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Pathophysiology of Acid Base Balance: the Theory Practice Relationship
Intensive and Critical Care Nursing (2008) 24, 28—40 ORIGINAL ARTICLE Pathophysiology of acid base balance: The theory practice relationship Sharon L. Edwards ∗ Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College, Chalfont Campus, Newland Park, Gorelands Lane, Chalfont St. Giles, Buckinghamshire HP8 4AD, United Kingdom Accepted 13 May 2007 KEYWORDS Summary There are many disorders/diseases that lead to changes in acid base Acid base balance; balance. These conditions are not rare or uncommon in clinical practice, but every- Arterial blood gases; day occurrences on the ward or in critical care. Conditions such as asthma, chronic Acidosis; obstructive pulmonary disease (bronchitis or emphasaemia), diabetic ketoacidosis, Alkalosis renal disease or failure, any type of shock (sepsis, anaphylaxsis, neurogenic, cardio- genic, hypovolaemia), stress or anxiety which can lead to hyperventilation, and some drugs (sedatives, opoids) leading to reduced ventilation. In addition, some symptoms of disease can cause vomiting and diarrhoea, which effects acid base balance. It is imperative that critical care nurses are aware of changes that occur in relation to altered physiology, leading to an understanding of the changes in patients’ condition that are observed, and why the administration of some immediate therapies such as oxygen is imperative. © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Introduction the essential concepts of acid base physiology is necessary so that quick and correct diagnosis can The implications for practice with regards to be determined and appropriate treatment imple- acid base physiology are separated into respi- mented. ratory acidosis and alkalosis, metabolic acidosis The homeostatic imbalances of acid base are and alkalosis, observed in patients with differing examined as the body attempts to maintain pH bal- aetiologies. -
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BRITISH 511 Auc,.Auo. 25,25, 19621962 CARBON-MONOXIDE POISONIN6 MEDICAL JOURNAL Br Med J: first published as 10.1136/bmj.2.5303.511 on 25 August 1962. Downloaded from Case Reports HYPERVENTILATION IN Case 1.-A woman aged 61 was found with her head in CARBON-MONOXIDE POISONING a gas-oven. On admission to hospital she was deeply unconscious, with a generalized increase of muscle tone. BY pulse rate 140 a minute, and blood-pressure 110/70 mm. Hg. G. L. LEATHART, M.D., M.R.C.P. There was marked hyperventilation suggesting the possibility of coincident aspirin poisoning. A stomach wash-out, how- Nuflield Department of Industrial Health, the Medical ever, revealed no tablets, and a sample of urine collected School, King's College, Newcastle upon Tyne a few hours later contained no detectable salicylate. In 24 hours she had recovered fully and was transferred to a The recent revival of interest in the use of 5% or 7% mental hospital. carbogen in the treatment of carbon-monoxide poisoning Case 2.-An accountant aged 40 was working late in his has prompted the description of four unusual cases in office and was seen to be well at 9.15 p.m. At 8.45 a.m. which gross hyperventilation occurred. The investiga- the following morning he was found in the office with the tion of these cases was not very thorough, but such cases gas turned on but unlit. He was deeply unconscious with are seen so seldom that it is felt that even this incomplete strikingly deep and rapid respiration suggesting a condition report may be of value in stimulating further research. -
TITLE: Acid-Base Disorders PRESENTER: Brenda Suh-Lailam
TITLE: Acid-Base Disorders PRESENTER: Brenda Suh-Lailam Slide 1: Hello, my name is Brenda Suh-Lailam. I am an Assistant Director of Clinical Chemistry and Mass Spectrometry at Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children’s Hospital of Chicago, and an Assistant Professor of Pathology at Northwestern Feinberg School of Medicine. Welcome to this Pearl of Laboratory Medicine on “Acid-Base Disorders.” Slide 2: During metabolism, the body produces hydrogen ions which affect metabolic processes if concentration is not regulated. To maintain pH within physiologic limits, there are several buffer systems that help regulate hydrogen ion concentration. For example, bicarbonate, plasma proteins, and hemoglobin buffer systems. The bicarbonate buffer system is the major buffer system in the blood. Slide 3: In the bicarbonate buffer system, bicarbonate, which is the metabolic component, is controlled by the kidneys. Carbon dioxide is the respiratory component and is controlled by the lungs. Changes in the respiratory and metabolic components, as depicted here, can lead to a decrease in pH termed acidosis, or an increase in pH termed alkalosis. Slide 4: Because the bicarbonate buffer system is the major buffer system of blood, estimation of pH using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation is usually performed, expressed as a ratio of bicarbonate and carbon dioxide. Where pKa is the pH at which the concentration of protonated and unprotonated species are equal, and 0.0307 is the solubility coefficient of carbon dioxide. Four variables are present in this equation; knowing three variables allows for calculation of the fourth. Since pKa is a constant, and pH and carbon dioxide are measured during blood gas analysis, bicarbonate can, therefore, be determined using this equation. -
The Renal Response in Man to Acute Experimental Respiratory Alkalosis and Acidosis
The Renal Response in Man to Acute Experimental Respiratory Alkalosis and Acidosis E. S. Barker, … , J. R. Elkinton, J. K. Clark J Clin Invest. 1957;36(4):515-529. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI103449. Research Article Find the latest version: https://jci.me/103449/pdf THE RENAL RESPONSE IN MAN TO ACUTE EXPERIMENTAL RESPIRATORY ALKALOSIS AND ACIDOSIS 1 BY E. S. BARKER,2, 8 R. B. SINGER,4 J. R. ELKINTON,2 AND J. K. CLARK (From the Renal Section and Chemical Section of the Department of Medicine, The Department of Research Medicine, and the Department of Biochemistry, the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pa.) (Submitted for publication August 7, 1956; accepted December 6, 1956) The experimental results to be presented here proximately 30 minutes in 5 of the 6 experiments, and deal with the renal component of the multiple ef- for twice that period in the last experiment; 7.5 to 7.7 fects in man of acute experimental respiratory al- per cent CO, in air or oxygen was inhaled for 21 to 30 minutes. Measurements were continued in both types kalosis (hyperventilation) and acidosis (CO2 in- of experiments during subsequent recovery periods which halation). One aim of the experiments has been ended 97 to 145 minutes after onset of the stimulus (desig- to define an integrated picture of the total body nated time zero). Standard water loading was carried response to acute respiratory acid-base disturb- out before the experiments and continued throughout ances. A previous paper (1) contained a de- with water given in amounts equivalent to urine ex- creted. -
Important Prescribing Information
Important Prescribing Information Subject: Temporary importation of 8.4% Sodium Bicarbonate Injection to address drug shortage issues June 14, 2019 Dear Healthcare Professional, Due to the current critical shortage of Sodium Bicarbonate Injection, USP in the United States (US) market, Athenex Pharmaceutical Division, LLC (Athenex) is coordinating with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to increase the availability of Sodium Bicarbonate Injection. Athenex has initiated temporary importation of another manufacturer’s 8.4% Sodium Bicarbonate Injection (1 mEq/mL) into the U.S. market. This product is manufactured and marketed in Australia by Phebra Pty Ltd (Phebra). At this time, no other entity except Athenex Pharmaceutical Division, LLC is authorized by the FDA to import or distribute Phebra’s 8.4% Sodium Bicarbonate Injection, (1 mEq/mL), 10 mL vials, in the United States. FDA has not approved Phebra’s 8.4% Sodium Bicarbonate Injection but does not object to its importation into the United States. Effective immediately, and during this temporary period, Athenex will offer the following presentation of Sodium Bicarbonate Injection: Sodium Bicarbonate Injection, 8.4% (1mEq/mL), 10mL per vial, 10 vials per carton Ingredients: sodium bicarbonate, water for injection, disodium edetate and sodium hydroxide (pH adjustment) Marketing Authorization Number in Australia is: 131067 Phebra’s Sodium Bicarbonate Injection contains the same active ingredient, Sodium Bicarbonate, in the same strength and concentration, 8.4% (1 mEq/mL) as the U.S. registered Sodium Bicarbonate Injection, USP by Pfizer’s subsidiary, Hospira. However, it is important to note that Phebra’s Sodium Bicarbonate Injection (1 mEq/mL), is provided only in a Single Use 10 mL vials, whereas Hospira’s product is provided in 50 mL single-dose vials and syringes. -
Parenteral Nutrition Primer: Balance Acid-Base, Fluid and Electrolytes
Parenteral Nutrition Primer: Balancing Acid-Base, Fluids and Electrolytes Phil Ayers, PharmD, BCNSP, FASHP Todd W. Canada, PharmD, BCNSP, FASHP, FTSHP Michael Kraft, PharmD, BCNSP Gordon S. Sacks, Pharm.D., BCNSP, FCCP Disclosure . The program chair and presenters for this continuing education activity have reported no relevant financial relationships, except: . Phil Ayers - ASPEN: Board Member/Advisory Panel; B Braun: Consultant; Baxter: Consultant; Fresenius Kabi: Consultant; Janssen: Consultant; Mallinckrodt: Consultant . Todd Canada - Fresenius Kabi: Board Member/Advisory Panel, Consultant, Speaker's Bureau • Michael Kraft - Rockwell Medical: Consultant; Fresenius Kabi: Advisory Board; B. Braun: Advisory Board; Takeda Pharmaceuticals: Speaker’s Bureau (spouse) . Gordon Sacks - Grant Support: Fresenius Kabi Sodium Disorders and Fluid Balance Gordon S. Sacks, Pharm.D., BCNSP Professor and Department Head Department of Pharmacy Practice Harrison School of Pharmacy Auburn University Learning Objectives Upon completion of this session, the learner will be able to: 1. Differentiate between hypovolemic, euvolemic, and hypervolemic hyponatremia 2. Recommend appropriate changes in nutrition support formulations when hyponatremia occurs 3. Identify drug-induced causes of hypo- and hypernatremia No sodium for you! Presentation Outline . Overview of sodium and water . Dehydration vs. Volume Depletion . Water requirements & Equations . Hyponatremia • Hypotonic o Hypovolemic o Euvolemic o Hypervolemic . Hypernatremia • Hypovolemic • Euvolemic • Hypervolemic Sodium and Fluid Balance . Helpful hint: total body sodium determines volume status, not sodium status . Examples of this concept • Hypervolemic – too much volume • Hypovolemic – too little volume • Euvolemic – normal volume Water Distribution . Total body water content varies from 50-70% of body weight • Dependent on lean body mass: fat ratio o Fat water content is ~10% compared to ~75% for muscle mass . -
Chapter 26: Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance
Chapter 26: Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance Chapter 26 is unusual because it doesn’t introduce much new material, but it reviews and integrates information from earlier chapters to cover 3 types of regulation: regulation of fluid volume, regulation of electrolyte (=ion) concentrations, and regulation of pH. • Outline of slides: • 1. Regulating fluid levels (blood/ECF) • Compartments of the body • Regulation of fluid intake and excretion • 2. Regulating ion concentrations (blood/ECF) • 3. Regulating pH (blood/ECF) • Chemical buffers • Physiological regulation • Respiratory • Renal 1 3 subsections to this chapter – we will cover the middle one only briefly. 1 Ch. 26: Test Question Templates • Q1. Given relevant plasma data, classify a patient’s possible acid-base disorder as a metabolic or respiratory acidosis or alkalosis that is or is not fully compensated. Or, if given such a disorder, give expected plasma pH and CO2 level (high, normal, or low). • Example A: Plasma pH is 7.32, CO2 levels in blood are low. What is this? • Example B: A patient’s plasma has a pH of 7.5. Explain how you could make an additional measurement to determine whether the cause of this unusual pH is metabolic or respiratory. • Example C: A patient’s plasma CO2 levels are very low, yet plasma pH is normal. How can this be? 2 Q1. Example A: (slight) metabolic acidosis. Example B: Measure the CO2 level in the plasma. If the high plasma pH is due to a respiratory problem, the CO2 concentration will be low. If the high pH is NOT due to a respiratory problem, the CO2 will not be low, and may be high if the person is undergoing respiratory compensation for a metabolic alkalosis. -
The Electro-Physiology-Feeedback Measures of Interstitial Fluids
INTERNATIONAL MEDICAL UNIVERSITY The elecTro-Physiology-Feeedback Measures oF inTersTiTial Fluids BY PROFESSOR OF MEDICINE DESIRÉ DUBOUNET IMUNE PRESS 2008 Electro-Physiology -FeedBack Measures of Interstitial Fluids edited by Professor Emeritus Desire’ Dubounet, IMUNE ISBN 978-615-5169-03-8 1 CHAPTER 1 THE ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY-FEEDBACK MEASURES OF INTERSTITIAL FLUIDS The interstitial liquid constitutes the true interior volume that bathe the organs of the human body. It is by its presence that all the exchanges between plasma and the cells are performed. With the vascular, lymphatic and nervous systems, it seems to be the fourth communication way of information's between all the cells. No direct methods for sampling interstitial fluid are currently available. The composition of interstitial fluid, which constitutes the environment of the cells and is regulated by the electrical process of electrochemistry. This has previously been sampled by the suction blister or liquid paraffin techniques or by implantation of a perforated capsule or wick. The results have varied, depending on the sampling technique and animal species investigated. In one study, the ion distribution between vascular and interstitial compartments agreed with the Donnan equilibrium; in others, the concentrations of sodium and potassium were higher in interstitial fluid than in plasma. The concentration of protein in interstitial fluid is lower than in plasma, and the free ion activities theoretically differ from those of plasma because of the Donnan effect. In spite of these differences, and for practical reasons only, plasma is used clinically to monitor fluid and electrolytes. The relation between plasma and interstitial fluid is important in treating patients with abnormal plasma volume or homeostasis. -
New Jersey Chapter American College of Physicians Resident
New Jersey Chapter American College of Physicians Resident Abstract Competition 2018 Submissions Category Name Additional Authors Program Abstract Title Abstract Clinical Vignette Ankit Bansal Ankit Bansal MD, Robert Atlanticare Rare Case of A 62‐year‐old male IV drug abuser with hepatitis C and diabetes presented to the emergency Lyman MS IV, Saraswati Regional Necrotizing department with progressively worsening right forearm pain and swelling for two days after injecting Racherla MD Medical Myositis leading to heroin. Vitals included temperature 98.8°F and heart rate 107 bmp. Physical examination showed Center Thoracic and erythematous skin with surrounding edema and abscess formation of the right biceps extending into (Dominik Abdominal the axilla, and tenderness to palpation of the right upper extremity (RUE). Labs were white blood cell Zampino) Compartment count 16.1 x103/uL with bands 26%, hemoglobin 12.4 g/dL, platelets 89 x103/uL and blood lactate 2.98 Syndrome mmol/L. Patient was admitted to telemetry for sepsis secondary to right arm cellulitis and abscess. Bedside incision and drainage was performed. Blood and wound cultures were drawn and patient was started on Vancomycin and Levofloxacin. On the third day of admission, patient became febrile, obtunded and had signs of systemic toxicity. Labs showed a worsening leukocytosis and lactic acidosis. CT RUE was consistent with complex fluid collection and with extensive gas tracking encircling the entire length of the right biceps brachii muscle. Surgical debridement was performed twice over the next few days. Blood cultures grew corynbacterium and coagulase negative staphylococcus; wound culture grew coagulase negative staphylococcus. Levofloxacin was switched to Aztreonam. -
Rational Treatment of Acid-Base Disorders
Practical Therapeutics Drugs 39 (6): 841-855, 1990 0012-6667/90/0006-0841/$07.50/0 © ADlS Press Limited All rights reserved. DRUG03353 Rational Treatment of Acid-Base Disorders Margaret L. McLaughlin and Jerome P. Kassirer Nephrology Division, Department of Medicine, New England Medical Center, and Department of Med icine, Tufts Un iversity School of Medi cine, Boston , Massachusetts, USA Contents Summary , ,.., , ,.., ,.., ,..,.. 842 I. Metabolic Acidosis 843 1.1 Clinical Manifestations 843 1.2 Causes of Metabolic Acidosis 843 1.3 Treatment of Metabolic Acidosis 844 1.3.1 General Remarks 844 1.3.2 Loss of Alkaline Gastrointestinal Fluids 845 1.3.3 Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors 845 1.3.4 Urinary Diversion , 845 1.3.5 Lactic Acidosis 845 1.3.6 Diabetic Ketoacidosis 846 1.3.7 Alcoholic Ketoacidosis 846 1.3.8 Renal Tubular Acidosis ll47 1.3.9 Renal Acidosis (Uraemic Acidosis) 848 2. Metabolic Alkalosis , 848 2.1 Clinical Manifestations 848 2.2 Causes of Metabolic Alkalosis 848 2.3 Treatment of Metabolic Alkalosis 849 2.3.1 Milk-Alkali Syndrome 850 2.3.2 Combined Therapy with Nonabsorbabl e Alkali and Exchange Resins 850 2.3.3 Acute Alkali Loading 850 2.3.4 Gastric Fluid Losses 850 2.3.5 Diuretic Therapy , 851 2.3.6 Posthypercapnic Alkalosis 851 2.3.7 Primary Aldosteron ism 851 2.3.8 Bartter's Syndrom e 85I 2.3.9 Cushing's Syndrome 852 3. Respiratory Acidosis 852 3.1 Clinical Manifestations 852 3.2 Causes of Respiratory Acidosis , 852 3.3 Treatment of Respiratory Acidosis , 852 4. -
Tissue and Renal Response to Chronic Respiratory Acidosis
TISSUE AND RENAL RESPONSE TO CHRONIC RESPIRATORY ACIDOSIS Norman W. Carter, … , Donald W. Seldin, H. C. Teng J Clin Invest. 1959;38(6):949-960. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI103878. Research Article Find the latest version: https://jci.me/103878/pdf TISSUE AND RENAL RESPONSE TO CHRONIC RESPIRATORY ACIDOSIS * By NORMAN W. CARTER,t DONALD W. SELDIN AND H. C. TENG (From the Department of Internal Medicine, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, Texas) (Submitted for publication October 27, 1958; accepted February 26, 1959) The elevation of pCO2 which occurs during to enter during respiratory acidosis is the red cell respiratory acidosis is accompanied by a rise in (1, 3, 9). The role of renal losses in the produc- the concentration of bicarbonate and a fall in the tion of hypochloremia is less certain. In short concentration of chloride in serum (1). The term human experiments, chloruresis has not increased bicarbonate concentration results from been observed during respiratory acidosis (5, both cellular and renal responses. The cellular 10). However, in the rat, Epstein, Branscome response is characterized by the exchange of ex- and Levitin observed increased chloride excre- tracellular hydrogen ions for intracellular cations, tion during the first 24 hours of an imposed re- thereby contributing to the elevation of the ex- spiratory acidosis (11). tracellular concentration of bicarbonate (2, 3). The present study in the rat was undertaken in The renal factors responsible for the elevated an attempt to delineate the pattern of renal and bicarbonate concentration may be divided into extrarenal responses to respiratory acidosis. -
Acid-Base Disorders Made So Easy Even a Caveman Can Do It
ACID-BASE DISORDERS MADE SO EASY EVEN A CAVEMAN CAN DO IT Lorraine R Franzi, MS/HSM, RD, LDN, CNSD Nutrition Support Specialist University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Pittsburgh, PA I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES The clinician after participating in the roundtable will be able to: 1) Indicate whether the pH level indicates acidosis or alkalosis. 2) State whether the cause of the pH imbalance is respiratory or metabolic. 3) Identify if there is any compensation for the acid-base imbalance. II. INTRODUCTION Acid-Base balance is an intricate concept which requires an intimate and detailed knowledge of the body’s metabolic pathways used to eliminate the H+ ion. Clinicians may find it daunting to understand when first introduced to the subject. This roundtable session will demonstrate how to analyze blood gas levels in a very elementary manner so as to diagnose any acid-base disorder in a matter of minutes. The body is in a constant state of flux delicately stabilizing the pH so as to maintain its normalcy. In order to prevent untoward effects of alkalosis or acidosis the body has three major buffering systems that it uses to adjust the pH. They are: 1) Plasma protein (Prot-) 2) Plasma hemoglobin (Hb-) 3) Bicarbonate (HCO3-) The Bicarbonate-Carbonic acid system is the most dominate buffering system and controls the majority of the hydrogen ion (H+) equilibrium. Maintaining homeostasis when these acid-base shifts occur is vital to survival. Metabolic and respiratory processes work in unison to keep the H+ normal and static. II. ACID-BASE ABNORMALITIES The four principal acid-base imbalances are illustrated in Table 1.