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Hunter: Renaissance Literature 9781405150477_4_001 Page Proof page 17 16.1.2009 4:27pm

John Skelton (1460?–1529)

Although there is little reliable information and vulgar erotic verse (‘‘The Tunning of about Skelton’s early life, he appears to have Elynour Rummyng’’). During his rectorship he studied at both Cambridge and Oxford, where also wrote two comic epitaphs on mem- he was awarded the title of ‘‘’’ (an bers of his congregation (‘‘Epitaph for Adam advanced degree in ) in 1488; he later Udersall’’ and ‘‘A Devout Trental for Old John received the same honor from the universities Clarke’’) which anticipate the satirical vein of of Cambridge and Louvain. Some time in the his later poetry. He also wrote Latin verse and 1490s, he went up to London and the court, made some translations from Latin. The tone where he wrote some occasional poems and and themes of his poems vary wildly within as dramatic entertainments. In 1498, Skelton well as between them, and he excels at using took holy orders and soon after became the commonplace situations as comic vehicles for tutor of Prince Henry (later King Henry learned disputes or reflections. A good example VIII). When visited England in is ‘‘Ware the Hawk,’’ a poem about a neighbor- 1499, he described Skelton as unum Britanni- ing curate who has been hunting with his hawk carum litterarum lumen ac decus (‘‘the singular in Skelton’s church at Diss. The bird’s fouling of light and glory of British letters’’); while he the altar, chalice, and host becomes the occa- had his detractors as well, this shows that sion for a poetic sermon (carefully divided into Skelton was an established and scholar named sections) and a table of conclusions for and he has always been considered the most the erring hawk-owner to follow. In his last important English poet of the generation before major poem – ‘‘A Replication Against Certain Wyatt. In recognition of his royal service, he Young Scholars Abjured of Late’’ (1528) – was made rector of Diss, near the border of Skelton put aside his old conflict with Wolsey Suffolk and . In 1512, he was given to join him in combating what they both saw as the title orator regius (‘‘royal orator’’) by the heresy of Lutheranism, which was beginning Henry VIII. to be debated at Cambridge in the mid- Skelton was a tremendously versatile poet: he (see Walker). used established verse forms, such as the poetic ‘‘Philip Sparrow’’ is a fine example of dream vision of The Garland of Laurel, which is Skelton’s metrical skill and his flair for com- reminiscent of Chaucer, but also experimented bining the traditional and the new. The poem with new forms and created his own (the ‘‘Skel- celebrates a mock mass – much as children tonic,’’ which consists of lines with two or three sometimes elaborately bury their dead pets – accents that rhyme successively; see ‘‘Philip for Jane Scrope’s sparrow, killed by a Carrow Sparrow’’ below). He wrote celebratory poems Abbey cat. The poem is in two parts: the first is for his royal employers (‘‘A Lawde and Prayse the girl’s lament, in her own voice, for Philip; Made for Our Sovereigne Lord the Kyng’’) and and the second is the poet’s commendation of sharp against courtly hypocrisy and, in Jane’s beauty. Fifteen years after composing the particular, Cardinal Wolsey (‘‘Speke Parrot,’’ poem, Skelton wrote an additional section, re- ‘‘Collyn Clout,’’ and ‘‘Why Come Ye Nat to plying to those who raised moral objections Courte?’’). He wrote sincere devotional poetry about part two. While part two is an intricately Hunter: Renaissance Literature 9781405150477_4_001 Page Proof page 18 16.1.2009 4:27pm

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sensual application of the art of rhetoric, making Text explicit use of terminology from classical hand- The Complete English Poems, ed. John Scatter- books, its learning is undercut in part one by the good (spelling modernized). girl’s polymathic knowledge, which weaves to- Reading gether bird lore, musicology, the language of A. W. Barnes, ‘‘Constructing the Sexual Subject of the Bible and the Office for the Dead, English John Skelton.’’ literary history, and classical learning. Because Arthur F. Kinney, John Skelton, Priest as Poet: of its complex treatment of female sexuality, Seasons of Discovery. from the fictionalized points of view of Jane and John Scattergood, ‘‘John Skelton’s Lyrics: Trad- the poet himself, the poem and the history of its ition and Innovation.’’ Susan Schibanoff, ‘‘Taking Jane’s Cue: Phyllyp John Skelton (1460?–1529) reception have recently received sustained Sparowe as a Primer for Women Readers.’’ attention from feminist critics (see Barnes and Greg Walker, John Skelton and the Politics of the Schibanoff). 1520s.

Philip Sparrow [Part I]

I wept and I wailed, 1 Pla ce bo! The tears down hailed; Who is there, who? But nothing it availed 2 Di le xi! To call Philip again 3 Dame Margery, Whom Gib our cat hath slain. Fa, re, my, my. Gib, I say, our cat 9 Wherefore and why, why? Worried her on that For the soul of Philip Sparrow 30 Which I loved best. That was late slain at Carrow It cannot be expressed Among the Nuns Black. My sorrowful heaviness, 10 For that sweet soul’s sake, But all without redress; 10 And for all sparrows’ souls For within that stound, 4 Set in our bead-rolls, Half slumbering, in a sound 5 Pater noster qui, I fell downe to the ground. 6 11 With an Ave Mari, Unneth I cast mine eyes And with the corner of a Creed, Toward the cloudy skies; 7 The more shall be your meed. But when I did behold 40 My sparrow dead and cold, When I remember again No creature but that would 12 How my Philip was slain, Have rued upon me, Never half the pain To behold and see 20 Was between you twain, What heaviness did me pang: 8 Pyramus and Thisbe, Wherewith my hands I wrang, As then befell to me. That my sinews cracked Notes 6 PHILIP SPARROW ‘‘Hail Mary.’’ 1 7 From the opening of the antiphon of the Vespers for the reward. 8 Office of the Dead. The syllabic divisions suggest plainsong. Tragic lovers in a tale by Ovid in the Metamorphoses. 2 9 From Vulgate Psalm 114 (Psalm 115), the first psalm in the i.e. bit on the throat. 10 Office of the Dead. The syllabic divisions suggest plainsong. moment and/or sudden shock. 3 11 The head nun at the abbey of Carrow, just outside. barely. 4 12 Lists of the dead for whom prayers were to be offered. pitied. 5 ‘‘Our Father which ...’’ Hunter: Renaissance Literature 9781405150477_4_001 Page Proof page 19 16.1.2009 4:27pm

19 As though I had been racked, And from the smokes sour 22 So pained and so strained Of Proserpina’s bower; That no life well nigh remained. And from the dens dark 23 50 I sighed and I sobbed, Where Cerberus doth bark, 24 25 For that I was robbed Whom Theseus did affray, 26 27 Of my sparrow’s life. Whom Hercules did outray, O maiden, widow, and wife, As famous say; 13 Of what estate ye be, From that hell-hound Of high or low degree, 90 That lieth in chains bound, Great sorrow then ye might see, With ghastly heads three; And learn to weep at me! To Jupiter pray we Such pains did me fret That Philip preserved may be! John Skelton (1460?–1529) That mine heart did beat, Amen, say ye with me! 60 My visage pale and dead, Wan, and blue as lead: Do mi nus, The pangs of hateful death Help now sweet Jesus! 28 Well nigh had stopped my breath. Levavi oculos meos in montes. 29 Would God I had Zenophontes, Heu, heu, me, Or Socrates the wise, 30 That I am woe for thee! 100 To show me their device 14 Ad Dominum, cum tribularer, clamavi. Moderately to take Of God nothing else crave I This sorrow that I make But Philip’s soul to keep For Philip Sparrow’s sake! 15 From the marees deep So fervently I shake, 16 70 Of Acherontes’ well, I feel my body quake; That is a flood of hell; So urgently I am brought 17 And from the great Pluto, Into careful thought. 31 The prince of endless woe; Like Andromach, Hector’s wife, 18 And from foul Alecto, Was weary of her life, With visage black and blue; 110 When she had lost her joy, 19 20 And from Medusa, that mare, Noble Hector of Troy; That like a fiend doth stare; In like manner also 21 And from Megaera’s adders Increaseth my deadly woe, For ruffling of Philip’s feathers, For my sparrow is go. 80 And from her fiery sparklings, It was so pretty a fool, For burning of his wings; It would sit on a stool, Notes 13 22 social standing. Goddess of the Underworld (see gazetteer under ‘‘Perse- 14 ‘‘Woe, woe is me . . . In my distress, I cried unto the phone’’). 23 Lord’’ (second antiphon and Vulgate Psalm 119 from the Monstrous three-headed dog who guarded the entrance Vespers). to the Underworld. 15 24 marsh. Mythical king of Athens (see gazetteer). 16 25 Acheron, one of the rivers of the Underworld in Greek frighten. 26 myth. Mythical Greek demi-god and hero (see gazetteer). 17 27 Roman god of the Underworld, whose other name is Dis vanquish. 28 (see gazetteer). There is a pun running through this section ‘‘Lord . . . I lifted up my eyes unto the hills’’ (third on Diss, where Skelton was rector. In Roman literature Dis antiphon and Psalm of the Vespers). 29 was a symbol of death. Xenophon, an ancient Greek writer and admirer of Soc- 18 One of the Furies (see gazetteer). rates (see gazetteer). 19 30 Mythical Greek monster whose hideous appearance advice. 31 turned anyone who looked at it to stone. Andromache, wife of the Trojan hero Hector (see gazet- 20 hag. teer and Iliad 25.725 ff.). 21 One of the Furies, who had adders for hair. Hunter: Renaissance Literature 9781405150477_4_001 Page Proof page 20 16.1.2009 4:27pm

20 40 And learned after my school I trow she could not amend 32 For to keep his cut, Reporting the virtues all With ‘Philip, keep your cut!’ Of my sparrow royal. 120 It had a velvet cap, For it would come and go, And would sit upon my lap, 160 And fly so to and fro; And seek after small worms, And on me it would leap And sometime white bread-crumbs; When I was asleep, And many times and oft And his feathers shake, Between my breasts soft Wherewith he would make It would lie and rest – Me often for to wake, 33 It was proper and prest. And for to take him in Sometime he would gasp Upon my naked skin. John Skelton (1460?–1529) 41 When he saw a wasp; God wot, we thought no sin – 130 A fly or a gnat, What though he crept so low? He would fly at that; 170 It was no hurt, I trow. 42 And prettily he would pant He did nothing, perdee, When he saw an ant; But sit upon my knee. 43 Lord, how he would pry Philip, though he were nice, After the butterfly! In him it was no vice; Lord, how he would hop Philip had leave to go 34 After the gressop! To pick my little toe, And when I said, ‘Phip, Phip!’ Philip might be bold Then he would leap and skip, And do what he would: 140 And take me by the lip. Philip would seek and take 35 Alas, it will me slo 180 All the fleas black That Philip is gone me fro! That he could there espy With his wanton eye. Si in i qui ta tes Alas, I was evil at ease! 44 36 Opera: De pro fun dis cla ma vi La, sol, fa, fa, When I saw my sparrow die! Confitebor tibi, Domine, in toto corde 37 45 Now, after my doom, meo. 38 Dame Sulpicia at Rome, Alas, I would ride and go Whose name registered was A thousand mile of ground, 150 For ever in tables of brass, If any such might be found! Because that she did pass It were worth an hundred pound 39 46 In poesy to indite 190 Of King Croesus’ gold, And eloquently to write, Or of Attalus the old, 47 Though she would pretend The rich prince of Pergame, 48 My sparrow to commend, Whoso list the story to see.

Notes 32 41 i.e. to keep his place and behave properly. knows. 33 42 eager. By God! 34 43 grasshopper. lustful (sparrows were proverbially lascivious birds). 35 44 slay. ‘‘The works [of the Lord]’’ 36 45 ‘‘If iniquities . . . Out of the depths have I cried’’ (fourth ‘‘I will confess to thee, Lord, with my whole heart’’ antiphon and Psalm of the Vespers). (Vulgate Psalm 85:12, from the fifth antiphon of the Vespers). 37 46 judgment. Ancient king of Lydia, known for his great wealth. 38 47 The name of two female poets from ancient Rome. Pergamum, ancient city in Asia Minor, which reached the 39 compose. height of its splendor under the Attalids. 40 48 believe. wishes. Hunter: Renaissance Literature 9781405150477_4_001 Page Proof page 21 16.1.2009 4:27pm

21 49 Cadmus, that his sister sought, I threw away for dread. And he should be bought The best now that I may For gold and fee, Is for his soul to pray: 55 He should over the sea A porta inferi, 50 To weet if he could bring 240 Good Lord, have mercy Any of the offspring Upon my sparrow’s soul, 200 Or any of the blood. Written in my bead-roll! 56 But whoso understood Au di vi vo cem, 51 57 Of Medea’s art, Japhet, Ham, and Shem, 58 I would I had a part Ma gni fi cat, Of her crafty magic! Show me the right path 52 59 My sparrow then should be quick To the hills of Armony, John Skelton (1460?–1529) With a charm or twain, Whereon the boards yet cry And play with me again. Of your father’s boat, But all this is in vain 250 That was sometime afloat, Thus for to complain. And now they lie and rot; 210 I took my sampler once Let some poets write 53 60 61 Of purpose, for the nonce, Deucalion’s flood it hight. To sew with stitches of silk But as verily as ye be My sparrow white as milk, The natural sons three That by representation Of Noah the patriarch, Of his image and fashion, That made that great ark, To me it might import Wherein he had apes and owls, Some pleasure and comfort Beasts, birds, and fowls, For my solace and sport. 260 That if ye can find But when I was sewing his beak, Any of my sparrow’s kind, 220 Methought my sparrow did speak, (God send the soul good rest!) And opened his pretty bill, I would have yet a nest 54 Saying, ‘Maid, ye are in will As pretty and as prest Again me for to kill, As my sparrow was. Ye prick me in the head!’ But my sparrow did pass With that my needle waxed red, All sparrows of the wood Methought, of Philip’s blood. That were since Noah’s flood; Mine hair right upstood, Was never none so good. 62 I was in such a fray 270 King Philip of Macedony My speech was taken away. Had no such Philip as I, 230 I cast down that there was, No, no, sir, hardily! And said, ‘Alas, alas, That vengeance I ask and cry, How cometh this to pass?’ By way of exclamation, My fingers, dead and cold, On all the whole nation Could not my sampler hold; Of cats wild and tame; My needle and thread God send them sorrow and shame! Notes 49 55 Legendary founder of Thebes, who searched for his sister ‘‘From the gates of hell’’ (antiphon). 56 Europa, who had been carried off by Zeus in the form of a ‘‘I heard a voice’’ (antiphon, Rev. 14:12). 57 bull (see ‘‘Thebes’’ in the gazetteer). Sons of Noah from Genesis. 50 58 know. ‘‘Magnify,’’ as in ‘‘My soul magnifies the Lord’’ (Luke 1:46). 51 59 A magician who helped Jason (see gazetteer) recover the Noah’s ark came to rest in Armenia on Mt. Ararat. 60 Golden Fleece and restored the youth of his father Aeson. The flood-myth protagonist in Greek mythology. 52 61 alive. is called. 53 62 for the present. Philip II, king of Macedon and father of Alexander the 54 intending. Great. Hunter: Renaissance Literature 9781405150477_4_001 Page Proof page 22 16.1.2009 4:27pm

22 That cat specially, From Ocean the great sea 71 That slew so cruelly Unto the Isles of Orcady, 280 My little pretty sparrow 320 From Tilbury Ferry 72 That I brought up at Carrow. To the plain of Salisbury! O cat of churlish kind, So traitorously my bird to kill 73 The fiend was in thy mind That never ought thee evil will! When thou my bird untwined! Was never bird in cage I would thou hadst been blind! More gentle of courage The leopards savage, In doing his homage The lions in their rage, Unto his sovereign. Might catch thee in their paws, Alas, I say again, And gnaw thee in their jaws! Death hath departed us twain! John Skelton (1460?–1529) 63 290 The serpents of Libany 330 The false cat hath thee slain: Might sting thee venomously! Farewell, Philip, adieu; The dragons with their tongues Our Lord thy soul rescue! Might poison thy liver and lungs! Farewell without restore, 64 The manticores of the mountains Farewell for evermore! 74 Might feed them on thy brains! And it were aJew, Melanchaetes, that hound It would make one rue That plucked Actacon to the To see my sorrow new. 65 ground, These villainous false cats Gave him his mortal wound, Were made for mice and rats, Changed to a deer, 340 And not for birds small. 300 The story doth appear, Alas, my face waxeth pale, Was changed to an hart: Telling this piteous tale, So thou, foul cat that thou art, How my bird so fair, The selfsame hound That was wont to repair, 75 Might thee confound, And go in at my spare, 66 76 That his own lord bote, And creep in at my gore Might bite asunder thy throat! Of my gown before, 67 68 Of Ind the greedy grypes Flickering with his wings. Might tear out all thy tripes! Alas, my heart it stings, Of Arcady the bears 350 Remembering pretty things! 310 Might pluck away thine ears! Alas, mine heart it slaith, 69 The wild wolf Lycaon My Philip’s doleful death! Bite asunder thy backbone! When I remember it, 70 Of Etna the burning hill, How prettily it would sit That day and night burneth still, Many times and oft, Set in thy tail a blaze Upon my finger aloft! 77 That all the world may gaze I played with him tittle-tattle, And wonder upon thee, And fed him with my spittle,

Notes 63 71 Libya, or Africa as a whole. Orkney Islands, north of Scotland. 64 72 Ancient mythical monster with the head of a man, the Tilbury is on the Thames near London; Salisbury Plain is body of a lion, and the tail of a scorpion. in the west of England. 65 73 See gazetteer under ‘‘Actaeon.’’ i.e. bore. 66 74 i.e. bitten. i.e. If it were . . . 67 75 India. An opening or slit in a gown. 68 76 griffins. petticoat. 69 77 In Ovid, Lycaon of Arcadia was transformed into a wolf. gossip. 70 Etna, Europe’s highest active volcano, located in Sicily. Hunter: Renaissance Literature 9781405150477_4_001 Page Proof page 23 16.1.2009 4:27pm

23 With his bill between my lips, Some to weep, and some to pray, 83 360 It was my pretty Phips! Every bird in his lay: Many a pretty kiss The goldfinch, the wagtail; 78 Had I of his sweet muss! The jangling jay to rail, 84 And now the cause is thus, The flecked pie to chatter That he is slain me fro, Of this dolorous matter. To my great pain and woe. And Robin Redbreast, Of fortune this the chance 400 He shall be the priest, Standeth on variance: The requiem mass to sing, Oft time after pleasance, Softly warbling, Trouble and grievance. With help of the reed sparrow 370 No man can be sure And the chattering swallow, John Skelton (1460?–1529) Alway to have pleasure. This hearse for to hallow. As well perceive ye may The lark with his long toe; 85 86 How my disport and play The spink, and the martinet also; 87 From me was taken away The shoveller with his broad beak; 88 89 By Gib, our cat savage, The dotterel, that foolish peke, That in a furious rage 410 And also the mad coot, 90 Caught Philip by the head, With bald face to toot; 91 And slew him there stark dead! The fieldfare and the snite; Kyrie, eleison, The crow and the kite; 380 Christe, eleison, The raven, called Rolfe, 79 92 Kyrie, eleison! His plain-song to sol-fa; The partridge, the quail; For Philip Sparrow’s soul, The plover with us to wail; 93 Set in our bead-roll, The woodhack, that singeth ‘chur,’ 94 Let us now whisper Hoarsely, as he had the mur; 80 A Paternoster. 420 The lusty chanting nightingale; 81 Lauda, anima mea, Dominum! The popinjay to tell her tale, 95 To weep with me look that ye That toteth oft in a glass, 82 come Shall read the Gospel at mass; 96 All manner of birds in your kind; The mavis with her whistle See none be left behind. Shall read there the epistle. 390 To mourning look that ye fall But with a large and a long With dolorous songs funeral, To keep just plain-song, Some to sing, and some to say, Our chanters shall be the cuckoo,

Notes 78 87 mouth. spoonbill. 79 88 ‘‘Lord, have mercy, Christ, have mercy, Lord, have dolt. 89 mercy.’’ plover. 80 90 ‘‘Our Father.’’ pry. 81 91 ‘‘Praise the Lord, O my soul!’’ (Psalm 145:1, Vulgate). snipe. 92 Skelton puns on the word anima (‘‘soul’’)/animal here. ‘‘Plainsong’’ refers to the sung liturgies used in the Cath- 82 From here to line 575, Skelton interrupts his poetic ver- olic and (later) Anglican church. They were unaccompanied sion of the Vespers of the Office for the Dead with a by music, free in their rhythms. ‘‘Sol-fa’’ refers to the syl- memorial service sung by Philip’s fellow birds. Beast fables lables that were sung when practicing major scales (do, re, and catalogues of animals were common devices in medi- me, fa, sol, la, si). 93 eval and Renaissance literature. woodpecker. 83 94 song. catarrh. 84 95 magpie. looks. 85 96 chaffinch. song-thrush. 86 martin. Hunter: Renaissance Literature 9781405150477_4_001 Page Proof page 24 16.1.2009 4:27pm

24 97 98 The culver, the stockdove, At this Placebo 430 With ‘peewit’ the lapwing, We may not well forgo 99 108 109 The versicles shall sing. The countering of the coe; 100 The bittern with his bump, The stork also, The crane with his trump, 470 That maketh his nest 101 The swan of Menander, In chimneys to rest; The goose and the gander, Within those walls 110 The duck and the drake, No broken galls Shall watch at this wake; May there abide The peacock so proud, Of cuckoldry side, Because his voice is loud, Or else philosophy 440 And hath a glorious tail, Maketh a great lie. John Skelton (1460?–1529) 102 He shall sing the Grail; The ostrich, that will eat The owl, that is so foul, An horseshoe so great, Must help us to howl; 480 In the stead of meat, The heron so gaunt, Such fervent heat 111 And the cormorant, His stomach doth fret; With the pheasant, He cannot well fly, 103 And the gaggling gant, Nor sing tunably, 112 And the churlish chough; Yet at a brayd 104 The knot and the ruff; He hath well assayed 450 The barnacle, the buzzard, To sol-fa above E-la – With the wild mallard; Fa, lorell, fa, fa – 105 The divendop to sleep; Ne quando 113 The water-hen to weep; 490 Male cantando, The puffin and the teal, The best that we can, Money they shall deal To make him our bell-man, To poor folk at large, And let him ring the bells; That shall be their charge; He can do nothing else. 106 114 The seamew and the titmouse; Chanticleer, our cock, The woodcock with the long nose; Must tell what is of the clock 107 460 The throstle with her warbling; By the astrology The starling with her brabbling; That he hath naturally The rook, with the osprey Conceived and caught, That putteth fishes to a fray; 500 And was never taught 115 And the dainty curlew, By Albumazer With the turtle most true. The astronomer, Notes 97 108 dove. counterpoint. 98 109 wild pigeon. jackdaw. 99 110 A series of short verses sung antiphonally between a i.e. no friction or irritation. There was a tradition that priest and congregation. male storks killed or abandoned their mates if they had been 100 loud call. unfaithful. 101 111 Following earlier writers, Skelton has here used ‘‘Menan- digest. 112 der’’ (an ancient Greek comic dramatist) for ‘‘Maeander’’ (a suddenly. 113 Greek river). Lest ever by singing badly. 102 114 Gradual. Chanticleer and Partelot were the names of a rooster and 103 gannet. his hen in a wide range of French and English literary texts. 104 115 The next two lines refer (in order) to the snipe, sand- Albumazar (787–896), Ptolemy (first–2nd century), and piper, and wild goose. Haly Abenragel (Abuˆ l-Hasan ‘Alıˆ ibn Abıˆ l-Rijaˆl, tenth– 105 dabchick. eleventh century) were Muslim and, in Ptolemy’s case, 106 gull. Greek astronomical authorities. See gazetteer under 107 song-thrush. ‘‘Ptolemy.’’ Hunter: Renaissance Literature 9781405150477_4_001 Page Proof page 25 16.1.2009 4:27pm

25 Nor by Ptolomy Without alteration, Prince of astronomy, Saving that old age Nor yet by Haly; Is turned into courage And yet he croweth daily Of fresh youth again; And nightly the tides This matter true and plain, That no man abides, Plain matter indeed, With Partlot his hen, Whoso list to read. 510 Whom now and then 550 But for the eagle doth fly He plucketh by the head Highest in the sky, When he doth her tread. He shall be the subdean, 122 The bird of Araby, The choir to demean, That potentially As provost principal, 123 John Skelton (1460?–1529) May never die To teach them their Ordinal; And yet there is none Also the noble falcon, But one alone; With the ger-falcon, 124 A phoenix it is The tarsel gentil, This hearse that must bless They shall mourn soft and still 116 125 520 With aromatic gums 560 In their amice of gray; 126 That cost great sums, The saker with them shall say 117 127 The way of thurification Dirige for Philip’s soul; To make a fumigation The goshawk shall have a roll 118 Sweet of reflare, The choristers to control; 128 And redolent of air, The lanners and the merlions This corse for to cense Shall stand in their mourning-gowns; 129 With great reverence, The hobby and the musket 130 As patriarch or pope The censers and the cross shall fet; In a blacke cope. The kestrel in all this work 530 Whiles he censeth the hearse, 570 Shall be holy water clerk. He shall sing the verse And now the dark cloudy night 119 131 Libera me, Chaseth away Phoebus bright, In de, la, sol, re, Taking his course toward the west; 120 Softly bemol God send my sparrow’s soul good For my sparrow’s soul. rest! 121 132 Pliny showeth all Requiem aeternam dona eis, Domine! In his Story Natural, Fa, fa, fa, mi, re, 133 What he doth find A por ta in fe ri, Of the phoenix kind; Fa, fa, fa, mi, mi. 134 540 Of whose incineration Credo videre bona Domini, There riseth a new creation 580 I pray God, Philip to heaven may fly. 135 Of the same fashion Domine, exaudi orationem meam, Notes 116 127 perfumes. ‘‘Direct [my steps].’’ 117 128 Burning of incense. falcons and merlins. 118 129 odor. falcon and male sparrowhawk. 119 130 ‘‘Deliver me’’ (opening of the Responsory). i.e. shall fetch the incense censer and cross. 120 131 An obsolete name for the musical note b-flat. See gazetteer. 121 132 Pliny the Elder, Roman author of the Natural History. ‘‘Grant them eternal rest, O Lord!’’ 122 133 conduct. ‘‘From the gates of hell.’’ 123 134 i.e. the order of service in church. ‘‘I had thought to see the goodness of the Lord’’ (Psalm 124 Greenland falcon and male peregrine falcon. 26:13, Vulgate). 125 135 hood. ‘‘Lord, hear my prayer’’ (Psalm 102:2, Vulgate). 126 lanner falcon. Hunter: Renaissance Literature 9781405150477_4_001 Page Proof page 26 16.1.2009 4:27pm

26 To heaven he shall, from heaven he As Palamon and Arcet, came. Duke Theseus, and Partelet; 136 141 Do mi nus vo bis cum! And of the Wife of Bath, 142 Of all good prayers God send him That worketh much scathe some! 620 When her tale is told Oremus, Among housewives bold, Deus, cui proprium est misereri et How she controlled 137 parcere, Her husbands as she would, On Philip’s soul have pity! And them to despise In the homeliest wise, For he was a pretty cock, Bring other wives in thought And came of a gentle stock, Their husbands to set at nought: John Skelton (1460?–1529) 590 And wrapped in a maiden’s smock, And though that read have I 143 And cherished full daintily, Of Gawain, and Sir Guy, Till cruel fate made him to die: 630 And tell can a great piece Alas, for doleful destiny! Of the Golden Fleece, But whereto should I How Jason it won, Longer mourn or cry? Like a valiant man; To Jupiter I call, Of Arthur’s Round Table, Of heaven imperial, With his knights commendable, That Philip may fly And Dame Gaynour, his queen 144 Above the starry sky, Was somewhat wanton, I ween; 600 To tread the pretty wren How Sir Lancelot de Lake 138 That is our Lady’s hen. Many a spear brake Amen, amen, amen! 640 For his lady’s sake; Yet one thing is behind, Of Tristram, and King Mark, That now cometh to mind: And all the whole work An epitaph I would have Of Belle Isold his wife, For Philip’s grave. For whom was much strife; 145 But for I am a maid, Some say she was light, Timorous, half afraid, And made her husband knight That never yet assayed Of the common hall, 139 610 Of Helicon’s well, That cuckolds men call; Where the Muses dwell; And of Sir Lybius, Though I can read and spell, 650 Named Dysconius; Recount, report, and tell Of Quater Fylz Amund, 140 Of the Tales of Canterbury And how they were summoned Some sad stories, some merry; To Rome, to , Notes 136 ‘‘The Lord be with you.’’ Arthur’s knights; Guy of Warwick was a legendary Eng- 137 ‘‘O God, whose property it is to be merciful and to lish knight; Jason was a classical hero who, with the spare.’’ Argonauts, won the Golden Fleece; ‘‘Gaynour’’ is 138 By tradition, the wren was the bird associated with the Arthur’s Queen Guinevere, who fell in love with Virgin Mary. Lancelot; Tristan is the lover of Queen Isolde, wife of 139 See gazetteer. King Mark of Cornwall, in one of the oldest and most 140 (1343–1400?) is the best-known and widely retold chivalric legends; Lybius Disconius (‘‘the most important medieval English poet; The Canterbury Fair Unknown’’) was the hero of a chivalric romance; Tales is one of his most important works. The Four Sons of Aymon was a French romance that Wil- 141 Characters in Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales. liam Caxton translated into English which featured a 142 harm. horse named Bayard. 143 144 The next 27 lines recount well-known characters from believe. 145 Arthurian and chivalric literature: Gawain was one of unfaithful. Hunter: Renaissance Literature 9781405150477_4_001 Page Proof page 27 16.1.2009 4:27pm

27 Upon a great pain, For she did but feign; And how they rode each one The story telleth plain, On Bayard Mountalbon; He could not obtain Men see him now and then Though his father were a king; In the forest of Arden. Yet there was a thing 148 What though I can frame 700 That made the male to wring; 660 The stories by name She made him to sing 146 Of Judas Maccabeus, The song of lover’s lay; And of Caesar Julius; Musing night and day, And of the love between Mourning all alone, Paris and Vienne; Comfort had he none And of the duke Hannibal, For she was quite gone; John Skelton (1460?–1529) That made the Romans all Thus in conclusion, Fordread and to quake; She brought him in abusion; How Scipion did wake In earnest and in game The city of Carthage, 710 She was much to blame; 670 Which by his merciful rage Disparaged is her fame He beat down to the ground: And blemished is her name, And though I can expound In manner half with shame; Of Hector of Troy Troilus also hath lost That was all their joy, On her much love and cost, 149 Whom Achilles slew, And now must kiss the post; Wherefore all Troy did rue; Pandar, that went between, And of the love so hot Hath won nothing, I ween, That made Troilus to dote But light for summer green; Upon fair Cresseid; 720 Yet for a special laud 680 And what they wrote and said, He is named Troilus’ bawd; And of their wanton wills, Of that name he is sure 147 Pandar bare the bills Whiles the world shall ’dure: From one to the other; Though I remember the fable 150 His master’s love to further, Of Penelope most stable, Sometime a precious thing, To her husband most true, A brooch or else a ring, Yet long-time she ne knew From her to him again; Whether he were alive or dead; Sometime a pretty chain, Her wit stood her in stead Or a bracelet of her hair, 730 That she was true and just, 690 Prayed Troilus for to wear For any bodily lust, That token for her sake; To Ulysses her make, How heartily he did it take And never would him forsake. 151 And much thereof did make; Of Marcus Marcellus And all that was in vain, A process I could tell us;

Notes 146 Skelton now turns to a catalogue of mainly classical and Chaucer; Pandarus was their go-between and the origin of biblical heroes. Judas Maccabeus was a Jewish hero in 2 the term ‘‘pander.’’ 147 Maccabees; Paris and Vienne are the hero and heroine of a i.e. letters. 148 medieval romance; Hannibal was the Carthaginian general i.e. caused him pain. 149 who fought the Romans in the Second Punic War (218–201 i.e. kiss the post of the door that has been shut in his BCE); Scipio Aemilianus was the Roman general who face. 150 destroyed Carthage in the Third Punic War (146 BCE); for Faithful wife of Odysseus (Ulysses) in the Odyssey (see Hector and Achilles, see the gazetteer; Troilus and Cressida gazetteer). 151 were lovers in the Trojan War and the subjects of a poem by Roman conqueror of Syracuse in the Second Punic War. Hunter: Renaissance Literature 9781405150477_4_001 Page Proof page 28 16.1.2009 4:27pm

28 152 And of Antiochus, And cannot in effect 153 And of Josephus My style as yet direct De Antiquitatibus; With English words elect; 154 161 And of Mardocheus, Our natural tongue is rude, 162 740 And of great Ahasuerus, And hard to be ennewed And of Vesca his queen, With polished terms lusty; 155 Whom he forsook with teen, Our language is so rusty, And of Esther his other wife, So cankered, and so full 163 With whom he led a pleasant life; Of frowards, and so dull, 156 Of King Alexander; 780 That if I would apply 157 And of King Evander To write ornately, 158 And of Porsena the great, I wot not where to find John Skelton (1460?–1529) That made the Romans to sweat: Terms to serve my mind. 164 Though I have enrolled Gower’s English is old 750 A thousand new and old And of no value told; Of these historious tales, His matter is worth gold, 159 To fill budgets and males And worthy to be enrolled. With books that I have read, In Chaucer I am sped, Yet I am nothing sped, His tales I have read; And can but little skill 790 His matter is delectable, 160 Of Ovid or , Solacious, and commendable; Or of Plutarch, His English well allowed, 165 Or Francis Petrarch, So as it is enprowed, Alcaeus or Sappho, For as it is employed, 760 Or such other poets mo, There is no English void, As Linus and Homerus, At those days much commended; Euphorion and Theocritus, And now men would have amended Anacreon and Arion, His English whereat they bark, Sophocles and Philemon, And mar all they work; Pindarus and Simonides, 800 Chaucer, that famous clerk, Philistion and Pherecydes; His terms were not dark, These poets of ancient, But pleasant, easy, and plain; They are too diffuse for me: No word he wrote in vain. 166 For, as I tofore have said, Also 770 I am but a young maid, Writeth after an higher rate;

Notes 152 160 Name of several of the kings in the Seleucid empire that There follows a catalogue of Greek, Roman, and Italian succeeded Alexander the Great. poets, some perhaps legendary. For Ovid, Virgil, Plutarch, 153 Flavius Josephus, a Jewish historian in the Roman em- Petrarch, and Homer, see gazetteer. 161 pire, who wrote a history of Jewish culture called Antiquities See Introduction for a discussion of the early modern of the Jews (ca. 94 CE), mentioned below. debates about whether English could be a literary language. 154 i.e. Mordecai, the hero of the Book of Esther in the Skelton comments specifically on the English of the poets he Hebrew Bible; he enabled his orphaned cousin Esther to mentions below. 162 marry King Ahasuerus of Persia. restored. 155 163 suffering. i.e. inelegant words and grammar. 156 164 Alexander the Great (see gazetteer). A fourteenth-century English poet, best known for the 157 An early king of what later became the city of Rome in Confessio Amantis. 165 Virgil’s (see gazetteer). improved. 158 166 An ancient Italian king who supported the Roman Tar- Fifteenth-century English poet reputed to be the dullest quin monarchs. writer in the language, author of the 36,000-line poem, The 159 i.e. bags and wallets. Fall of Princes. Hunter: Renaissance Literature 9781405150477_4_001 Page Proof page 29 16.1.2009 4:27pm

29 It is diffuse to find 167 The Commendations The sentence of his mind, Yet writeth he in his kind, Beati im ma cu la ti in via, 810 No man that can amend 171 O gloriosa femina! Those matters that he hath penned; Now mine whole imagination Yet some men find a fault, 168 And studious meditation And say he writeth too haut. Is to take this commendation Wherefore hold me excused 850 In this consideration; If I have not well perused And under patient toleration Mine English half abused; Of that most goodly maid Though it be refused, That Placebo hath said, In worth I shall it take, And for her sparrow prayed John Skelton (1460?–1529) And fewer words make. In lamentable wise. But, for my sparrow’s sake, Now will I enterprise, 820 Yet as a woman may, Through the grace divine My wit I shall assay Of the Muses nine, An epitaph to write Her beauty to commend, In Latin plain and light, 172 860 If Arethusa will send Whereof the elegy Me influence to indite, Followeth by and by. And with my pen to write; If Apollo will promise Flos volucrum formose, vale! Melodiously it to devise Philippe, sub isto His tunable harp strings Marmore iam recubas, With harmony that sings Qui mihi carus eras. Of princes and of kings 830 And of all pleasant things, Semper erunt nitido 173 Radiantia sidera cœlo; Of lust and of delight, Impressusque meo 870 Through his godly might; 169 Pectore semper eris. To whom be the laud ascribed Per me laurigerum That my pen hath imbibed Britanum Skeltonida vatem With the aureate drops, As verily my hope is, Haec cecinisse licet 174 Ficta sub imagine texta. Of Tagus, that golden flood, Cuius eris volucris, That passeth all earthly good; Prestanti corpore virgo: And as that flood doth pass 840 Candida Nais erat, All floods that ever was Formosior ista Joanna est: With his golden sands, Docta Corinna fuit, 880 Whoso that understands Sed magis ista sapit. Cosmography, and the streams, 170 175 Bien men souvient. And the floods in strange reams, Notes 167 171 meaning. ‘‘Blessed are the unspotted in the way, O glorious 168 i.e. in too lofty a style. woman!’’ The first line comes from the psalm used in the 169 ‘‘Farewell, sweet bird. Philip, beneath that marble you Commendations of the Soul. 172 lie; you who were dear to me. So long as the stars shine in A classical Greek nymph who was changed into a river in the sky will your image be graven on my heart.’’ order to escape the river god Alpheus. Skelton’s use of her as 170 ‘‘By me Skelton, the of Britain, these a Muse echoes Virgil’s Eclogues 10. 173 inventions could be sung under an assumed likeness. i.e. pleasure. This word did not necessarily have erotic or She whose pet you were was a virgin of great beauty: negative connotations in this period. 174 the naiad was beautiful, but Jane is more beautiful; A river in Portugal where people have panned for gold Corinna was learned, but Jane knows more. I remem- since ancient times. 175 ber it well.’’ i.e. realms. Hunter: Renaissance Literature 9781405150477_4_001 Page Proof page 30 16.1.2009 4:27pm

30 Right so she doth exceed No sleep can him catch, All other of whom we read, But ever doth watch, 181 Whose fame by me shall spread 930 He is so beat 176 Into Persia and Mede, With malice, and fret From Britain’s Albion With anger and ire, To the Tower of Babylon. His foul desire I trust it is no shame, Will suffer no sleep 890 And no man will me blame, In his head to creep; 182 Though I register her name His foul semblant In the court of Fame; All displeasant; For this most goodly flower, When other are glad, This blossom of fresh colour, Then is he sad, John Skelton (1460?–1529) So Jupiter me succour, 940 Frantic and mad; She flourisheth new and new His tongue never still In beauty and virtue. For to say ill, Hac claritate gemina Writhing and wringing, O gloriosa femina, Biting and stinging; 900 Retribue servo tuo, vivifica me! And thus this elf 177 Labia mea laudabunt te. Consumeth himself, But enforced am I Himself doth slo 178 Openly to ascry With pain and woe. And to make an outcry This false Envy Against odious Envy, 950 Saith that I That evermore will lie Use great folly And say cursedly; For to indite, 179 With his lither eye, And for to write, And cheeks dry; And spend my time 910 With visage wan, In prose and rhyme, 180 As swart as tan; For to express His bones creak, The nobleness Lean as a rake; Of my mistress, His gums rusty That causeth me Are full unlusty; 960 Studious to be His heart withal To make a relation Bitter as gall; Of her commendation; His liver, his lung And there again With anger is wrung; Envy doth complain, 920 His serpent’s tongue And hath disdain; That many one hath stung; But yet certain He frowneth ever; 1 will be plain, He laugheth never, And my style dress Even nor morrow, To this process. 183 But other men’s sorrow 970 Now Phoebus me ken Causeth him to grin To sharp my pen, And rejoice therein; And lead my fist Notes 176 179 A region in northern Iran. wicked. 177 180 ‘‘O doubly renowned, O glorious woman! Reward your dark. 181 servant, enliven me! My lips shall praise you.’’ The Latin assailed. 182 passages from here on are adapted from the Vulgate Psalms. appearance and/or disposition. 178 183 exclaim. teach. Hunter: Renaissance Literature 9781405150477_4_001 Page Proof page 31 16.1.2009 4:27pm

31 As him best list, With her aye to remain. 187 That I may say Her eyen grey and steep Honour alway Causeth mine heart to leap; Of womankind! With her brows bent Truth doth me bind She may well represent 188 And loyalty Fair Lucrece, as I ween, Ever to be Or else fair Polexene, 184 980 Their true beadle 1020 Or else Calliope, To write and tell Or else Penelope; How women excel For this most goodly flower, In nobleness; This blossom of fresh colour, As my mistress, So Jupiter me succour, John Skelton (1460?–1529) Of whom I think She flourisheth new and new With pen and ink In beauty and virtue: For to compile Hac claritate gemina, Some goodly style; O gloriosa femina, For this most goodly flower, Memor esto verbi tui servo tuo! 189 990 This blossom of fresh colour, 1030 Servus tuus sum ego. So Jupiter me succour, The Indy sapphire blue She flourisheth new and new Her veins doth ennew; In beauty and virtue: The orient pearl so clear, 190 Hac claritate gemina, The whiteness of her leer; 191 O gloriosa femina, Her lusty ruby ruds Legem pone mihi, domina, in viam Resemble the rose buds; justificationem tuarum! Her lips soft and merry Quemadmodum desiderat cervus Enbloomed like the cherry, 185 ad fontes aquarum. It were an heavenly bliss How shall I report 1040 Her sugared mouth to kiss. All the goodly sort Her Beauty to augment, 1000 Of her features clear, Dame Nature hath her lent That hath none earthly peer? A wart upon her cheek, Her favour of her face Whoso list to seek Ennewed all with grace, In her visage a scar Comfort, pleasure, and solace. That seemeth from afar Mine heart doth so embrace, Like to the radiant star, And so hath ravished me All with favour fret, Her to behold and see, So properly it is set: That in words plain 1050 She is the violet, I cannot me refrain The daisy delectable, 1010 To look on her again. The columbine commendable 192 Alas, what should I feign? The jelofer amiable; 186 It were a pleasant pain This most goodly flower,

Notes 184 189 herald. ‘‘Remember your word to your servant. I am your 185 ‘‘Provide me with the rule, Lady, to justify your ways. As servant.’’ 190 the hart pants for the fountains of water.’’ complexion. 186 191 labor. cheeks. 187 192 shining. gillyflower. 188 Lucrece, Polyxena, and Penelope were classical ideals of modesty, steadfastness, and beauty. Calliope was the Muse of epic poetry. Hunter: Renaissance Literature 9781405150477_4_001 Page Proof page 32 16.1.2009 4:27pm

32 196 This blossom of fresh colour, So sad and demure, So Jupiter me succour, Behaving her so sure, She flourisheth new and new With words of pleasure In beauty and virtue: 1100 She would make to the lure Hac claritate gemina, And any man convert 1060 O gloriosa femina, To give her his whole heart. Bonitatem fecisti cum servo tuo, She made me sore amazed domina, Upon her when I gazed, 193 Et ex precordiis sonant preconia. Methought mine heart was crazed, And when I perceived My eyen were so dazed; Her wart and conceived, For this most goodly flower, It cannot be denied This blossom of fresh colour, John Skelton (1460?–1529) But it was well conveyed, So Jupiter me succour, And set so womanly, 1110 She flourisheth new and new And nothing wantonly, In beauty and virtue: But right conveniently, Hac claritate gemina, 1070 And full congruently, O gloriosa femina, As Nature could devise, Quomodo dilexi legem tuam, domina! 197 In most goodly wise. Recedant vetera, nova sunt omnia. Whose list behold, And to amend her tale, It maketh lovers bold When she list to avail, To her to sue for grace, And with her fingers small, Her favour to purchase. And hands soft as silk, The scar upon her chin 1120 Whiter than milk, Enhatched on her fair skin, That are so quickly veined, Whiter than the swan, Wherewith my hand she strained, 1080 It would make any man Lord, how I was pained! To forget deadly sin Unneth I me refrained, Her favour to win; How she me had reclaimed, For this most goodly flower, And me to her retained, This blossom of fresh colour, Embracing therewithall So Jupiter me succour, Her goodly middle small She flourisheth new and new With sides long and straight; In beauty and virtue: 1130 To tell you what conceit Hac claritate gemina, I had then in a trice, 198 O gloriosa femina, The matter were too nice, 1090 Defecit in salutare tuum anima mea; And yet there was no vice, Quid petis filio, mater dulcissima? Ba Nor yet no villainy, 194 ba! But only fantasy; Soft, and make no din, For this most goodly flower, For now I will begin This blossom of fresh colour, To have in remembrance So Jupiter me succour, Her goodly dalliance, She flourisheth new and new 195 And her goodly pastance: 1140 In beauty and virtue: Notes 193 197 ‘‘You have dealt generously with your servant, Lady, and ‘‘O how I love your law, Lady! Old ways are fading away, from his heart your praises sound.’’ all things are made new.’’ 194 198 ‘‘My soul grows weak for your salvation; what do you Skelton has deliberately used a word that can mean seek for your son, sweetest mother?’’ many things in this context: ‘‘complex,’’ ‘‘delicate,’’ and 195 recreation. ‘‘lustful’’ are all possible meanings for the word (though 196 steadfast. the speaker denies the last). Hunter: Renaissance Literature 9781405150477_4_001 Page Proof page 33 16.1.2009 4:27pm

33 Hac claritate gemina, To serve for all intents, 205 O gloriosa femina, Like Dame Flora, queen Iniquos odio habui! Of lusty summer green; 199 Non calumnientur me superbi. For this most goodly flower, But whereto should I note This blossom of fresh colour, 200 How often did I toot So Jupiter me succour, Upon her pretty foot? She flourisheth new and new It razed mine heart root In beauty and virtue: To see her tread the ground 1190 Hac claritate gemina, 1150 With heels short and round. O gloriosa femina, She is plainly express Clamavi toto corde, exaudi me! 201 206 Egeria, the goddess, Misericordia tua magna est super me. 207 John Skelton (1460?–1529) And like to her image, Her kirtle so goodly laced, 202 Emportured with courage, And under that is braced A lover’s pilgrimage. Such pleasures that I may There is no beast savage, Neither write nor say; Ne no tiger so wood, Yet though I write not with ink, 208 But she would change his mood, No man can let me think, 203 Such relucent grace 1200 For thought hath liberty, 1160 Is formed in her face; Thought is frank and free; For this most goodly flower, To think a merry thought This blossom of fresh colour, It cost me little or nought. So Jupiter me succour, Would God mine homely style She flourisheth new and new Were polished with the file 209 In beauty and virtue: Of ’s eloquence, Hac claritate gemina To praise her excellence! O gloriosa femina, For this most goodly flower, Mirubilia testimonia tua! This blossom of fresh colour, Sicut novellae plantationes in juventute 1210 So Jupiter me succour, 204 sua. She flourisheth new and new 1170 So goodly as she dresses, In beauty and virtue: So properly she presses Hac claritate gemina, The bright golden tresses O gloriosa femina, Of her hair so fine, Principes persecuti sunt me gratis! Like Phoebus’ beams shine. Omnibus consideratis, Whereto should I disclose Paradisus voluptatis 210 The gartering of her hose? Hec virgo est dulcissima. It is for to suppose My pen it is unable, How that she can wear 1220 My hand it is unstable, Gorgeously her gear; My reason rude and dull 1180 Her fresh habiliments To praise her at the full; With other implements Goodly Mistress Jane, Notes 199 205 ‘‘I have hated the unjust! Let not the proud falsely accuse Roman goddess of flowers. 206 me.’’ ‘‘I have cried with my whole heart, hear me! Great is 200 gaze. your mercy to me.’’ 201 207 An ancient Roman nymph who married the king of gown. 208 Rome and was famous for her wise advice to him. prevent. 202 209 Meaning unknown. See gazetteer. 203 210 shining. ‘‘Princes have persecuted me freely. All things con- 204 ‘‘Wonderful are your testimonies! As plants flourish in sidered, this sweetest of girls is a paradise of delights.’’ 211 their youth.’’ i.e. Athena. Hunter: Renaissance Literature 9781405150477_4_001 Page Proof page 34 16.1.2009 4:27pm

34 214 Sober, demure Diane; On pilgrimage to Saint James, Jane this mistress hight, For shrimps and for prawns, The lode-star of delight, And for stalking cranes; Dame Venus of all pleasure, And where my pen hath offended, The well of worldly treasure; I pray you it may be amended She doth exceed and pass By discreet consideration 211 1230 In prudence Dame Pallas; Of your wise ; For this most goodly flower, I have not offended, I trust, This blossom of fresh colour, 1250 If it be sadly discussed. So Jupiter me succour, It were no gentle guise She flourisheth new and new This treatise to despise, In beauty and virtue: Because I have written and said John Skelton (1460?–1529) Hac claritate gemina, Honour to this fair maid; O gloriosa femina! Wherefore should I be blamed Requiem aeternam dona eis, Domine! That I Jane have named, With this psalm, Domine, probasti And famously proclaimed? 212 me, She is worthy to be enrolled 1240 Shall sail over the sea, With letters of gold. 213 215 With Tibi, Domine, commendamus. Car elle vaut.

Notes 212 214 ‘‘Give them eternal rest, O Lord! . . . O Lord, you have The shrine of St. James at Compostella in Spain was a proved me.’’ popular pilgrimage destination. 213 215 ‘‘To you, O Lord, we commend ourselves.’’ ‘‘Because she is worthy.’’