.The In this regard, we would like to highlight two general interpretive the of and explainlife trajectories. describe causes to ways the different offered on has ‘youth’ of Research prolongation emancipation. in delay the is Europethroughout people young of characteristic common A nor generation’, etc. ‘kidults’,as such terms with them generation’,label ‘lost ‘neither- which and decided being is future their which in institutions the and live they which in world the between gap growing is There in movement response protest to the economic a crisis and their lead lack of future prospects. people young as today, relevant later than their European counterparts. This question is particularly emerging adulthood , This period is characterised by 16 hs fcos n nlsn ti sae f ie ae eeoe in developed sociology: havean approach lifethat focuses on of the life stage cycle; an approach this analysing in factors these Different theoretical positions based on the givenimportance to adults. independent become and home family people’s young the leave to choose freely to ability limit their therefore, and, choices factors These policies. institutional and related to the labour market, the and familial situation economic factors structural of result the is people’s dependence young of Arnett’s that the arguing thesis, question prolongation theorists These 2007). Molgat, 2005; Bynner, 2005; Nilsen, and (Brannen context national to according differs and group population this of outcomes course This life the determines ultimately environment conditions). socio-economic and family culture, policies, ( live people young which in environment structural the of importance the emphasised have theorists social other emancipation, of processes of homogeneity the highlights that perspective individualistic and psychological this to contrast In people’s young marked transition that to adulthood in the recent past. roles) social and determined (norms structurally factors the than importance greater (agency) subjectacquire the of action the and individualism which in framework has led theirto a new interpretation on of transitional dependent processes residentiallyfamilies and focused and on economicallyfinding their are own identities. who This theoretical responsibilities, assuming and children having of expectations primarily to young adults between 20 and 30 years of age with no and adulthoodcharacteristicandis adolescencedevelopedof countries. applies It between cycle life the of phase prolonged a with a partner and starting a family. Arnett argues that this is now e.g. e.g. social social
Theoretical framework: the interpretative context of transitions to adulthood based on the contributions of symbolic interactionism (Blumer, interactionism symbolic of contributions the on based biographies, individual analyses approach theoretical third The scenario inparent-child relationships. new the of illustrative is it perspective, this address to going not are we co- study this in Although of support. economic and norms existence negotiate to have they whom with generations consumption practices, which are foreign to members of previous participation pioneering and lifestyles byidentity,driven of often expressions new citizen involves emancipation Their and 2007). Moran, production and (Benedict cultural of forms new their with reform social future of promise the carry and history of force driving the are people Young potential. transformative socially and ‘dynamic’ population’s this highlights perspective If generations. older system of childhood to adulthood socialisation, the generational by created world functionalism refers to young people in a ‘static’ manner within a the with ruptures milestones, as analysed are Youthtransitions generations. older generations, of role the analysing the conflict between generations on of young people and focuses perspective second The is aresponse to thelimitationsofthisapproach. school or getting a good job. The analysis presented in this book completion of pre-established sequential steps, such as finishing a as adulthood progressive the by characterised development, linear of process to transitions different analyses perspective This sociology. functionalist to related closely is cycle’ ‘life a as The conceptualisation of this stage of youth or young adulthood concept,as itskey andfinally, aninstitutionalapproach. based on generational position; an approach that takes life paths 17 f rniin (óe Bac ad u osRyod 2003). Bois-Reymond, Du and Blasco (López transitions of for other analytical criteria more focused on the individualisation way the paved has have perspective in subject change This surpassed. the been on theory sociological classical guided the that people, theories young of behaviour the explain to tools In the past twenty years, with the introduction of new conceptual 1.1.1. the affect emancipation. factors of process individual the in people young and of expectations and behaviour institutional how at look will study,we this nationality.In and class gender,social as such and environment,social choices markers,family toand addition individual in the and of culture norms, result of influence the the under is made decisions people young of trajectory the Paugam, 2001; Wallace and Bendit, 2010; Walther, 2006). In short, (G youngpeople among emancipation processesof the the state and examines the influence of public policies in defining of dimension institutional the emphasises approach fourth The the needfor andfamily protection. security and independence for desire the between conflict explicit less or more a of emergence the and autonomy personal for quest a from puberty to full emancipation from family of origin; it involves life of each individual. Youth is defined as a stage of life that goes the up make that to paths the defining is in aspects these objective integrate main the perspective, this From expectations. and choices,emotions her or his to life,meaning own giving her who is regarded as historical subject and key protagonist in actor,his or social the of is paradigm this of premise basic The 1982). Contemporary debates: Between choice andcontext allie and allie
Theoretical framework: the interpretative context of transitions to adulthood personal project based on his or her preferences and linked to his a for responsible directly is person young every that means This socialisation. of subject a as than rather emancipation, to path her or his on subject active an as person young the views that This theoretical interpretation is coupled with a conceptualisation have become increasingly blurred (GilCalvo, cycle 2005). life the in stages other from period this separating an considered is uncertain stage in the youth biography of an individual; the of boundaries condition new the Rather, change. and adulthood, nor adolescence as between period a transition social a category as to solely understand understood generational longer no is youth addition, In today. society in autonomy and independence seeking of process the on factors normative and (2005) and Van de Velde (2008) highlight the impact of axiological Morgan and Holdsworth as such scholars lines, same the Along et al.,2009). (Walther countries Europeandifferent in families and couples of formation the and employment education, regardingbehaviour people’s young explain to structures institutional and cultural great approach, attaches importance to ‘biographical (2006), choices’ This within group the context of research specific Walther’s transitions. by advanced people’s young understanding in subjectivity of importance the emphasises perspective This socio-economic context. within anincreasingly uncertain normative all transitions, their in negotiate must people young and that factors cultural global of impact the and by mediated institutional are effects interpretations, these to According 18 igahe. hs s h tertcl prah e ae n the in take we present study. approach individual theoretical the of is differentiations This biographies. emerging the conventional with characterise transitions that coordinates standardised the reconcile to approach theoretical multifaceted sufficiently a and Pais (2007), the challenge tois in define of trying an study object adulthood in the Western world. Therefore, of as noted by Machado globalisation the to transitions of by meaning the altered substantially have markets generated uncertainty the and the roles situation, economic overall the reshaping of higher and education systems, the redefinition market of gender labour the In this sense, factors such as the impact of the economic crisis on to thoseofpreviousdecline withrespect generations. in be to understood are conditions living current which in one context; economic uncertain and unstable an within transitions 2012). In both cases, we see that young people have to make social their by caused change (Bynner, effects 2005; negative Brannen and the Nilsen 2005 to ; Moreno adequately Minguez, respond due to their inability to control the available opportunities and to group this by others faced risks the to pointing arguments However, these refute 2009). al., et Walther 2004; (Arnett, exist that experiences thanks to the wide range of options and alternatives choices, improving their opportunities, as they can multiply their in the social environment have led to young people having more two different perspectives. Some researchers argue that changes contexts of emancipation, and also makes it possible to their and distinguish people young of choices the between relationship the 2006). This approach stresses the (Furlong micro-macro circumstances dialectic regarding contextual and individual her or t al., et
Theoretical framework: the interpretative context of transitions to adulthood • • differentiation and individualisation, which are explained below: deinstitutionalisation, of processes the around these revolve changes people; young of lives the in live. changes substantive we been have which there years twenty last in the in (2001), context Mayer to According socio-historical the account into constructed is from and simultaneous identification with others – we must take identity which by – process understood as the a complex and analysing structured process In of differentiation 1.2.1. of the processes of destandardisation and individualisation. As a result, we believe it is necessaryin theirto brieflyattempts analyseto achievethe importanceresidential In and fact,economic they independence.often have to alter decisionsclear normativethey haveguidelines made afteron howfailures to meaningnavigatetotransitions toadulthood. the Youngpath people totoday individualisation,have adulthood.no – destandardisation change andglobalisation, social forexample ofaregiving – new processes combined The situ the new dESTA ndardisation andindividu 1.2. h isaiiy of instability the (e.g. factors structural of influence the by Differentiation: Biographical paths are increasingly differentiated social norms, have become more flexible; this has direct direct has adulthood. to pathway a continue this flexible; or reverse change, to more people’sability young on consequences become have norms, social and circumstances life, in during the defined past by and legal experienced events transitions, The Deinstitutionalisation: Identity, difference anddeinstitutionalisation ation ofyoung people alisation:
19 • ieped ik, hc afc te eiin te mk about make they decisions the affect which risks, widespread of form the in people young of lives the in manifestedare world The uncertainties of an increasingly interconnected yet precarious the and people young elderly (Ebbinghaus, 2002). of independence and autonomy the promote to policies of strengthening the by accompanied be to the deinstitutionalisation of the situation of young people is likely contradictory effects can also be rates.seen at the institutional level, as out of drop levels high high with combines education which system, education Spain’s of themselves over find or they under-qualified for but the generations, job past market than due to education the to characteristics access greater have people young hand, one the on adulthood: has to This transition the for 2004). implications paradoxical even (Skelton, and obvious fragile increasingly it made and life of stage this prolonged has convergenceprocessesThe these of oto yug epe ae vr eiin aig Bc and (Beck Beck making decision increasing over have the people to young control refers specifically it paragraphs; previous the in mentioned youngpeople of situation the in changes the Individualisation: The term ‘individualisation’ is used to describe new technologies). of use the by encouraged communication, and relationships personal of forms of structured less and forms family lengthening traditional and diversification schooling) and by the emergence of new the social norms (e.g. non- and employment adulthood. to paths individual in diversity greater implies this transitions, G ernsheim, 2003; Giddens, 1991; Meil, 2011). In the case of te te hn, the hand, other the On
Theoretical framework: the interpretative context of transitions to adulthood through as a result of their contact with adults and with latter highlights the stages institutions of socialisation that young people go The emancipation. their out carry they way the paths,people’s young of content the represent transitions former, the of case placing both in an overall biographical context (Pais, 2003). In the adulthood and as as transitionsrefer toThus, can we still heirto traditional socialisationprocesses. find themselves in is characterised by greater autonomy, people though young situation new The 2005). (Singly, increasing are and pre-established ones of the past; complexity and multiplicity work and family. New transition paths now join the conventional education, adulthood: to transition the of pillars traditional the increasedin has instability as time same downthe at broken has transitions of linearity exists.The longer no schemas predictable and patterned on based process emancipation an of logic The Mills, and (Blossfeld 2010). responsibilities family assume even and well-being decisions maintain careers, make lasting create to employment, about people young for difficult more it making being. multiplied, especially in terms of consumption and material well- have life of quality the in improvement for opportunities hand, normative people’syoung traditional of transitions. markers key as served of destabilisation had now until that work) particular,and (in education structures the changes to These communication. contribute of means a as technologies new of use massive the and competitiveness increases markets, their futures. their On the other hand, access to these opportunities is volatile, lobalisation promotes the internationalisation of internationalisation the promotes Globalisation process of socialisation and social reproduction, from childhood to movementchildhood from n the one the On 20 sharing a flat with friends or renting a room, or live with a partner own their on live people youngmarried.Many getting or school people young today. for Leaving home does not necessarily coincide experience with finishing diverse and fragmented highly a become has home family the from emancipation sense, this In come from different socialandpersonalcontexts. reason, it is necessary to study the situation of young this people who For people. young Spanish among and countries between differences identify to us of allows perspective This processes emancipation. on and impact clear a economic has nationality, and cultural, education the that argue institutional context, as well as individual factors such as sex, we age, approach, this be can process In perspective. institutional havean from analysis focusthe to chosen we study emancipation this In perspectives. different the from interpreted of transformation The fixed andpatterned transition paths. Bois-Reymond,Dureplace part 2003),inandwhichadded areto Reymond,‘do-it-yourselfor1998) biographies’ (LópezBlascoand ‘choiceasreferred biographies’tobeBois- can(Du complex and social context (Leccardi, 2005). Therefore, their paths become moremeaning theattributewiththeythatgiven theirwithinpath a to types of decisions that young people can make and act on but also a result, the new sociology of youth is not only concerned with the meaning to the paths they have travelled and have yet to travel. As socialand determinants defines theirsocial integration andgives and of destination. The tension between having to make choices that young people will make in their social environment of origin choices the condition formulas Both policies). social and market labour the system, school (e.g.integrationthe fortheir designed
Theoretical framework: the interpretative context of transitions to adulthood These negative situations can have negative consequences for consequences negative have can situations negative These abuse, disability caused by accidents and episodes of depression. substance qualification, or degree a receiving without school of emancipation on impact processes (Casal negative or positive their to regard in others as reversible as be not may that paths some are There structure and ascribed elements, such as class, gender or ethnicity. The of types transitions to adulthood are closely related to social (Evans, 2002). choices their of effects side inevitable the be to freedom this to attached risks the consider and destinyown their choose to free and types of capital available to them. At the same time, they feel depend on external also influences, but social pressuresdesires, and their the of resources expression an only not are make they manage to develop their projects in the same way, as the decisions however,live; they which in them of reality all the not of aspects structural be to Younginstability and perceiveinsecurity people that young peoplemustreconcile with theirfreedom ofaction. pressures exert changes socio-economic with associated generation were more likely to accept. At the same time, the risks might reject manual work, which young people of the preceding they perhaps 1991): (Inglehart, employment possible of quality havepeople’syounginfluenced the preferencesassessing when Post-materialist values, such as personal expression and creativity, with parents (GilCalvo, 2005;G negotiations and circumstances personal on depending home family the leave and enter or commitment, long-term a without et al., 2006). Consider, for example, dropping out entile, 2010). 21 as well aspersonalsituationsdefinedby sex,ageandethnicity. structural effects related the to public analyse policies and to the labour tried market, have we book, this in presented study the establishing and one’s(Casal home own housing finding work, to starting schooling, the formal their of in aspects, modification which are not still characterised by sequential stages such though as substantial follow, people a young trajectories in result changes These structured by childhood, youth, family and work life and old age. is which cycle, life the of development the in changes are there period, historical each In emancipation. in her or has his out person carrying young a autonomy of degree the determining in role vital a play situation transitions.personal and environment the defining Both in considered be also must services) and well as the social and institutional context groups), (employment, housing as peer status, socio-economic and and ethnicity gender, as such families factors parents, as (such referents Social their emancipation(Bradley andDevadason, 2008). of spheres material and symbolic, relational, the and individual the between mediation or negotiation of areas find we a result, As negative). or positive whether experiences, own their on (based environment their shape and make lives their about They decisions roles. pre-determined assuming to limited no are longer people young century, twenty-first the in point this At or travelling andlearningforeign languages. example, getting a scholarship, experience with new technologies positive events, which result in advances or new perspectives: for the rest of a person’s life. Similarly, we can consider the of impact , 2006). Applying this perspective in perspective this Applying 2006). al., et
Theoretical framework: the interpretative context of transitions to adulthood 1.3. neoliberal our in environment) canproduce theopposite: failedpaths. model social a as (proposed strategies such through path biographical one’sown and fulfilment group and again in the future’ (Honneth, 2009: 401). The pursuit of personal when ‘after failing to realise one’s intention, one is less likely to try sense formulated by Axel Honneth: an the experience or principle is flawed in paradoxical, be can of as – well trajectories people’s logic as young context socio-historical the current the that define to emphasise seem that also principles guiding – must individualisation and we destructuration point, this At concrete socialcontexts. in emancipation their consolidating in actors decisive be must people young which in autonomy of conception new a to point of proliferation social the networks, and forms of market consumption and labour ways the of living in together challenges transitions. New in delay a with associated are that lifestyles youth certain account into take to is strategy research our of aim The people’s transitions in different European countries. The The countries. European different comparative approach allows in us to distinguish between different transitions people’s incorporate a to comparative perspective been in order has to research observe this young our of Following part emancipation’.important an logic, of analytical ‘context the of their example an out is transitions carry family and people residential young employment, educational, which in regime welfare The welf are egimes Tr ansitional modelsindiffer t ypes of 22 to the assistance each family household provides its members). and Italy,Portugal(Spain,Mediterranean regimes and limited), more are protection employment and benefits social where Ireland, the as (such regimes liberal category); occupational on countries that focus on employment (France, and where coverage regimes depends corporatist Sweden, with high protection of and the Denmark in rights as (suchdemocratic/universalist regimessocialof between citizens); differentiating conservative/ models state welfare analyse authors and 2000) (1993, Esping-Andersen of contributions theoretical the on based developed been conceptualisationhas Thiscountries. different in emancipation youth of patterns varying the explain that structures cultural and institutionaleconomic, the of effect institutional frameworks. The term ‘regime’and nationalrefers different to in the peoplecombined young of behaviour the individual contextualise to us allows it because useful is perspective U European the in countriesthe grouping andregimes’‘transition Wehave adopted Walther’s approach (2006) definingin different crisis. economic the by caused regimes welfare state model, and finally, we the analyse new for challenges these welfare Spanish the of characteristics this important some present From state. in European welfare the models state welfare Spanish different analyse first the we perspective, in processes define that these characteristics the identifying change, social and young between people and in trends the relationship structures nion according to these regimes. The inclusion of this analytical G G reece, where social protection is rather poor and secondary allie and Paugam (2000) on types of welfare states. These states.welfare of types on (2000) Paugam and allie U nion in relation to young people; secondly, we secondly, people; young to relation in nion G ray n te Netherlands, the and ermany U K and K
Theoretical framework: the interpretative context of transitions to adulthood The The study. the for selected regimes welfare different the in people young by experienced typology highlights This the peculiarities regimes. and similarities transition in transitions four propose we are analysis, the simplify there to and indicators although these on Based level. macro the on structures that implies transitions youth differences between countries, institutional there may This be similar in 2003). commonalities on (Kaufmann, based grouped be have indicators can countries in which a to typology define researchers These enabled policies. gender and family dimensions social, and policies, different youth policies; employment systems; education state; includes model in summarised the of following structures indicators: the welfare comparative This people is to participate in this socialisation scheme in order to order in scheme socialisation this in participate to is people young among expectation dominant The curriculum. oriented selective education system, with a standardised and employment- and by an inclusive is characterised France Netherlands, the and The equality. gender and women’s sector, employment public the of development the to a contributed have that provide policies gender and also family of range wide they addition, In workplace. the in motivation individual and security fostering the at aimed are guarantee countries these to enough in policies flexible Employment paths. de-standardised of are construction they as courses, life people’s young of individualisation the reflect and integrated clearly are education vocational and university which in system educational comprehensive a by characterised is Finland, and Nordic transition Nordic otnna tasto regime transition continental
regime , which includes Sweden, Denmark Denmark Sweden, includes which , , which includes includes which , G ermany, 23 transition regime transition O and social assistthemintheirtransitions.family policiesthatdirectly of absence virtual the to due high particularly also low-skilled occupations. The risk of exclusion for young people is in and part-time work often they but women high, is employed are who of proportion The flexibility. great by characterised is achieve must they which market labour Thepossible. in as soon as independence economic people young of course life the in stage a is This market. labour the into integration stable and responsibility in providing for their own well-being through rapid people’syoung on emphasis individual particular Ireland, places The breadwinner. male the of figure the on and based households social of Family, formation the assistance. favour social policies gender of need the in through up end path thus, and, the not do who follow those and employment, who to system and education those groups: educational two into This obtained. people young of differentiation to the leads policy employment qualifications academic the through status occupational and social desired the achieve on the family as a response to limited institutional support. institutional limited to response a as family the on dependence people’s young accentuates work and education between mismatch This transitions. school-to-work for support paths available (vocational training and and university) its is lack of regime This transitions, its rigid education systems in terms countries. of the educational other residential to promote policies of youth by lack its characterised with comparison a make to general us allow will characteristics its of identification the f particular interest for our research is the the is research our for interest particular f wih nlds the includes which regime, transition Saxon Anglo- found in Spain, Portugal, Italy and and Italy Portugal, Spain, in found Southern European European Southern G reece, as as reece, and UK
Theoretical framework: the interpretative context of transitions to adulthood youth through social policies. According to According policies. social through youth to of the Spanish welfare emancipation state not supporting part in due is partner’. This a and job a home, own their ‘having mean to life adult to transitions the understand and family the through identity their construct people young model, Spanish the in Velde, de Van to According emancipation. for strategies people’s and, young therefore, identity personal of construction the affect market labour the and policy public that stressed and models transition European analysed has (2008) Velde de Van (Migliavacca, 2008). The recognition of the importance of of importance the of recognition The 2008). (Migliavacca, model, among especially made households up of young couples the of replacement gradual the in seen be can change increased This countries. European other has in rates employment female work and men of rates paid in women significantly in Spain, of although it still remains participation behind employment The individuals. on binding less comparatively are relationships northern and central in Europe where families gender relations and parent-child of and other family role ‘weakened’ the with housework and contrasts model this (1998), explained has parenting Reher demographer in the As model. women family Mediterranean traditional the characterise and co-responsibility men of example, lack between For the perspective. and comparative solidarity intergenerational a in people young Spanish are of emancipation of countries context the Mediterranean understand to the crucial of features distinctive The toward step a as dependency autonomy. personal and independence acquiring on based identity a build common to people young Spanish allows house parents’ the in ae breadwinner male family system with the the with system family G aviria (2007), living living (2007), aviria earners dual 24 large and small businesses, the public and private sectors and and sectors private and public the businesses, between small and large fragmentation marked a by economic an characterised is this structure to of Added potential qualifications. the high exploiting with those in effect little and people for young creation job on effect little had have policies employment people have also been weak 2012). Moreover, (Moreno Minguez, young at aimed services social why have and Spain, people in young limited been for support of policies why explains part in This 2009). Fernández, (Moreno model liberal the and model Europe occupy an intermediate position between the corporatist In regard to regulation of the economy, the countries of Southern adulthood. to paths their build people young in Spanish which context family the is This 2003). (Naldini, market labour the into integration and assistance personal to regard in especially clientelism, and dynamics serving as a informal replacement for to the nearly residual lead state intervention, can relationships in networks of mutual support (Kohli (Kohli support mutual of networks in through money transfers, time and the exchange of care social capital and support financial provide members Family countries. (family practices members providing for individual each other’s welfare) regarding in the Mediterranean the imagination in reference collective primary the as and (material, emotional) welfare and basic symbolic of provider as family the of centrality G 2004). law and, more gradually, into the daily life of of households (Flaquer, foundations relations, which, over time, is also cultural being into incorporated family the weaken patriarchy and to is leading to an egalitarian conception of conjugal helping is equality rowing gender equality has not substantially changed the the changed substantially not has equality gender rowing et al. et , 2007). These kinds of kinds These , 2007).
Theoretical framework: the interpretative context of transitions to adulthood of southern Europe, where stagnating growth and large deficits deficits large and growth stagnating where Europe, southern of to benefits social of reduce public regulation spending. This is the especially the case a in increasing the countries are requiring countries Europe, throughout benefits, types of and intervention groups of Some beneficiaries. urgency of of amount the of terms in agenda political the of reorganisation matter a is financing social in readjustment A states. welfare of stability the jeopardised has markets from pressure 2008, September Since complete to manage barely 2006). (Requena, can schooling mandatory who those and education gap specialised and the long a widening afford can who is people young society between knowledge the to access while internationally, spread have pressures market However, today. people young for opportunities social and individual of range G interaction their in surroundings. their with and life adult to transition their in people young on effect direct a have policy public and transfers social markets, labour in integration to Approaches 2005). Velde, de (Van case Spanish the in strategies solidarity intergenerational a way such as specific to intra- and situation, his or her particular in responds person young each emancipation which through developed have of processes different regimes these of each In 2007). Rhodes, and (Molina workers all for programmes protection in stable and investment as well as groups, strong interest specific among coalitions of formation the hinder differences These characteristics. socio-economic different with regions between lobalisation and new technologies have greatly expanded the the expanded greatly have technologies new and lobalisation 25 global contexts, in times of crisis and despite the crisis. the despite and crisis of times in contexts, global also but contexts national in specific emancipation with dealing are people how young perspective a from transversal to analyse is, important therefore, It families. by their guaranteed is it as far so in only sustainable be may and vulnerability economic Youngavoid generations. to younger strategy defensive a is transitions the of postponement peoples’ by faced and precarious future the of uncertain indicator reliable a is 2008b) Minguez, (Moreno semi-dependency in increase the Spain, In strategies. These affect tensions adversely young Europeans’ emancipation increases. debt public and decline savings private as grow families on pressures the while banks, by offered credit of young of capital human the and are fail to policies inadequate social replace people; the lack of undervaluation the employment to unstable leads inaccessible; increasingly housing are and the markets markets for labour people: implications young obvious of have emancipation it an to find to solution taken being immediate measures the and crisis the of effects the both Consequently, countries. many in policies social and for welfare implications important has this and system, financial The economic crisis has revealed weaknesses in the international people. young on repercussions negative very has limit any of possibility investment and economic recovery, which
Theoretical framework: the interpretative context of transitions to adulthood In addition, education can no longer be thought of as a stage prior to a integration in the as labour market, but as of a continuous and thought be longer no can education addition, In adulthood. to transition the in marker key a remains home leaving studies, comparative new in international Nevertheless, independence. all, with economic of use the above and, relationships consumption, sexual of beginning the as technologies, such factors with also but family, a personal of formation the and independence Achieving residential family home, the leaving 2006). with identified only Ruspini, longer no is and autonomy (Leccardi insecurity risk uncertainty, and of situations new open with them in presents reflected is This define. and negotiate themselves people processes young itineraries transitional of ‘de- ritualisation’ progressive The 2007). Pais, 2003; Bois-Reymond, Du and Blasco (López developments biographical flexible by increasingly characterised diversified, and individualised become have Transitions function. normative their of part have lost transition adulthood. to Europeans young of transition the on written been has Much II. from ac on t The processesftransiti O ver recent decades the traditional markers of this this of markers traditional the decades recent ver omparative perspective 26 (ELS). data from the2010EuropeanLabourSurvey European current most the on based transitions work to school we Finally, them. to give address the residential and family people lifestyles of and young people young and their that emancipation value of symbolic patterns have the that events defined the traditionally to attitudes the identify then We (ESS). perspective, based on data from the 2006 comparative a from adulthood into entry the define that events 1 n hs hpe w lo a nraie representations normative at look we chapter this In for promotion andretraining. formulas new and integration market labour of forms unstable of proliferation the with context, economic and the on discontinuous dependent volatile, more becoming are paths Career returns. and withdrawals intermittent with process prolonged In thischapter we usetheconcept of‘norm’ asthemoral convention for sociallyapproved behaviour. o adulthood in Europe European Social Survey 1 f the of
The processes of transition to adulthood in Europe from a comparative perspective and Ferreira (2010), based on This comparative analysis takes as its starting point usedthe studythe bytypology Pais of transition regimes thepresented circumstances in that definethe thefirst transitions chapter. to adulthood we havecategorising In attitudinal profiles youngofpeople with regard to adulthood: at 2.1. A countries into previously defined groups based on a series of variables. In short, it establishes a comparative a establishes it short, In variables. of basedontheresponses giventypology by respondents to the2007European Social Survey. series a on based groups defined previously into countries 2 biographical factors related to the history of each individual (López to thesemarkers tends to bemitigated and transition partly of replaced by value other normative and of symbolic the group, this markers In adulthood. traditional the regarding attitudes ‘de- The unconventional countries. by characterised selected is group five clusterstandardised’ the of each in respondents of patterns normative the groups responses) of (group cluster Each clusters. defined previously regarding trends attitudinal of Ingraph 2.1, five countries were selected for comparative analysis each country should be taken into account. classificationoftypethis of reflecting inheterogeneity the within Despitetheinformational value these profiles have, thelimitations home,startingwork, marryingcohabiting or having andchildren. adulthood based on indicators such as of analysis,the process fourage attitudinal of the profilesleaving emerge the regarding in parental the transition markers toemancipation keybasedthe responseson youngof people. From of this importance the quantifies countries participating European different in thethe in interviewed individuals of responses
hs osss n n dacd ttsia tcnqe ht rus h rsoss f niiul fo different from individuals of responses the groups that technique statistical advanced an in consists This itudinal profiles t tt ypol anal ogical two step cluster analysis European Social Survey o ward tr y si ansition . This technique , 2 applied to the o 27 people in Spain being torn between the family-based past of of present past and the their generation parents’ more de-standardised family-based the with between torn being percentage Spain in high people a has also (35%). attitudes Possibly this standardised is by explained Spain young higher but even Sweden; attitudes, than de-standardised with persons young For countries. of percentage selected high a have Netherlands the and the Spain example, between profiles of distribution G the traditional markers as sequential and lineal steps. see Theylife. adult into entry thestandardisedtoward attitudes The fourth and final cluster includes those young people that show life, rather thanindividualemancipation. extent that they promote reconciliation between work and family integrationviewedpositivelyare the to market relatedlabour to the relationship with a partner and family formation. These The markers to attitudes. related markers to value familist symbolic high attach people young essentially groups cluster third The family home. other markers with characteristic are of transitions, they for thanexample, independence, leaving tothe fundamental job, considered time full a having about concerned more are they Hence, circumstancesthat positively all impact on their personal on autonomy. value place people an young with These individuals attitude.individualistic of profiles the groups cluster second The de- of percentage high a is standardised attitudes. there where Sweden, is cluster BlascoBois-Reymond,Duand 2003).The primaryexample this of raph 2.1 shows a distinct and sometimes contradictory contradictory sometimes and distinct a shows 2.1 raph
The processes of transition to adulthood in Europe from a comparative perspective Source: European SocialSurvey, 2007,inPais andFerreira (2010). of attitudes. These attitudinal patterns, as will be seen in in seen be will as patterns, attitudinal symbolic These attitudes. of and de-standardisation the toward a tendency is there life, normative adult to transitions normative define that no events the is on people’s consensus there symbolic and Europe in young Although adulthood to representations. on transition the of based markers the for framework typological general a identify to us allows table summary This attitudes. standardised of percentage most France, France. the Netherlands and the in in extent lesser are a to and attitudes Sweden in common Individualistic live. they which in Gr 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 0 aph 2.1: SWEDEN Destandardised Normative patterns inthetransition to adulthoodfor various European countries (percentages) THE NETHERLANDS G ermany and Spain stand out for the high high the for out stand Spain and ermany Individualistic FRANCE Familist GERMANY Standardised SPAIN 28 adults? 3 epe ewe 1 ad 5 osdr dlho t begin. to adulthood consider 35 and 16 between people young when of country by ages averages the shows 2.1 Table understand their behaviour to othertransitions withrespect to adulthood. to order in elements, key other among work, and age of entry into adult life, the must formation of the couple, the family we why the toward people young is of attitudes the deeply more examine This transitions. of representation symbolic contradictory a have people young Spanish why understanding in factors critical become parents, their of home the in remain are the couple and the family, as well Spain as the prolonged time children in people paradoxically young values, traditional on which dependent less increasingly in change of context a In of entry int 2.2. is markers transitional necessary, onewhichpays attention to genderdifferences. these of representation symbolic and normative the of analysis detailed more noted,a is ambivalence future. the about expectations optimistic of sign clear standardisation between a profiles, de-standardised relatively and – adulthood into entry polarisation certain – represented by the positive value placed on linear processes of a indicate presented typology the on based profiles attitudinal Spain, In behaviours. observed to correspond not do Spain, of case the in 3 chapter
The original question was: At what age, approximately, would you say (girls or women/boys or men) become men) or women/boys or (girls approximately,say age,you what would At was: question original The Social assessmentofr o adulthood ansitional marker nce this Once 3 The
The processes of transition to adulthood in Europe from a comparative perspective countries are minimal regarding the assessment young people young assessment the regarding minimal are countries can we data conclude that the this differences between FromSpain and other significant. European particularly not are Denmark, earlier, as such countries Sweden or Finland, with where young people traditionally the leave home differences in people the young However, to comparison in ‘later’ is that one adulthood in Spain similar to that of young people in France, and into entry the normativerepresentationof a suggest data These that the ideal age for becoming an adult is 20.1 and women 21.4. relatively higher in all countries. For example, in Spain men think the in 18.8 toSweden in 20.0 rangesfromintoadulthood average givemen forthat entry age *: Dataisnotavailable. 2: The datahasbeenobtainedfrom Eurostat 2010andcorresponds to theyear 2007. Note: 1:The datahasbeenobtainedfrom andcorresponds theEuropean to SocialSurvey theyear 2006. G Spain Denmark Finland France Portugal nited Kingdom United Sweden ermany T able 2.1: Realemancipationageandconsidered ideal to become anadult PECTED A EXPECTED N FAMILYABANDON ME 1 HOME K. For women, the average age is averageage Forthe women, UK. 21.4 21.7 19.0 20.0 20.8 21.6 20.4 19.9 E T GE O * * FAMILY2 HOME REAL A REAL ABANDON 24.5 28.8 22.5 23.6 29.0 24.1 E T GE O
UK. 29 h assmns f on pol rgrig ok fml and living family with a partner work, from a gender regarding perspective (Moreno Minguez people young of assessments the home help us to understand the great diversity found in studying into adulthood and the realto age of leavingbe the age of entry ‘considered’age the in differences These men. than ages earlier we leave at womenactually home that leaving seen home,be can it If adulthood. into for ages actual the entry with sexes both of perceptions the of compare age appropriate the for men between countries. In general, women give a later threshold than Regarding gender differences, there are no substantial differences this. on available are data no the there but added maturity, be personal of also component must this psychological To in 2008). people Velde, young de for (Van identity Spain of indicator the an in is membership group Thus, family family. the of part being still Spanish while achieved be first, can autonomy the personal that from think people stemming young and secondly, family the and leaving of home age the with two adult an for becoming of age primarily the associate is not do it people young Spanish Spain, and that first, in reasons: home assessments parental these the if leaving for that age average real the to conclude correspond not do to representations us leads this on Reflecting adulthood. into entry of patterns normative the on Europe in convergence some is there data, these on Based being difference this 2.1). home, highintheSpanishcase(Table particularly leave do actually people young considered appropriate are to leave home and there the average age Where when home. family the significant differences is in the betweeninterval the average age leave to age the of make
The processes of transition to adulthood in Europe from a comparative perspective children, there are no substantive differences by gender among gender by differences substantive no are there children, have and couple a form to age the of assessment the Regarding gender roles onpatterns ofmenandwomen’s emancipation. of impact potential the to point they and accepted socially legitimated and are they emancipation, actual regarding facts the and Source: basedondatafrom theEuropean SocialSurvey, 2006. Total Sweden Kingdom United Portugal France Spain Denmark G T able 2.2: ermany G entile, 2011). Although these representations contradict contradict representations these Although 2011). entile, young peopleunder35years ofageby sexandcountry Average ageconsidered idealto become anadultamong dev.3.2 dev.3.2 dev.2.6 dev.3.3 dev.2.9 dev.3.8 dev.2.9 dev.0.3 MEN 19.7 20.0 18.8 19.9 20.2 20.1 19.9 19.5 A E T GE BE AN ADULTAN BE O WOMEN dev.0.4 dev.4.7 dev.3.2 dev.3.9 dev.4.3 dev.0.4 dev.3.5 dev.3.8 20.7 20.6 19.0 20.8 22.0 21.4 21.6 20.6 dev.3.6 dev.0.4 dev.2.9 dev.3.7 dev.3.8 dev.0.4 dev.3.3 dev.3.5 20.2 ALL 20.3 18.9 20.4 21.1 20.7 20.7 20.0 30 (see Table 2.3 and 2.4). The data are signs of certain structural structural certain of signs are data The 2.4). and 2.3 Table (see the expectations people have regarding countries the formation of a couple the all than higher is marriage first countries,at the age all In actual the for average the considered in the table, Regarding Spain has the fourth highest after France. men. for 32.4 and women for 30.2 was 2009 the in marriage where first at Spain, age average in especially but countries, all in behaviour actual from differ attitudes that see we Table2.3), (see marriage If we compare this to the data provided by Eurostat on age at first countries donotexceed arange ofthree years. in the countries participating in the ESS, but differences between respondents all among age highest the is this 26.7; married, get Spanish case the ideal age the given to initiate In living as a countries.couple is 24.2 and between to or 35, under people young Source: basedonEurostat (2010) andO Sweden Kingdom United Portugal Italy France Spain Denmark G ermany T able 2.3: Age atfirstmarriage by sex,2009 ffices ofNationalStatistics. T 33.4 31.0 28.4 31.2 31.0 31.3 32.7 30.9 O TAL MEN 34.9 32.2 29.2 32.6 32.1 32.4 33.8 32.4 WOMEN 32.0 29.9 27.6 29.9 30.0 30.2 31.5 29.5
The processes of transition to adulthood in Europe from a comparative perspective Source: basedondatafrom theEuropean SocialSurvey, 2006. we find a range of approximately six years (depending on the on (depending years six approximately of range a find we Although there are no significant differences between countries, stable relationship withapartner. a forming regarding expectations their satisfying of possibilities people’syoung limiting are which difficulties, employment and determinants young Europeans must overcome, such as economic Denmark Spain France Portugal nited Kingdom United Sweden Total G ermany T able 2.4: dev.3.8 dev.3.4 dev.3.7 dev.3.5 dev.3.8 dev.5.9 dev.3.9 MEN 25.7 26.6 26.7 25.5 24.9 24.4 26.3 26.3 dev.4 Average ageconsidered idealto form amongyoung acouple andto marry A people under35years ofageby sexandcountry E T GE MARRY O WOMEN dev.3.9 dev.2.7 dev.3.3 dev.3.6 dev.3.5 dev.4.2 dev.3.7 25.9 26.5 26.6 25.8 24.8 25.2 26.4 26.3 dev.4 31 regarding transitional markers. match youngwhich these attitudes actually people’s behaviours to extent the at look be will chapter next the In couple. a form young toage age the haveintoand people adulthood forestablished entry the between gap a find we Thus, married. get and ideal intofor adulthood and entry the ideal age to form a couple considered age the between difference the regarding country) dev.3.9 dev.3.5 dev.3.5 dev.3.7 dev.4.1 dev.5.1 dev.3.8 25.8 26.5 26.7 25.6 24.8 24.8 26.3 26.3 dev.3 ALL dev.3.4 dev.2.8 dev.3.5 dev.2.7 dev.3.4 dev.3.6 dev.2.7 dev.3.4 MEN 22.3 21.6 24.1 21.7 23.7 21.1 20.9 22.5 A E T GE LIVE IN A C A IN LIVE O WOMEN dev.2.9 dev.2.5 dev.3.1 dev.2.6 dev.3.7 dev.3.2 dev.2.8 dev.3.1 22.6 22.3 24.4 22.4 24.0 21.5 21.4 22.3 OUPLE dev.3.2 dev.2.7 dev.3.3 dev.2.7 dev.3.6 dev.3.4 dev.2.8 dev.3.2 22.4 22.0 24.2 22.1 23.8 21.3 21.2 22.4 ALL
The processes of transition to adulthood in Europe from a comparative perspective Source: basedondata from theEuropean SocialSurvey, 2006. Bernardi andRequena,2003;Cabre, 2007,CES,2002). 2006, (Baizán, haveshown studies numerous child,as first the of in Spain is also delaying the formation of the couple and the birth suggest that the effect of the late emancipation of young people years higher than the rest of the countries considered. These data 28.3 years of age, the highest in Europe and approximately 2 to 3 high in all countries (table 2.5), but especially in Spain, where it is The age considered ideal for the birth of the first child is relatively T G Total Sweden Kingdom United Portugal France Spain Denmark ablE 2.5: ermany people under35years ofageby sexandcountry Average ageconsidered idealto beparents amongyoung dev.3.7 dev.3.5 dev.4.4 dev.3.5 dev.3.2 dev.3.6 dev.2.8 dev.3.4 MEN 26.7 27.0 26.7 25.6 25.9 26.1 28.3 26.7 A E T GE WOMEN BE PARENTSBE O dev.3.5 dev.3.4 dev.4.1 dev.3.4 dev.3.1 dev.3.3 dev.2.7 dev.3.3 27.0 27.2 27.0 26.0 26.1 26.6 28.3 27.1 ALL dev.3.6 dev.3.5 dev.4.3 dev.3.5 dev.3.2 dev.3.5 dev.2.7 dev.3.4 26.8 27.1 26.9 25.8 26.0 26.4 28.3 26.9 32 prolonged young people’s transitions into the labour market market 2009). and (Eurostat, labour the impeded into has transitions people’s system young education prolonged Spanish the of rigidity is The stage people. young of transitions this residential the therefore, and, Spain, In work. to regulated institutionally and school conditions economic independence from transition the into adulthood, the social sciences have also focused entry on of studying markers regarding considerations these to addition In Source: Pais andFerreira 2006. (2010),European SocialSurvey integrating into thelabourmarket. Note: young peoplewere theagetheyconsidered asked appropriate for leaving thefamilyhomeand Total Ireland Belgium France Norway The Netherlands The Sweden Spain nited Kingdom United Finland Denmark Austria G Portugal ermany T ablE 2.6: Average ageto and age enter thelabourmarket Age 19.0 job 20.2 20.2 19.8 19.4 at 19.3 18.9 18.8 18.5 18.3 18.2 18.2 17.9 17.7 of emancipation first A E T GE HOME 21.1 21.3 22.5 20.8 19.4 21.7 19.9 21.7 20.4 20.0 19.0 20.8 21.4 21.6 LEAVEO Interval (YEARS) 2.1 1.1 2.3 1.0 0.0 2.4 1.0 2.9 1.9 1.7 0.8 2.6 3.5 3.9
The processes of transition to adulthood in Europe from a comparative perspective and to generous public policies, such as scholarships and housing for their children’s independence (Holdsworth and Morgan, 2005) residential autonomy in which parents provide and of economic pattern support cultural intergenerational an market of existence the to due labour the into mainly is This time. same the entry at occur independence residential countries, Nordic the in they become independent (Ferreira and Nunes, 2010). In contrast, people an average of four years after getting their first job before are quite telling in this respect, as in these countries of it takes cases young The independence. residential into Entry the labour market does not immediately translate into training lower with including people and young (Walther qualifications disadvantaged trajectories for training programmes and school short relatively encouraging role, important an of plays initiative labour case the the into In people market. young qualified promoting of thereby integration system, early production the of on demands based the qualifications generates training vocational quality since lower, is market labour the into entry for given age ideal as such university), and education rigid in less or years flexible are systems recent education where countries In in Spain? rate dropout high the to due be difference for many in countries, European Spain it is 18.8. lower: Could this 20 and 19 between is employment first for give that people young age ideal the If data. comparative this offers ESS The job. first at age account into take we must To picture a complete get students canchoose from; suchisthecaseinG 4
By flexible education systems we mean those models in which there are different education itineraries that itineraries education different are there which in models those mean we systems education flexible By 4 in defining educational itineraries (secondary / vocational / vocational (secondary itineraries educational defining in et al et G ermany. ., 2009). ., ermany, for example, institutional institutional example, for ermany, G ermany or Portugal, the the Portugal, or ermany G ray n Portugal and ermany 33 and family formation. face of employment and economic difficulties preventing couple of feeling the feltin frustration the alleviategroup family the the to belonging and family the of protection the Thus, institutional support. of lack the to due mainly is this formation; family and stability economic between association cultural and social a is there Spain In impact. an great as have not peers do factors these European their for while stability, job and economic on Residential independence for Spanish young people is contingent achieve be independentisattained. to people young of independence, once the economic and to job necessary stability aspirations the expresses that aspect symbolic a has also it but life, adult into entry of marker Spain residential autonomy is not only a categorical and definitive younger age (Finland, Norway, the Netherlands and Denmark). In a at begins process transition the where countries in adulthood into entry of marker key the is autonomy residential Logically, The responses are presented for eachcountry. the leaving transitions: specific parental home, having give a job, being in Europeans a couple and being a young parent. that importance or value the of hierarchy a present and we 2.7 Table In institutional cultural, sections. previous the in described have we that context normative to corresponds which ‘symbolic’ value, carry adulthood into entry for markers Transitional 2008a). Minguez, the firstjob(Moreno leaving the family home is still delayed on average six years after emancipation. In Spain, despite early entry into the labour market, their support to youth unemployed and students for assistance
The processes of transition to adulthood in Europe from a comparative perspective In some countries (G countries some In family, ofadulthood. marker identifying thisasthekey one’sown of formation the with adulthood into have entry the links (2010) Nunes and interpreted this as the result of a clear pattern of familism, which Ferreira finally, and independence. job a residential having formation, couple by followed first, parent a being value people young where 2.5), (Table Portugal of that as such cases exceptional some find we scenario this In 2004; residential Martin, and for 2012). Minguez, Moreno Cicchelli prerequisites 2001; (Chambaz, necessary independence as understood are economic support of young people, work and economic stability contrast, in countries where governments play a minor role in the In home. leaving value people young independence, residential the welfare state, as in countries where public policies encourage economic importance attributed to them, reflects the hierarchy towardof values in path formation ofafamily. This sequence ofbehaviours, basedonthe the the ultimately, and, emancipation to leads represents that independence employment as countries job Belgium, security comes before couple and family Austria, formation, as the France, such Spain, Denmark, countries in adulthood into of marker entry key a is job a having autonomy, residential Beyond key marker ofadulthood. marker key as parent a being of responsibility the to assigned being value of a stable in partnership order to become a parent and a greater in trend new a regard indicate to starting a may family; that is, which the devaluation partner, of the necessity a having to than parents being to importance greater attach people young UK), ermany, Belgium, Spain, Denmark and the and Denmark Spain, Belgium, ermany, , rln ad wdn I these In Sweden. and Ireland UK, 34 employment and family stability. The transition to adulthood has longer period of life because it is more difficult increasingly an tois youth of stage obtain the that note we economic,conclusion, In much more Sweden inSpainthan countries like orG youth emancipated affect employment precarious and In 2010). the data presentedshort, here show that economic vulnerability (Iacovou, emancipation of delay the to home, contributing family the within made southern are transfers in economic Europe while independence, residential achieve people young help European to assistance northern economic provide in families countries, that shown have studies comparative G for and Sweden as support such countries in grants, – etc.) housing, (e.g. emancipation, spending social of percentage a as – policies to support youngmore are people there in 6, the for chapter form in of shown aid economic is support as institutional fact, In people. in young differences to linked are results These thanhaving ajobformore important becoming anadult. is partner a having women for while partner, a having on job than a having on importance more of place case of men the young In marker Portugal, opposite. a the is as it children women for having while to adulthood, than partner a can having to we parenthood, Regarding job. highlight the case of a having is adulthood couple. a in living to However, for Spanish young people, than what really intomarks entry adulthood of marker a as children having to importance greater give Spain in people young why in the formation of couples and having children; this is related to In Spain, the delay in leaving the family home also leads to a delay ray hn n pi. eadn te oe f h family, the of role the Regarding Spain. in than ermany G ermany, where men give more importance ermany.
The processes of transition to adulthood in Europe from a comparative perspective the family home while studying or seeking employment. employment. seeking or studying while home family the the family. within in to This remaining young contributes people has support intergenerational of model cultural a state family,promoting welfare Spanish the to young people the for supporting the responsibility as delegated trends, these explain well may occur transitions these which in context institutional The semi- of form a as 2008). dependence Minguez, (Moreno defined be could and dependency family of framework the within independence acquiring of form a as to families but independent in their lifestyles; this has been referred people being economically and residentially dependent on their young to leads model this Spain autonomy.In of types different achieveto stage exploratory long a as defined now is adulthood diversified and has been deferred. The period of youth and young Source: basedondatafrom theEuropean SocialSurvey, 2006. Note: useofadjusted andgroup. meanfor eachcountry Scale: not at all important (1), little importance (2), indifferent (3), important (4), very important (5) Total Sweden nited Kingdom United Portugal France Spain Denmark G ermany T ablE 2.7: have a job havea leavehome have a job havea be parents be have a job havea have a job havea leavehome have a job havea FIRST PRIORITY FIRST Hierarchy of importance attributed to indicators of entry into adulthood by country (adjusted Hierarchy into mean) attributedadulthoodby to country indicators ofimportance entry (3.01) (2.91) (3.19) (3.41) (3.50) (2.52) (3.59) (2.87) leavehome have a job havea leavehome have a job havea be parents be leavehome have a job havea leavehome SEC ND PRIORITY OND (2.79) (2.34) (2.70) (3.22) (2.95) (2.36) (2.95) (2.87) 35 eti cnegne n eieta pten ad lifestyles, and patterns residential in convergence certain or independence varies considerably between countries, despite The way in which European young people experience autonomy 2.3. market. labour the into integration stable delay in young people’s formation of their own and families their to increasing the contribute also of employment precariousness the and vulnerability economic of situation the Finally, limited. was effectiveness its and real, than symbolic more was it case, any In government. Income, present the by Emancipation eliminated been Basic has which the of 2007 in creation the with However, emancipation to to tried Spain support policy develop Lifest be parents be have a partner havea be parents be have a partner havea leavehome be parents be be parents be be parents be THIRD PRIORITY THIRD yles ofEurope’s young people (2.49) (1.71) (2.19) (3.16) (2.92) (2.20) (2.68) (2.69) have a partner havea be parents be have a partner havea leavehome have a partner havea have a partner havea have a partner havea have a partner havea RTH PRIORITY FOURTH (2.37) (1.66) (2.19) (2.84) (2.61) (2.03) (2.38) (2.59)
The processes of transition to adulthood in Europe from a comparative perspective economic situation (Eurostat, 2009, individual Stone and family as age, such gender,(Iacovou,resources), and employment2010 origin, variables, of range a on based and the lifestyles adopted by emancipated youth, analysing them countries both in regard to the age of leaving the parental home and Liefbroer, 2010). Studies have looked at differences between (Billari autonomy achieving in delay the regarding particularly are marked by the type of home they live in. To delve more more delve To in. live they home of type the by marked are The of lifestyles Spanish and European young people, in general, and Italy. percentage Swedes, of young people living in their than parents’ home in Spain independence to G importance less attach age below, young people in Spain and Italy between 15 and 29 years of (Manacorda and Moretti, 2006). According to the data in the graph giving family), greater own importance their to of the formationsecurity theof a through home or than parentsto independence family(whethertheirwith ayoungadulthood youthand theirin Young people in Spain (and in Italy) are more likely to live most of familistawithcultural modelstrictlywiththaneconomic factors. patterns and lifestyles of Spanish young people areof young peoplemore in Spain. Theseassociated reports reveal that the residential Fundacióntheand SantaMariaprovidesituationpicturethe of a economic, of impact Thepeople. theyoung on been has employment,lifestyleseducationaltheculturalof factorsandon Spain in focus The Alesina andGiuliano, 2010). 2005; Morgan, and Holdsworth 1998, (Reher, ties/relationships family and 2012) Minguez, (Moreno states welfare by provided ermansandFinns thesameofage;this correlates withthehigh YouthReports of the Youth Institute of Spain YouthofInstitute the of et al., 2010), the support 36 of this measurement, as it does not include the effects of the the of effects the include not does it as measurement, this of limitations (Eurostat, potential the people highlight to necessary young also is It of 2009). situation residential outward the and in inward flows transversal the This reveal not situation. does however, residential indicator, their and people home young which leave at age the measure to Eurostat by used public in is table this the standard referenced of The the data. indicator other and in flats a fact accommodations, that could lead to living varied interpretations shared people young residences/housing, private consider student in not living does people but young households, of percentage the provides Source: basedonWorld Values 2005data.O Survey deeply into this issue, we have used data from the the from Conditions and on Living Income Statistics Union data used have we issue, this into deeply Gr 100% IMPORTANCE GIVENTOINDEPENDENCE(%OFYOUNGPEOPLE,BOTHSEXES) 25% 50% 75% 0% aph 2.2: The value ofindependence: Young peoplethatlive with YOUNG PEOPLETHAT LIVEWITHTHEIRPARENTS, FROM15TO29YEARSOFAGE(%) Finland Sweden 25 their parents fficial DataFile, Mínguez(2012). 2009inMoreno 50 Germany Spain 75 (E Italy U -SILC), -SILC), which European European 100
The processes of transition to adulthood in Europe from a comparative perspective Source: basedondata from theEuropean LabourSurvey, 2009. the parental home in the selected countries. selected the in home parental the family These child. one least with leaving at the coincide regarding patterns patterns formation with and partner a with live 5 and 6 of table 2.8 refer to the age semi-dependency at which half of young people of of or independence culture autonomy culture in the countries of and the north. Columns countries European familist southern of characteristic the with on consistent home leave are data These women respectively. age, of Italy, years 28 and and 27 at average Spain in while 21, age by home leave women of 50% Sweden, in fact, In men. than earlier home leave women on although women, for even case earlier the is later. This much home home leave they leave Italy and Spain people in while average, young where countries the and Netherlands the France, by followed Sweden, gender. and country by differences significant show 2.8 table in data The structure. age Sweden The Netherlands The France G Italy Spain Countries ermany T able 2.8: Age atwhich50%ofrespondents live indiverse andsex familystructures, by country 28.5 Men 20.9 24.1 23.5 25.0 30.1 from Emancipated parents G ermany are are ermany Women 27.0 20.3 24.1 22.1 22.3 28.0
37 the family home but also having their first child. The leaving gap delay between only not countries European southern in couples young Therefore, women. for 32 and men for is 36 approximately age this Italy, and Spain of case the In 28. is for age while the age, women of years 32 at child and partner a with live men of Sweden,50% In indicators. the of rest the with as great as not are differences the child, a have and partner a with live people young emancipated of 50% when age average the Regarding in relation to theagewhenleaving home. sooner much occurs this Europe southern for in home while leaving women, after years four to three and men for home the and families are formed Sweden, is about seven to In eight years after leaving women). for 28 Netherlands, France and and men for (31 later much age in Sweden (27 for men and 24 for women), while in Spain it is relativelyearly a at occurs families and couples of formationThe Men 31.1 27.3 28.0 26.8 27.5 33.1 With a partner Women 27.9 23.9 25.4 24.6 25.5 29.4 G ermany, the average age when couples 35.5 Men 31.8 33.1 32.0 34.2 36.5 With a child Women 32.0 29.1 30.8 28.4 30.9 32.0
The processes of transition to adulthood in Europe from a comparative perspective single-person households. in living people young of percentage highest the with country this Spain the is Sweden women. for in 1.6% and men for 3.5% is percentage while households, single-person in live women young of 23% and men young of 33% example, for Sweden, In are there differences2.9. substantial table betweencountries,in shown as households, single-person Regarding households. single-person in living example, for experimentation, of stage the countries considered young people spend time of rest the in in while home, parental the leavinga after shortly transitional very formationoccurs couple Italy and Spain in that show data These leaving thefamilyhome. of age the with is countries two the between difference biggest the that so Swedish the for years five and Spanish the for years four around is child first the of birth the and formation couple Source: basedondatafrom theEuropean LabourSurvey, 2009. Spain Italy G France Netherlands The Sweden Countries T ermany ablE 2.9: that live aloneinvarious European countries, by sex Percentage ofyoung peoplefrom 18to 28 years ofage Men 17.0 16.5 33.1 3.5 3.9 9.4 Women 17.0 14.9 19.5 23.4 1.6 4.2 38 two countries differ. For Spain and Italy, cohabitation is not a very latter the in contexts institutional the Netherlands,although the and Sweden between and Italy and Spain between similarities reveal 2.10 table in data The 2010). (Miret, people young among of the institution of marriage as the foundation of the family, even been confirmed in numerous studies and points to has characteristic the demographic this Spain, importance In home. family their in live age this at children have who people young of majority the as low, relatively is children with cohabiting people the young in Fourth, people countries. young the southern European countries of (Spain all and Italy), the percentage of in percentage children the with cohabiting higher without cohabiting the people and young children of percentage the lower figure is 52%. Third, the older they are (when in their the thirties), corresponding the Spain in while children, without are cohabiting twenties their in people young major of southern 91% Sweden highlight and in Europe: northern again of countries once the data between differences the Secondly, of Europe. terms in in patterns different identify to relationships and the us significant deinstitutionalisation allow of marriage they all, are not accounted for. The data reveal a range of findings. First of as those who have separated and returned to their parents’ home percentages for young couples with children is not very accurate, the however,noted,that be should It not. or children have they whether and group age by married, not are but partner a with live who women and men young of percentage the has shows 2.10 cohabiting fact, in Europe. Table northern in people young 1999); among norm a become (Kiernan, ones southern than countries European northern in common more much is which practice a (cohabitation), married being without partner a with In addition to single-person households, many young people live
The processes of transition to adulthood in Europe from a comparative perspective Source: data,2009. basedonEuropean LabourSurvey g gop I ti gop 6% f ope wt cide are children with couples of 69% cohabiting inSweden, compared with35%intheNetherlands. group, this In group. age twenty-something the in children ‘without’ cohabiting and ‘with’ in couples found are differences the Netherlands, the and Sweden of case the In countries. two the fewer between are differences there thirties, their in those Among alone. living for young Italians do so to a lesser extent because they probably opt while relationship, the within children having and cohabitation for opt mostly ages younger at home leave who people young Spain Spain in that deduce can in we Fromthis (22%). Italy in than (51%) higher is children of without percentage cohabiting people the young observed: their in are those differences among where is found twenties it But differences groups. age significant two the no between with practice, widespread in different European countries, by agegroup and by whetherornot G France Netherlands The Sweden Spain Italy Countries ermany T ablE 2.10: Percentage ofunmarriedcouples (cohabiting) children Without In 51.7 their 78.8 85.5 91.1 22.4 64.4 they have children twenties children 29.6 With 46.8 34.2 68.5 16.8 18.6 children Without In 27.4 61.5 59.5 81.5 23.1 41.1 their thirties children With 30.5 24.3 44.0 9.2 7.2 7.3 39 children ornot. has couple the whether and age by practice differences widespread major without a is it Sweden in while children, without couples younger among widespread become has relationship people. In any case, the data suggest that in Spain the cohabiting young among formation couple to respect with country each in are the expression of the different normative patterns that apply differences These children. having to regard in and age by both Spain and Sweden in the percentage of young people cohabiting, between differences significant are there that reveals 2.3 Graph Source: data,2009. basedonEuropean LabourSurvey Gr 100 70 80 90 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 aph 2.3: WITHOUT CHILDREN 91.1 Percentage ofunmarriedcouples (cohabiting) inSpain 51.7 IN THEIRTWENTIES and Sweden by ageandchildren WITH CHILDREN 68.5 29.6 Sweden WITHOUT CHILDREN 81.5 Spain 27.4 IN THEIRTHIRTIES WITH CHILDREN 44 9.2
The processes of transition to adulthood in Europe from a comparative perspective ead o yug epe n ipoe hi eooi and economic their employment situation. improve and people the young to of respond demands that strategies employment and develop educational to the trying are governments and local and institutions national various European generations. younger adversely affects so unemployment as importance great of is people youngworktoof transitions school of crisis,economicstudy the of time this In 2010). Mills, and (Blossfeld structure occupational new the in changes and market labour the womenin of participation of spread the globalisation, growing the migration, increased technologies, communication of result a as dramatically havetransitionschanged work Europe,to lives. In school person young each which in context social the in inherent limitations individual decisions, but they of are also determined by the result opportunities and the are experiences work and Educational a and couple family. a forming and home family the leaving as such transitions, other on impact major a have also will but careers professional and employment future their to essential only not are lives their in time this at make people young decisions The opportunities. employment available of advantage take to skills the acquiring and sector occupational or career a on deciding training; vocational doing or education higher pursuing school; decisions tocontinuing make: to study or leavingand important options different many with faced is person young each which person. young a of lifethe in moment Thecrucial totransitionworkfroma school is people inEurope 2.4. School t o w G enerally this is a complicated stage in lifein in complicatedstage a is this enerally ork tr ansition amongyoun g 40 advantage of the opportunities offered by their level of of level their in Youththe last of Spain’s Report by Youth ( Institute taking Blasco López offered by noted market, already were findings opportunities These labour education. the the of enter university- to advantage of opt majority women the educated while employment), finding for of qualifications lack a to (due job their of getting instead family a form to choose to likely are levels education low with school leave who women that suggest indirectly data These table. the This in education. considered countries European tertiary the all in same the with is pattern women before of 72.5% school to employed, are of compared education) out secondary dropped compulsory who competing those includes group (this education school only primary a where with women women, young of 52.5% among significant particularly are education by level differences Spain, In concerned. countries all in the level of education, the higher the percentage of employment higher The women). and men (both employed are who people with along Spain, 2.11). (Table sex and level education by 29 and 25 of ages the between adults young of employment to the regard in countries between differences the at look to interesting is It and secondary with people higher education. young among rise the on also is basic qualifications has increased. At the same time where the unemployment percentage of young people who leave school without between Spain, gap in significant especially is employment and qualifications increasing between gap an The employment. and qualifications and educational wages low employment, been have affected years by ten last an the increase in in Europe labour in market transitions flexibility,work to temporary School G reece and Italy, has the lowest percentage of young young of percentage lowest the has Italy, and reece INJUVE , , 2008).
The processes of transition to adulthood in Europe from a comparative perspective has increased at all education levels, but above all, for those who across 2008 unemployment seen, be can As since Spain. in especially but Europe, increased has unemployment education, tertiary with those Regarding level. education by 2010 to 2000 from Spain in age of years 29 to 25 from people young among The data presented in graph 2.4 show the trends in unemployment Source: basedondatafrom Eurostat 2011. nited Kingdom United Sweden Finland Portugal Austria The Netherlands The Luxembourg Italy France Spain Greece Ireland G Denmark Belgium European ermany T ablE 2.11: nion (15) Union Percentage ofeconomically persons25to active 29years ofagethatare employed indifferent European countries 61.0 68.7 66.7 66.6 80.0 Men 67.7 78.7 86.2 68.1 65.8 80.6 41.5 65.1 68.6 64.0 67.0 Primary Women 52.5 40.1 43.0 43.9 61.5 47.7 59.9 69.4 37.4 43.9 38.0 31.5 42.1 50.7 39.1 45.1 by educationlevel andsex 66.8 85.1 82.7 79.7 75.0 Men 85.6 89.1 86.0 70.2 84.3 74.8 65.9 78.3 78.1 83.6 78.7 Sec ondary 41 o 4 i 21. h ted n nmlyet a smlr n all in similar was unemployment in trend The 2010. in 34% to education completed, unemployment in 2000 was 17% and rose in graph 2.4, in the 25 to 29 year old age group with only primary the lowest level of education. For example, according to the data Spain the largest job losses are found among young people with have only completedschool. Eurostatprimary data reveal that in Women 63.9 68.9 72.6 67.9 73.1 80.7 82.0 75.3 55.5 68.4 57.5 65.1 73.8 75.8 71.4 68.5 71.0 89.4 81.3 85.7 75.0 Men 89.5 89.8 89.6 54.4 86.2 71.8 79.8 89.1 81.2 86.7 81.7 Higher Women 72.5 86.3 79.8 79.5 82.9 82.2 91.9 79.0 54.0 84.2 71.7 82.3 84.7 80.0 88.0 79.6 65.7 83.7 79.9 79.6 77.4 Men 84.2 87.2 87.3 66.9 81.6 75.7 68.0 78.7 76.7 80.9 76.9 To tal Women 64.1 71.6 72.7 70.7 72.2 76.7 82.6 75.9 50.8 72.2 60.1 69.9 72.4 72.9 74.1 68.3
The processes of transition to adulthood in Europe from a comparative perspective (see graphs 2.5and 2.6). 19% to 14% from increased unemployment of percentage the 18% in 2010. In contrast, in to the 2000 case in of 20% men from in went the 29 same to age 25 group,group age the in education level. In fact, the percentage of unemployed women with tertiary education same the with men than better crisis the weathered have education tertiary with womenYoung men. among lower been has unemployment although men, of that to similar been has trend the school, primary completed only who women For are returning to formal education. people without qualifications, which explains why many of them young affected severely most it that meaning groups, age other Source: data,2011. basedonEuropean LabourSurvey 10 15 20 25 30 35 Gr 5 2000 aph 2.4: 2001 from 25-29years ofageby educationlevel, Spain Trends inunemployment rates amongyoung people 2002 Primary 2003 2004 Secondary 2005 2006 2007 Higher 2008 2009 2010 42 Source: basedonEurostat data,2011. pi, tl and Italy Spain, 2.12), and its impact has been different in each European country. (table age yearsof 29 and between25 affectedthose mainly has Regarding young people with tertiary education, unemployment Gr MEN 30 10 20 40 10 20 40 30 WOMEN 0 0 aph 2.5: from 25-29years ofageby educationlevel andsex,Spain 2000 2000 Women Primary E. 2001 2001 Trends inunemployment rates amongyoung people Men PrimaryE. 2002 2002 ec ae h cutis ht a te highest the had that countries the are Greece 2003 2003 2004 2004 Women Secondary E. Men SecondaryE. 2005 2005 2006 2006 2007 2007 2008 2008 Men HigherE. Women Higher E. 2009 2009 2010 2010
The processes of transition to adulthood in Europe from a comparative perspective among women in Spain, in women among higher was unemploymentgroup, old year 34 to 30 the In ages. these at women among than higher significantly men among unemployment rate in this age group in 2010, with unemployment Source: basedonEurostat data,2011. Gr WOMEN 10 20 40 30 10 20 40 30 MEN 0 0 aph 2.6: from 30-34years ofageby educationlevel andsex,Spain 2000 2000 Women Primary E. 2001 2001 Trends inunemployment rates amongyoung people Men PrimaryE. 2002 2002 2003 2003 reece and Italy. This can be attributed be Italy.can Thisand Greece 2004 2004 Women Secondary E. Men SecondaryE. 2005 2005 2006 2006 2007 2007 2008 2008 Men HigherE. Women Higher E. 2009 2009 2010 2010 43 unemployment. The latest data available from the Public Public of the incidence from the available lower data the latest is, The one unemployment. educated Spain, better in and people young older the among unemployment; of effects the reduce does jobs education women of loss and significant men the young despite Thus, education. secondary or both primary with those than for education that higher with for those lower are rates unemployment show data The rates unemployment high among young people. the generated in have policy which employment Spain, and system production the the regarding to pause comparedus give should data These countries. both in high women and very still men between differences substantial no are There is Netherlands. it but unemployment, of level the lower the are, people educated more and older the Spain, In Netherlands. the to respect with selected groups age all in high very is Spain that in people young is among unemployment out stands that thing first The countries. both in group age and sex level, education by unemployed of percentage the show tables The 2.13). (table extent lesser a to people young of where the economic crisis has affected the employment situation this reason we have chose it for ourcomparative analysiswithSpain. 5 w cutis ht ae vle qie ifrnl i trs of terms in unemployment differently among quite young people: evolved Spain have and the that Netherlands, countries two compare can we far, so discussed been has what synthesise To ordelaymarket theirjobsearch. labour the of out opt they – studies many in noted fact a – work children, and with little public assistance for raisingbalancing family of and process the in are age that at women that fact the to
The Netherlands is a paradigmatic example of a country that has avoided high levels of youth unemployment; for 5
The processes of transition to adulthood in Europe from a comparative perspective 6 Service Employment vocational training, and 8.02% have completed the the completed have superior-level 8.02% or and mid-level training, done have vocational 13.58% degree; tertiary or secondary a have 29 and 25 between people young Source: basedondatafrom Eurostat 2011. Note: for thosecountries thatappearwith(–)nodataisavailable. nited Kingdom United Sweden Finland Portugal Austria The Netherlands The Luxembourg Italy France Spain Greece Ireland G Denmark Belgium European C The data refer whoare to enrolled jobseekers inthePublic Employment Service. OUNTRIES ermany nion (15) Union T able 2.12: 6 in 2010 show that 9% of unemployed unemployed of 9% that show 2010 in Percentage ofunemployed withhighereducationindifferent European countries, by ageandsex 15-64 of years 11.3 To 4.1 4.5 4.5 7.2 2.4 2.8 3.8 5.8 5.6 9.8 7.6 3.2 5.0 4.5 5.5 tal a ge 18.4 Men 14.4 17.6 20.7 11.4 10.7 5.4 8.2 9.0 3.5 8.1 6.1 9.1 – – – 25-29 44 and the Public Employment Service are similar, even though though even similar, are (EPA) Service Survey Employment Public Population the and Active the were from with Data certificate those a unemployed. without of education 27.6% secondary whereas compulsory certificate, a with education secondary compulsory completed who those among 31.3% to school. secondary of level baccalaureate of years Women 17.8 10.5 18.3 21.7 4.2 7.2 6.6 7.4 8.2 4.0 8.6 6.3 9.0 – – – a ge To 18.0 11.9 18.0 21.3 4.8 7.6 7.6 2.8 7.7 9.5 4.1 9.5 6.2 9.0 tal – – 10.6 Men 3.8 4.4 4.1 2.5 7.7 4.7 9.0 8.0 2.9 6.2 4.3 5.5 – – – 30-34 Women of years 12.3 U 10.0 15.9 3.1 4.4 4.3 8.4 5.2 5.3 3.4 4.5 4.0 6.4 nemployment rises rises nemployment – – – a ge To 11.5 12.5 3.5 4.4 4.2 7.2 2.2 9.1 4.9 6.6 3.1 5.3 4.1 6.0 tal – –
The processes of transition to adulthood in Europe from a comparative perspective spread among young people. young among spread has that despair the and unemployment to due opportunities job of lack revealsthe leavecountry to the willing people young of percentage temporarily high The 2.14). either (table (32%) indefinitely or country, (36%), European another in work to like European the of among 15 to 35 year old youth and young adults in the 27 states the to According employment. Eurobarometer seek to country the of leaving have many expectations the in seen among also are unemployment people on young crisis economic the of effects The different. are measurement therefore, and, collection data of source the Source: basedondatafrom Eurostat 2011. Note: For theNetherlandsin20to 24year oldagegroup withhighereducationthere are too few cases. Primary E. Primary Spain Secondary E. Secondary Higher E. Higher Primary E. Primary The Secondary E. Secondary Higher E. Higher Netherlands Youth on the Move, carried out in February of 2011 nion, 68% of the Spanish are willing or would or willing are Spanish the of 68% Union, T able 2.13: Percentage ofunemployed by age, educationlevel andsexinSpaintheNetherlands, 2010 20-24 44.2 32.9 29.3 11.2 6.1 O – f the selected countries, Spain is Spain countries, selected the f 25-29 Men 33.8 22.9 18.4 10.7 3.5 3.5 30-34 28.7 19.1 10.6 7.7 3.6 2.5 20-24 44.0 30.6 28.1 11.7 45 5.5 – epe h ws t lae h cuty o ok ersns a represents work to country the leave to wish who people is only 3%. For Spain, however, the very high percentage of young labour market, as currently labour mobility in the European are willing to travel (53%) for work is good news for the European Europeans young of half than more that fact the terms, general in ways: two lower in interpreted be with can Together,figures ones. these those than abroad work to willing education more higher are levels with those that reveal also of data country The origin. their leaving of expectation no have respectively, lower. In fact, 53% and 44% of Dutch and is the case of lower,is unemploymentyouthwhere countriescontrast, in In as who wish to leave the country,people followed byyoung Denmark and the of percentage of terms in list the of head the at Women 25-29 33.6 24.1 17.8 13.0 4.0 2.5 G ermany and the Netherlands, the desire to leave is 30-34 31.8 22.7 12.3 8.5 3.8 2.0 20-24 44.1 31.7 28.5 11.4 5.8 5.2 G erman young people, To 25-29 33.8 23.5 18.0 10.0 3.7 2.8 tal 30-34 29.8 20.7 11.5 12.2 3.7 2.2 Union UK.
The processes of transition to adulthood in Europe from a comparative perspective and explained as the result of the combination, on the one hand, phenomenon has been studied by Fernandez Enguita This (14.1%). EU-27 the of average the twice rate dropout early an had Hence,Spain education). 2010 in secondary (compulsory age of 24 in Spain dropped out of school before finishing the ESO the under people young of 28.4% 2010, In countries. European Graph 2.7 shows the trends for this indicator in Spain and in other diploma or certificate qualifying them to enter the labour market. work to school those under 24 who leave of the formal education percentage of system without a high the failure is people young the Spanish of reflects transitions that indicator final A andeconomic development.structure Spain’sproductive on impact negative a have undoubtedly will run long the in which capital, human and talent of loss potential Source: basedontheEurobarometer Youth ontheMove, nº319,2011. nited Kingdom United The Netherlands The G Spain France Denmark 27 EU ermany T of agethatwould to work like inanotherEuropean country, able 2.14: Percentage ofyoung peoplefrom 15to 35years short Yes, for by nationality, 2011 period 34 21 34 36 29 35 28 a l ong Yes, for period 22 23 20 32 31 31 25 a 41 53 44 29 37 31 44 No et al. (2010) DK/NA 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 46 h dt as eal u t vrf ta tee a be a slight a been has decrease in the rate there of drop-outs, from 31.9% in 2008 to 28.4% in that verify to us enable also data The the desired level for ofeducationorwere ajob). looking attained had they declared 19.9% and job a found baccalaureate(31.3% the programme the forwhile (30.4); vocational training, reasonsthe were completejob-related with to inability and dissatisfaction (25%) programme included the former, the For reasons studies. vocational chose who those and baccalaureate for the for opted who reasons those between school leaving the in differences important are there education, post-compulsory complete to fail who those Regarding (23%). studying continue to want not do explicitly they because than job) a for look to school leaving reported 26.9% and job a found (24.3% work for look to want or work have they because so do ESO after school leaving for reasons the However,among such as to pursue other studies, find a job or for economic reasons. (ESO) reasons other for extent lesser a to and (70%) studying continue education to want not secondary did they because certificate the compulsory obtaining without left people young of the National Statistics Institute (INE) indicate that most of these the Transition from Education/Training to Labour Market on Insertion Survey 2005 the from available data latest considerably.The varied have findings the that noted be should it not, or school in remain to motivation the Regarding potential work. to and opportunities had have they the experiences to educational due flawed both schooling, compulsory of end the approach they when is school of out drop students when period peak The itself. system education the by generated expectations of lack economic the by system in a time of growth and, on the other, generated frustration with the employment of expectations of , more ,
The processes of transition to adulthood in Europe from a comparative perspective Source: basedonEurostat data, 2011. education in different countries of the E Grap of age that leave school without completing compulsory secondary MEN WOMEN 35 10 15 20 25 30 40 35 10 15 20 25 30 40 5 5 h 2.7: European Union(27) European Union(27) 2000 2000 Trends in the percentage of young people under 24 years 2002 2002 Germany Germany 2004 2004 Spain Spain 2006 2006 U by sex and year of reference Sweden Sweden 2008 2008 United Kingdom United Kingdom 2010 2010 47 clear clear mismatch between demand for qualified labour and supply, a in resulted has This people. young Spanish of levels education the in polarisation the on focused also have studies Numerous havereturned. crisis the with and school left them of many earlier, mentioned As group. 16-19 age old year 24 to 20 the in observed aged be can similar Something group population the of 2011. quarter in first to the in 64% 2007 from 76.5% increased among The rate enrolment. school of enrolment rate annual the an in was 2.1% there of 34, increase to 16 from people young of population the in the of That number students. is, of a despite 1.4% in reduction 200,000 approximately of increase actual an was there 640,000), and 34 years of age declined from 2007 to 2011 (by approximately and While immigrants. the number of young people between 16 nationals both and sexes, both for groups, age all among rates students of enrolment school in number increase an as the well as 2007-2011 in between increase an was there therefore, in 1991 and 1992, when the last economic crisis occurred. in the first quarter of 2011, which is similar to the enrolment rates that time in were response to youth unemployment, 34 standing at 21.3% since and increased has 16 percentage This 2007. between in school in people enrolled young of 18% data, INE to According crisis. economic the of impact the of indication an is The increase in the percentage of young people who are students differences abouteducation. inexpectations are more likely to drop out of school than girls, probably a sign of order to in pursue new opportunities. The data also school show that boys to back go to people young caused has which crisis, economic the of effect an as interpreted be could which 2010, O verall, verall,
The processes of transition to adulthood in Europe from a comparative perspective to an increase in underemployment and overqualification in in Felgueroso According overqualification decade. last the in Spain and underemployment in increase university an to Spanish among rates (E European their than graduates unemployment higher to which has led, according to analysts such as Ramon the incidence of temporary employment among young highly highly young among employment temporary of some incidence countries), the In Mediterranean the jobs. (especially temporary countries in European employed being of probability the of Tomillo report latest the to According women. and E the in average the while jobs, their for overqualified were Spain in women of 29% and men of Spain is the latest data provided by Eurostat In (2011). 2008, 33% in over-qualification of problem the of picture the complete to figure important Another low- 2007. in 17% jobs: in unskilled or skilled employed training) vocational basic or baccalaureate (the education secondary of cycle second the completed have who people young of percentage the regarding list the of head the at is Spain graduates, university of case the in as However, prevents also developed but emancipating. from parents their with living all students university frustration causes in only not education This secondary countries. with people young among than education university with those among higher is of percentage young people with jobs below their qualifications the Moreover, jobs. their for to 25 were 29 overqualified aged people young employed of percentage is even higher among younger In cohorts. 2007, 40% e pretg pit hge ta te E the than higher points percentage ten the the early 1990s, which is the in percentage highest the E requiring occupations than they have has lower grown to qualifications over 30% since in graduates university of percentage (2012), highly skilled young in workers Spain have skilled highly (2012), a high O ECD (2010) has found that the the that found has (2010) ECD U U 27 stood at 19% for both men men both for 19% at stood 27 15) counterparts. This has led has This counterparts. 15) U 15 average. This This average. 15 et al. et G arcia arcia (2011), (2010), the the (2010), Fundación Fundación U 27 27 and 48 Spanish young people in comparison to other European countries. place on independence, explains the late emancipation of partly people with young value low the and people stereotypes cultural familistic young of reproduction the with combined among This, education. university especially transitions, attitudes determine toward unemployment high of context under-qualification a over-and within as such phenomena Moreover, have theirown home. and attitudes affect becomeand can independent they that so job toa is get people significantly Spain expectations toward emancipation. in The priority of Spanish young education and peers, as structural factors such as unemployment, family culture Europeantheir of those from differsubstantially Spain in people young of transitions the that revealed has chapter this short, In of loss society. knowledge and economy the for irreparable capital human an be would which opportunity, of search in country the leaving people young insecurity of likelihood the job increases This average. the than higher is workers skilled
The processes of transition to adulthood in Europe from a comparative perspective III. Family and residential transitions
In this chapter we analyse the evolution of patterns of residential 2010). However, as has been mentioned, studies regarding the and familial emancipation among young people in Spain, as well effect of the economic crisis on achieving autonomy are as the impact of the economic crisis on these patterns. The relatively limited. Although patterns of residential transition in and residential transiti o ns amily
empirical studies we have reviewed show that the persistence of Spain have not varied substantially in recent decades, changing F delayed residential emancipation among young people is expectations are charting new biographical itineraries (López characteristic of the welfare states of southern Europe and of Blasco, 2005). Spain, specifically (Moreno Mínguez, 2012). However, there are relatively few studies on the consequences the economic crisis is The two indicators that we have looked at to analyse the evolution having on this population group and specifically in Spain. Our of young people’s emancipation are residential autonomy from aim is to provide empirical evidence on the impact of the current parents and type of household (e.g. living with a partner, living crisis on the emancipation paths of young people, paying special alone or sharing an apartment with friends or other family attention to differences by gender, age and nationality. members).
Regarding the ‘formation of an independent household’, we can 3.1. Emancipation and residential transitions of conclude that the number of emancipated young people between young people in Spain 16 and 34 years of age has increased by more than 10 percentage points since 1999 (though registering a slight decrease since In the previous chapter we saw how young people in Spain and 2009, greater among men than among women) (graph 3.2). This in southern European countries in general achieve residential overall trend is significant and confirms, as has been verified in autonomy later than young people in other European countries earlier studies (López Blasco, 2008), that there has been a decrease (Requena, 2002; 2006; Moreno Mínguez, 2008a; Melo y Miret, in young adults’ dependence on their parents. Thus, despite the
49 3.2 and 3.3), we can see that young women are less dependent dependent less are women young that see can we 3.3), and 3.2 (graphs age and sex by emancipation in differences Regarding on Income andLivingConditions (E U-SILC) 2005-2009). heading households (based on data from the European Statistics years there has four been a last decline in the the percentage in of young that people is this of Evidence household. parents’ the who, unable to pay their mortgages or rent have had to return to people, young by headed households many on unemployment this decline, Regarding we must emphasise the effect of 2009. the economic crisis and in beginning decrease slight a only with emancipate from their parents’ home has been stable since 2008, that people young of number the crisis,economic the of impact Source: basedondatafrom theEAPS1999-2011,INE. Note: The ofeachyear. datacorresponds to the2ndquarter Gr 100 60 70 80 90 10 20 30 40 50 aph 3.1: 0 % 1999 Trends inthepercentage ofemancipated young people 2001 (16 to 34years ofage) 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 50 Source: basedondatafrom theEconomically Active Population Survey, INE, various years. in greater measure, associate leaving the family home with job job with home family the leaving associate measure, greater in Men, among 2008). Blasco, all, (López levels above education lower case, with women the is this suffer; may they insecurity job and instability economic the despite family a and couple a an at family to home form leave in family the women young age. In fact, earlier a and, forming of men expectations women’s young by among addition, rate unemployment higher the by part in explained be a can trend at This men. couple) than age a younger of part (becoming emancipation toward ‘traditional path’ the follow they that rather but autonomy, greater demand women that mean not does This sooner. home family leave the they words, in other parents; on men their young than Gr 100 60 70 80 90 10 20 30 40 50 0 aph 3.2: % 1999 Spanish women Trends inthepercentage ofemancipated young people (16 to 34years andsex ofage)by nationality 2001 2003 Spanish men 2005 Foreign women 2007 2009 Foreign men 2011
Family and residential transitions by by forward put hypothesis the to According crisis. economic the of year,In the beginning the latter with coinciding began a decline 2007 of until young emancipated people in this age group 1999 stands out. from increase relative the However, decreased. has 3.4) graph (see home parents’ their left have that age of years 25 under percentage the that see can we group, age by adults emancipated young of number the of evolution the Regarding 2010). Miret, and (Melo sector service the in employment their of because crisis economic the Young points. withstand better to able been percentage perhaps have women immigrant 2 only by although young declined, also emancipated women immigrant young emancipated of of percentage the and percentage in to The 2007 2011, 74.6% 62.4% from men decreased immigrant origin. Spanish of people young on than immigrants young on impact greater a had has crisis economic the However, 2004). (Cachón, many Spain because is this in arrive they when independent already are reasons, immigrants young other among people; autochthonous young of parental percentage the the than higher from much is emancipated home are that immigrants young of percentage the that shows 3.2 graph nationality, Regarding 2010). Miret, and (Melo home parents’ they their leaving households after form new the in breadwinners makes primary which the stable, them is situation employment and economic their until transition residential delay they result, a As security. has had greater difficulty emancipating as a consequence of as the a consequence emancipating has difficulty had greater losing after home return those jobs in the to crisis. Another explanation is that this having age group service construction, the and in sector jobs low-skilled finding by early, emancipated G entile (2010), this was due to young people who had had who people young to due was this (2010), entile 51 even greater in the 20 to 24 year old are age group. gender There byare two Differences key men. of 72% to comparison in 2011, group. In this latter group, 83.2% of women were emancipated in age old year 34 to 30 the and group age old year 24 to 20 the in has significant women particularly are differences The 1999. since and increased men young emancipated of percentage the that shows also which 3.4, graph in seen considered.be can This young of women percentage than higher men are a emancipated Europe: for of all rest of the the age in groups common trend a the presentdisaggregated data by sex (graphs 3.4 and 3.5). The data weconfirm depth, greater in processes these examine To the late affected as people, substantially young emancipation is a result not Spanish of complex economic among and cultural havefactors. trends emancipation home parents’ their data suggest that the effects of the crisis on young people leaving These emancipated. had 73% words, other in 2009; in 27% from down 2011, in home parents’ their in lived still group age this in Regarding great. young people from as 30 to 34 not years of age, although 23% of those place, took also increase an group, age old year 24 to 20 the In 3.3). (graph increase substantial a 50.2%, people the young wereemancipated,age years of 2011, 29 in and betweenand 25 of 37.6% on 1999, in sense, impact this In age. of an years 25 strong as had under those to comparison in group this of paths emancipation not has crisis economic the that indicates This 2011. in registered decline slight a with an see we age, of increase years in the percentage 29 emancipated in the to period considered 25 from people young Among ( home parental the in remain to opted therefore has and crisis G entile, 2010). 2010). entile,
Family and residential transitions in the percentage who are emancipated has occurred among all among occurred has emancipatedare percentagewho the in crisis. Regarding young immigrants, the decline, in starting 2007, economic the their by affected not to therefore is and related family a forming is independence women’s ages these at that same thing did not occur among women. An explanation may be the but 2011, to 2009 from men emancipated of percentage the in the25to 34year oldagegroup, there was arelative declinein that fact the is significant Especially women. young than extent the economic crisis has in general affected by young caused men unemployment other,to the a on greater and, women, and men between considerably vary expectations family hand, one the women. and men between differences these behind factors Source: basedontheEAPS,INE, various years. Gr 100 60 70 80 90 10 20 30 40 50 0 aph 3.3: % 1999 of age 16 to19years Trends inthepercentage ofemancipated young people 2001 of age 20 to24years 2003 by agegroup 2005 of age 25 to29years 2007 2009 of age 30 to34years 2011 On 52 Source: basedontheEAPS,INE, various years. leaving thefamilyhome. with only associated longer independence,autonomyno and of in young people’s expectations or toward a change in in of the people meaning Spain. This trend is young perhaps pointing toward a number normative change of patterns emancipation the the in in changing is 2007 since decrease emancipated slight young people. This a seems to indicate been that something has emancipated young people has risen (and at younger ages), there Although various sources show that since 2000 the percentage of years ofage. 24 to 20 those among significant especially is it but groups, age Gr 100 60 70 80 90 10 20 30 40 50 aph 3.4: 0 % 1999 of age 16 to19years Trends inthepercentage ofemancipated young women 2001 of age 20 to24years 2003 by agegroup 2005 of age 25 to29years 2007 2009 of age 30 to34years 2011
Family and residential transitions ope big one ta ter ae ates continues partners male their (women onaverage are two years younger thantheir partners). than in delay younger women being of men practice couples historical The while assured. economic independence their independence, and jobs secure have they economic until emancipation than Women roles. more gender with associated emancipate is earlier than men because they value forming women a family and men Stone byprovided data the 2010; (Miret, studies other Moreno Mínguez, 2012), although not clearly analysed. Based on by confirmed been has This men. In addition, we can see that women become independent before Source: basedontheEAPS,INE, various years. Gr 100 60 70 80 90 10 20 30 40 50 0 aph 3.5: % 1999 of age 16 to19years Trend inthepercentage ofemancipated young menby 2001 of age 20 to24years 2003 age group et al. et 2005 (2010), this differencebetween this (2010), of age 25 to29years 2007 2009 of age 30 to34years 2011 53 e il ok t h ifune f h floig atr o this on factors following the of influence the at look will we greater seeing currently are we diversity in decades,the process of residential few emancipation. In this section past the over although this has been a widespread trend among young people the delay in the formation of and partnerships families. However, to connected is independence residential in delay the Spain, In in timesofcris dETErminingf 3.2. Blasco, 2008;SimoiNoguera, 2008). the and labour economicmarket system (Mills of instability structural and insecurity education the with cope to and level their improve to people young by chosen strategy pragmatic and voluntary a as interpreted be can it hand, other the Velde,on de 2008); (Van belonging and identity of form a as favoursthat people’syoungpath a of family the on dependence be may longer home interpreted family in different ways: the on the one hand, in it may be remaining the Therefore,result people past. young the in than tendencies destandardised more to rise gives which context, normative the from independence explain that individual decisions are determined by their relative as them boundaries’.‘between being of condition the fourauthors These to refers (2010) ‘negotiatedtransitions’, Leccardi as transitionsPais about and talks (2007) transitions’, ‘reticular as of framework ‘the emancipation itineraries’, as transitions Moreno Mínguez (2008a) refers these to them to refers (2005) Blasco traditional ways of understanding transitions to adulthood. López complex a in process of stage acquiring personal autonomy, which has changed the one is independence residential short, In act ors inemancipation paths et al., 2005, López
Family and residential transitions the effect of education level is greater among women than among higher than the percentage of men for all age groups. In addition, stated the earlier: percentage of women who are emancipated is When we look at the data by sex (table 3.2), we confirm what was the examine we five the relationship between emancipationandeducation. chapter In interpretations earlier.and expectations of university students regarding much working began who educations, school primary with group higher age this with in age of years 29 education are emancipated, in contrast to and 54.9% of young adults 25 between adults young people that are emancipated gradually decreases. Thus, 40.5% of asthelevelfact, ofeducationincreases the percentage of youngIn 3.1). (table age of years 29 and 20 between adults young of It is clear that education is a determining factor in the emancipation on based variability less education level (LópezBlasco, show 2008). men as women, of case the in higher with people young that education tend to find delay their exit from to we the family home, above case,all transitions Spanish the people’s In young on education independence and residential of autonomy has multiple effect dimensions. The nationality. and situation employment education, gender, with association people in Spain and the diversity of emancipation paths young and their of transitions residential delayed the of picture detailed a present to us enable will factors these of analysis Descriptive and jobinsecurity, and3)theincrease inimmigration. economic growing 2) schooling, of lengthening the 1) process: 54 Source: basedondatafrom theEAPS2011,2ndquarter. epes xeine o wr, nmlyet n economic and unemployment work, of experiences people’s Youngpopulation. whole the for has insecurity economic increased that crisis economic an of context the in people young of emancipation the in factor determining a is status Employment Sweeting etal.,2010). 2010; al., et Stone, 2011; Mínguez, Moreno 2008; Blasco, (López shown have studies empirical numerous as families, own their of formation the delay they so, doing of result their a As continue education. to home family the in remaining of advantage take education of levels higher with women while family, a or toformemancipatecoupleearlier low levelseducation a with of women that argument our supports This men. for than more sharply much groups age all in decreases emancipated are that percentage the increases, level education as women, For men. doctorate and masters degree,University secondary Post-compulsory secondary Compulsory Primary Education T able 3.1: Percentage ofyoung peopleemancipated by agegroup level A Emancipated E 20-24 GE and educationlevel 10.8 11.0 20.2 20.9 A E 25-29 GE 40.5 50.3 56.9 54.9 y oung A E 30-34 GE people 75.8 80.0 76.6 78.2 A E 20-34 GE t o 52.9 49.6 55.9 49.6 tal
Family and residential transitions the crisis (Moreno Mínguez,2008b). the crisis(Moreno of beginning the since occurring people young emancipated of on impact percentage the in decrease slight a only with significant years,ten past the had have to emancipation patterns in seem Spain, which have remained stable not over does young people among unemployment growing explained, previously was as However, rental). and ownership (both housing of cost becoming rising the of of consequence cost a as increased financial also has independent the years ten last the European the In average. double is this data; Eurostat to according 2011 of quarter first the in 43.5% notably,reaching increased has age in Spain, the unemployment rate among those under for25 years of prospects Furlong and Cartmel future2007). During this difficult economic period their of (Mills families own their forming expectations and emancipation and their shaping independence in residential factors key are insecurity Source: basedondatafrom theEAPS2011,2ndquarter. and doctorate and degree,masters University Post-compulsory secondary Post-compulsory Compulsory secondary Compulsory Primary Education level T able 3.2:
A Percentage ofyoung peopleemancipated by agegroup, educationlevel andsex E 20-24 GE 11.9 14.7 7.0 7.0 A E 25-29 GE Emancipated 33.4 38.8 48.5 45.3 , 2005; al., et A E 30-34 GE men 67.7 75.8 71.5 72.8 55 hs fo 3 t 3 yas f g ta ae ncie r not are inactive are that age of years emancipated. In addition, among 34 20 to 24 year olds, to 88% of those 30 from those of young 30.1% and inactive are that age of years of 29 to 25 from people 60.3% that see can we status, employment and age by emancipated are that those of percentages the shows which still people young 3.3, table in groups:age higher the in parents their residingwith of percentage the explain adequately not does status employment and Forage of others.combination the example, explains not does it emancipated), of number the to adulthoodofyoung peopleinSpain(asageincreases sodoes parents. Thus, although age explains some trends in the transition between 30 and 34 years of age who are employed live with their (retired) or not looking for(retired) employment ornotlooking (students, housewives, etc.)). age working of not unemployed(adults or areinactive that wantto work),persons but are working and who age 1 employment status, Once we have analysed the emancipated population by age and
The Economically Active Population Survey distinguishes between persons who are active (persons of working A E 16-34 GE 47.9 40.0 37.8 29.1 A E 20-24 GE 12.5 14.8 32.2 31.4 1 it should be noted that 19% of young people A Emancipated E 25-29 GE 45.0 61.9 68.2 71.5 A E 30-34 GE women 81.8 84.2 83.9 86.9 A E 16-34 GE 56.1 50.1 46.7 39.8
Family and residential transitions 2011 2008- in relation to the evolution of the period number of young people. the during household of head were who people as a proportion of total households and the percentage of young households young indicators: two through it of picture indirect has gathered data on this phenomenon; however, we can get an database no as population, this of estimates direct haveany not we can measure to analyse the effects of the current crisis. We do their parents’ home) represent a new demographic category that so-called These life on theirown. their of havingstage workor liveda havingtheir lost after home possible to find young adults that have returned to their parents’ (G studies 2010) have qualitative shown that among members of these age groups recentit is their idea, this seen to Related have work. may finding not individuals upon dashed independent Thesebecome to possibilities 33%. and 61% are age of years 34 to 30 and age of years 29 to 25 those for figures respective the emancipated,while not areunemployed are who Source: based on data from the EAPS 2011, 2nd quarter. Employed Unemployed Inactive Empl T able 3.3: o yment Percentage ofyoung peopleemancipated by agegroup status boomerang kids kids boomerang and employment status yug epe ht eun to return that people (young Emancipated YEARS 20-24 24.8 12.3 6.9 YEARS 25-29 56.1 39.4 39.7 y oung people YEARS 30-34 81.3 67.2 69.9 entile, 56 Source: the total population of persons of in the same age group. Note: *the headship rate refers to the percentage of persons that are persons of reference in a home in relation to ncie oe ae mniae, n oprsn o 86 of 28.6% to comparison in emancipated, are women inactive age of old 55.9% and women unemployed year of 51.8% that find 29 we group, to 25 the In people. young among transition G lower rate, whichfitssomeofthedatapresented earlier. a at emancipating are people young years three past the in that reveals also It significant. very parents’ not is the data the to although home), return (a emancipation residential in reversal light a to pointing indirectly be could indicators These age cohorts. old year 34 to 30 and 24 to 18 the in households heading all householdsto 14.5%),asdidthepercentage ofyoung people number of young households also declined (going from 16.4% of youngfromtopeople 18 years 34 declined,age of the time same the at of number the 2011 to 2008 from that shows 3.4 Table headship rate* headship Household households oftotal asa percentage Young households people young of Number ender is a key variable in interpreting the processes of residential T O able 3.4: BJ O VI, 2008-2011. Consejo de la Juventud de España.
households (18-34years ofage),2008-2011 Young peopleasheadsofhouseholdsandyoung
2011 2008 2011 2008 2011 2008 YEAR 2,516,738 2,753,626 To 24.1 24.3 14.5 16.4 tal 171,603 234,242 18-24 5.0 6.4 1.0 1.4 791,937 876,146 25-29 25.3 24.4 4.6 5.2 1,553,198 1,643,237 30-34 40.0 40.5 9.0 9.8
Family and residential transitions greater measure thanwomen withtheiremployment status. in family a of creation the associate men that appears It family. a and couple a patterns forming regarding emancipation expectations their on different based follow Spain in women and of 29% to comparison unemployed men and 15% in of inactive men. This means that men emancipated, are women inactive years of age). At this age, 52% of unemployed women and 56% of 29 to (25 family a and couple a form to favourableage most the consideration into take can we this, explore further To women. to comparison in later home parents’ their own leaving their thus family, and couple a forming and home family the leaving a formed have family, or while men wait until they have partner stable employment before a with live women emancipated of majority the that seen havewe 2, chapter In women. for as men for thing same the mean economic not do that unemployment and giveninactivity employed, are delay they men until young emancipation while family, a forming and emancipation that inactive and unemployed women opt in greater measure for unemployed men and 15.2% of inactive men (table 3.5). It appears Source: based on data from the EAPS 2011, 2nd quarter. Employed Unemployed Inactive status Ec T able 3.5: onmic Percentage ofyoung peopleemancipated by agegroup, 20-24 A 18.4 7.9 2.5 GE Emancipated economic statusandsex 25-29 A 50.4 28.6 15.2 GE men 30-34 A 78.0 58.2 39.6 GE Emancipated 20-24 31.4 17.7 11.1 A GE 25-29 62.3 51.8 55.9 A GE women 30-34 85.0 77.1 82.8 A GE 57 n pi b sx n ae w se ht h pretg wo are who percentage the that see we age, and sex by Spain in In the analysis of the emancipation patterns of young immigrants oftheFundaciónreport in 2010. SantaMaría 2008 the young Spain’s the as in stated as among crisis, the before significant emancipation, already earnings was people and of work age of the precariousness delaying to especially not contributed has 2007 since salaries lower and stable employment of lack the short, In employment. precarious with even crisis have also been felt, encouraging them to risk emancipating the case of young adults of 25 to 34 years of age, the effects of the because of the impact of the crisis on temporary employment. In but contracts, permanent in increase an of because not young, an increase in the proportion of permanent contracts among the been has result The destroyed. been have by which people, young mostly held jobs, temporary these precisely is it And crisis. that the before jobs temporary in employed being increasingly were suggests people young emancipated however, situation emancipation; on effect paradoxical positive a had This have flexibility and precariousness employment men). for than women for significant (more contracts permanent with people corresponding increase a in the and percentage of emancipated 2005 young after parents their with living contracts temporary with youngpeople percentageof the relativein a decline shows 3.6 Tablepeople. young of emancipation the work on impact should temporary in increase that factor a is This 1990s. the of the end the since contracts been has A indicator unemployment. in further increase the and conditions working in employmentsituation of the young people on we have crisis already economic mentioned the the decline of effects the Among Youth , Report a study carried out by INJUVE, and in the latest a priori a
Family and residential transitions Source: based on data from the EAPS 2005 and 2011, 2nd quarter. Total 30-34 years of age of years 30-34 25-29 years of age of years 25-29 20-24 years of age of years 20-24 16-19 years of age of years 16-19 Women Total 30-34 years of age of years 30-34 25-29 years of age of years 25-29 20-24 years of age of years 20-24 16-19 years of age of years 16-19 Men Both sexes Both T able 3.6: Percentage ofemancipated andnon-emancipated young peoplewithwork by agegroup, ofwork andsex type contract Temporary Temporary Permanent Temporary Permanent Temporary Permanent Temporary Permanent Temporary Permanent Temporary Permanent Temporary Permanent Temporary Permanent Permanent Temporary Temporary Permanent Permanent Contract No t emancipated (for theyears 2005and2011) 52.5 39.0 24.1 20.8 53.2 44.7 70.7 73.0 80.3 70.1 58.9 46.9 28.2 25.4 55.5 58.1 79.1 82.6 92.2 89.4 55.9 43.4 2005 58 Emancipated 47.5 61.0 75.9 79.2 46.8 55.3 29.3 27.0 19.7 29.9 41.4 53.1 71.8 74.6 44.5 41.9 20.9 17.4 10.6 44.1 56.6 7.8 No t emancipated 41.8 28.3 15.8 14.8 40.7 36.3 72.0 64.2 91.9 70.0 50.4 36.7 23.6 20.7 49.4 48.8 83.9 79.2 97.1 86.1 46.1 32.6 2011 Emancipated 58.2 71.7 84.2 85.2 59.3 63.7 28.0 35.8 30.0 49.6 63.3 76.4 79.3 50.6 51.2 16.1 20.8 13.9 53.9 67.4 8.1 2.9
Family and residential transitions with their significant parents. We have also shown living the a important differences continue employment that with people young given of proportion employment, to related merely not that condition the residential transitions factors of young people in the Spain are that note should we section, this conclude To higher a while origin, of countries percentage ofwomen immigrants are single(Parella, 2008). their in families have or also came alone but a higher young percentage come with their families these of percentage women high having immigrated to Spain alone. Many a immigrant men to reasons, other due, among is This are. group age this in women emancipated, immigrant are of age 54.9% of years 24 to 20 from women Spanish of 12.1% only while example, for Thus, women. Spanish young higher much than emancipated are a women immigrant Interestingly,young of percentage considered. groups age the all The a higher percentage of women being emancipated than men for 3.7). table (see peers differences by sex are similar to those found among the Spanish, Spanish their among percentage emancipated is higher for all age groups than the corresponding Source: basedondata from theEAPS2011,2ndquarter. Spanish Foreign Nationality T able 3.7: Percentage ofemancipated youth by agegroup, 20-24 27.4 A Emancipated 6.8 GE nationality andsex nationality 25-29 34.5 72.1 A GE men 30-34 66.9 89.7 A GE Emancipated 20-24 12.1 54.9 A GE 25-29 50.3 86.9 A GE women 30-34 79.5 94.3 A GE 59 young household had to pay was on average a equivalent that to rent33.3% the 2011, of quarter second the in similar: are 2011) from (also data the housing, rental to access of cost the Regarding index). price consumer the in is increases account into income net taking employed without words, regions other (in Euros manycurrent anyin even declining in without and doubled, households has young members of number the 2007. since on increased Based has households young economic of the that vulnerability fact the added be must this To home. first of to number young people have small a high enough income comparison a to be able to only buy their that in being reason improvement The years. an previous not is this wage-earner, young a for figure 53.5% the and 3.5) (graph earlier years three of figure 50% the below well household, young a of income net the of 37.2% to equivalent was payment mortgage average the (OBJVI) corresponding to the second of quarter 2011, although Observatorio Joven de la Vivienda [Youth Nazio, 2005; Moreno Mínguez, 2012). According to data from the in independence Spain to owning a home (Castels and Ferrera, 1996; Bernardi and residential link out carried Studies housing. affordable to access is emancipating people’sdifficulties young to adding factor another problems, employment to addition In the leave to likely moreparental homeinallagegroups. being latter and the Spaniards immigrants, young young of transitions the between differences found have Lastly,westability. employment to measure greater of their employment status, while men tie their independence in gender. Women on leave their parents’ based home to patterns form a family, emancipation independently regarding exist that VI data (2011), since the second quarter of 2008 of quarter second the since (2011), data OBJVI bservatory Observatory for Housing] OBJVI,
Family and residential transitions resources as the main reason for not living where they would would they where living not for reason main the as resources young of economic of 54.9% lack the mention age of that years 34 to 18 from adults fact the with consistent are data These and residential independence. autonomy facilitating of terms in home a owning to alternative real a not is housing rental Therefore, 47.9%. to equivalent was it wage-earner young a for and income, net household’s the of Source: based on data from subsidies ortaxdeductions. included intheAssociation Commercial ofRegistrars ofProperty RealEstatenotincludeeither andSpain.Does for eachyear ofreference publishedby theBankofSpainonstandard repayment terms for eachyear as equivalent tomortgage 80%oftheprice ofthehome, withtheinterest rate ofreference market inthemortgage between thepurchasing power ofayoung personoranexistingyoung householdandtheinitialpayment ofa Note: The cost ofowning ahomeisbasedontheaverage price. market The datarefers to therelationship Gr 60 70 80 90 10 20 30 40 50 0 % aph 3.6: 2000 2001 Cost ofaccess for to housingmarket ayoung person 2002 O BJ and ayoung householdinSpain O VI, for various years. 2003 Young household 2004 2005 2006 Young person 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 60 this strategy is on the rise as a means of reaching residential residential reaching of 3.8). table means (see autonomy a as rise the on is strategy this although (7.5%), flat a share people young of percentage small a only that noted be should It parents. their with live still age of from 25 to 29 years of age and 18.4% of those from 30 to 34 years adults young of 42.5% Significantly, home. parents’ their in live live own 44.8% in show the only data and that their 44.9% home who said they would to like live in their parents’ home. However, 10.3% only to contrast in home, own their they in live that to like stated would survey this in respondents the of 83.7% that data CIS-INJ 2010 a to from according (16.3%), work’ having ‘not by followed like, Source: CIS-INJ UVE, basedondata from 148,2010. thesurvey their parents their of home the In In a shared home shared a In home own their In other persons other of home the In O DK/NA Total Number of cases of Number ther T able 3.8: Regularresidence inwhichtheyoung personlives
for mostoftheyear (percentage) U VE survey. In this regard it should be noted noted be should it regard this survey.In VE (1,453) T O 44.9 44.8 TAL 100 7.5 1.4 1.3 0.1 18 of (121) years 91.7 100 t 1.7 4.1 0.0 2.5 0.0 a o 19 o ge
20 of (358) years 16.2 70.7 100 t 9.5 1.1 2.2 0.3 a o 24 o ge
25 of (457) years 46.4 42.5 100 t 8.1 2.2 0.8 0.0 a o 29 o ge
30 of (517) years 73.3 18.4 100 t 6.4 1.4 0.5 0.0 a o 34 o ge
Family and residential transitions Spanish young people have regarding forming a couple and a and couple a forming regarding have people young Spanish that expectations the between exist differences significant no situation of young people. In the previous chapter, we found that parental assuming responsibilities. To and analyse formation these we couple have in looked at place the cohabiting taken have that changes the are of Spain in people complexity young among the transitions understanding to elements key other Two formingac 3.3. precarious their economic andemployment situation. to due reach their of out largely is which one among reproduced the young, being who consider housing culture as a desirable owning good, but home this to point chapter this in presented data The boom. economic recent the during speculation property strengthening to contributed This risks. or be a good investment in the face of possible future uncertainties to understood is Ferreraownership and Home Castlesby (1996). Europeansouthern countries,of studied widely been typical has phenomenon, This 2012). Mínguez, Moreno 1996 Ferrera, and (Castles cost elevated its given ownership to alternative an not renting with and renting, over primacy takes ownership home people in Spain. This is within the framework of a culture in which young for independence residential limit that factors structural the of one become has housing accessing difficulty the result, a than 80% of young adults would like to live in their own home. As more that account into take we if all, above dissatisfaction, and frustration enormous produces this addition, In independent. economic serious difficulties the young revealpeople face at in accessing looked housing have and becoming we that data The ouple andf amil y 61 first is that among those under 24 years of age the marriage ratemarriage the yearsage 24 of under those among that is first of at In type of looking cohabitation relationship, what at is striking formation the on conditions economic partnerships is not the same of for immigrants as it is for impact the Spanish. the that conclude to one leads This Spanish. the among than extent lesser a to although down, slowed has couples of formation the groups age all for 2008 betweenyears34 and 16 age.of Even youngamong immigrants since Spain in declined are has that married people young of percentage the However, patterns. be compared withthe latest data available from theEU-SILC, alsofrom 2009. have lived togetherforpartners the twowhich years. We couldit that so EAPS havethe forof data 2009 the used 2 ate (ihr are o umrid i a ocle domestic partnership), so-called a in - unmarried or married (either partner a with live that emancipated are who people young Regarding increases withage, above allamongwomen. on age and sex: the percentage of young people that are married based varies status civil although married, were 25% and single were age of years 34 to 16 from people young of 74% 2009, In decreased.has married are that percentage the increased,while has married being without partner a with live that age of years that since 1996, the percentage of men and women from 15 to 29 find studies child.These first their of birth the delaying and later couple a in life their starting are people young that confirmed Youthbythe Reports 2008 and 2004 yearsforInstitute2000, the the with contrasts expectations behaviour.differences inactual observed regarding differences of However,peers.absence European the their of those and family
It should be emphasised that the that emphasised be should It 2 both the Spanish and Europeans follow very similar Law of stable of Law considers a domestic partnership to be one in one be to partnership domestic a considers partnerships
Family and residential transitions people there is an equal distribution of marriage by age groups, age by marriage of distribution equal an is there people young immigrant among age, of terms In women. and men for than Spanish men, the synthetic marriage index being very similar and 3.9). Regarding gender, Spanish women marry at earlier ages young people, but especially among the Spanish (see graphs 3.8 all for 2002 since rate marriage the in decline significant a has been there general, In Spanish. the among higher is it over and age of years 24 those among but immigrants, among higher is Source: basedondatafrom EAPS2004-2009, 2ndquarter. from 16to 34years and sex ofage, ofdomesticpartnership by type 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 2004 % Men Women Gr domestic partnership Married orlegallyrecognised domestic partnership Married orlegallyrecognised aph 3.7: 2005 Percentage ofemancipated young people 2006 legal recognition Cohabiting without legal recognition Cohabiting without 2007 2008 Not inacouple Not inacouple 2009 62 immigrants are notlarge. and 32.8 for men. The differences between Spanish nationals and 3.9). In 2009, the average age at first marriage was 30.6 for women (table women and men between differencesHowever, are there immigrants.youngforyear one by and nationals Spanish young The age at first marriage has increased by 2.3 years since 2000 for between theagesof25and34. whereas among Spanish young people there are more marriages Source: basedonINEdata. 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 NUMBER MARRIEDFOREVERY 1000INHABITANTS 0 5 16 Gr 17 Spanish, 2009 aph 3.8: 18 19 Marriage rates Marriage for menby ageandnationality 20 21 22 Foreign, 2009 (2002 and2009) 23 24 AGE 25 26 27 Spanish, 2002 28 29 30 31 Foreign, 2002 32 33 34
Family and residential transitions the average age at first birth among young Spanish women was women Spanish young among birth first at averageage the 2009, in 3.11), (graph mothers immigrant and mothers Spanish between birth first at age in difference Regarding 3.10). (graph ‘EU-15’ the in average highest the is This 31. was child first their to birth giving on Spain in women of age average the 2009, In while inSpainthefigure was 40%. age, of years 30 under parents had ‘EU-27’ the in born the children of 51% 2009, in data, Eurostat on Based child. first their of birth the at age their on impact an has this and peers European Spanish young people begin living with a partner later than their Source: basedonINEdata. 10 15 20 25 30 35 55 60 65 70 40 45 50 NUMBER MARRIEDFOREVERY 1000INHABITANTS 5 0 Gr 16 aph 3.9: 17 Spanish, 2009 18 19 Marriage rates Marriage for women by ageandnationality 20 21 22 Foreign, 2009 (2002 and2009) 23 24 AGE 25 26 27 Spanish, 2002 28 29 30 31 Foreign, 2002 32 33 34 63 Source: basedonINEdata. Note: nationalbreakdown notavailable for years priorto 2002. Mrn Mnuz 20) I ohr onre, uh s the as countries, such other In 2007). Mínguez, (Moreno responsibilities that northern European countries have established relatedto the is generous thisfamily factors,policies other to balance among work 3.12);and family (graph Italy or Spain as such countriesin thanSweden andDenmark in higher arerates Birth in allEuropean countries. the 1999, Since 29. was average age it of mothers women at the immigrantbirth of their among first child and has increased 32 u o wdok its o on mtes te nrae n single- in increase the mothers, young to births wedlock of out Kingdom,the increase in the birth rate is related to the increase in Foreign Spanish Both nationalities Both Women Foreign Spanish Both nationalities Both Men Foreign Spanish Both nationalities Both B oth sexesoth T able 3.9: Average ageatfirstmarriage by sexandnationality 1999 27.9 30.0 29.0 – – – – – – 2001 28.4 30.4 29.4 – – – – – – 2003 30.6 28.8 28.8 32.0 30.8 30.9 31.2 29.8 29.8 2005 30.9 29.3 29.4 32.7 31.6 31.7 31.6 30.4 30.5 2007 31.1 29.8 29.9 33.3 32.1 32.2 32.0 30.9 31.0 U 31.6 30.5 30.6 32.8 32.8 32.8 32.1 31.6 31.7 2009 nited
Family and residential transitions mirns ae hi cide a yugr gs a te data the as ages, younger at children their have immigrants Spanish young people delay the birth of their firstage groups,child, with the exceptionwhile ofyoung those from 30 the to 34 years of age. by allSpanishfor immigrantshigheramongtheamong than is rate explained is increase this reproductivebehaviour theimmigrantof Spain, population, thebirthas In 2001). (Sumaza, aimed at single mothers and the policieshigh protectionist social consequence ofrate a of as familiesundesiredparent pregnancies Source: basedonEurostat data,2011. Note: thedatafor G Gr 28.0 28.5 29.0 29.5 30.0 30.5 31.0 31.5 aph 3.10: of theirfirstchildindifferent countries ofthe European Union 1999 ermany isavailable from theyear 2000. 2000 Trends intheaverage ageofwomen attimeof thebirth Denmark The Netherlands 2001 2002 2003 Sweden Germany 2004 2005 United Kingdom Spain 2006 2007 France 2008 2009 64 etlt rt bgnig n 08 tns u, t peiu upward previous its out, stands 2008 in beginning rate fertility the declinestrikingin the3.11,graph Youthlatest In theReport. their modified peoplebetween theagesandhad15children,29ofno based not on has expectation reproductive thisbehaviour. In2008, between 88% and plans, 90% ofyoung future their 2010;López Blasco, 2008). Despite having children being parta of people Younghave 3.13). fewer (graph showchildren birth than first they at really age mother’sdesireregarding at this age (Ayuso, Source: basedonINEdata. Gr 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 2002 aph 3.11: of their first child by nationality (Spanish/Foreign)of theirfirstchild by nationality 2003 Trends intheaverage ageofwomen attimeof thebirth Both nationalities 2004 2005 Spanish 2006 2007 Foreign 2008 2009
Family and residential transitions lower inSpainthanotherEuropean countries. much being continues it immigration, of effect the of because the and couples arrival of of children. Despite formationthe birth rate are having the increased slightly people in delay young a Spanish by characterised of transitions family the short, In the increase in the birth rate. decline in immigration, which in previous years had contributed to thenegative effect of the economic crisis and, on the other, to the trendhaving ended. This decline may be due, on the one hand, to Note: Datafor G Source: basedonEurostat data,2011. Gr 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 aph 3.12: 1999 ermany are available from theyear 2000. 2000 Denmark The Netherlands Trends rate indifferent inthetotal fertility countries 2001 of theEuropean Union 2002 2003 Sweden Germany 2004 2005 The UnitedKingdom Spain 2006 2007 France 2008 2009 65 (Ayuso, 2010; Martínez Pastor, 2009; Miret, 2010; Domínguez, Domínguez, 2011). 2010; Miret, 2009; Pastor, Martínez 2010; (Ayuso, the broader context of the socialisation and education and of family children the of formation the in milestone fundamental a be to continues marriage people, young Spanish among declined have rates marriage although that emphasise should we Lastly, Source: basedondatafrom theINE. BIRTHS PER 1000 WOMEN BIRTHS PER 1000 WOMEN MOTHERS 25-29YEARSOFAGE 120 100 MOTHERS 16-19YEARSOFAGE Gr 120 100 20 40 60 80 20 40 60 80 0 0 2002 aph 3.13: 2002 2003 2003 2004 2004 Trends rate (Spanish/Foreign) by nationality inbirth and theageofmother(agegroups) 2005 2005 2006 2006 2007 2007 2008 2008 Spanish 2009 2009
BIRTHS PER 1000 WOMEN BIRTHS PER 1000 WOMEN MOTHERS 30-34YEARSOFAGE 120 100 MOTHERS 20-24YEARSOFAGE 120 100 20 40 60 80 Foreign 20 40 60 80 0 0 2002 2002 2003 2003 2004 2004 2005 2005 2006 2006 2007 2007 2008 2008 2009 2009
Family and residential transitions odwrh n Mra, 2005; Morgan, and Holdsworth 2003; (Jurado, countries Scandinavian the and England France, European peers. These two are practices much more common in their to comparison in Spain in people young among practice alone or with sharing others an is apartment not commona very Economically Active Population Survey, EAPS). It seems that living 2009 the from data on (based example, 3.4% is flat) for a share that relationship,students family no with households people multi-person of up of (made that and young 9.6%, is among adults households Spanish single-person of percentage The since 2005(graph 3.14). cohabiting percentage the in increase slight a been has There for simply cohabiting (without legal recognition of opting the relationship). 56% 3.5): (graph marriage (or a legally recognised domestic partnership) and 21% unmarried or married partner, whether a with lived emancipated were who people young of 77% 2009, in Thus,Europe. of rest the in peers their byfollowed patterns in leaving home that are somewhat different from those followemancipatedare parents,that their those with reside and unmarried are Spain in people young of majority the Although become emancipated earlier to formalise a relationship with a with relationship a formalise to earlier emancipated become men than (table married 3.11), supporting the are argument that women the majority of young women of percentage higher A in live immigrants multi-person householdsthantheirSpanish peers. young of proportion greater a nationality, by differences Regarding 3.10). (table women young then alone live men young of percentage higher a gender, by differences 3.4. Lifest yles andf amil y t ypol G vra 20) Regarding 2007). aviria, ogies 66 Source: basedondatafrom EAPS2004-2009,2ndquarter. among women (Alemda and Di Nella, 2010). The data from the from data The 2010). Nella, Di and (Alemda women among parent homes, although this is a growing phenomenon, above all children. without partner a with live 39.3% while (58.2%), children have and partner a with live age of years 34 to 16 from people young The 2009 EAPS reports that the majority of emancipated Spanish being recognition legal much higherthanthepercentage amongtheSpanish. with partnerships domestic in and living nationals Spanish between immigrants,exceptionthe with percentagethe of immigrantsof differences substantial no partner and to form a family. With respect to nationality, there are Gr 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 10 0 2004 aph 3.14: domestic partnership Married orlegallyrecognised nly 2.5% of emancipated young people head single- head people young emancipated of 2.5% Only Trends inthepercentage ofemancipated young people 2005 by domesticpartnerships 2006 legal recognition Cohabiting without 2007 2008 Not inacouple 2009
Family and residential transitions 2009 EU-SILC. to data from the 2009 EAPS and 10.5% according to data from the according people young the emancipated among households of total 13% represent homes Non-family homes. family in live (Ayuso,youngpeople Spanish of any case,In majority 2010). the young the among forms family towardnew with openness greater of and partner trend the a confirm data These peers. Spanish with their than children live but unmarried are immigrants men. of percentage the Regarding than nationality, a higher higher percentage slightly of young is emancipated children and partner with a with living women of percentage the although gender, regarding differences substantial reveal not do survey Source: basedondatafrom EAPS2009,2ndtrimester. T Women Men F Women Men Spanish able 3.10: of age)insingle-personhouseholdsandmulti-person oreigners (with nofamilyrelationship), andsex by nationality Percentage ofemancipated young people(16to 34years person single- 11.1 15.2 4.7 6.4 person multi- 10.4 3.2 1.6 2.3 household with member 92.1 78.5 92.0 82.5 family T 100 100 100 100 O TAL 67 Note :*Singleparent homewithchildren/stepchildren/son-in-law/daughter-in-law. Source: basedondatafrom EAPS2009, 2ndquarter. Source: basedonECVdata2009. T Woman Woman Man F Woman Man Spanish Man F Woman Man Spanish T able 3.11: oreign oreign by type of family home with/without children, nationality andsex offamilyhomewith/withoutchildren,by nationality type able 3.12: of age) by type ofrelationship,of age)by type andsex nationality Percentage ofemancipated young people(16to 34years Percentage ofemancipated young people(16-34 years) rec in with children or without Married Couples a ognition 27.7 31.1 40.1 46.3 c living 61.8 50.4 60.9 49.5 ouple legal
children Couples rec with 67.4 67.8 56.5 53.1 without Living c ognition legal ouple 14.7 17.4 22.1 22.0
in Without parent* Single- partner 23.5 32.1 17.0 28.5 4.9 1.1 3.4 0.6 a T To 100 100 100 100 O 100 100 100 100 TAL tal
Family and residential transitions that 17.3% of households are families in which women are the are women which in families are households of 17.3% that fact the explain we can women, young than more men young Only in a situation of growing unemployment, which has affected family model, in keeping with the career expectations of women. 155), that Spanish (2010: young Ayuso people prefer by a obtained more balanced conclusions and the egalitarian supports This 3.15). (graph households of male 28.1% to fallen had percentage this the to 2009 in work, not corresponded did woman the which households in model breadwinner of 40% while 2004, in Thus, evolution. their on status employment of influence the analyse should we typologies, family of study this complete To Source: basedondatafrom theEU -SILC 2004-2009. 20 30 40 50 10 60 0 2004 Gr aph 3.15: Single malebreadwinner formed by young emancipated couples 2005 Trends ofbreadwinner inhouseholds inthetype 2006 Single femalebreadwinner 2007 2008 Dual breadwinners 2009 68 rprin f on imgat a a ecnae f h total the of percentage a as immigrants young of proportion the of weight the to immigrant population, as they are rates.higher where there is a relatedhigher be emancipation to highest seem rates the Emancipation to addition in households, heading people and La Rioja young have of the Navarre highest Islands, proportion Balearic of The rate of young region. by people differs heading also The households percentage people. young and of emancipation percentage lowest the with percentage found or Asturias, in the Basque Country the regions group in these regions is 3 to 4 percentage points higher than the age this in population the of percentageThe Murcia. and Melilla of young people (18 to 34 years of age) are Andalusia, Ceuta and initially stands out is that the regions with the highest proportion This regions. table reveals a certain heterogeneity in regional behaviour. autonomous What Spain’s for indicators available the of some comparing table a present we chapter Tothis conclude the crisis. resisted better have that services, as such sectors, in employed better under the economic crisis than young men, as women are up bearing are women young that indirectly, shows, This crisis. by six percentage points since 2004, primarily since of the economic percentage the increased that has woman a is breadwinner main is whose households out stands what sense, this In Act). in advance emerging gender yet equality (exemplified, limited for the example, in by Spain’s and 2007 force Equality labour the This trend is explained by the growing participation of women in in and, households such parallel, a decline in households with a single male breadwinner. in increase an been has there 2004, Since households. total the of 54.6% breadwinners: two of that is model widespread most the general, In breadwinners. main
Family and residential transitions Unemployment rate: Percentage ofthepopulation unemployed inrelation to thetotal populationofthatsameage. active ofemancipation:PercentageRate ofpersonsthatlive outsideoftheirhomeorigininrelation to thetotal populationofpersonsthatsameage. Household headshiprate: theheadshiprate refers to thepercentage ofpersonsthatare personsofreference inahomerelation to thetotal populationofpersonsthatsameage. Notes: Source: Youth onHousing, basedondatafrom Observatory theEAPS,2011,2ndquarter. La Rioja La Basque Country Basque Navarre Murcia Madrid G Extremadura ValencianCommunity Ceuta and Melilla and Ceuta Catalonia Castile and Leon and Castile La Mancha La Castile- Cantabria Canary Islands Canary Balearic Islands Balearic Asturias Aragon Andalusia Spain alicia T able 3.13: Characteristics ofthepopulationyoung Characteristics peoplefrom 18to 34years ofageinSpainby Autonomous Region % t o y tal oung poulation 24.1 19.5 21.1 25.2 23.0 21.5 21.5 23.1 22.9 22.1 20.6 23.7 21.7 24.3 24.3 19.9 21.1 24.3 22.7 / persons headship Household 17.0 26.6 28.6 21.0 23.0 29.1 25.2 25.7 25.8 25.5 23.8 23.4 21.6 23.3 27.6 19.9 21.7 23.1 24.1 rate
69 emancipation R ateof 36.1 45.4 49.0 44.5 45.7 51.1 42.5 45.1 49.9 48.4 42.4 45.5 43.3 41.0 51.5 38.6 45.9 42.9 45.4 % / y y oung oung 11.1 poulation immigrants 0.0 5.5 8.0 6.0 7.5 4.9 2.9 6.7 8.9 4.9 6.8 6.0 7.6 6.5 5.3 8.6 4.4 6.9 Unempl rate 39.4 18.0 18.1 32.3 22.3 22.7 24.5 31.7 31.0 24.1 22.9 30.4 20.9 38.5 26.5 25.4 26.0 37.7 28.4 o yment
Family and residential transitions Country andCastilla andLeonCountry (table3.13). Valencia, while the lowest rates are in Navarre, Madrid,and the Extremadura Basque Murcia, Islands, Canary the Melilla, and Ceuta among young people are found in Andalusia, Castilla-La Mancha, rates unemployment highest The Rioja). La and NavarreMadrid, population of young adults (this is the case in Aragon, Catalonia, 70
Family and residential transitions IV. School to work transitions and health
In society today, we feel recognised, integrated and connected to participate in the Spanish employment system, which is others through our integration in the labour market (Castel, 1997) characterised by temporary work contracts, low wages, and
and our resulting capacity to consume (Alonso, 2007). As a result, subcontracting. In Spain, young people are the population group o w rk transiti o ns and health analysis of youth transitions has to consider the labour market most affected by these employment conditions. (Price et al., 2011) as a frame of reference in which young people
are included (they are already employed) or excluded (they are Starting from this perspective, we can identify certain variables S ch oo l t not working yet). Educational programmes and the competencies that are important in analysing successful and failed transitions: that young people must develop are defined in relation to work. education level, the economy, family, institutional support, In this context, young people prepare themselves to achieve their employment and health. With each of these variables we can future goals; at the same time they encounter a productive system differentiate the factors that strengthen the ability to fulfil personal and selection criteria that both constrain and reinforce goals and those that lead to individual and social vulnerability opportunities. Moreover, young people live in a society that (table 4.1). Many of these factors are analysed in this study and also demands services 24 hours a day, which puts particular stress on in the literature on work, education, housing, social participation them. This can be seen in the higher levels of workplace and and public policy (Comas, 2011). traffic accidents young people suffer during the working day in comparison to the rest of the working population (López Peláez In this chapter we discuss three specific areas in which young and Segado, 2009). Young people did not create this reality, people may experience vulnerability in their paths to emancipation. although their use of social networks does reinforce this model of We will explore in greater depth certain aspects of school to work working round the clock. They also have no choice other than to transitions already introduced in previous chapters, but in this chapter we will also look at young people’s health, emphasising
71 Institutional Familial Economic Employment Education V ariables T ablE 4.1: Protective inyoung andriskfactors people’s factors social services, housing services, social benefits, economic institutions: public U partner and/or parents of Support network family byprovided Income benefits Unemployment employment from Income Well-paidemployment employment stable Fixedand High qualifications High education higher or Secondary schooling Compulsory Pro se of resources of resources of se tective transitions fact ors
of public institutions public of assistance and benefits the from disconnection disconnection and knowledge of Lack Isolation ties family lacking Weakor support economic family of Lack wagesLow benefits unemployment of Absence coverage security social of Absence expenses coverpersonal to one permit not does that employment Irregular Precariousemployment experience work previous of Lack O market job the for inadequate training and Education qualifications Low education Without verqualifications Risk fact
ors 72 regarding care of their bodies and their health, as well as their as behaviour well as people’shealth, their Young and bodies life. their of care of regarding part essential an is Health ‘normal’, giving this little as importance or attention. risks occupational to exposure their perceive people framework, young this Within 2006). Pinilla, and Peláez (López hours long very of shifts intensive and shifts rotating irregular hours, latter, the there are within variations shifts;such as rotatingthe split shift, or shifts from night day,6 to 12 with day, a hours 24 to workers with permanent contracts. In addition, work has extended to report greater exposure to occupational risks in comparison to precariousness of contracts. Workers with temporary jobs continue life, such as the work timetable, the organisation of workworking tasks of and aspects many with associated is Currently,flexibility ofthelabourmarket. to thestructure is linked Spain in youngpeople of vulnerability social in increase the that introduction the in out laid assumption the from life.Weof start the physical and psychological risks that affect them in this stage Source: LópezPeláez (2009). andSegado Health (Continue) employment multiskilling of demands the face to Ability health regardingmatters of Adequateeducation strategies learning Proactive Low self-esteemLow education of Lack process learning adequate an develop to Inability
School to work transitions and health represented by a series of characteristics or pre-establishedcharacteristicsand or of series a representedby visionof young people as amonolithic the social group fromwhich can be departs approach our research, of line this Following to (Casal use we that data objective quantify their lives and the describe their transitions and biographies affect deeply end, the ideas In into these framework. take cultural must and we institutional people the young account of reality the analysing in Therefore, time. over people young of experiences the through also but develops, it which in structure social the through only historically not to of nature this is the concept, which changing constructed and constructed socially (Bendit determined is category a as Youth and geer y 4.1. the analysing in and thebuildingofprofessional careers. women and relationship between men education level, access to the labour market between inequalities as a reference point in our analysis of these issues. We will look at Given the perspective of this study, we take the variable of gender in health mental people’s recent years (Sweeting etal.,2010). young in decline a been has there of consumption their as substances well such as alcohol and as tobacco. In addition, data group, indicate heterogeneous this of habits unhealthy or healthy the workplace, the account into taking redefined be must others, with interactions in behaviour et al et oung people’str ., 2006). 2006). ., et al et ., 2009). The researcher should be alert alert be should researcher The 2009). ., ansition byeducation level 73 population in Spain in 2000, while in 2007 they comprised only comprised they 2007 in while 2000, in Spain in population young people(from 15to 29years ofage)madeup 22.7%ofthe Report, Youth 2008 the from data on societies’. Based ‘ageing our in people young of percentage and number the in decrease Inclusion becomes even more difficult if we take into account the to andWyn,2005). (White transitions people’s young rights individual and social their of fulfilment the and adulthood regarding practice inclusive an develop to are we if necessary also is perspective this adopt to institutions of capacity The 2011). (Wearing, people young of an us case this offers in related to health – facilitate and, simultaneously, limit transitions – citizen issues normative young certain how the of understanding of concept each The of path individual. unique the and values beliefs, the of awareness an including citizen, young the that of perspective vision the humanist emphasises more such a explaining on call In could 16. we contradictions, is consent an parental have to without age abortion legal the however, 18; is age voting legal the means that there are often inconsistencies. For example, in Spain construction social complex and intricate this of instability The these on relational depend spheres. identity own one’s defining and autonomy the future one desires, achieving respect as an adult, strengtheninglevel. The development of friendships, the possibility of of obtaining terms in relationships,belongingreference,nationalorthe settingslocal at andinboth closest their comprise that groups educationalfamilyandspheres, with thewellas forexampleas – the – contexts specific in interactions people’s young of result stable meanings. The process of emancipation is connected to the
School to work transitions and health exclusion (30.6% and 31.6% of young and people, poverty of respectively) risk greatest among the social at are Italy and Spain in and people young that poverty reveal (2010) of Eurostat from risk data Recent the exclusion. increased has people Spanish young among transition of processes the of complexity The among thecountries studied(graph 4.1). increase significant most the 2010, in 30.6% to age of years 24 significantly since grown2008, increasing from 25.8% of all young people from has 16 to exclusion social and poverty of risk at they countries the population adult youth/young the in case, Spanish the In groupsstudied. age other among than people found(2007) greatera youngamong exposureof risk to poverty of risk at data, poverty and Eurostat social exclusion (Eurostat, recent 2010). Iacovou and to Aassve according are, age of years seen is poverty of throughout Europe, where 29.2%ofyoung people from 16to 24 risk increasing This 2009). Marí-Klose, residential and in delay a to transition and greater exposure to leads the risk of poverty (Marí-Klose housing and employment to of types these in jobs of occupations among young destruction people. In addition, this the lack of access to due is and 2008 tocomparison in decline significant a is this formen); 37.1% and women for (38% Active jobs temporary have that people Economically young show of 37.5% 2011, the to corresponding from (EAPS), Survey available Population data recent Themost status. was socio-economic lower a unemployment from those and among higher contracts, temporary had working were who people young of 50.8% Institute, Youth Spanish the from report above the to According housing. and employment as such rights, basic of series a to access gain to people young 19.7% of the population. In addition, it is increasingly difficult for 74 Source: SánchezMoralesandSotomayor (2009:158-159). ‘being an outsider’ on a personal, interpersonal and group level;group and interpersonal personal, a on outsider’ an ‘being housing, education and work; under-consumption; the feeling of adequate of lack the malnutrition; factors: interacting of series a referringpoverty.exclusion:We are of formsevere most the in The factors predictive of a high risk of social exclusion often result 4.2). (table exclusion factors, which are of predictors the level of risk of suffering social personal and relational familial, social, of result the is trend This in Spainhasbeenontherisesince 2007(seegraph 4.1). risk at people young of percentageexamined.The countries the poverty andsocialexclusionpoverty (asapercentage ofthetotal population) 35% 15% 20% 25% 30% Gr aph 4.1: 2004 Italy United Kingdom Young peoplefrom 16to 24years ofageatrisk 2005 2006 Germany Spain 2007 Austria EU (27) 2008 2009 France 2010
School to work transitions and health people that are below the poverty threshold can be interpreted be interpreted can threshold poverty the below are that people young Spanish of percentage the data, the at However, looking encourages exclusion exclusion. that say might we then 2012), Acebes, that said is it If established.‘inclusion encourages inclusion’ is (Segado Sánchez-Cabezudo and circle vicious a way this in and at alllevels ofsociety. reinforces Eachofthesefactors theothers, inclusion of lack general a and participation civic of absence the Note: butwithalevel Theare thesame asthemediumriskfactors highriskfactors ofseverity thatriskssocialexclusion. Source: SánchezMoralesandSotomayor (2009:158-159). • • • •Upoorly nstable, programmes welfare social in integrating Difficulties skills and/or education of levelLow home parental the in residing rental, or own/ one’sof home No work paid Medium risk Social fact • • • • • Illiteracy programmes welfare social accessing Difficulties skills and/or education of levelLow home parental the in residing not and rental, or own/ one’sof home No work Without ors High LNERABILITY AND RISK FACTRISK AND VULNERABILITY risk •Oof margins the n • • • social integration social network friendship and friends of Weakcircle circumstances family Conflictive ties Weakfamily Medium F T amily ablE 4.2: risk relational CIAL EX OCIAL S FOR ORS Risks ofsocialexclusion Risks 75 • • • Social exclusion Social inexistent network friendship and friends of Circle ties family conflictive or Inexistent below the poverty threshold and partially hiding the the hiding partially and threshold poverty the falling from people below young protecting buffer, a provides people and young an protects In family the follow. country, people familist young essentially that patterns emancipation the O the of countries developed European most the to it compare we if but 2010), (Marí-Klose, low relatively is percentage the world, the of in ways. different If the is comparison with all the other countries fact ften high risk does not lead to poverty, above all because of of because all above poverty, to lead not does risk high ften High ors risk CL USION U nion, the percentage is relatively high (graph 4.2). 4.2). (graph high relatively is percentage the nion, F Y OF • • • • • • •Upersonality nstable low motivation. low pessimism, resignation, Passiveattitude, self-esteem.Low skills social of Lack disabilities Learning gambling addiction, drug alcoholism, Addictions: health Poorphysical minority cultural or ethnic an to Belonging PEOPLE OUNG Medium Personal risk • • • • • • •Upersonality nstable fact motivation. low pessimism, resignation, Passiveattitude, self-esteem.Low skills social of Lack disabilities Learning gambling addiction, drug alcoholism, Addictions: health Poorphysical minority cultural or ethnic an to Belonging ors High risk
School to work transitions and health exposed are to greater insecurity as they no ages longer have the cushion earlier at emancipate who people young that This means emancipated. are who those for greater is poverty of risk are who people young arethe not,who belowage emancipatedthose though that and among exclusion social and poverty differencesregardinggreat no essentially are age,there of years 25 at starting case, Spanish the in that see can we 4.2 graph In Parisi, 2005; Peláez, 2006). (López situation their of precariousness adjusted). Note: Poverty threshold calculated basedon60%ofthemeanincome by household consumption units(OECD Source: basedonthedatafrom the EU-SILC, 2009. threshold, emancipated andnonemancipated, by agegroup andsex 60 10 20 30 40 50 0 % Gr YEARS 16-19 aph 4.2: YEARS 20-24 TOTAL Percentage ofyoung peoplebelow thepoverty YEARS 25-29 Total youth YEARS 30-34 YEARS 16-19 Emancipated YEARS 20-24
MEN YEARS 25-29
YEARS 30-34 YEARS 16-19 Not emancipated YEARS 20-24 WOMEN YEARS 25-29 YEARS 30-34 76 result in a lack of choice and increasing vulnerability to the adverse processes (Pagnossin and Armi, 2011) and the high risk of exclusionAs we pointed out in the first chapter, the complexity of transition have oftime. plenty they like feel they because independence their delaying accept to people young lead can which life population, the longer of expectancy and health good general the 3) jobs; temporary of the extremely high (overqualification); 2) level employment of and unemployment qualifications and between the high percentage a lack of educational qualifications or the lack of correspondence social panorama that contribute to this delay in emancipation: 1) and economic broader the within factors key three examine will we chapter this of rest the In exclusion. social of possibility the from people young protects clearly emancipation in delay The amongyoungsteady peoplesince riseinpoverty 2008. a been has there nevertheless, Spain; in the people young of on crisis effects the cushioning to contributed has 2010), Klose, (Marí- parenthood of postponement the and incomes’ ‘double This factor, along with the increase in households of couples with in the parental home until they are older (Moreno Mínguez, 2008). in Spain are characterised, above all, by young people remaining As we saw in chapter 3, emancipation patterns for young people age groups, for both emancipated and non emancipated women. all in men than women for higher is poverty of risk the addition, risk of poverty is higher among younger emancipated women. In reduced attain a certain economic are and job stability. By sex, we differencessee that the they until these emancipation delay people young age, because precisely With support. family of
School to work transitions and health the the labour market also involves to exposure new ideas regarding into Entry factor. important only the not is education However, Checkoway, 2011). (Cunningham equality gender acceptanceof thereis have demonstratedlevelthe higher the that greaterthe education, of studies longitudinal regard, this In today. people young an understanding of key aspects of the emancipation process for in young people, both at present and over time, provides us with gender of construction the involvedin processes the Examining and autonomy for projects independence. biographical their in and milieu social their in given is role sexes the social between the relationship the of that perspective the from secondly, peers; their to respect with and personally both people, young by ideology of perspective the and of actual construction integration gender the from at can be in First, looked two ways: transitions it affects and how of gender issue the perspective, our From or a woman. man a being to related specifically adulthood to transition the must we that means analyse whether there is any additional difficulty associated with gender of perspective the Introducing much more individualised way than in the past (Kemshall, 2009). challenge;predictablelifelesspathsareconstructedare and a in role(Leavey socialrelationsof technologieswhichnew in fundamental playa there are other conditions,problems economic structural fromthat resulting problems emerge the to from the current configuration effects of labour market flexibility (López Blasco, 2008). In addition et al.,et 2011).short, Inbeing young Spain intoday a is , 2005; al., et 77 n 3 cutis sn idctr fr dcto, elh the health, education, to ability the for of terms in power political to access and indicatorseconomy using countries 135 in the on G Report 2011 its in Forum Economic World The to transition the that complete. from far is shows equality gender planet, the across and Spain in power of devoid women leaves that gap gender a of existence the with along argument, This women. to power of could transfer the we in gender, role active an of play men issue hypothesis: following the the formulate to argument this apply we If making decision power. with the group the of shape process that circumstances or actions of impact the to due them, to it give to decides power with group a when it gain to able is power little has that or discrimination al., Wiklund et of those as In such studies rigorous (in disadvantaged. conditions such and marginalised or reverse favour that on dynamics the research are social addition, they repeatedly on has that sciences discrimination shown social and the processes in emancipation literature the population, global social macro the of half in a least at From represent women though obstacles even men. perspective, than more market face labour the to entering continue women workplace Nevertheless, and family 2001). y Collins, in Coltrane 2007; Davis, 1984; (Klein, employ negotiations can they new that with them models provides role also It independence. economic of expectations their to fulfil ability and their self-confidence their increases job a having particular, in women young For gender. ender 2010; Bertocchi, 2011) has shown that a group that faces faces that group a that shown has 2011) Bertocchi, 2010; G ap (Hausmann, et al., 2011) studied gender discrimination Global
School to work transitions and health people areactiveprocessagents,learning and people a directitself isof young process, this In thinking. critical encourage should that with people young provides processlearningcompetencies a throughandinformation, skills education conditions, ideal In Fundamental to the stage of youth is education and socialisation. 4.1.1. the on (Report poverty and potential exclusion social of suffering others than risk greater at and their group vulnerable a are affect women explains young This why woman. that a being and young together being vulnerability: come elements the two also is services maternity ( in Europe lowest and services childcare family on spending social addition, In 5.7). table (see Europe in lowest social Spain in the example, Portugal, and Italy with is, along people on young Forspending 2012). 2007; Mínguez, Moreno 2011; be Moretón, and to (Crespo revamped need completely and policies revised women, social These neglected children. general and people in young have advances, and despite reproduced that, is gap gender in due to in part policies and our society social culture sustained the perspective, our From about socialissuesandare poorer thanmen. The findings of the report show that women are more concerned countries.135 of scale this Yemen.on place 12th occupies Spain in worst the and Iceland, in was gender of perspective the from participate in the public sphere. public the in participate 1 See theanalysis ofthisinchapterSee five. G lobal lobal The paradox ofschoolfailure andhigheducationlevels G ender ender O G ECD, 2010). Therefore, in of the case ECD, women, Therefore, 2010). ap, 2011). ap, 1 The best situation for women for situation best The 78 riuae te i wa i rfre t a hlsi education holistic as to referred (Fletcher is and what them in mixes them it articulates education; informal and formal between barriers the down breaks education of type self-realisation.This individual for desire the and belonging of sense a emerges it of simpleacquisition theoreticaloutknowledge,of practicalas and participationsocial(Niemeyer, 2007). thethanEducation more is in socialprocesses andthesocialsystem (Niemeyer, 2008:85). 2 andtotheir development citizens.as society of understanding an to students lead shouldEducation epe n pi tdy ae hge lvl f dcto than education of level higher a have today Spain in people in this population, in particular between men and women. Young of young people in Spain and what kinds of differences do we find The first question we must ask, then, is what is the education level its absence is a clear indicator of social and individual vulnerability. integrationtopaththerefore, well-being,and a and is itbecause priority a iseducation posed: ischallenge(Navarrete, not 2007).The are who income, those than of status socio-economic levels and highereducation have them affect that communities of source institutionsor the ininvolved more a are who people young that as it identifying vulnerabilityand exclusion system,for young people. Thedata also show education Spain’s of status socio-economic higher (Simon, 2003; of Pérez and Cabrera, families 2009). The fromdata reveal completethe students failures than to likely as not compulsory are education and are more likely status to attain poorer results socio-economic low of educationSpain,in statistics showthat adolescents fromfamilies institutions do not always achieve this objective. Despite universal
We refer to the attainment of competencies and skills, as well as access to the right to participate and engage and participate to right the to access as well as skills, and competencies of Weattainment the referto et al. et , 2009). , 2
U nfortunately,educational
School to work transitions and health from 2000 to 2010 (based on data from the 2010 EAPS), we find we EAPS), 2010 the from data on (based 2010 to 2000 from Comparing education trends for young men and women in Spain generations. school and university (graphs 4.3 and 4.4) in comparison to earlier increase in the number of young people that complete secondary previousgenerations (EAPS, 2010), as there has significantbeena Source: basedondatafrom theEAPS2010. 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 0% Gr aph 4.3: Illiterate TOTAL Level ofeducationcompleted: menby agegroups FROM 16TO19 YEARS OLD Primary FROM 20TO24 YEARS OLD secondary school Compulsory AGE GROUPS FROM 25TO29 YEARS OLD secondary school 2nd stage FROM 30TO34 YEARS OLD MORE THAN35 YEARS OLD education Higher 79 Source: basedondatafrom theEAPS2010. .) Aog on pol fo 2 t 2 yas f g, the age, of years 24 to 20 from people young Among 4.5). (graph higher is school secondary finished have that women of male peers. In the group from gender.16 to 19 years by of age, the level Currently,percentage young women reach education higher education levels than their regarding differences significant 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% Gr 0% aph 4.4: Illiterate TOTAL Level ofeducationcompleted: women by agegroups FROM 16TO19 YEARS OLD Primary FROM 20TO24 YEARS OLD secondary school Compulsory AGE GROUPS FROM 25TO29 YEARS OLD secondary school 2nd stage FROM 30TO34 YEARS OLD MORE THAN35 YEARS OLD education Higher
School to work transitions and health currently hasthebest educated young peopleinitshistory. no is Spain showthat also The data education. in Spain in gap gender there that demonstrate data university These have 4.7). women (graph of degrees percentage higher a age, of years 29 to 25 from group the higher,in is while 4.6) (graph university and school secondary finished have that women of proportion Source: basedondatafrom theEAPS2000,2005and2010. 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 0% Gr aph 4.5: Illiterate 2000 Level ofeducationcompleted: menandwomen, Primary MEN 2005 16 to 19years ofage of secondary Compulsory stage 2010 2000 secondary 2nd stageof WOMEN 2005 2010 education Higher 80 Source: basedondatafrom theEAPS2000,2005and2010. Balearic Islands(37%).The nationaldropout rate is28%. the and (41%) Melilla and Ceuta of regions the in and south the have seen in chapter 3 (graph 4.8), especially in certain regions in we as high, very also is age of years 24 to 18 from people young before a paradoxical situation, as the school dropout rate among ourselves find we Spain, in education of levels high the Despite 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 0% Gr aph 4.6: Illiterate 2000 Level ofeducationcompleted: menandwomen, Primary MEN 2005 20 to 24years ofage 2010 of secondary Compulsory stage 2000 secondary 2nd stageof WOMEN 2005 2010 education Higher
School to work transitions and health Portugal having ones (graph 4.9). Thus, we have the paradox of paradox the have we Thus, 4.9). (graph ones having Portugal and Malta only rates; dropout highest the of one has Spain that see we countries, European other to comparison in addition, In Source: basedondatafrom theEAPS2000,2005and2010. 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 0% Gr aph 4.7: Illiterate 2000 Level ofeducationcompleted: menandwomen, Primary MEN 2005 25 to 29years ofage 2010 of secondary Compulsory stage 2000 secondary 2nd stageof WOMEN 2005 2010 education Higher 81 aig tand ih ees f dcto aog ih high a with along education percentage ofstudentsthatdrop out. of levels high attained having (Edition 2012), Ministry ofEducation, Culture andSport. (Edition 2012),Ministry Source: basedonLascifras delaeducación enEspaña [Education figures inSpain],Academic Year 2009-2010 Gr of thepopulationfrom 18to 24years ofagethathasnotcompleted the second stage of secondary education and is not participating educationandisnotparticipating the second stageofsecondary 40% 10% 20% 30% 50% 0% aph 4.8:
BASQUE COUNTRY
NAVARRE Earlyschoolleaving by autonomous regions. Percentage
ASTURIAS in any ofeducationortraining (2010) type
MADRID
GALICIA
CASTILE AND LEON
ARAGON
CANTABRIA
LA RIOJA
SPAIN
CATALONIA
VALENCIAN COMMUNITY
CANARY ISLANDS
EXTREMADURA
CASTILE- LA MANCHA
ANDALUSIA
MURCIA
BALEARIC ISLANDS
CEUTA AND MELILLA
School to work transitions and health h dcie n h pplto o yug epe n Spain in people young of population the (consequence of the decline in the birth-rate that began in 1975) in decline the young of new: not is people’sfind we reality adulthood.The study to transitions the to central is market labour the of Analysis rees andovprofessional ca erqu integr 4.2. ofEducation, Culture andSport. (Edition 2012),Ministry Source: basedonLascifras delaeducaciónenEspaña [Education figures inSpain],Academic Year 2009-2010 Gr EUROPEAN UNION(15COUNTRIES) the populationfrom 18to 24years ofagethathasnotcompleted the second stage of secondary education and is not participating educationandisnotparticipating the second stageofsecondary aph 4.9: THE UNITEDKINGDOM THE NETHERLANDS Earlyschoolleaving by countries oftheEU.Percentage of LUXEMBOURG PORTUGAL atbour market ion inthela GERMANY DENMARK BELGIUM SWEDEN IRELAND AUSTRIA FINLAND GREECE FRANCE in any ofeducationortraining type SPAIN ITALY 0% 5% 10% 15% alification 20% , 25% 30% 35% 82 Observatorio de Inserción Laboral de los Jóvenes los de Laboral Inserción de Observatorio the in ( degrees with graduating – respectively) 47% and 56% sciences those social the and humanities work for find higher even degrees are figures university (the qualifications with academic their with people commensurate young of only 40% where Spain, in overqualification of problem the reveals guarantee The not job. a does finding in success qualifications formal having However, Lucifora, 2008). with low levels of education (Quintini and Martin, 2006; Biagi and two to three times less likely to suffer unemployment than those are education of level high maintaining a with in people Young employment. level education of importance the underlines Europe in Research situation. are precarious population their to this linked closely integrating of difficulty growing the and more than one job for which they are overqualified, and this this and overqualified, are they which for job one than more into work often transition people young the many that in means This employment. people young for instability increases the hiring temporary of incidence with high The crisis. economic current especially university, and school have secondary who finished people young among even slow are advancement career of processes that highlights also it level, with education their commensurate more work toward transition of period a as interpreted be can situation this Although overqualified. be to continue people young of 25% experience, work of years five After jobs. next their in so be to continue will employees young overqualified ten of out seven Research], Economic for Institute Económicas the Investigaciones of de Market], Valenciano Labour the Instituto in People Young of Insertion the G arcía-Montalvo and Peiró, 2008). Based on 2008 data from the from on data 2008 Based and 2008). Peiró, arcía-Montalvo Eurydice report (Eurostat, 2005) 2005) (Eurostat, report [ O bservatory of of bservatory [Valencian [Valencian
School to work transitions and health goes on throughout the stages of transition to adulthood adulthood to transition of stages (Bashshur the throughout on goes o rqety Te ms lan e sil ad an new gain and skills new learn must qualifications inorder to becompetitive inthelabourmarket. They frequently. so young do fact the in and jobs change to willing are contracts employment by internalised been population has as a whole, even those young people model with permanent this Although past. the of thing a become extent great a to has sector one and company one in career linear orderly an of Therefore,model the 2010). Survey, Labour (European Portugal and years of 39 age, nearly representing 30% and of 25 workers in Spain, Poland between widespread be to tends also employment of type this 2010), in age of years 30 are who those in 15% than less to age of years 25 under people young of 40% than more (from age with decreases workers temporary of percentage While the 2011. in employment total of 46.6% for accounted jobs these years, 29 and 20 the between people in young Spanish Survey, of case Population Active Economically the from data on Based 2011. in 25% approximately to 1987 in employment total of 15% approximately from gone have which contracts, of types in these growth a been significant has there case, Spanish E the of countries different the inactivity. among varies employment of temporary of rates E in the jobs of all 14% up approximately make and significantly jobs has Survey, temporary unemployment Labour to European the 2010 According age) of youth years 24 increased to (15 workers youngest Tomillo, the among employment of (Fundación temporary The concentration 2012). jobs temporary of destruction massive a in resulted has it as recession, economic recent the by affected U , in function of existing labour laws (table 4.3). In the the In 4.3). (table laws labour existing of function in , et al., al., et 2011). Temporary workers have been the most most the been have workers Temporary 2011). U -27. The weight The weight -27. 83 Source: basedondatafrom Eurostat, various years. fetd y taiiain ae o fcos uh s gender, as such factors on community of origin and educational path (Mortimer, based 2009). This stratification by affected significantly is flexibility,employment contractual to addition In EU-27 EU-15 G Austria Belgium Denmark Spain Finland France Greece Ireland Italy Luxembourg The Netherlands The Portugal Kingdom The Sweden ermany T able 4.3: United
Temporary workers (as%oftotal employed by age 15 36.8 17.4 30.9 36.2 30.0 30.3 16.6 11.8 10.2 21.3 37.4 11.3 1987 t of o 24 o group), 1987-2010 a ge years 42.1 2010 43.1 57.2 37.0 30.4 21.1 58.6 43.0 54.9 30.4 30.4 46.7 36.5 48.3 55.6 13.7 57.1
15 1987 11.6 11.1 15.6 16.5 16.8 5.6 7.1 8.6 5.3 3.5 9.3 6.2 t of o 64 o a ge years 13.9 2010 14.0 14.7 25.0 15.4 14.9 12.4 12.8 18.3 23.0 15.4 9.3 8.1 8.5 9.3 7.1 6.0
School to work transitions and health Source: basedondatafrom theEAPS, various years. in theirprofessional ofemployment. careers andtheinsecurity and market labour the integratinginto in population this affects group,we have to differentiate between precariousnessthe that Given that the population of young people is not a homogeneous young people, even thosewithstrong ambitions. of development career the on impact major a has stratification 60% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 70% 0% 1996 From 16to19 yearsold From 30to34 yearsold 1997 Gr aph 4.10: 1998 1999 2000 Unemployment rate for young men 2001 by agegroup 2002 Total From 20to24 yearsold 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 From 25to29 yearsold 2008 2009 2010 2011, 1TIII 84 Source: basedondatafrom theEAPS, various years. rpe i a iiu cce f o-ad eprr jb and jobs temporary low-paid of cycle often vicious are a people in young trapped that shows research However, job. commonly has, the greater the likelihood he/she will is have of getting a better It process. morevariedthe that assumed work experiencesyoung a person transition the in during insecurity greater employment experience to tend that education least the with those and youngest the is it group population this In 60% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 70% 0% 1996 Gr From 16to19 yearsold From 30to34 yearsold 1997 aph 4.11: 1998 1999 2000 Unemployment rate for young women 2001 by agegroups 2002 Total From 20to24 yearsold 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 From 25to29 yearsold 2008 2009 2010 2011, 1TIII
School to work transitions and health situation today than they were in the crisis of the early 1990s, which finally early began to ease the in 1997. In graph of 4.10 we can see crisis that the in were they than today situation worse a in are workers young perspective, longitudinal a From highly are andcompetitiveselective etal.,2008). (Toharia which niches, employment specialised in – market labour the in demand greater is there which for qualifications to linked – careers successful however,find possible, to also is It in this sector of the population (López Peláez and Segado, 2009). accidents work-related more to lead qualifications low addition, unemployment intermittent(McDonald, non-voluntary In 2009). Source: basedondatafrom theEAPS2011. 10 20 40 60 80 30 50 70 90 % OFTOTAL POPULATION 0 Gr FROM16TO19 Employed YEARS OLD aph 4.12: Employment statusofyoung menby agegroup 24 YEARSOLD FROM20TO Unemployed 29 YEARSOLD FROM25TO Inactive FROM30TO34 YEARS OLD Unemployed lookingforfirstjob % OFTOTAL UNEMPLOYED MORE THAN35 YEARS OLD 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 85 Source: basedondatafrom theEAPS2011. young among women is slightly rate lower now than unemployment in the previous crisis. the that see can we 4.11 graph in an equal decline in the employment years rate recent of young in men. whichIn primarilycontrast,employed sector, youngmen. Thedeclinethissector meantin construction the in crisis the of This high unemployment is due primarily to the enormous impact and age, of yearsnearly 43%amongthosefrom 20to 24years ofage. 29 to 25 those unemployment among 2011 30% in almost 1990s: reached the of crisis the in was it than crisis current the in higher is men young among unemployment 10 20 40 60 80 30 50 70 90 % OFTOTAL POPULATION 0 Gr FROM16TO19 aph 4.13: Employed YEARS OLD Employment statusofyoung women by agegroup 24 YEARSOLD FROM20TO Unemployed 29 YEARSOLD FROM25TO Inactive FROM30TO34 YEARS OLD Unemployed lookingforfirstjob % OFTOTAL UNEMPLOYED MORE THAN35 YEARS OLD 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0
School to work transitions and health the total population. total the with comparison in differences significant the with crisis, by economic affected most group population the report, are EAPS people 2011 young the from data current most the at Looking found in the group from 25 to 29 years of age. The percentage percentage The age. of are years 29 to women 25 from group and the in found men between differences notable most The professional careers stabilise(graphs 4.12and4.13). and status employment their see to begin we do Source: basedondatafrom theEAPS2011. 100% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 80% 90% 70% 0% Gr receiving training Studies oris going tofindwork Thinks heisnot aph 4.14: FROM16TO19 YEARS OLD Persons whoare by inactive reasons given for not 24 YEARSOLD FROM20TO nly in the later stage of young adulthood young of stage later the in Only disability Illness orpersonal Retired looking for worklooking (men) 29 YEARSOLD FROM25TO AGE GROUPS Other reasons disabled orelderly Cares forchildren, FROM30TO34 YEARS OLD MORE THAN35 YEARS OLD responsibilities or personal Other family 86 Source: basedondata from theEAPS2011. support to a much greater degree than men. than degree greater much a to and support care is providing of women tasks responsibilities words, the on other take these to In continue to 4.15). and dedicated 4.14 (graphs men insignificant of percentage the while disabled, and ill the elderly, the children, of care take women of be than can (17%) life difference in the Spanish welfare higher state (Flaquer, This 2004). A high percentage (10%). is by explained the lack of to policies help work balance and family men women inactive inactive economically economically of 100% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 80% 90% 70% 0% Gr receiving training Studies oris going tofindwork Thinks heisnot aph 4.15: FROM16TO19 YEARS OLD Persons whoare by inactive reasons given for not 24 YEARSOLD FROM20TO looking for worklooking (women) disability Illness orpersonal Retired 29 YEARSOLD FROM25TO AGE GROUPS Other reasons disabled orelderly Cares forchildren, FROM30TO34 YEARS OLD MORE THAN35 YEARS OLD responsibilities or personal Other family
School to work transitions and health few exceptions (Pérez exceptions few the on with However, people. impacting young of well-being factors future and present risk an analyse is health to that variable chapter this important to introduction the in saw We y 4.3. identity and choosing cultural preferences and lifestyle, lifestyle, and preferences cultural choosing and identity relation to the rest of life. This is a period dedicated to constructing The in years initial of youth are importance a of period particular change. social and an impact on health, particularly in these times of young rapid economic which within people develop their daily lives framework and behaviours certain that have structural the adulthood, to the elements that are part of the deep connection between transitions a have identify to task complex a is people’s It circumstances young on health. impact economic and inequality Social health: their to Piko, 2006). harmful be would 2000; (Miles, tobacco,sex unsafeof alcohol,drugs, consumption time, if that, over behaviours maintained with experiment individuals many which attainment and economic position (income); 2) this is a period in is people educational 2009), Dunn, and (Layard structure family youngto related of health the that evidence growing 1) is there 2009): (Furlong, observations following the by qualified be is stage must health optimal of period a as youthHowever, of vision this This behind. left risk. of underestimation an and health is optimal by characterised health) to related vulnerability (and childhood with associated risk of period the which in stage on the health situation of this group in Spain. Youth is a transition oung people’shealth , 2009), little research has been done been has research little 2009), al., et 87 atr (ocrs eae t euain sc a academic as such education, to anddropping out). performance related (concerns factors worries related to other relationships in the home) and educational family dynamics (among other things, with parents conflicts and were change this to most contribute to shown were that factors Thechange. the of proportion small a of cause the werelifestyle and values in change the while health, mental in decline this to time, lifestyle factors. The this and results show values that during economic educational, factors barely people contributed familial, young economic, including these of health mental the in decline a to contributed have could that factors potential of place took during these 23 years, from 1987 to 2010, that they identified a series change social of aspects key certain studying After location. geographical same the and school in year same the from age, same the of people young 3,929 of sample a used called (1987), before years 23 done Sweeting 2010 in example, For studies. important and interesting of number a in confirmed been has people young among problems psychological in increase The Smith, and (Rutter psychological Furlong, 2009). severity 1995; and of degrees obesity differing of asthma), problems example, (for certain chronic in illnesses increase of an with decades health, people’s young recent of aspects in deterioration progressive but slow a shows countries western many from evidence Empirical identities (Pavis identities fundamental the personal their of construct people young which some around elements are activities leisure and patterns Consumption healthy. are choices such whether of regardless et al, et 1998). (Der, 1998). They 1998). (Der, Twenty-07 eetd study a repeated al. et
School to work transitions and health factors. Thehealth ofyoung people inSpain has been affected by several Source: basedondatafrom theEU-SILC, 2009. among adolescents is of growing concern ( circumstances personal (Benito and de la Iglesia, socio-economic 2009). In andthis family,context, the theeducation, to increase related in issues depression of combination a from arises This which affects their own health as well as that of those violentbehaviourpeople,youngaroundamongisAnotherfactor 2009). them. Fellmann,(Espinarpassed hasseparation the by triggeredcrisis the once improve can health although separate, parents when 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 70% 60% 0% Gr O FROM16TO19 aph 4.16: ne of them is the change in child raising patterns caused YEARS OLD Very good in thelasttwelve months, by agegroup Self-perception ofhealthstatusamongmen 24 YEARSOLD FROM20TO Good AGE GRUPS Okay 34 YEARSOLD FROM25TO G arcia Alonso, 2009). Poor MORE THAN35 YEARS OLD Very poor 88 Source: basedondatafrom theEU-SILC, 2009. the population from 16 to 24 years of age (graphs 4.18 and 4.19), the last two over decades, Survey we Health can see National some Spanish variations the over from time among data at Looking difference between menandwomen. little with 4.17), and 4.16 (graphs good’ ‘very be to health their perceive people (EU-SILC),young Conditions Living and Income In health? own their on Statistics European the from data perceive2009 to according general, people young do have how we people asked: young of status health the assess to order In 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 70% 60% 0% Gr aph 4.17: FROM16TO19 YEARS OLD Very good in thelasttwelve months, by agegroup Self-perception ofhealthstatusamongwomen 24 YEARSOLD FROM20TO Good AGE GRUPS Okay 34 YEARSOLD FROM25TO Poor MORE THAN35 YEARS OLD Very poor
School to work transitions and health differences inself-perceptions ofhealth. be broken down into smaller age groups to further analyse these 4.4). (Table age of years 44 to 25 is also the case for the following age group for which there is data: report having better health than those who are unemployed. This Young people between 16 and 24 status. years of employment age who and are employed health between correlation a is There women and men young havingreported goodhealth. both of majority vast the although Source: basedondatafrom theNationalHealthSurvey, various years. 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 0% Gr aph 4.18: 1987 Very good to 24years ofageinthelasttwelve months Self-perception ofhealthstatusamongmen16 1993 Good 1997 nfortunately, the data cannot data Unfortunately,the 2001 Okay 2003 Poor 2006 Very poor 2009 89 Source: basedondatafrom theNationalHealthSurvey, various years. h sy hy o o dik loo (e gah 42 ad 4.23), and although with a 4.22 distinct pattern of graphs consumption from (see tobacco, as alcohol drink not do they say who people young of number the in decrease a been also has There observed be can tobacco 4.21). and of 4.20 (graph consumption over the decline in continual years a are the example, results For the that compare supportive. find we we mutually data, If this with behaviour. risk self-perceptions health-related of measures objective we have people of young statements the with Along Gr 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 0% aph 4.19: 1987 Very good Self-perception ofhealthstatusamongwomen 16to 24 years ofageinthelasttwelve months 1993 Good 1997 2001 Okay 2003 Poor 2006 Very poor 2009
School to work transitions and health Source: basedondatafrom theNationalHealthSurvey, various years. of health and life expectancy are independent factors, a certain certain a factors, independent are expectancy life and health of self-perception young Although in our societies. advanced life expectancy increased of well-being reality objective of the is there perception describe, people subjective the with Along Spanish the in considered years (1987to 2006). National HealthSurvey twenty the over rise the on good health (graph 4.24 and 4.25), as the rate of obesity has been However, some doubts can be raised regarding this perception of alcohol drink not do who increased between 2001and2003,onlyto declinein2006. people young of percentage the 16-24 years of age of years 16-24 25-44 years of age of years 25-44 45-64 years of age of years 45-64 65 and older and 65 Age Unemployed Unemployed Unemployed Unemployed Employed Employed Employed Employed T Inactive Inactive Inactive Inactive able 4.4: Status Positive evaluation ofself-perceived healthby ageandemployment status(%) 85.79 80.43 86.74 83.03 75.45 74.34 68.44 61.28 45.60 64.47 38.09 1987 – 85.00 82.40 86.01 83.99 75.40 74.36 69.82 63.98 50.28 60.29 40.32 1993 – 90 society, such as the consumption of toxic substances and and substances toxic of somewhat, consumption overeating. declined the as has such society, health consumer with of associated practices of because fundamentally state their optimistic, quite are although people young of perceptions the short, In 2007. in 85 to increased had and 75 was 1960 in girl old year The 78. to increased of for a is women even better, 15 situation had as the life expectancy this 2007 in age; increased of years 72 has was 15 people young of of a boy of expectancy life the in 1960 4.26): (graph significantly expectancy In life established. the be can Spain, well-being of self-perception the and between association the considerable increase in life expectancy 83.02 81.07 83.54 83.42 77.87 69.41 70.38 51.82 47.53 38.20 1995 – – 82.13 77.32 87.31 84.24 76.78 74.70 67.98 59.29 50.00 41.80 1997 – – 84.99 83.92 89.68 85.18 77.06 72.79 74.27 53.20 52.58 63.23 40.69 2001 – 85.05 79.64 89.18 84.09 75.06 68.70 71.19 52.26 48.63 51.68 37.80 2003 – 84.52 79.29 90.95 81.05 71.88 67.69 67.35 52.93 47.78 59.78 39.43 2006 –
School to work transitions and health Source: basedondatafrom theNationalHealthSurvey, various years. highest rate isinthegroup of 20to 24 year olds. so does the suicide rate, except in the case of Sweden, where the increases, age as that show also higher.data much The are rates other in than Spain suicide France,where or Sweden in as in such countries, European higher is people young of well-being on crisis suicide among young people. the In any case, the data of show that the impact comparative the analyse to unable are The recentmost availabledata average.for Europe correspond to weso 2008, European the below well people, young among with along Spain, fact, In 4.27. directly is Spain correlated with in the percentage of people suicides, as we young can see in of graph health good relative The 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% 55% 60% Gr aph 4.20: 1987 Percentage ofyoung people16to 24years ofage 1989 who say theysmoke, by sex 1993 Women Greecelowestthe has ratesuicide 1997 Men 2001 2003 2006/07 91 Source: basedondatafrom theNationalHealthSurvey, various years. overall population. the among than people young among lower is rate suicide the that of is out stands also What population. the weight in groups age these greater the to due be could that fact a ages, higher and material The data in graph 4.28 also show that the suicide rate is the higher at to due Spain. in people young provide families that perhaps support emotional suicide, on impact direct a had not has crisis economic the of consequence a as people young for conditions objective of worsening the that show to even decreased in the group of 30 to 34 year olds, which appears has and constant almost remained has rate suicide the that see Regarding trends in suicide rates since 2000 (graph 4.28), we can 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 0% Gr aph 4.21: 1987 Percentage ofpopulationwhosay theysmoke, 1989 16-24 1993 by agegroups 25-44 1997 45-64 2001 2003 65 + 2006
School to work transitions and health In short, as Namkeeasshort, In Note: The source doesnotgatherdataonthosewhosay theyconsume alcohol. Source: basedondatafrom theNationalHealthSurvey, various years. to health, employment and economic situation. in analysing the subjective well-being of young people in relation family support are important elements to take into consideration with Living life (Namkee out. stand people independentthat younglive as on well-being, becoming their on own effect significantreport a the of has highest independently levels of act satisfaction the and stage of the life cycle. Among these thiscircumstances, in family occur support that circumstances distinct the of because groups age other of that from different is people young of well-being Gr 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 0% aph 4.22: 1987 Percentage ofyoung people16to 24years ofagewho say theydonotdrink alcohol, by sex et al. 1993 et al.et , 2012: 427). Therefore, independence and (2012)have pointed out,subjectivethe 1997 Women 2001 Men 2003 2006/07 92 Note: The source doesnotgatherdataonthosewhosay theyconsume alcohol. Source: basedondatafrom theNationalHealthSurvey, various years. – poverty. A highly familist social orientation protects them them protects orientation social familist highly exclusion of A of form risk poverty. – acute high most a the at are including Spain exclusion, in social people young that is first The of thesefactors, we have drawn thefollowing conclusions. status and certain indicators of employment health level,status. Through education our detail: analysis in adulthood to transition the in factors essential three analysed have we chapter this In and health 4.4. Gr 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 0% aph 4.23: The impor 1987 Percentage ofyoung peoplewhosay theydonotdrink 16-24 tance ofeducation, empl 1993 alcohol, by agegroups 25-44 1997 2001 45-64 2003 oyment 65 + 2006
School to work transitions and health Is the Spanish education system elitist, aimed at young people young at aimed elitist, system education Spanish the Is significant, it seems likely that the dropout rate could be reduced.) the design of the education system have in retaining students? (If rate. This leads to a number of questions: How much weight does dropout high very a is there time, same the at but highest, their at are levels education paradox: a hides This history.Spain’s in education of levels highest havethe sexes both of today people women young have higher that levels of education seen than young men; have however, young we level, education Regarding exclusion and face. they precariousness the hides degree some to and Source: basedondatafrom theNationalHealthSurvey, various years. Gr 0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% aph 4.24: 1987 Percentage ofyoung people20to 24years ofagewith body massindexabove 30kg/m 1993 1997 Women 2001 Men 2003 2 2006/07 93 Source: basedondatafrom theNationalHealthSurvey, various years. hrceie b tmoay mlyet intermittent employment, careers and themismatch between qualifications andjobs. linear temporary of disappearance the risk, occupational unemployment, by market characterised labour a from resulting problems important face they Spain is the most highly educated historically, we have seen how in people young of population current the although However, through studiesthat focus ontheSpanisheducationsystem. development? These are open issues which merit further research educational their inhibits or strengthens come ultimately which from students background the it Is process? educational the facilitates that environment family protective a from come who Gr 10% 15% 20% 25% 0% 5% aph 4.25: 1987 Percentage ofpopulationwithbodymassindexabove 20-24 1993 30kg/m 25-44 1997 2 , by agegroup 2001 45-64 2003 65+ 2006
School to work transitions and health their possibility of capitalising on their education. sectors, they cannot avoid a arespiral able to of avoid precariousnesslong periods ofthat unemployment compromisesperiods and of unemployment. jobs in Although low-skillthose with university degrees precarious employment dynamic of alternating a into withenter percentagesmallunder-qualifiedcases),theawhile(except of in to match their education, moving from population.one low-skilled The most job qualifiedto anotherhave difficulties insertion,finding whichemployment is one of the causes marketof labour the and educationsocial between mismatch vulnerabilityexemplify this of this extremesregardingtwotheeducation peoplesituated levels),at qualifications of those who are less prepared (in other Bothwords, the youngoverqualification of the well-prepared, as well as the lack of Source: basedondatafrom theNationalHealthSurvey, various years. 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 1960 Gr 1970 aph 4.26: 1975 1980 Life expectancy at15years ofage Life expectancy 1986 Women 1991 1995 Men 2000 2002 2005 2007 94 Source: basedonEurostat, 2008. ifrne bten on mn n wmn regarding group age the For population. the women of rest the than men young and among higher is rate men unemployment The status. employment young between differences To briefly summarise, between 1996 and 2011, we find significant Gr aph 4.27: THE UNITEDKINGDOM THE NETHERLANDS EU 27COUNTRIES EU 15COUNTRIES Suiciderate for 100,000inhabitantsby agegroup every years old From 16to19 GERMANY DENMARK SWEDEN GREECE FRANCE SPAIN ITALY 0 2 and country, 2008 4 years old From 20to24 6 8 10 12 years old From 25to29 14 16
School to work transitions and health g, h mjrt o yug epe id rae employment greater career.stable a building gradually find of possibility the and stability people young of majority the age, of years 34 and 30 between period the in Beginning integration. education, hoping that their higher qualifications will finally continue lead to full economic people young jobs, of lack the longer, with school in Facedtoday. common the staymore much become has to that should something support people lends young which that women), argument for 41% and men for 20 and 24 years of age, however, are alarming the (43% majority is still that in school. unemployment fact the by explained be can this 19, and 16 between Source: based on the the on based Source: Gr 10 12 PER 100,000INHABITANTS 0 2 4 6 8 aph 4.28: From 16to19yearsold From 30to34yearsold 2000 2001 Suiciderate for 100,000inhabitantsby agegroup, every Natural movement of the population the of movement Natural 2002 2003 Spain, 2000-2009 Unemployment data for those between Total From 20to24yearsold 2004 , INE, various years. various INE, , 2005 2006 2007 From 25to29yearsold 2008 2009 95 usatal cag te otx i wih hr lvs are will efforts lives their there continue to bepoorlyrewarded. all opportunities, which such in without context developing; the change will that substantially opportunities structural need they But having health. report good and qualifications their match not do that jobs in work to willing are educated, better are today people Young group. population this of control the beyond is chapter, this in of level high unemployment the among young people, which, as is has been shown underscored be must what conclusion, In increase, which reinforces theirpositive to feelings abouttheirown health. continues expectancy life when times in live they some exceptions, revealed by the increase in obesity. In addition, with 2009), (EU-SILC,‘arewell’ and good’ ‘feel they good; very is Despite the job-related risks, the health of young people in Spain qualifications, suffer a higher percentage of workplace accidents. Regarding health, young people, those with low and particularly MínguezandG than men(Moreno women that responsibilities domestic fact on take the to likely more by be to explained continue be can This age. of years 29 to 25 from group the in all above men, than women inactive In addition, it should be stressed that there are more economically entile, 2011).
School to work transitions and health V. Young people’s transitions, social services and policies
In analysing young people’s transitions into adulthood, we must agents and anti-discrimination and gender awareness. Table 5.1 take into account the context – the set of constraints and provides by way of introduction a brief description of the opportunities – framing their paths in life. Therefore, a priority of philosophy behind policies aimed at young people in the this study has been to examine the policy and institutional contexts countries for which data were available. The table was created in which transitions occur. Among these institutional contexts, one based on information from a number of European reports. key area stands out: social policies and, specifically, programmes for youth and young adults that are designed and implemented • Secondly, the intensive use of new technologies and social through social service administrations at the local, regional and networking by young people (tables 5.2 and 5.3) – members of a state levels. We will discuss three important issues, based on digitally fluent generation – and their collective mobilisation (as availability of data: in the 15 M movement), which is linked to their negative assessment of political parties, trade unions and representative n g pe o ple ’ s transiti o ns , s cial services and p o licies You • First, social policies from a comparative European perspective: institutions (table 5.4): Therefore, if policies and social services for The proposals formulated in the document, European Union youth and young adults are to be really effective in reaching them, Youth Strategy 2010-2018 (Council of the European Union, they must be adapted to the digital environment. 2009), contrast with the diversity of institutions, policies and programmes being developed in each country (table 5.1.). • Thirdly, when we refer to the current generations of young According to Quintana (2011: 18-21), the guidelines in this people, who connect with each other and are mobilised through document are too general since they do not clearly define the the Internet, the available data show that in the area of social content and meaning of public policies for young adults and services this group is of little importance as such: the reference only establish broad principles for policy implementation, such category of young people represented only 1.18% of the total as the need for a transversal approach, co-operation between recipients of social services in Spain in 2009 (table 5.5).
96 Source: basedontheEstudioG Source: basedon«Assessing for practices usingindicators infieldsrelated to youth» Final oftheEuropean Commission, Report DGEducation andCulture, C4431/February 2011. nited Kingdom United Sweden The Netherlands The G France Internet consumption (%) consumption Internet % Growth in the last five years:five last the in Growth % Spain ermany T ablE 5.2: Trends inInternet consumption amongyoung people eneral [G deMedios TABLE 5.1: Department of Education of Department Science and Education of Ministery the with co-ordination in ministries various on Dependent Employment Ministry Employment Women and YouthWomenand Family,of FederalMinistry YouthSociety Civic and Education, on dependent Society Youthof Civic and Department and Equality and Policy Social Health, of Ministry Youth),of (Institute INJUVE N RESPONSIBLE INSTITUTION 14 to 24years ofage for 78.5% 2007 y Youth policiesinSpain,France, G eneral Study],2007-2011. Media outh 72.5% 2008 policies 77.5% 2009
81.4% 2010 8.2 National and local and National National and local and National policy (provinces) policy care and administration) (local Preventive policy and local and Federal(Länder) states local and regional National, local and regional National, SPHERE 84.9% 2011 ermany, theNetherlands, Sweden andtheUnited Kingdom F ACTION OF 97 Source: based on the Estudio T networks Social month. last the in services Internet toAccess ote: % growth in the last year: last the in growth % Note: abLE 5.3: protection and employment Assistance,education, well-being Participation, health time,free education, Family support, services Volunteering,social participation, health participation, Training,employment, advising,exchange training,Employment, Access to socialnetworks inthelastmonthamongyoung Priorities G eneral de Medios [ people 14to 24years ofage
2007 G eneral Media Study], 2007-2011. – (2006-2016) children and youthfor Strategy policies 2009 (transversal) 2009 policies youthfor strategy National co-ordination local and strategy National independentintheir policies Federallevel. Federal states have ministries all in policies transversal youth, about book Green plans national and regional Local, 35.8 2008 – of Plan 2009 – action 46.4% 2010 63.0% 2011
Young people’s transitions, social services and policies perspective and the importance of policies aimed at youth youth at aimed policies of European importance comparative the a and from to perspective policy want social of we priorities chapter the this discuss will we First, In perspectives. two from issue this 2010). examine Peláez, (López digital fluency and heterogeneity their as well as young of transitions people’s characteristics the account into take be that must Policies designed participation. people’s young is this of key all The to insecurity. job and economic growing of context the in transitions their facilitate to and people young of demands needs and the to respond to order in programmes necessary redefine clearly to is It services. social these of and beneficiaries as formation policy in participation of terms in both people are services young of and representation low very a found have programmes we developed, for policies how analysing In Source: basedontheOpinionPoll INJUVE, 160,2011. T Police and ‘ Policeand Military NGOs Politicians Church Catholic Financialentities G Unions Monarchy powers Judicial abLE 5.4: overnment Trust ofyoung people15to 29years ofageininstitutions, uardia Civil’ Guardia scale from 0to 10 6.2 6.8 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.6 4.5 4.5 5.7 6.2 98 Source: based on Ministery of Health, Social Policy and Equality (SIUSS,2009-2010). ofHealth,SocialPolicy and Equality Source: basedonMinistery young adults, as sector of reference, have little relevance as as relevance little have beneficiaries. and reference, youth of that sector the as show on adults, which young data services, examine social will of we beneficiaries Secondly, adults. young and 01 05 04 03 02 06 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 17 Total Sect Family Elderly Women Y Childhoods Persons with disability Personswith O Terminallypersons ill persons ill Mentally risks catostrophic to due Needs Migrants seekers asylum and Refugees addicts) drug and (alcoholics Addicts marginalised and Homeless minorities Ethnic prisoners former and Prisoners Immigrants of or outh ther groups in need in groups ther T ablE 5.5: reference Number of users of social services by sector Numberofuserssocialservices of reference 2,258,256 543,704 849,711 131,608 292,996 169,868 Users 26,750 89,838 16,677 13,573 10,703 34,770 62,436 1,318 8,418 1,317 3,979 590 100.00% 24.08% 37.63% 12.97% 1.18% 3.98% 5.83% 0.06% 0.37% 0.06% 0.74% 0.60% 0.47% 1.54% 0.18% 0.03% 2.76% 7.52% %
Young people’s transitions, social services and policies ulc rgams n srie fr on pol fr two for people young for services and programmes public of analysis an with supplemented be should – transitions family characterising the lives of young people – transitions to work and dimensions basic the of two on research perspective, our From andyoung people 5.1.1. Socialservices emancipation allowance inSpain. that have been taken in this field in recent years, such as the basic context, Europeanand lastly, secondly, the policies; socialthe evaluation measures policy ofthe of ofsome importance the first, issues: three address must people’sweadulthood, to transitions young to relationship their and policies social analysing When the welfare state. Spain, is the relatively these lowpolicies have importance within policies regarding face aimed at young people to in the European challenges main the of one below, has had a great impact on the public agenda. As will be discussed which movement, M 15 the example, for of through, mobilisation level high a and 5.3) an (table networks with social of coupled use intensive unions) trade parties, political associations, (through level institutional the at of people young of lack participation the situation: paradoxical a find we Spain In 2009). EU, of levels the of (Council problems low health and life, public poverty,in participation failure, a school as unemployment, participation them: their on insisting affecting challenges the addressing successfully forprerequisite in explicit are people European the In 5.1. Social polyandyoun g people’str nion, social policy proposals aimed at young at aimed proposals policy social Union, Union, and specifically in ansition 99 life paths. individual their and unfolding people’sare young lives which in context the both analysing in emphasised be must vulnerability of issue the extent, Tosome difficult. increasingly becoming are home) family the from independence and employment steady (acquiring transitions ideal which in context a in place take all must this And citizens. participating fully become to need their them a voice and designing social policies that take into account giving paths, their in them encouraging requires This societies. democratic our in 2009) (Honneth, subjects valid as recognised be to need people Youngneeds. subjective and objective their both on based people, young at aimed been policies public reorient has As 2000). and rethink (Sen, to priority a is it (2011), Comas by argued rigorously capabilities real become our to permit they rights which to extent the and function) they (how It is necessary to analyse the institutions that exist in our societies these programmes andresources. on have people young information) of lack (or information the young of needs the people to and their realactual situations of risk, but also in terms of services social these of adaptation of available social services can be interpreted in terms of the degree young as people’s well own discourses about social Theservices. level of use as of services, social of role the question must we people, young among transitions failed understand to trying In safeguard final against socialexclusion (LópezPeláez, 2010). the are services social because secondly, and analyse the importance of young people in our welfare societies), programmes are designed to bring about (which will enable us to reasons: First, to understand the model of social integration such
Young people’s transitions, social services and policies being able to live for and in relation to others; to recognise and recognise to others; to relation in and for live to able being have olds capability’: ‘affiliation year calls (2001) something Nussbaum what experienced thirty and twenty of generations ordinated manner and become part of the public agenda. Current of young people, who are digital natives (table 5.2), to act in a co- Secondly, or slogans specific its platforms, they understand and with share the plight agree of young people. because, they whether movement of this regardless with identifies Spain’s strongly of majority population The prospects. future of lack downward and wages, mobility low contracts, precarious unemployment, and young people remain caught in a vicious the circle: high levels of on are problems agenda of different these governments, solutions have not been Although found, chronic. become have people), young only not (and people young by faced problems global network of protests, have highlighted two issues. First, the a of movement,part 15M the of protestsregard, 2011 this the In (Bendit context cultural is and socio-economic our to it linked and social personally, inherently experienced 2012). always Lopez, is and vulnerability (Lorenzo Although vulnerability future and current both life of levels the adult reduce ultimately, and, group a into as and individually entry their foster abilities, and skills their increase to aim should people young for policies Spain, as such political guaranteeing In democracy an advanced engagement. and civic and participation rights care, legal providing and population, protection the social in vulnerability of levels the collective reduce to a and well-being been and freedom has our ensure to state response welfare the that argue could We and online et al et ., 2009). ., actions have highlighted the ability ability the highlighted have actions offline 100 exercise, as the available studies focus on specific countries or or countries specific on focus studies available the as exercise, empirical an such of difficulty the given policy, youth European of study comparative no have we fact, In cities. European four in developed policies public of type the define to indicators of as interest he is has set of tried to a particular establish workable (Quintana, decentralisation 2011). In this regard, methodological Quintana’s work of degree high numerous a find we where countries, within and countries faces Europe problems, in most notably the great differences in policies between policy youth of analysis comparative to (2009), WallaceAccording Bendit and 5.1.2. Policies aimedatyoung peopleintheEuropean Union 2012; Taibo, 2011). Minguez, (Moreno spheres institutional and social other in and market labour the in face they vulnerability of situation the of awareness raising are actions Their agenda. media and political the of part become now have organising and communication their through other,and each with connecting are they Instead, market. the of rules the by dominated world a question to them lead networks social of users as experiences Their competition. of myth individualism that defines us as isolated individuals in Darwinian the with breaking are people young networks, Through social action. for strategies develop and information share to capacity their enhances that environment relational a these in find and networks social of users intensive are all almost but movement, 15M the in participated have people young all Not that ofothers. to equal is worth whose being dignified a as treated be to able show concern for others; to engage in social interaction, ….Being
Young people’s transitions, social services and policies comparative models of Esping-Andersen (2000), (2000), Esping-Andersen of models comparative have (2009) the on based Bendit policies youth of typology descriptive a and proposed Wallace policies, youth European a of establish to diversity the interpret attempt to which within an framework comparative In 2011). Quintana, 2011; Comas, 2006; Ruspini, and Leccardi 2005; Hoof, Van and (Bradley cities oprts wlae eie eie b Epn-nesn This Esping-Andersen. by defined regime welfare corporatist the to corresponds model policy youth protective so-called The ethnic minorities. for as well as people, young of groups excluded and troubled young for targetintervention an as conceptualisedare whole,but a as people not do policies Youth policies. youth and social in role key a play communities local and sphere local policy.The youth for responsible is organisations) voluntary and (religious the and (Ireland countries The community-based policy model is typical of the liberal regime dedicated to young people. orministry specific sector designing social policies affecting them, even in the absence of a youngin rolepeople,among playactive who an participation of degree high a is there means This organisations. social different central, is policy public and although there is also a high social level of public participation through them, In countries. these in models family of diversity the with consistent is This people. young autonomyof the promote to assistance financial of types policy,youth governments of the countries Europeof northern offer all of model universalist the in 5.6, Table in seen be can As in below. discussed and 5.6 summarised table are which (2006), Walther and (2000) Paugam K). In these countries, civil society society civil countries, these In UK). G allie and and allie 101 group includes Austria, Belgium, France,Belgium, Austria, includes group h cnrlsd ot plc mdl orsod t the to corresponds model policy inMediterranean foundregimeswelfare youth centralised The instruments for providing welfare. as institutions state in incorporated these fully not although are people,organisations young to services social providing in addition, civil society and other organisations are heavily involved dependent on federal regions, with certain powers centralised. In into the In labour general,market. policies are decentralised and integrate and educations their complete successfully can they that so people young for options employment and educational promote and support to is purpose main their and paternalistic, are corresponding ministries. The nature of the policies is somewhat policies youth countries, the on dependent are which institutes youth these through managed In Netherlands. the and in the future there are going to be more striking changes than will developmentofyouth policies inthese countries also means that the economic crisis, as evidenced by the 15M movement. The late and associations operation and participation in is beginning co- towards strategyto develop in peoplein shift response a countries,to these young inorganisations of participation limited youthpolicies due to lacka ofthis tradition. However, despite in the society civil involvement of of level also low the are bycharacterised countries These sphere. family private the of domain the been previously had that support providing people, young have begun in the last decade to establish states social These policies targeting demands. and initiatives European to response in youth policies are limited and have only recently been introduced ‘sub-protectionist’.as to welfarethesestateregimesInsocial and and Italy, which Walther (2006) and G allie and Paugam (2000) refer G G reece, Portugal, SpainPortugal,reece, ermany,Luxembourg
Young people’s transitions, social services and policies refer to policy measures and social services that affect young young affect that services social and measures policy to refer policies youth short, In etc. a emancipation, housing, to education, From related policies covers term The governments. policies. youth what of constitutes local definition single no programmes is and there perspective and comparative regional policies by and developed programmes, and policies E spheres: administrative O traditions in this area. be seen in European countries with stronger and more developed Source: basedonWallace andBendit(2009:153). CENTRALIST PRO C UNIVERSALIST POLICIES MODEL n the practical level of youth policies, we can distinguish three we of can level distinguish policies, n youth the practical NITY BASED OMMUNITY TECTIVE F Y OF OUTH and Spain and Greece,Italy,Portugal Netherlands Luxembourg,The France, Belgium, Austria, Kingdom United the and Ireland Norway,Sweden Finland, Denmark, U policies and programmes; national national programmes; and policies C OUNTRIES G ermany, T and youth as resource as youth and Youthproblem a as problem a as youth and resource as youth Vulnerableyouth, Youthproblem a as Youthresource as abLE 5.6: MINANT IMA DOMINANT F Y OF Typology ofyouth policiesinEurope OUTH GE
102 political participation political and integration independence, Autonomy, participation political problems, social of prevention Integration, participation problems, social Preventionof participation political and social independence, Autonomy, responsibility of the Ministry of Health, Social Policy and and Policy Social Health, the of only not Ministry is the case of Spanish the (for responsibility in analysis comparative policy a youth out which example, carry country, to to difficult country is it from means differ activity of scope the and priorities the 138), (page 5.1 table in action seen be can As their plans. finally, and priorities, their their institutions third, secondly, activity; of country; First, areas each in policy youth countries: for responsible between differences analyse to us allow which policies youth in spheres four at look can we perspective administrations comparative a From local. and different regional by national, – developed are that and people OBJECTIVES exclusion of youth of exclusion social Longterm youth of exclusion social and Youth participation participation youth and youthExcluded Youthparticipation PROBLEMS youth of Concretegroups youth vulnerable Youthgroup,a as problems with and youthExcluded Youthgroup a as FOCUS F ACTION OF
Young people’s transitions, social services and policies have been adopted by the ‘Youth in Action 2007-2013’ gainedduring programme,their European Voluntary Service. These objectives knowledgeexperience and thepractice into put toopportunity toage 25with help incarrying out projecta locally, providing the ‘Youthinitiatives’, aims 3,toprovide teenagers Actionandyoung abroad.adults up projects volunteer in participate age of years Service’, has as an objective that young people between 18 and 25 yearolds,entitledAction252,‘European to among 15 Voluntary encouragingnon-formalatmobilityandeducationaimed 2006), (2000- programme ‘Youth’ the in example, For citizen. as other of building a European citizenship based on the recognition of the participation and volunteering among young people, with the aim The European forarea ofyouth theperiod2010-2018. policy the in states between co-operation for framework general the established which Europe, of Council the of resolution 2009 the specifically, more and 10.841/10) and (15.276/10 Forward’ Way The Jobs: New for Skills ‘New on resolution 2010 the or people, young by faced challenges the address to the seeks on Move’, which ‘Youth include initiatives European these of examples Some policies. youth national for framework guiding a as serve that institutions European from guidelines haveare do we What is precisely the urgency of carrying out such a comparative study.) comparative framework. (One of the conclusions of this research have been developed by the various that people administrations young targeting in policies a of map European descriptive a have not do we that is data, available on based conclusion, initial An the in bodies corresponding the regions). of autonomous that also but Equality, U nion has developed policies to encourage mobility, 103 small percentage of total social spending. very a comprises policies) social other and assistance housing on social policies for young people (active labour market policies, Europe’sensure to need spending 5.7, table in shownAs future). ageing continent, support for young people is certainly a strategic percentagethe with representthey (Yet, population. the in an in investment in social policies for young people is in not proportionate spending social emerges: characteristic common countries,differentEuropeana total to relation in people young at aimed specifically spending social of percentage the analyse we When of young people 5.1.3. Socialpolicies, social spendingandtheparticipation by social service units within countries in the European the use of public resources and the programmes being carried out littleresearchcomparativeverypublisheda fromperspective on a with recommendations, forward extensive research and done on put proposalssocial policy and of youth, havethere has set been comprehensive institutions European better while However, a create to understanding measuresyouth(‘supportof youthforco-operation’).policy promoting international and with organisations cooperation encouraging them, between young people and policy makers by fostering structured dialogue commitment.Action aims5 tofacilitate communication between voluntaryservice, which aims tofoster youth solidarity and active life and exchanges (action 1, ‘Youth for Europe’) and the European Especially important is the emphasis on participation in democratic people. young among cooperation and citizenship active encouraging U nion.
Young people’s transitions, social services and policies (table 5.8). (table people young face most both the transition to and residential independence when to work range age the age, of years 30 and in discontinued 22 between and people young were recipients March intended The 2012). 20 of 366/2009 Decree Royal by (regulated by Royal Decree 1472/2007, of 2 November, amended effect in was it while people young for allowance emancipation of the the importance we highlight must context, In the Spanish Note: The figures includeemployment policies, housingassistance andothersocialpoliciesaimedatyouth. Source: basedonaggregate Mínguez,2012). OECDdata,2009(Moreno Country G France Sweden Ireland Netherlands The Denmark Italy Portugal Austria Greece Luxembourg Spain Belgium Finland The ermany T ablE 5.7: nited Kingdom United Socialspendingonyouth (percentage oftotal social spending) (2008) % of % t o tal social 3.9 4.4 4.4 5.1 6.5 6.6 1.3 1.5 2.1 2.3 2.6 2.9 3.1 3.4 3.8 expenditure 104 people is changing as a result of technological and organisational young andprofessionals service social betweeninteraction The (LópezPeláez,between young peopleandsocialservices 2012). distancing gradual a fact in is years recent in observed have we what Yet employment). and education health, to related those as (such face they risk of type any with deal to help specialised to find out about the benefits they are entitled to, but also to find only not services social to turn to able be Youngshould people the highcost ofrenting orpurchasing ahome(table5.9). not did programme the as address underlying problems: unemployment, dissatisfied, job instability and or satisfied very not views of young people on this measure, we found that most the were analysed we a When years. four through to up so, last could that done subsidy already had or home own their to establish wished who and market labour the into integrated already people young of transition residential the support was,to therefore, purpose Its €108,182.18. than less of equity and contract To access this benefit the young person had to have a job, a rental Source: Youth onHousing, 2011. Observatory Note: *thedatafor theyear 2011corresponds to payments ordered untilthe30thofJunethatyear. T 2008 2009 2010 2011* ablE 5.8: Emancipationallowance. Numberofrecipients, 2008-2011 115,983 130,528 27,919 73,338 Men Women 150,968 170,776 35,247 94,134 167,472 266,951 301,254 To 63,166 tal variation Annu 165% 42% 59% 13% al
Young people’s transitions, social services and policies T a greater presence of social services on the Internet to respond to the Internet, as well as the characteristics of digital natives call for the types of benefits or services far- that can only this be accessed in through actors reachingchange. Interaction mainthrough Internet,the increasean in the among been have 2010). people Peláez Young (López work’ social ‘digital of emergence the to through the Internet and a redefinition of social services have led problems organisationaland opportunities they the encounter. Access changedto informationof kinds the andpeople,youngmodelsparticipation of capacity have ‘extended 2011) labelled (Fresno, been has sociability’ what and interaction Internet social the networks,through social new The transformations. ofPublic theCentreSociológicas [Quality Services, for SociologicalResearch], Mínguez(2012). 2009inMoreno Públicos, CentroSource: 2.813Calidad delosServicios basedondatafrom survey deInvestigaciones 25 to 34 to 25 24 to 18 above and 65 64 to 55 54 to 44 44 to 35 Total ablE 5.9: Evaluation of the administration regardingof public policy satisfied quite Very/ the emancipationallowance by age(%) 20.6 21.8 26.8 16.3 19.6 19.8 23.8 satisfied / Little 39.0 no 46.4 47.7 23.3 39.1 42.9 40.0 t no Does 12.0 8.5 7.6 5.4 8.7 7.4 8.3 use t
about Does service kno 12.4 13.3 11.5 10.8 19.5 9.8 9.4 no w this
t To 7,924 1,004 1,290 1,602 1,647 1,596 783 taL 105 intervention programmesintervention for young people. At all levels of state social and centresyouth are there Spain in municipality every In social services 5.2.1. U what extent proposed guidelines aretosee putcanthem,for we into activities practice.and programmes specific and people young between interaction the analyse we if However, in order to promote their welfare through their full social inclusion. structurally situation their addressto need the and participation European health, education, the in Youthpolicies 2011). (Greve, autonomy and of participation levels adequate guarantee structurally to necessary is it result, a As citizens. its of trajectories life the of a basic principle: the viability of of a democracy is based on the viability recognition the was century twentieth the of half second the in democracies Western in developments a important most are services social cornerstone of the welfare providing state (Featherstone, 2011). in professionals specialised The professional activities carried out by social workers and other tr y 5.2. their in them support transition to to adulthood. available professionals the not will access people young that means which services, social from environment will lead to an increased separation of young people youngdigitalpeople.demandstheofthefailuretoadapt The to ansition: What isthero le ofsocialservices? sers, resource allocationandreference inthe sectors oung people in ihih te motne f on people’s young of importance the highlight Union , par ticpation andf ailed One of the
Young people’s transitions, social services and policies these services. In each intervention, social service professionals service social intervention, each In services. these of users the of 11.01% only for account olds year 30 to this 18 that from individuals shows 5.10 Table of low. is services social proportion using group population the that find we tables, both In 140). page 5.5, (table sector reference by number their and 5.10) (table people young are who users of percentage the are are one of the reference 03). (sector sectors The SIUSS data show they whether disability, economically active sector, or not and housing conditions. reference Young people service social nationality,level, education age, sex, are users of characteristics or Services profile the Social define that data the The (SI USS). System from Information available data latest the services social from general of users of profiles the analyse can We services? social to turn people young Do practice? in happens what But theory. policies in important – very are people local young targeting and regional to central from – administration (SIUSS,2009-2010). ofHealth,SocialPolicy andEquality Source: Ministery 0-3 years old years 0-3 4-5 years old years 4-5 6-17 years old years 6-17 18-30 years old years 18-30 Total above and 75 old years 65-74 old years 31-64 roups g Age T ablE 5.10: Number of users of social services by age(2009) Numberofuserssocialservices 1,606,164 137,633 176,916 478,940 198,854 533,022 Users 55,331 25,468 100.00 11.01 29.82 12.38 33.19 % 3.44 1.59 8.57 U ser 106 key role each person plays in the management a of his Fromor perspective her 2004).ownbased specifically life, (Carr, on citizenship, participation with his/her reference to without the on decided services or benefits of recipient passive the as user the defines simply which one than citizenship, rather on basedinteraction The involvement of the beneficiary is key to establishing a model of 5.2.2. Participation ofyoung people insocialservices into the labour a market. integration their aid, in people young emergency assist and provide income minimum subsistence, minimum ensure to a period of great vulnerability in which interventions are designed to 3.32%). As evidenced by these types of interventions, we are in in 2009)20085.28%tounemploymentandin benefits (from2.58% 3.58% (from assistance subsistence 2009), in 4.05% to 2007 in 2.31% (fromassistance emergency 2009), in 5.06% to 2007 in employment of (7.04% in regularisation2007 to 10.20% in 2009), minimum income (from the 2.85% with: associated actions in table 5.11, in the three years examined, there has in been data an the increaseon Based 5.11). (table integrationfailure school addressing and market labour promoting home, the in assistance providing at aimed are their interventions and of majority the services This problems: social of people. users young young of picture regarding a out provides carried actions main the us show 2009 and 2008 2007, years the during sector reference and resources allocated by interventions on data available The (24.08%), andpersonswithdisabilities(12.97%). families (37.63%), people older with interventions of incidence needs. specific user’s the evaluate must O nt i te higher the is note f
Young people’s transitions, social services and policies Source: Ministery of Health, Social Policy and Equality (SIUSS,2009-2010). ofHealth,SocialPolicy andEquality Source: Ministery services provided to them requires changes in the way they are they way the inrequireschanges them providedtoservices recognising the ability of citizens to evaluate their ownthismodel logicimpliesof redefininglives social roleofworker, the and as the and benefitsservices aremost whichneeded andhowthey should managed. be clearer The it makes users of participation the Regularisation of employment actions employment of Regularisation Regularisation of education actions education of Regularisation Services for families and children and families for Services Social, leisure and free time programmes time free and leisure Social, and relational dynamics relational and structure family of Support Social and educational support educational and Social Education system assistance system Education Social, leisure and free time activities time free and leisure Social, Social wage Social G Social insertion actions insertion Social Emergency support Emergency Specific social insertion actions insertion social Specific Housing system Housing Subsistence coverageSubsistence Employment system benefits system Employment Specific programe of social insertion social of programe Specific eneral Information eneral T ablE 5.11:
Main interventions for interventions resources Main appliedintheyouth (2007-2008-2009) sector 767 757 477 449 387 366 599 313 311 300 286 252 251 Nº 2007 6.95 7.04 4.38 4.12 3.55 3.36 5.49 2.87 2.85 2.75 2.31 2.62 2.30 %
107 regional laws regulating social services in Spain (Vilà, 2010). planning,service professionals. This is inconsidered a basic principle participationin various includesdevelopment, monitoring and this evaluating social services regulations; and social service carried out. Formally, participation is insisted on repeatedly in social 664 650 349 312 388 438 292 316 298 338 283 576 343 247 Nº 2008 6.94 6.79 3.65 3.26 4.05 4.58 3.05 3.30 3.11 3.53 2.96 6.02 3.58 2.58 %
1,354 763 456 333 480 596 412 671 427 320 537 347 700 441 333 Nº 2009 10.20 5.75 3.44 2.51 3.62 4.49 3.10 5.06 3.22 2.41 4.05 2.61 5.28 3.32 2.51 %
Young people’s transitions, social services and policies • et al.,2009)for three reasons: failed transitions of young people has been very limited (Walther In this context, the institutional response by social services to the non-digital. basically is that operation and design a on based are units our service social because Internet, the milieu, own their in delivery service and participation for areas find cannot natives digital are who people young services: social in divide digital a find we where here precisely is it opinion, our In policies. social of design the in an participation in active involve citizens not does (as democracy) advanced participation of culture the services, social of area the in that find we paradoxically, Thus, people. young of of needs recipients the reflect mere not do that – and – resources user designed already passive a of concept the on based developed been have that services find we Spain, in legislation U European the at that people young initiatives of in participation the increase encourage an have we hand, one the on that means This role. key a social plays participation of user which in field services the in framework quality a develop to initiative an launched has Commission European the 2007, Since 2000). on quality standards in social in services general (Medina Tonero, done been research much has nor services, social of field the in people young of views the analysed have reports However, few nld srie amd t on pol. hrfr, the Therefore, people. young at aimed services include which those all above services, social specialised for capacity social based services and primary care. community This has resulted in a lower operating in concentrated mainly been have availableresourcesprofessional and material the First,because nion level; and on the other hand, within the framework of of framework the within hand, other the on and level; nion 108 Source: Ministery of Health, Social Policy and Equality (SI 04 03 01 05 02 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Total Sect rgams ee eind o te. n unn t social to turning In them. for designed were slightly programmes fewer declined time same the users at 5.12); (Table 2009 service and 2007 between social youth of proportion T ablE 5.12: Women Y Family Elderly Children Persons with disabilities Personswith Prisoner and former prisoners former and Prisoner Ethnic minorities Ethnic Homeless and marginalised and Homeless addicts) drug and (alcoholics Addicts Refugees and asylum seekers asylum and Refugees Migrants Needs due to catastrophic risks catastrophic to due Needs Mentally ill persons ill Mentally Terminallypersons ill O Immigrants Reference of or outh ther groups in need in groups ther Evolutionby inthenumberofuserssocialservices sector ofreferencesector 2007-2009 U SS, 2009-2010). 100.00 23.68 38.59 13.02 2007 1.29 1.29 4.28 6.19 0.17 1.59 0.57 0.74 0.03 0.89 0.06 0.37 0.06 2.55 5.92 (%) Users 100.00 23.65 38.13 13.45 2008 1.16 1.16 4.08 5.91 0.17 1.54 0.52 0.66 0.03 0.80 0.05 0.38 0.06 2.51 6.89 100.00 24.08 37.63 12.97 2009 1.18 3.98 5.83 0.18 1.54 0.47 0.60 0.03 0.74 0.06 0.37 0.06 2.76 7.52
Young people’s transitions, social services and policies • • • n epomn polm te fc, n diin o their to addition in face, patterns asdigitalnatives. ofinteraction they problems employment and educational the account specific into taking people, with young of programmes groups intervention social of design the consider to important also is It pathologies). new of treatment the and institutions, of role the resources, to access Internet, challenges young people face in their transitions (related to the young people must become involved. It is vital to assess the new haveperceptions, their Tochange 5.13). (Table people services social about young view negative the of because Secondly, between socialworkers andyoung people. the services provided may promote more and better interaction and demands, as well as to offer them the possibility of evaluatingservices to interact with young people and consider their needs professional obtaining the assistance requested. expect In this sense, offering online users, in workers social of all guidance specific the value and treatment like people, young services, and evaluation of these programmes. these of evaluation and development design, the in involved be must people young In particular, of resources. in the allocation and more flexibility greater for need among specialisation social a workers, more is sustainable flexible programmes there this, develop do To to projects. so-called biographical capacity and the social aspirations people’s young from situation, point starting its that as takes the that as 2011)) on (such words, studies needed empowerment other is In better intervention. research and social behind more life methodology their and requires people young situations of heterogeneity the Thirdly, perspective (Segado Sanchez-Cabezudo, Sanchez-Cabezudo, (Segado perspective 109 f on pol it te aor akt n residential and market labour the into independence.This also involves peopleestablishing policies and having normalised young a of considered is whatintegration, such promotingas through policies involves that encourage This the integration freelyexercised.turningcapacitiesactualrightsintobemay that an as citizenship,developmenttheof support graduallyinstrument designed to been has state welfare the inception, its from relatedalsohoweverpublicispolicy.definedto – is– thisfact, In actors in their failed transitions, principal the likelihood the of success are themselves or failure people young that true is it While in young people 5.3. Sociológicas [Quality ofPublic CentreSociológicas [Quality Services, for SociologicalResearch], Mínguez(2012). 2009inMoreno Públicos, CentroSource: 2.813Calidad delosServicios basedondatafrom survey deInvestigaciones Total more and 65 64 to 55 54 to 44 44 to 35 34 to 25 24 to 18 T ablE 5.13: Social services andprevntingvul Evaluation of the functioning of social services aimed Evaluation ofsocialservices ofthefunctioning SATISFIED QUITE VERY/ 26.7 23.8 23.4 26.3 27.5 30.0 33.5 at youth, by age(%) SATISFIED LITTLE/ 25.5 31.1 46.9 49.2 47.7 51.7 51.0 NO T ES NO DOES 11.5 USE 9.9 7.8 5.6 6.9 4.9 3.7 T ES NO DOES SERVICES KNO THESE 7.5 7.6 4.7 3.7 4.9 3.3 2.6 W abilit T (7,924) (1,596) (1,004) (1,290) (1,602) (1,647) CASES T O (783) TAL y
Young people’s transitions, social services and policies • in social out service programmes stand aimed specifically that at youth characteristics transitions: three are there regard, this In of these underlies social services for young people. in fact, various competing and what Krugman (2008) has referred to as ‘non-ethos’, there are, people may follow. In social life, young thatrather models alternativethan those two models, or modelthe socialethicalprevailing Howwe define failure or success depends on the context and the call failed paths. failure,rejectionpowerlessness,and whichculminatewewhat in disorientation and all the stress that may arise weaknesses, from their experiences to responding of by people young support also must weprocess, buta outcomeof the aslife adulttransition to andpriorities ofeach young person. isessentialIt topromote the preferencesthe on transitionspossiblebased of range wide the the institutional resources to cope with failed transitions, fostering remaining longer in the family home (except in cases of domestic transitions,tendfavourworkers toin social be youngof people the difficulties involved in their school to work, residential and family create given Furthermore, paths. to life own their learn manage and people identity young helping on than rather substance abuse, family violence, school failure, unemployment) as (such risks preventing on based model integration followan types of relationships and expectations. Social work rules, its person with professionals world adult the in young immersion through integrates The family. the from and independence employment attaining finding on based that is integration social of concept primary the services social of field the in all, Above ethos , and we need to understand which 110 • • intervention programmes and in the provision of resources, have Thirdly, as with Spain’s welfare state, social services, both in social rgam dsg wud e ae o a comprehensive a on (as based into account thattakes perspective eachcase). programmes be in would efficiency design programme operational greater to lead would plan intervention an in person young the of perspective subjective the Adding 2010). Ewijk, (Van programmes service who cannot bybe served the generic orientation of most social problems. These programmes seek to reach those young people developing, which programmestake into account the intervention young person’s of specific types other are this there to tendency, not contrast In behaviours. are anti-social disruptive abilities prevent their people’s and Young considered; thus, social intervention is often designed themselves simply to consumption). about acceptable discourses to acceptable an or to school, lifestyle to returning as (such problems to as (such people young delinquency, deviancy, and in school failure) and finding solutions behaviours negative on focused for often programmes is work Social account. into taken be must people designing young in involved factors external and internal the and trajectories youth of complexity Secondly,the recognise Fernandez, 2009). to people young help themselves not as adults, nor their being recognised as does adults (Vidal context a Such benefits). social expansive of level possible and highest the benefits) offer to (seeking and resources of allocation the on tosocial services. turn In short, who social services are people bureaucratic young (focusing those the of independence with for conflict desire in is mentality protectionist This violence).
Young people’s transitions, social services and policies oa 20; oeo ige, 02. hs smer cud be could asymmetry This 2012). Minguez, Moreno 2008; Boca, Del and (Chiuri Sweden or Denmark in than Portugal and Italy Spain, lowerin much is 5.6) (table people young on expenditure on youth (Börsch -Supan, 2007), and secondly, the average social the elderly does not in have investment greater to first, come issues: at core the two price highlight countries of a lower investment people. young at aimed legislation comparable any to led not have rate time they must remain in the parental home and the falling birth of length increased the people, young among unemployment from their loss of personal autonomy. increased However, the high rates of the resulting problems with the and population cope elderly the of to longevity attempt an in Law Dependency the as known popularly legislation the passed state Spanish The labour market. the of structure the influencing as well as services,protection providing compulsory education, universal health care and basicfor responsible is state thehousehold, a of membersbetween occurs of that protection context the regarding this subsidiarityinstitutional In solidarity. intergenerational of dynamic a and for providing the resources and support 2007)they Minguez,need, (Moreno based people on young of socialisation the for providedfamilysolidarity.by primarily familyisresponsibleThe the elderly.SpanishtheInwelfare state for model, support for youth available is those to compare not do them for available young people are by and large not recognised, and the resources mutuallyreinforcing.model,arethiselderly theIn onfocus the to a secondary place. The welfare character of social services and years of age. Young people and youth policiesprimarily targetedhave one particularbeen group – the populationrelegated over 65 n this point, comparisons with other European other with comparisons point, this On Union 111 categories‘woman’,as such ‘ethnicor ‘family’ minority’. CastileIn social of users other to but given‘youth/youngtonot adult’ is priority services, recording in and sectors, these of one in users as recorded be only can Individuals sectors. reference available 18 of one is adult’ ‘youth/young category the Leon, and Castile U for System the In allocation. resource ‘youth/young in category important less the is adult’ that fact the to due part in is This significant, very quantitatively or not qualitatively, in are terms of social service provision. group population a as people young de Educación aDistancia, Segovia. the and Segovia de Ahorros de Caja the by funded Peláez., López Antonio director: search 1 from socialservices t 5.4. social protection, social of become invisible.services source only their as parents their on solely rely must people young that degree the to case, any elderly could explain increased social spending on the elderly. In the of visibility political and social greater the time, same the At fewer resources, regardless of how much is devoted to the elderly. more familistic countries, which leads these countries to provide explained by the reduced visibility of young people as a group in lutaie xml fo te eerh rjcs n social on projects 2006, research the intervention methods conducted an in from the province give of Segovia Tosince exist. example not do illustrative problems their that mean not does clearly agenda political the in people young of invisibility The street?
es f oil evcs (SA Services Social of sers Research project ‘Social work and social intervention methods in the province of Segovia’ (2006-2010), Re- (2006-2010), Segovia’ of province the in methods intervention social and work ‘Social project Research 1 focused on the work of the Social Action Centres, CEAS), Centres, Action Social the of work the on focused ) f h rgoa gvrmn of government regional the of US) o NGOs:atw o-wa niversidad Nacional Universidad y
Young people’s transitions, social services and policies nine groups establishedby theRed Cross) in2010. in the (among place last to fell and 2009 participants in initiatives employment the among fourth ranked people young 5.14), (table 2010 and 2009 during groups vulnerable for developed groups. For example, in the Spanish Red Cross employment plan as available resources are most often focused on other vulnerable are also of secondary importance within the so-called third sector, group vulnerable a as people young services, social with as just However,people.young at aimed intervention social of projects a net, safety numerous a out carrying are foundations as and NGOs of multitude operates family the as Just unmet. remain development. personal people’sneeds Youngand cultural their young prepare not foror emancipation and market labour the into forentry people does which model, assistance-driven an fundamentally is system service social the that remains fact the services; people, young targeting interventions social of set a is there of although said be could same The them. for provided resources of lack the hiding smokescreen a as serve not should people young of well-being apparent the However, exclusion. social preventing structure main the as acts family the Europe, southern of countries the in model state welfare familistic the In youth/young adults make very few demands on social that means turn services. in which interventions carried out, few are very regionsand cities. Youth/young autonomous Spain’sadult otheris ina reference data sector the consistentin withwhich are 5.12), These data, which changed little in the subsequent years (see table ‘disabled’ and 4.7% ‘other percentages: categories’, following the which includes48.4% correspond with young people.to categories,the category following ‘elderly’; the 19.8% to in ‘family’; 7.9% to and Leon in 2006, users of social services were most often placed 112 Source: RedCross, onsocialvulnerability. Spain,Annualreport h sca wre hs o aae sseaie and systematised Social a workers spend a large rhetoric. manage than part more of little become their has ‘participation’ user work which to day on individualised in has benefits established previously of catalogue comprehensive worker a as social worker The social the redefines services. and benefits certain providing on focused professional which León, and Castile of Services Social the regarding 20, December of 16/2010 Law This 2011). in seen as consolidated, been have to Mowing, seems trend unfortunate the (Sanchez-Cabezudo about available information and benefits advice providing beyond going work conferences is the need to strengthen real time. their social of much intervention, bureaucratised model of social service provision which consumes bya overwhelmed often are institutions public in workers Social O Inmates TotalParticipants difficulty of situations Womenin Youngpeople Drug addicts Drug disabilities Personswith exclusion social and poverty of situations in Applicants Immigrants T Groups ablE 5.14: thers Vulnerable Collectives oftheSpanishRedCross, 2009-2010 Participants intheinitiatives oftheEmployment Plan for ne of the important issues raised at social at raised issues important the of One 53,261 11,981 38,070 2009 7,121 2,001 1,309 606 592 882 64,520 23,187 40,694 2010 8,941 1,227 592 510 851 869
Young people’s transitions, social services and policies of the proposed social intervention. possible on subsidies, based and designed not be on the to needs of tend citizens projects or interventionthe technical that feasibility institution public a responds oftothe will ofcitizens (such municipalasa government), support the having not addition, available.arelimitedthatabruptfundsstandstillthe onInbased an to come can programmes Many funding. multi-year require fiscallackofsustainabilitythe is thesemanyprojects,ofof which social intervention. which means government in part abandoning the sphere of direct bids from N strategies in local and county/provincial governments organisations. is to call for private to services social outsourcing increasingly is government that is problem associated An resources. scarce already of make people young between gap young people increasing andsocial services, related the tothe low use with deal to how secondly, and adulthood transitionstotheir in failing possibilityof the andpeople young of vulnerability the with deal to how first, study: this of theme to the emergence of two issues, which are related to the togetherunderlying with the low visibility of young people as a group, has led of a ‘bureaucratic drift’ in the professional activity of social workers, institutionswithinsocietycivilandBoth themselves, processthis youngworkers andthegeneral public, people. andparticularly management systems have resulted in a distance between social benefits in adult’ ‘youth/young of of category the lack of the importance and tasks of management bureaucratic In elderly. the the short, markedly to are primarily evaluating allocated These benefits, type pensions. as assistance for such eligibility or management, dependency benefits and assistance GO s and foundations to develop intervention projects, O ne consequence of this outsourcing strategy O e f h ms common most the of ne 113 eev avc, eerl o h aporae pcait o be or specialists appropriate the integrated into existing programmes. The data we have to analysed referral advice, receive can they There,reside. they where municipality the in or attend – services through the hospital that serves them, the school they social to turn can vulnerability of situations in are who people From the perspective of this study, what is important is that young services. social and market housing market, labour the of characteristics people’syoungconsideration intothe and taking fluency digital and people public young institutions, such between participation must relationship be planned the in advance, analysing when seen have we as this, do To undertaken. initiatives the of each defining,evaluatingprocessof and the into implementing them encourage the to is civic aim the engagement participation, of of area young the In people competence. of by areas incorporating respective their in Commission the and states member by out are set and a series of initiatives are established that can be carried health and welfare, and participation. In each of these areas, goals for areas major action: education four and identifies training; document employment This and 2009). entrepreneurship; Council, renewed framework for European cooperation in the youth field (EU the European address that laid out demonstrate the policies of importance the objectives set by the particular: in vulnerability of young people. In this sense, the findings we have area one address Union must take into consideration the current crisis. And it must Research on the failed transitions of young people in the European ec 5.5. onomic ris The needforyouth polices intmesof nion in this area in the 2009 council resolution council 2009 the in area this in Union on a on
Young people’s transitions, social services and policies a new perspective ofintergenerationala newperspective solidarity). (from groups disadvantaged to given attention the balance and European the in people young bring about a change in course in couldsocial policies, as suggested policies by social of of self- design the and participation not institutions democratic are the (the who Perhaps adults (those sufficient). of people elderly groups and to unemployed) geared more allocation resource time of economic crisis, and this translates into social policies and this in even should, it that extent the not to people young consider does state welfare our secondly, environment; digital the of use the through visible more become must people young for highlight two crucial issues: First of all, the systems of participation nion. The goal is clear: reduce failed transitions failed reduce clear: is goal The Union. 114
Young people’s transitions, social services and policies u si o n Conclusion ncl Co
General conclusions In this study, we have analysed the current state of the transition processes of young people in Spain from a comparative Studies have shown that there is no single concept that transversal approach. To do this we have carried out a detailed accurately describes the stage of life we most often refer to as analysis of the most relevant statistical data available on the youth or young adulthood, as young people make up a very residential, educational, employment, economic and familial heterogeneous population group. The same occurs, as we have situations of young people. In addition, this study would be seen, with the concept ‘transition’, as it is more accurate to speak incomplete if we did not also consider social policies and social of different ‘transitions’, which refer to different dimensions services aimed at young people, essential for social cohesion in (such as finding employment or achieving residential our welfare society. independence) of young people’s paths toward adulthood. For this reason we have referred to ‘transition’ and ‘transitions’ In this study we have opted for a macro level theoretical perspective, indistinctly, always having this clarification in mind. In addition, analysing the processes of individualisation and destandardisation there is a third issue which emerges in our analysis: the that are changing the meaning of transitions to adulthood. This stigmatisation that young people often suffer from (‘they aren’t approach permits us, based on the available data, to identify the independent because they don’t want to be’, ‘they don’t have structural factors that impact on transitional markers (residential children because they’re selfish’, ‘they don’t do anything and independence, formation of families, educational and employment they don’t want to work’) hides a very complex reality. In short, transitions) in the context of an economic crisis. From this research the fact that young people find themselves immersed in a strategy we are able to draw three broad conclusions. context characterised by increasing economic and job insecurity has an affect on school to work, residential and familial First, the economic crisis has worsened the already very difficult transitions. employment situation of young people in Spain, but it has not
115 comparison to their European peers. It is precisely this type of type this precisely is It peers. European their in to face comparison Spain in people young that the challenges analyses and it difficulties as study, this of importance the Hence, Spain. and social exclusion among poverty young people in of Europe and especially risks in the increasing are crisis the of effects The young people and the policies designed European to generate employment. by adopted strategies manythe situations, family conditions, working in youth problem that common countries. shows However, there are differences study a in unemployment rates, this is regard, unemployment this In Europe. of rest the to independence residential delayed of pattern Spanish the of spread the for responsible are housing finding in difficulties the in countries other and European in deregulation market labour the the following: of flexibilisation the is conclusion possible have delayed leaving the family home in the last decade. An initial on comparative data from Eurostat, we find that young Europeans Europe.of rest the Based in common becoming is youngpeople comparative a From perspective we have seen that the behavioural pattern of Spain’s market. job precarious and competitive of a in employment stable pattern find to children, have to The independent, decades. for become to age of years thirty past until wait clear: process is adaptation emancipation the of been suffering declining employment prospects and lengthening among the active population. temporary In short, Spain’s young of people have ratesrates unemployment highest the and salaries high low employment, by a characterised in already situation, were difficult people young boom economic of periods patterns have not significantly changed because even during the emancipation following: the is this for explanation possible One emancipation. of patterns their manner significant a in altered in te ifclis n idn a elpi jb and job well-paid a finding in difficulties the Union, 116 are never adequately resolved. This is what we have demonstrated This means those problems which specifically affect young people society’selderly.problemstheothergroupsaimedasataresuch the problem’, yet the institutional and policy solutions to deal with paradoxical manner by society. They are always defined as ‘part of Third,perceivedgroupimplicitlyisyoungthatpeople anaare in rest of the population. the thethanhavinghealthbetter report additiontheyworkplace; in in risks psychological and physical underestimate to tend into take to variableaccount. Young important people, because anof their physical fitness alsoand age, is health context, this and post-compulsory) and the productive fabric of the country. In imbalance between structuralthe the cycles and levels) lowest of and the highest education the at particularlysystem (compulsory not offer enough jobs commensurate Spain’sweaknessesofthe both showwith (whichdoeslabourmarket candidates’ qualifications, into account the heterogeneity of this population group. The data takingdesigned be mustpeople young at aimedHence,polices withprimary school education and those with university degrees. people young among most the increased unemployment 2011 a as people young of homogeneous populationgroup. Indicative thatbetween thisisof 2000and the about talk not to is possible it that argued have we reason, this precariousness.For greater difficulty in integrating into the labour market experience qualifications and educational greater high very with those and Secondly,bothyoungpeople withloweducational qualifications Labour International the and Organisation. Commission European the study that is demanded by international bodies such as the OECD,
Conclusion from from their European peers is their late exit from the family home. The main that characteristic differentiates young people in Spain perspective The transitions ofyoung peopleinSpain:Acomparative Specific results obtained in our study. considerations,theseon followssummarisewhatmainwethein continuousBasedinstitutionalrisk.at the invisibleand sphere in populationthisgroup:insecure,snapshot of practically a us give study this in provided adulthood to people’s transitionsyoung the with agreement in movement’stheoretical being approach. ondata theWe couldthatsay not many despite population, 15-M movement have found a lot of sympathy among the Spanish the coalescedaroundhave thatprotests theresult, a reveals.As explosive peopleyoung potentially by ledmovement protestrecent the a assituation, form employment stable finding and people’sinvisibility young in market, institutions labour and the the publiclack of of decline andprospects The for peopleinstitutions. emancipation young between relationship the of reality concernabout young people’s participation does not address the makers’ institutions. policy theseEuropean from people young disengagementof consequences:theobvious This its services.invisibilityhas social by them for designed programmes the in participation through virtual networks and they do not forparticipate spaces own theircreate people young butpeople, young of socialservices. Policies are designed to promote the participation in our analysis of the growing distance between young people and oncl usion 117 men of the same age. same the of men of 53.1% and children with couple a in lived age of years 34 and 16 between women of 56.5% 2009 in Thus, men. among ages than younger at family a of formation the with associated are out, it follows that in the case of Spanish women these differences they emancipate two years average earlier than men. on From the common analysis carried women: of emancipation A earlier the is (27.4%). Spain, in Spanish accentuated more but the countries, European of among children characteristic without not age but of years (81.5%), 30 of people young Swedish young women of in Spain. Cohabiting 1.6% is also a and widespread practice among men young of 3.5% only to comparison in and men 23.4% of young young women in of Sweden live alone after 33.1% emancipation, fact, In children. having a and forming couple until home leaving delay Spain in people young of always not based are on living in a that couple or forming a paths family, while the majority residential follow and earlier home leave countries European in northern 55% from to people Young comparison Spain. in parents, their with live 29 age to of 15 years from Finland in people young for of 24% differences: only example, substantial with though countries, European other in increasing is emancipation Delayed continue. to Spain in dependence and solidarity family of pattern this permit will conditions economic families’ of worsening the whether know to data have not do still we However, 40.7. 2005: in percentage the with it compare we if particularly decline, slight a only 2011, in 44.1% to 2007 in 44.8% from went age of years 34 to 16 from people young emancipated of percentage the the that reveal data to The dependency. family points of practice which cultural the of crisis, acceptance economic the varied with not has and substantially time over steady been has tendency This
Conclusion potnte. hy id hmevs ihu otos and, has dependence’ options family ‘chosen of that without say lack might themselves we of therefore, because find home They family opportunities. the leaving delay people In short, specific analysis of the Spanish case confirms that young Late emancipationandeconomic crisis ofthefirstchild,birth aswell asaslightdelay inleaving home. the and couple a forming of age the in delay the to refer trends These years. previous the to compared figures the in decrease slight a was there when 2008, until the same the fact, remained In trends transition. familial and residential on impact clear a had has crisis the that statecategoricallyto us permit not does gathered have we information the However, school. from rates of 21.1% only young people of to the same age in Denmark) compared and the high dropout 2010, in employment temporary had employed are that age of years 24 and 15 between people the high percentage of employmenttemporary (58.6% of young wereunemployed.24 to 20 fromTo those of added be must this 44.45% and age of years 29 to 25 from people young of 28.01% 2011, in Thus, employment. temporary and unemployment to has crisis economic the affected young people which in Spain, to especially the indicators extent referring the reveal Europe in The data referring to school to work transitions for young people case (almost8years). so-called ideal age; this interval is particularly high in the Spanish leavingof age this and home between actual the intervals the in for leaving the family home. However, there are great differences and other European countries in what is considered the ideal age Spain between difference little is there that show also data The 118 work transitions, the data point to education level, employment level, education to point data the transitions,work to indicators.school Regarding connected twoclosely areThese Education andemployment status of educationlevel oremployment status. their Spanish peers. This is true for all age groups and independent young immigrants (both men and women) are emancipated than of proportion higher a that seen havenationality, we Regarding to only emancipate women become economically dependentontheirpartners. of percentage significant a that indicate may This respectively. 5.9%, versus men 24.7% out: to stands comparison in inactive are that women emancipated live with their parents. Regarding gender, the high percentage of 30 to 34 years of age and 43.9% of those 25 to 29 years of age still Survey (EAPS) shows that 18.7% of employed young people from emancipation, data from the 2011 Economically Active Population school education.Inaddition,althoughbeingemployed favours are age of years emancipated, 29 in comparison to 54.9% of those with only primary and being 25 between of degrees university likelihood with less the is, emancipated,forwomen:above all level education the higher the that confirm analysed data The adulthood. to transition of status and nationality are employment key variables in the different processes education, sex, that revealed also has study This 2010 the to open from forleaving aperiodoftime. thecountry are people data young of The 71% that reveal Eurobarometer situation. economic adverse the from resulting dependence’ family ‘imposed by replaced been nly 40.5% of young people young of 40.5% Only
Conclusion addition, there was a higher percentage of In women in women. the 25 for to 29 and men both for 19% around was countries 27 were overqualifiedSpain for the jobs in they held, while women the average for of the EU- 29% and men of 33% 2008 in (2011), growth. According to economic the of most recent periods data in available evident from Eurostatalready was phenomenon this although experiencing, currently are we stagnation economic the byemployability, accentuated and education between seen be can mismatch certain a women, and men for both addition, In integration. market labour of patterns on crisis the of effect devastating the exemplifies 28%) (approximately age of years The 2011 data on unemployment among young people 25 to 29 the samelevel ofeducation. with men than better unemployment withstood have degrees data from our study also show that young women with university The 34%. reached had it 2010 in while 17%, was school primary young people from 25 among to unemployment29 years 2000, of age who in had only fact completed In qualifications. without Thus,unemployment adverselyhas most affectedyoung people compared. countries European the all in people young of rate extent. The higher the education level, the higher greater a the to instability employment market labour of consequences negative the suffer education) compulsory finished never that those and of terms degrees in university with extremes those words, other two (in levels the education at the are that Regarding people young average. that on men than relationship between education and employment, education we have found of levels levels than ever before, women, in as particular they have higher education higher have Spain in people Young paths. people’s and health as variables that explain the success or failure of young 119 oee, h efcs f h cii, ih nmlyet and unemployment economic the high affecting significantly crisis, indeed are precariousness the of effects the However, in otherEuropean countries. young people is their low rate of suicide compared to their peers Spanish of health mental good the as of ‘good’.indicator health Another their perceive generally who people, young of mental state and physical the on impact significant a have to seem not does this overweight, of rate growing the by alcohol evidenced as and smoking as such health, undermine do that factors are there habits While consumption. of number a to regard in seen be haveproblems.can Thisnot health do serious people European and Spain’s National Health Survey the (1960-2007), show that young from data Statistics on on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) (2004-2009) based analysed, indicators The State ofhealthandpoverty among young people have occurred in temporary employment. in 2011. In addition, EAPS data (2011) also show that and29,temporarymost jobs accountedjob forlosses46.6% oftotal employment todata from the EAPS, among Spanish young people between 20 approximately2011 contractsof25% weretemporary. According 1987 they represented about 15% of total employment, whereas in hassignificantbeena increase temporaryin contracts Spain:in in constantaamong Spanishisyoung people. recentyears Inthere Regarding types of employment contracts, temporary employment to for assume responsibility care withinfamilies. men (10%). This is primarily due to the fact that women continue than (17%) inactive economically were who group age old year
Conclusion oil evcs s ky ra n hc yuh oiis ut be must policies youth which areathe in is stateregionaldeveloped and levels.local, the –at It in area key a is services Social Denmark. in 6.5% to example, for comparison, in 2.9%, Europe: in lowest the is Spain of Social percentage state. a as welfare spending the within people young of importance U visibility). social (as seen in the 15-M movement, which has achieved great of public use streets the in and intensive Internet the on mobilisation with and networking coupled is etc.) unions, parties, paradoxical political (associations, spheres the in all institutional of participation highlight lack people: young Spanish data among today occurs that Available situation them. affect challenges that main the address to are societies our if participate must they that argue people young at aimed proposals policy European the of Journal the in published Youth 2010-2018’ the in field operation of 27 November 2009 on a renewed for framework co- European Resolution ‘Council document the in raised as priorities its and hs td dsuss eti ise rgrig E regarding issues certain discusses study This Youth andsocialservices policies, publicparticipation provided by thefamilyinSpain. for young people in the rest of Europe and is due to the protection to 30.6% in 2010. However, this percentage is similar to that found social exclusion has increased in recent years from 25.8% in 2008 percentage of young people aged 15 to 24 at risk and of poverty the data, Eurostat to According youth. Spanish among situation nion, and specifically in Spain, is to increase the institutional institutional the increase to is Spain, in specifically and nion, O ne ne of the main goals of youth policies in the European U nion of 19 December 2009. Social Social 2009. December 19 of nion G DP spent on young people in in people young on spent DP U youth policy policy youth O fficial fficial 120 mn te onre o te European the of countries the among policies youth of overview comparativehave a not do we that is An obvious conclusion that can be drawn from the available data satisfiedornotatallwithit). very not are they stating 34 and 25 between those of 57.7% and 24 to 18 aged adults young of 51% (with negatively services public of management the judge also people Young people). young from 2.8 of score a receive politicians institutions, social in trust regarding 10 to 1 of scale a on example, (for considered be also young people’s distrust of digital public institutions and politicians must addition, In participation. developing their increase to order in transparent by and visible more people services government make young that mechanisms to government and services social bring to need urgent an is There 2009. in social services of users of 1.18% only represented adult’ ‘youth/young an increase those of 35.8% over the previous of year, while the 63% category of 2011, in revealing: between 14 and 25 had accessed are social networks; this represents regard this in data The crisis and despite their high participation in digital services social networks. social in despite the fact that they people are one of the groups young hardest hit by the of participation little is There as digitalnatives. condition specifically,their and, group social a as heterogeneity that take into account the characteristics of their transitions, policies their designing in participate must people young problems lack of understanding of their needs. In order to respond to these the as well as people young for programmes of ineffectiveness the see can we where also is this But programmes. intervention of social whereservices guidelines policy are turned into specific in Tu, n o the of one Thus, Union.
Conclusion etl osn ad government and for this on housing data comparative no not are There rental housing). subsidised are ( e.g. transition autonomy residential personal of for opportunities better and more be must There implemented. acquisition the promote to policies if worsen could peers European their to comparison in people young Spanish of emancipation residential late The consider the multiple contexts in must which transitions are programme occurring. a such future, immediate the In needs. their to appropriate policies social create to an order in demands and their guidelines interpretative develop intervention map that starts from a basic principle: to to understand tool essential an liveis they which in context culturaleconomic, and the social Knowledge of the current situation of Spanish young people and Ch young of situation people andhelpinthedevelopment ofsocialpolicies. current the understanding to contribute the in paper white future. a With this in mind, the results developing of our research will no doubt for reference a as serve can which autonomy), family and residential achieving and training and education (i.e. employment to relation in decades coming considers several challenges which young people will face in the ouet eae t the to related the document Parliament, previous the in pass to failed which youth, on In short, in light of these data and given the lack of a white paper comparative analysisinthecoming years. conclusions of this research out such is a the of urgency carrying alle n ges for t h e 21 st (2010-2018) Youth for Strategy EU
ce n t ury 121 sals sbiie mrggs o yug epe Fnly the Finally, people. young for mortgages to subsidised and Another establish rent for housing tenants. public increase to and be would landlords initiative between mediation public of process a through people availableyoungto made be should professional initiatives should be created. Low cost and rentalbusiness promote housing to people young for fund credit interest residential and emancipation of independence similar to processthat of other European countries, a low- a encourage To 1. comparative andresearchintervention inthefuture: a institutional for within challenges several Spain raises framework in European people young of transitions the of study this in presented evidence empirical the result, a As seen asaninvestment inthefuture, notasoptionalexpense. and be must and employability necessity vital a is people education, young of independence the furthering at aimed policy well-being.Therefore,and public health their on impact directly prospects can that situation and a unemployment, of effects expectations the by frustrated their young seen of have Moreover, Spain terms in people underqualification. in both and people, overqualification young of situation employment have mismatch also found between education a and striking the We replacement. generational and population ageing an rate, of new households, with direct demographic impact on the birth seen, as we have shown in this study, in the delay in the formation be can adulthood to transition the in delay the of consequence The allowance). emancipation basic the of abolition recent the since so more (even countries European other with compared spending (including spending on housing) in Spain is very limited Europe, although the data provided in this study show that social
Conclusion h ojcie o scnay dcto t te oiain and motivations the to education secondary of objectives the adapt toTo advisable 3. be wouldleaving it school early combat the situationofthis young people. the creation of even more precarious jobs and, therefore, worsen precariousness employment among young people, could lead to of that from different very culture corporate a with case, Spanish the to solutions of types in established the on as based such alternatives countries European other in implemented reforms for workers. In fact, this labour reform is in line with labour market employment, as it has opted for flexibility, reducing the in February protections this year does not seem to apply this strategy to createSpain in approvedreform labour continuity.The and stability of guarantees minimum certain with place take can another to job one fromtransition the that so protection worker high with jobs regulating employment that combines the possibility of changing 3 a atv epomn plc bsd n h rgt and rights ‘ the the sometimes called also on is model This based unemployed. the policy of obligations employment active an (3) three and security social (2) market, by labour the in flexibility (1) factors: characterised model labour a describe to used term Netherlands, where unemployment is very low. ‘Flexicurity’ is the the and Denmark of model ‘flexicurity’ the for opt to be would option one unemployment, youth of effects the mitigate To 2. precarious their despite home,employment situation. leave to wish who income of level certain a with people young those for support similar with replaced or continued be should allowance emancipation basic G le Tinl’ n cnit o a ehns for mechanism a of consists and Triangle’ olden G ray Hwvr te xrplto o these of extrapolation the However, ermany. or apprenticeship contracts contracts apprenticeship or mini-jobs G ermany and with the high level of level high the with and ermany 122 comprehensive training in skills needed for young people to be to aspeople young for needed wellskills comprehensiveintraining as market labour the into incorporation for education early childhood education. By human capital education,includingofwelevels all atcapital meanhuman Toinvest in 6. both general in European andglobalsettings. Spain’sof instability cyclical the and market labour the economy professional of variability and strengthening discontinuity the to them adapting by profiles means This environment. skills, global the providing by transitions competencies and qualifications appropriate to live in a complex work to school facilitate to serve would This promoted. be should skills transferable of 5. Regarding education, flexible learning paths and the acquisition andinnovationknowledge sectors. employment and activities research for with support incentives, tax and supported subsidies be must workers young skilled forhighly demand time,the same the At market. labour the into graduates new and of incorporation the competencies encourage to transversal jobs quality of framework a in in innovation investment increase must Businesses market. labour the to of vocational certificates and university degrees must be adapted supply the overqualification, of effect negative the Regarding 4. the through levels educational all implementation of the European at Qualifications Framework (EQF). mobility and learning lifelong promote to schools of and secondary and reform training vocational a information out carrying for (ICTs), technologies resources communication financial increasing require would This vital. is technologies new of use the which in society interestsglobal students,currentgenerationsa of of in engaged
Conclusion spheres and indecisionmaking. social different in women to young of help participation the should promote policies these Furthermore, family. a of forming expectations with or children with women young of hiring the encourage and parenting and housework in responsibility among young people. Measures should also formation contribute to shared family hence, and, family and work of reconciliation the facilitate to policies mainstreaming gender Encourage 10. in publiclife. adult organisations so that they feel involved in decision-making young and youth to voice giving means this short, In purposes. and local levels) through the appropriation of financing for these people in different institutional settings (at the national, regional young of participation the encourage to policies Strengthen 9. networks. social services these groups do not feel adequately represented or addressed in since groups, disadvantaged most the among exclusion social and poverty preventing at aimed policies youth Implement 8. the educationalcurriculum. in entrepreneurship to related subject a including consider also should We tape. red reducing and monitoring advice, funding, through people young of initiativesentrepreneurial the support should agencies international and governments regard, this In market. labour the stimulating and youngpeople of ideas the of 7. Entrepreneurship in times of crisis is a way of taking advantage change constant and uncertainty the characterising their life paths. handle to prepared 123 people, we subscribe to the idea put forward by young forward put of idea the condition to subscribe the we people, on evidence empirical the of light In that isinclusive andequitable. it wants to if lay the foundationpeople for a young new economic and its social model ignore cannot society A goals. social the and individual future their as well as attitudes their define they when transitionalperiods critical attentiontothe life,particular with that public of spheres all model in people young of social participation and European viable integration the promote to a required actions the accommodates develop to operate European The (2006): in n is ebr tts ut co- must states member its and Union Giddens et al. et
Conclusion Methodological Appendix og ical A ppendi x
Chapter 2 methodology were interviewed, regardless of nationality, citizenship, language or legal status, including a total of 43,000 cases. M eth o d l The methodology used in this chapter is based on measuring the attitudes of young people toward the different markers of entry The indicators used regarding the attitudes of young people to into adulthood through survey data from a transversal perspective. the major milestones in the transition to adulthood were based The data is from the 2006 European Social Survey, which contains on the responses young people between 15 and 35 years of age responses to a series of questions relating to the transitions of gave to the following questions in the survey: young people. This methodology made it possible to compare the attitudes of young people in different European countries. • In your opinion, what is the ideal age for a young person to start This survey does not collect data regarding other attitudes related living with a partner? to the entry into adulthood, such as toward marriage and cohabitation. • In your opinion, what is the ideal age for a young person to get married? The European Social Survey (ESS), conducted in 25 countries and funded by the Sixth Framework Programme of the European • In your opinion, what is the ideal age to become a parent? Commission and the European Science Foundation, is a strict random probability sample, with a minimum response rate of • At what age would you say a person becomes an adult? 70%. In this book we used the data gathered in the third wave of 2006 related to the organisation of the life course in Europe. In • To be considered an adult, how important are each of the this survey persons aged 15 and over living in private households following indicators?
124 h rsac pplto (agt ouain cnit o those of consists population) (target population research The living conditions, including cross-sectional and longitudinal and data. income on the statistics Community of of production systematic countries the for European operations statistical harmonised was carried out from 1994-2001. The EU-SILC of a series of is part which (ECHP), Panel Household Community European The was The EU-SILC is an annual survey of households, whose predecessor Spain’s Economically Active Population (EAPS). Survey the from microdata used Incomeon Statistics European ConditionsLiving and (EU-SILC) and we this, do To nationality. and cross-sectional age and quantitative of young people between a 15 and 34 years of age in Spain by sex, used we methodology to analyse the process of residential emancipation 3 chapter In Chapter 3methodol from severalSurvey years. Labour European the from data with Europeans, young of status based on indicators such as the educational level and employment from education to transition employment the from a on cross-country perspective,crisis economic the of effects the measure to attempted has chapter this in used methodology Moreover,the •
nor unimportant, important, very important. very important, nor unimportant, neither important not important, a parent: Not at all important, Having a job, leaving home, having a partner or spouse, becoming SL i the is E U-SILC the of objective overall The Union. ogy 125 studies. We also used data from the most important secondary secondary important most the from data used also We studies. recent the citing most important framework, theoretical current most the the reviewed the we chapter study this In health. and on to employment used based we is variables education, in country: our people of young processes transition chapter key three this of in triangulation used methodology The Chapter 4methodol sources. Eurostat analysis, European comparative the of case the in and fertility and marriage rates from the Natural on data used Populationhave we analysis this ToMovement,complete situation. living and types household emancipation, residential to related those are sources secondary from chapter this in used indicators The individuals are theunitsofanalysis. and households Both people. 180,000 about of equivalent the approximately 60,000 households are effectively practice surveyed; this is in although quarter, per households 65,000 is sample initial The (inactive). market labour the outside population the on as well as unemployed),(employed, status employment and since 1964. Its main purpose is to obtain data on the labour force Institute Statistics Spain’sNational by conducted been has that families targeting survey quarterly and ongoing an is EAPS The sample is16,000dwellings distributed in2,000census tracts. over 16 years of age who are members of private households. The ogy
Methodological Appendix is the Social Services Services Social the is The main source of quantitative data on social services and youth • • Union, we usedthefollowing documents: European the of perspective the from policies youth Toanalyse Chapter 5methodol were variables poverty. and health study employment, education, these to relation in used indicators The (1960-2007). 2009) Survey Health National (NSI, the and LCS Survey, National the Conditions Living 2012; Institute’s Sport Statistics and Culture Education, of Ministry the from data 2000-2011); (NSI, EAPS the topic: the on sources access to therelevant data. 1 collects data on users of primary care social services. This data is data This services. social care primary of users on data collects for yearthe (latestavailable). 2009 data services social The SIUSS Madrid, Melilla, Murcia, Navarre – regarding cities the activity of general Cantabria, and Islands, Valencia, Extremadura, Ceuta, Leon, and Castile Balearic communities the Asturias, Aragon, autonomous Andalusia, – fifteen by data contains collected It Equality. and Policy Social Health, of Ministry
Culture, C4431/February 2011. and Education DG Commission, European the for Report Final youth. to related fields in indicators using for practices Assessing Youth Strategy 2010-2018. Council of the European SS of the Ministry of Health, Social Services and Equality for providingfor Equality and Services Social Health, of Ministry the of SIUSS the thank to like would authors The U ser Informationser System (SIUSS) ogy G alicia, La Rioja, Rioja, La alicia, Unión (2009). 1 of Spain’sof
126 young people. its of participation the and sector and reference youth the in available allowance emancipation resources the and services social basic of users of number evaluation, the people, young on spending social to refer chapter this in used indicators The the from data and (CIS) Research JovenObservatorio andtheOECD. dela Vivienda Sociological for Center Weregions and the Ministry). have also used the database of the (UTS levels four on (social work units), CSS (local informationsocial service centres), autonomous statistical obtain to also and it makes services, and database benefits of management This the evaluate to possible workers. social frontline by services based on family records and facilitates the management of social
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J. F J. (eds.): al. et and alk and ingham G. D C. er (2010): «How far have transitions to transitions have far «How (2010): (2010): «Can we explain increases in increases explain we «Can (2010): V The History of Youth Work in Europe: in WorkYouth of History The Una comparación europea», erdú ( 2008), «To2008), toa not find or find oil cec & Science Social Revista United New 137 W W W —, W W V ilà earing alther allce hite ik 20-09» i D. in (2000-2009)», Review, 33(4),534-540. people», young marginalized for services in practice. The Australian case: towards rights based and inclusive practice Social Scienceand youth», &Medicine,71(9),1.567-1.575. Social facing multiple and intersecting stressor of modernity, gender and order Press. Union», Perspectives, 10(3),441-458. onEuropeanPolitics andSociety European the in policies youth in tendencies different of classification Madrid: CáritasEspañola/FundaciónMadrid: Foessa. report –UP2Y report euiy n on pol’ eprecs cos ifrn European different across experiences people’s Young:contexts», NordicJournalofYouth Research , 14(2),119-139. young in security lund B A (00: Ls abo lgsaio e mtra e evco sociales servicios de materia en legislativos cambios «Los (2010): A. , . , S R., tauber M (01: Srnteig ot ctznhp n sca inclusion social and citizenship youth «Strengthening (2011): M. , A. , , , M., and C., 20) «eie o yuh rniin. hie feiiiy and flexibility Choice, transitions. youth of «Regimes (2006): and C. and J. W J. B engs OUTH, Luxembourg: European Commission. yn A. P A. R. , (2005): E. B ohl endit M C almgren asdo (2009): 20) «ot plce i Erp: oad a towards Europe: in policies «Youth (2009): Youth Melbourne: , Society and (ed.): -O , Final project project Final Change, Social of Youth:Actor lsson , XXI siglo del sociales servicios de Leyes and A. O hman Children and Youth Services Services Youth and Children (2010): «Young women O xford University
Bibliography Index of Tables and Graphs ables and Graphs
Tables 2.7 Hierarchy of importance attributed to indicators of entry into
adulthood by country (adjusted mean) 35 I nde x o f T 2.1 Real emancipation age and age considered ideal to become an adult 29 2.8 Age at which 50% of respondents live in diverse family structures, by country and sex 37 2.2 Average age considered ideal to become an adult among young people under 35 years of age by sex and country 30 2.9 Percentage of young people from 18 to 28 years of age that live alone in various European countries, by sex 38 2.3 Age at first marriage by sex, 2009 30 2.10 Percentage of unmarried couples (cohabiting) in different 2.4 Average age considered ideal to form a couple and to marry European countries, by age group and by whether among young people under 35 years of age by sex and or not they have children 39 country 31 2.11 Percentage of economically active persons 25 to 29 years 2.5 Average age considered ideal to be parents among young of age that are employed in different European countries people under 35 years of age by sex and country 32 by education level and sex 41
2.6 Average age to enter the labour market and age of 2.12 Percentage of unemployed with higher education in different emancipation 32 European countries, by age and sex 44
138 2.13 3.8 3.7 3.6 3.5 3.4 3.3 3.2 3.1 2.14 Percentage ofunemployed by age, educationlevel andsex Regular residence inwhichtheyoung personlives for most Percentage ofemancipated youth by agegroup, Percentage ofemancipated andnon-emancipated young Percentage ofyoung peopleemancipated by agegroup, Young peopleasheadsofhouseholdsandyoung Percentage ofyoung peopleemancipated by agegroup Percentage ofyoung peopleemancipated by agegroup, Percentage ofyoung peopleemancipated by agegroup Percentage ofyoung peoplefrom 15to 35years ofagethat in SpainandtheNetherlands, 2010 of theyear (percentage) 2010 and sex nationality and sex(for theyears 2005and2011) people withwork by agegroup, ofwork type contract economic statusandsex households (18-34years ofage),2008-2011 and employment status education level andsex and educationlevel nationality, 2011 would to work like inanotherEuropean country, by 60 59 58 57 56 56 55 54 46 45 139 3.10 3.9 3.11 3.12 3.13 4.1 4.3 4.2 4.4 5.1. Percentage ofemancipated young people(16to 34years Average ageatfirstmarriage by sexandnationality Percentage ofemancipated young people(16to 34years Percentage ofemancipated young people(16-34years) Characteristics of thepopulationyoungCharacteristics peoplefrom Protective inyoung andriskfactors people’s factors Temporary workers (as%oftotal employed by agegroup), ofsocialexclusionRisks Positive evaluation ofself-perceived healthby age Youth policiesinSpain,France, G and sex households (withnofamilyrelationship), by nationality of age)insingle-personhouseholdsandmulti-person of age) by type ofrelationship,of age)by type andsex nationality and sex offamily homewith/withoutchildren,by nationality type 18 to 34years ofageinSpainby Autonomous Region transitions 1987- 2010 and employment status(%) Sweden andthe United Kingdom ermany, the Netherlands, 63 67 67 67 69 75 72 83 90 97
Index of Tables and Graphs 5.2 5.7 5.6 5.5 5.4 5.3 5.12 5.11 5.10 5.9 5.8 Trends inInternet consumption amongyoung people Social spendingonyouth (percentage oftotal social Typology ofyouth policies inEurope by sector Number ofuserssocialservices Trust ofyoung people15to 29years ofageininstitutions, Access to socialnetworks inthelastmonthamongyoung Evolution by sector inthenumberofusers social services for interventions resourcesMain appliedintheyouth sector by age(2009) Number ofuserssocialservices Evaluation regarding oftheadministration ofpublicpolicy Emancipation allowance. Numberofrecipients, 2008-2011 14 to 24years ofage spending) (2008) of reference (2009) scale from 0to 10 people 14to 24years ofage of reference (2007-2008-2009) (2007-2008-2009) the emancipationallowance by age(%) 102 108 107 106 105 104 104 98 98 97 97 140 5.13 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 Graphs 5.14 Evaluation of the functioning of social services aimed Evaluation ofsocialservices ofthefunctioning Trends inunemployment rates amongyoung peoplefrom Trends inunemployment rates amongyoung people Trends inunemployment rates amongyoung people Percentage ofunmarriedcouples (cohabiting) inSpain The value ofindependence: Young peoplethatlive with Normative patterns inthetransition to adulthoodfor Participants intheinitiatives oftheEmployment Plan 30-34 years ofageby educationlevel andsex,Spain from 25-29years ofage by educationlevel andsex,Spain from 25-29years ofage by educationlevel, Spain and Sweden by age andchildren their parents various European countries (percentages) at youth, by age(%) 2009-2010 for Vulnerable Collectives oftheSpanish RedCross, 109 112 43 42 42 39 36 28
Index of Tables and Graphs 2.7 3.9 3.8 3.7 3.6 3.5 3.4 3.3 3.2 3.1 Trends inthepercentage ofyoung peopleunder24years Marriage ratesMarriage for women (2002 by ageandnationality ratesMarriage for (2002 menby ageandnationality Percentage ofemancipated young peoplefrom 16to Cost ofaccess for to housingmarket ayoung person Trend inthepercentage ofemancipated young men Trends inthepercentage ofemancipated young women Trends inthepercentage ofemancipated young people Trends inthepercentage ofemancipated young people Trends inthepercentage ofemancipated young people sex andyear ofreference educationindifferentsecondary countries oftheEUby of agethatleave schoolwithoutcompleting compulsory and 2009) and 2009) 34 years andsex ofage, of domesticpartnership by type and ayoung householdinSpain by agegroup by agegroup by agegroup (16 to 34 years andsex ofage)by nationality (16 to 34 years ofage) 63 62 62 60 53 52 52 50 50 47 141 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 4.1 4.2 4.5 4.4 4.3 Trends intheaverage ageofwomen attimeofthebirth Trends intheaverage ageofwomen attimeofthebirth Trends rate indifferent inthetotal fertility countries Trends rate (Spanish/Foreign) by nationality inbirth Trends inthepercentage ofemancipated young people Trends ofbreadwinner inhouseholdsformed inthetype Young peoplefrom 16to 24years ofage atriskofpoverty Percentage ofyoung threshold, peoplebelow thepoverty Level ofeducationcompleted: menandwomen, 16to Level ofeducationcompleted: women by agegroups Level ofeducationcompleted: menby agegroups of theirfirstchildindifferent countries ofthe European Union of their first child by nationality (Spanish/Foreign)of theirfirstchild by nationality of theEuropean Union and theageofmother(agegroups) by domesticpartnerships by young emancipated couples and socialexclusion (asapercentage ofthetotal population) emancipated andnonemancipated, by agegroup andsex 19 years ofage 64 64 65 65 66 68 74 79 79 76 80
Index of Tables and Graphs 4.6 4.15 4.14 4.13 4.12 nemployment rate for4.11 U young women by agegroup nemployment rate for4.10 U young men by agegroup 4.9 4.8 4.7 Level ofeducationcompleted: menandwomen, 20to Persons whoare by inactive reasons given for notlooking Persons whoare by inactive reasons given for notlooking Employment status ofyoung women by agegroup Employment status ofyoung menby age group Early schoolleaving by countries oftheEU.Percentage Early schoolleaving by autonomous regions. Percentage Level ofeducationcompleted: menandwomen, 25to 24 years ofage for work (women) for work (men) inany ofeducationortraining type and isnotparticipating not completededucation thesecond stageofsecondary of thepopulationfrom 18to 24years ofagethathas inany ofeducationortraining (2010) type is notparticipating completed educationand thesecond stage ofsecondary of thepopulationfrom 18to 24years ofagethathasnot 29 years ofage 86 86 85 85 84 84 82 81 81 80 142 4.16 4.25 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 Percentage ofyoung people16to 24years ofagewhosay 4.21 Percentage ofpopulationwhosay theysmoke, by age 4.22 Percentage ofyoung people16to 24years ofagewhosay 4.23 4.24 Self-perception ofhealth statusamongmeninthelast Percentage ofpopulationwith bodymassindexabove Self-perception ofhealth statusamongwomen inthelast Self-perception ofhealthstatusamongmen16to 24years Self-perception ofhealthstatusamongwomen 16to Percentage ofyoung peoplewhosay theydonotdrink Percentage ofyoung people20to 24years ofagewithbody 30kg/m twelve months, by agegroup twelve months, by agegroup of ageinthelasttwelve months 24 years ofageinthelasttwelve months they smoke, by sex groups they donotdrinkalcohol, by sex alcohol, by agegroups mass indexabove 30kg/m 2 , by agegroup 2
93 93 88 88 89 89 91 91 92 92
Index of Tables and Graphs 4.27 4.26 4.28 Suicide rate for 100,000inhabitantsby agegroup every at15years ofage Life expectancy Suicide rate for100,000inhabitantsby agegroup, every and country, 2008 Spain, 2000-2009 94 95 94 143
Index of Tables and Graphs Available in English from No.23 from AvailableEnglish in
Available on the internet: the on Available Collection Studies Social 4. 3. 2. 1. YOUNG WOMENINSPAIN FAMILY POLICIESFRMA VALUES INSPANISHSOCIETYAND FOREIGN IMMIRATI Natalia Matas Inés Alberdi,PilarEscarioand (Out ofstock) Lluís Flaquer (Out ofstock) COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE Elena RodríguezandOriolRomaní Ignacio Megías,JoséNavarro, Domingo Comas,JavierElzo, Eusebio Megías(director), (Out ofstock) THEIR RELATIONTDRUGUSE and IgnasiVila and M.A.dePrada),JaumeFunes Colectivo Ioé(C.Pereda,W.Actis Eliseo Aja,FrancescCarbonell, IN SPAIN(Outofstock) www.laCaixa.es/ObraSocial
8. 7. 6. OLD AGE,DEPENDENCEAND 5. SPAIN ANDIMMIGRATION YOUNG PEOPLEANDTHE THE SPANISHFAMILYAND Enríquez Miranda andCarmenGonzález- Víctor Pérez-Díaz,BertaÁlvarez- Ferran UrgellPlaza Calvo, RafaelVallsMontésand (coordinator), JoséVicentePeña Cristòfol-A. TrepatandCarbonell Joaquim PratsCuevas(director), EUROPEAN CHALLENG López andCasasnovas David CasadoMarínandGuillem LONG-TERM CARE(Outofstock) Ferrer Rodríguez andLeonardoSánchez Víctor Pérez-Díaz,JuanCarlos (Out ofstock) ATTITUDES TOWARDEDCATIN
14. 13. 12. 11. 10. 9. HOUSING POLICYFRMA Carme Trilla PERSPECTIVE COMPARATIVE EURPEAN Actis) Miguel A.dePradaandWalter Colectivo Ioé(CarlosPereda, THE LABOURMARKET PEOPLE WITHDISABILITIESAND Alicia Mesas Fuentes, EsperanzaLeónand Pere Amorós, Jesús Palacios, Núria FOSTER FAMILIES Francisco JavierGarrido Benjamín GarcíaSanzand IN OURCITIES ACOUSTIC CONTAMINATIN Pereda andMiguelA.dePrada) Colectivo Ioé(WalterActis,Carlos THE LABOURMARKET IMMIGRATION, SCHOOLINAND Inés AlberdiandNataliaMatas (Out ofstock) DOMESTIC VILENCE 17. 16. 15. Andreu Olesti Malinverni, PabloSantolayaand Satvinder S.Juss,Giorgio Julien-Laferrière, PaoloBonetti, Philippe deBruycker,François (coordinators), KayHailbronner, Eliseo Aja,LauraDíez IMMIGRATION INEURPE THE REGULATIONF Rapoport Queralt, PatricioBottosandAna Obradors, MariaGiménez,Dídac Riba, LauraGiménez,Anna Joan Subirats(director),Clara EXCLUSION POVERTY ANDSCIAL Miranda andElisaChuliá Víctor Pérez-Díaz,BertaÁlvarez- IN EUROPE MOSLEM IMMIGRATIN
22. 21. 20. 19. 18. Rodríguez SanJulián Ignacio MegíasQuirósandElena Imaz, TeresaLaespadaMartínez, Gutiérrez delÁlamo,JavierElzo Guerra, FernandoConde (director), JuanCarlosBallesteros Eusebio MegíasValenzuela THE PARENTALVIEW ADOLESCENTS ANDALCHL. Leonardo Cavalcanti Carlota Solé,SòniaParellaand COMMUNITY INSPAIN THE IMMIGRANTBUSINESS Lara Navarro Lluís Flaquer,ElisabetAlmedaand CHILDHOOD SINGLE PARENTINAND Gerardo MeilLandwerlin IN TODAY’SSPAIN PARENTS ANDCHILDREN Standaert Barbara SchulteandRoger Pierre-Louis Gauthier,BartMaes, Cowen, BertP.M.Creemers, Gasòliba (coordinator),Robert Raventós (directors),Edgar Joaquim PratsandFrancesc TRANSFORMATIN? SYSTEMS: CRISISOR EUROPEAN EDCATINAL 26. 25. 24. 23. Rosal Baena andRafaelSerrano del González, LuísRodríguez-Morcillo Rodríguez, CarlosRamos Ballesteros García,MaríaMartín Velázquez, RocíoFernández- (coordinators), LourdesBiedma Eduardo MoyanoEstrada David MoscosoSánchezand of life Sport, healthandquality Oriol Homs SOCIETY TOWARD THEKNWLEDGE VOCATINAL TRAININGINSPAIN. Patterson and MaríaÁngelesMenéndez Alicia deLeónArce,EmilioLuque Arnaiz, PalomaHerreraRacionero, González Álvarez,Mabelracia Contreras Hernández,María Javier ArancetaBartrina,Jesús Gómez Benito(coordinators), Cecilia DíazMéndezyCristóbal and health Food, consumptin and AaronP.C.Weintraub Sacramento Pinazo,JuanSáez Antonio Martínez,SallyNewman, Jarrott, MatthewS.Kaplan, Nancy A.Henkin,ShannonE. Donna M.Butts,AlanHatton-Yeo, Mariano Sánchez(director), A SOCIETYFRALLGES PROGRAMMES. TOWARDS INTERGENERATIONAL 33. 32. 31. 30. 29. 28. 27. Actis) Miguel ÁngeldePrada,Walter Colectivo Ioé(CarlosPereda, Inclusion Disability andSocial Gerardo Meil and FamilySolidarity Individualization María BruquetasCallejo Francisco JavierMorenoFuentes State inpain Immigration andtheWelfare Argeseanu Cunningham Elizabeth VaqueraandSolveig Pau Marí-Klose,Marga new challenges the Future:newrealities, Childhood and Jaime RiviereGómez Luis MenaMartínezand Mariano FernándezEnguita AND DROPOUTSinSpain SCHOOL FAILURE and M.ªTeresaMartínPalomo Agulló Tomás,M.ªVictoriaGómez Constanza Tobío,M.ªSilveria THE 21STCENTURY A CHALLENGEFOR CARING FORTHERS Rosario Sampedro Julio A.delPino,JesúsOlivaand Fátima Cruz,ManuelGonzález, Luis Camarero(coordinator), to scialustainability in Spain.fromdisequilibri The ruralpolatin 34. Sánchez-Cabezudo Peláez andSagrarioSegado (coordinator), AntonioLópez Almudena MorenoMínguez LATE EMANCIPATION IN SPAIN:ECONMICCRISISAND THE TRANSITION O T ADULTHOOD
The future of a society depends on the opportunities offered to young people to develop viable independent lives. The main objective of this study is to analyse the ways in which Spanish young people achieve adulthood and the difficulties they have to overcome in the process.
This study examines how young people assume their responsibilities as adults, looking at this process from a comparative European perspective. In addition, the impact of the current economic crisis on the transitions of young people is studied.
The authors question the effectiveness of youth social policies in facilitating the transition to adulthood. With special attention given to the European dimension, they also provide data to guide discussion on recommendations and actions to support the integration and autonomy of young people as a key resource in building social cohesion.