The Sciences Po Series in International Relations and Political Economy

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Editorial Advisor Miriam Perier Center for International Studies (CERI) Sciences Po - CNRS Paris, France The Science Po Series in International Relations and Political Economy consists of works emanating from the foremost French researchers from Sciences Po, Paris. Sciences Po was founded in 1872 and is today one of the most prestigious universities for teaching and research in social sciences in France, recognized worldwide. This series focuses on the transformations of the international arena, in a world where the state, though its sovereignty is questioned, reinvents itself. The series explores the effects on international relations and the world economy of regionalization, globalization, and transnational flows at large. This evolution in world affairs sustains a variety of networks from the ideological to the criminal or terrorist. Besides the geopolitical transformations of the globalized planet, the new political economy of the world has a decided impact on its destiny as well, and this series hopes to uncover what that is.

More information about this series at http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14411 Benedikt Erforth Contemporary French Security Policy in Africa

On Ideas and Wars Benedikt Erforth German Development Institute - Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik Bonn, Germany

The Sciences Po Series in International Relations and Political Economy ISBN 978-3-030-17580-1 ISBN 978-3-030-17581-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17581-8

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Preface

Recent years have witnessed increased French military activism in Africa. Despite efforts to normalize its post-colonial relationship and a considerable downsizing of its permanent military presence, France remains a sought-after security provider in Africa. Notwithstanding the often- repeated promise that France’s role as the “gendarme of Africa” belongs to the past, French troops have participated in nine military operations since the turn of the millennium. François Hollande and his administration stood out for being particularly interventionist, concerting a military operation in Mali and deploying a peacekeeping force to the Central African Republic within two years of assuming office and thus opening a new chapter in the long history of France’s military activism on the continent. In times where the international system is undergoing a fundamental transformation, and both Europe and Africa are repositioning themselves within a newly emerging world order, it is expedient to question the relations between the European Union’s foremost foreign policy actor and a region with which it has maintained special ties for many years. To do so, this book uncovers individual and collective motivations that drive French foreign and security policy in Africa. It explains French interventionism by drawing on actors’ subjective perceptions of reality and seeks to answer why French decision-makers are ready to accept the considerable risks and costs involved in guaranteeing or re-establishing the security of African countries. Adopting an actor-centric constructivist ontology, this book not only identifies ideas as core explanatory variables but also traces their

v vi PREFACE emergence and subsequent development throughout the decision-making processes that led to Operation Serval in Mali and Operation Sangaris in the Central African Republic. This recent and largely unexplored empirical material sheds new light on France’s contemporary security policy in Africa, Europe’s relations with Africa, and Africa’s place and role in the international system. In theoretical terms, the book brings human subjectivity and cognition back into the debates on foreign policy.

Bonn, Germany Benedikt Erforth Acknowledgments

This book is the result of several years of research on decision-making processes and French military activism in sub-Saharan Africa. Throughout this intellectual (and physical) journey, I have received the generosity, support, and advice of a great many people in various locations. At the University of Trento, I would like to thank Professor Vincent Della Sala for his continuous support. I am equally grateful to Mark Beittel, whose comments were invaluable in turning my ideas into compelling arguments. Neither my time in Italy nor this book would have been the same without the best of colleagues one can hope for: Roberto Belloni, Irene Costantini, George Deffner, Paula Guzzo Falci, and Michele Bernini. I am indebted to the Center of International Studies at Sciences Po Paris that hosted me during my extended research stays in the French capi- tal. I am particularly grateful to Richard Banégas and Christian Lequesne who introduced me to the French foreign policy networks. Teaching at Sciences Po, I met a good number of people who supported me throughout. In particular, I would like to thank Yasamin Altaïra, Kellan Anfinson, Matthew Baker, Megan Brown, Elie Baranets, Alexis Carré, Frédéric Coste, Mirjam Dageförde, Iris de Rode, Gaetano di Tommaso, Ronald Hatto, Lise Herman, Lorenzo Kihlgren Grandi, Marine Laniray, Marc Mudrak, James Muldoon, Stavros Pantazopoulos, Gayatri Rathore, Anne- Laure Rigeade, Olivier Ruchet, and Christopher Silva. Hélène Thiollet and Miriam Perier deserve a special thanks. Not only have Hélène and I co-taught numerous courses, she was also one of the early driving forces behind this book. As editorial manager, Miriam Perier

vii viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS did a superb job accompanying me during the entire publication process, for which I am extremely grateful. Dorian Ryser produced the beautiful maps of Mali and the Central African Republic. At Palgrave, I would like to thank Katelyn Zingg for her availability and great help during the final stages of the publication process as well as the two anonymous reviewers who—with their constructive feedback—helped me strengthen my arguments. The realization of this book would not have been possible without the aid of the actors that represented the French state during the presidency of François Hollande. I thank all those policy-makers, pundits, and researchers, who accepted my requests for interviews and provided me with their perspective on France’s role in the world. It is their story that I seek to tell on the following pages. My friends and family deserve a special mention. They have always been the most valuable source of support during those years of academic endeavors, for which I am deeply grateful. Finally, I would like to dedicate this book to my former students. Over and again, they have shown me how tremendously enriching teaching can be. Our debates and discussions made me constantly reflect on my own ideas and let to what I hope are now concise and compelling arguments. In short, their impact on my professional development and this book has been huge. Contents

1 Introduction: France’s New Interventionism in Africa 1

2 Ever Just the Same? French Foreign and Security Policy in Africa 9

3 Agents, Structures, and Ideas 25

4 Securitizing Mali: No Free Ride for Terrorists in Francophone Africa 51

5 Avoiding a Second Rwanda: Peacekeeping in the Central African Republic 111

6 After the Storm 169

Appendix A: Iconography of the French Decision-Making Apparatus in Defense Matters 183

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Appendix B: Military Operations in the Central African Republic with French Troop Involvement 185

References 187

Index 215 Abbreviations

AFISMA African-led International Support Mission to Mali AFRICOM Africa Command APF African Peace Facility APSA Architecture de Paix et de Sécurité en Afrique (African Peace and Security Architecture) AQIM Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb AQMI Al-Qaida au Maghreb Islamique (see AQIM) AU African Union CAPS Centre d’Analyse, de Prévision et de Stratégie (Policy Planning Staff) CAR Central African Republic CEMA Chef d’État-Major des Armées (Chief of the Military Staff) CEMP Chef d’État-Major Particulier (Chief of the Military Staff of the President) CNN Cable News Network CNRDR Comité National pour le Redressement de la Démocratie et la Restauration de l’État (National Commission for the Recovery of Democracy and the Restauration of the State) CPCO Centre de Planification et Contrôle des Opérations (Centre for Operational Planning and Control) CPJP Convention of Patriots for Justice and Peace CPSK Convention for the Salvation of Kodro (Sango for country) DAS Délégation aux Affaires Stratégiques (Office for Strategic Affairs) DCSD Direction de la Coopération de Sécurité et de Défense (Directorate General for Cooperation in Security and Defense Matters)

xi xii ABBREVIATIONS

DGSE Direction Générale de la Sécurité Extérieure (General Directorate for External Security) DRC Democratic Republic of Congo ECCAS Economic Community of Central African States ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States EMU European Monetary Union ENA École Nationale d’Administration (National School of Administration) ENVR École Nationale à Vocation Régionale (National School with Regional Reach) EU European Union EUFOR European Union Force EUTM European Union Training Mission FACA Forces Armées Centrafricaines (Central African Armed Forces) FOMAC Force Multinationale de l’Afrique Centrale (Multinational Force in Central Africa) FOMUC Force Multinationale en Centrafrique (Multinational Force in Central Africa) GIA Groupe Islamique Armé (Armed Islamic Group) GNI Gross National Income GSPC Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat (Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat) GWoT Global War on Terror HDI Human Development Index INED Institut National d’Études Démographiques (French National Research Institute on Demographics) IR International Relations LRA Lord’s Resistance Army MICOPAX Mission de Consolidation de la Paix en Centrafrique (Mission for the Consolidation of Peace in the Central African Republic) MINURCAT Mission des Nations Unies en République Centrafricaine et Tchad (UN Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad) MINUSMA Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali MISCA Mission Internationale de Soutien à la Centrafrique sous Conduite Africaine (African-led International Support Mission to the Central African Republic) MNLA Mouvement National de Libération de l’Azawad (National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad) MP Member of Parliament MSF Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders) MUJAO Mouvement pour l’Unicité et le Jihad en Afrique de l’Ouest (Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa) ABBREVIATIONS xiii

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NGO Non-governmental organization NRC National Role Conceptions ODA Official Development Assistance PSI Pan Sahel Initiative RCA République Centrafricaine (see CAR) RECAMP Renforcement des Capacités Africaines de Maintien de la Paix (Reinforcement of African Peacekeeping Capacities) RPF Rwandan Patriotic Front TSCTP Trans-Saharan Counter-Terrorism Partnership U.S. United States UCDP Uppsala Conflict Data Program UFDR Union des Forces Démocratiques pour le Rassemblement (Union of Democratic Forces for Unity) UN United Nations UNAMIR United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda UNDP United Nations Development Programme USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics List of Figures

Fig. 3.1 Different stages of the decision-making process and predominant decision unit at each of these stages. Source: own elaboration 47 Fig. 3.2 Decisional triangle depicting the interactions between the most important decision-makers in the realm of French defense policy. Source: own elaboration 48 Fig. 4.1 The four dimensions of Franco-African proximity 70 Fig. 4.2 Official foreign policy statements by members of the French government on the situation in Mali 74 Fig. 4.3 The three components of conflict resolution and their hierarchical order over time 75 Fig. 5.1 Timeline of official French foreign policy statements. Source: Own elaboration based on data extracted from http://basedoc. diplomatie.gouv.fr/exl-php/cadcgp.php (accessed on February 11, 2019) 122 Fig. 5.2 Simplified illustration of the interactions between social reality and counterfactual reality 162

xv List of Tables

Table 4.1 HDI Mali, neighboring countries, and regions 54 Table 5.1 Trade balance in commodities between France (reporter) and the CAR (partner) 2011–2013 133 Table 5.2 Battle-related deaths in the world, low estimates 2013 164

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