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Home , Bocskai uprising, History of Transylvania, Hungarians, Kingdom of Romania, Northern Transylvania, Prehistory

lish vers ion ;arian Contents • Akad~miai Kiad6, Bud apest 1989 nbers-Makkai, Gyorgy Donga, Ervin Dunay, ergely MeszOly, Eva D. Palrnai, nyai, Magdalena Seleanu, Christopher Sullivan ,d by Ervin Dessewffy, Eva D. Piilrnai, lllivan

selected I7y and Zollil.n Szasz Preface to the English Edition - B ~LA K o PECZ!...... XIlJ Istvan GyOrgy T6th PART ONE IN PREHISTORIC AND ANCIENT TIMES . 1

I. Prehistory and Antiquity ...... 3

1. The Prehistory of - GABOR V~KONY ...... 3 nd Lajos Palovics From the Beginnings to the End of the 3 The Age 7 The Age 10 The Age and the First Historical Nations 13 2. The Dacian Kingdom - ANDRAs MOcsY and GABOR VEKONY 17 The Dacian People 17 The Reign of 18 The Transition Period 21 The Kingdom of Decebal 24 3. The of Dacia - ENORE TOrn...... 2S Conquest and Organization of the Province 28 Organiza­ tion and Administration 34 Economy and 36 The Long War and Recovery in the Severan Age 38 Settlement and Urbanization 41 The Population: and Settlers 44 Collapse and Evacuation 52 The Fate of the Provincial .d6. Population after Evacuation 56 .... Chambers-Makkai. Cy. Donga, E. Dunay. V. CAthy, C. MkzOly. yai. M. Seleanu, Ch. Sullivan II . From Dacia to Transylvania. The Period of the Great Migrations (271 -895) - IsIvAN BONA ...... 62 1. The "Men of the Forest". The in Transylvania is. (271-380) ...... 62 19ary The Decline of Dacia 62 The Carpic Interlude 65 The part of this book may be reproduced by any means, or transmitted,. Goths in Transylvania 66 Collapse 75 TIle before :hine without the written permission of the publisher. the Hunnish Conquest (269-424) 76

~td, Budapest 2. The (376/424-455) ...... 77 Akademiai Nyomda. Budapest 206 szekelys and among the Nobility 208 3. The Gepid Kingdom (455-567) ...... 79 Ecclesiastical Organization and Education 212 Ro manian Gepid in Transylvania 84 The Gepids at the Time of Landowners and Serfs within, and beyond the the Merovingian Civilization 85 Carpathians 214 4. The Avar Period (567-827) ...... 90 3. The Three Nations of Transylvania (1360-1526) ...... 221 5. The up to the Hungarian Conquest (600-895) .. . 97 The Transylvanian Concept of Nation 221 Turkish Threat The People of the Szilagynagyfal u Kurgans 101 and Peasant War 223 The Hunyadis 226 The Towns and the Saxon Autonomy 231 The Szekely Fight for Freedom 6. under Bulgar Rule (827-895) 102 and Gyllrgy Szekely's Peasant War 235 Gothic and Ren­ aissance Culture in Transylvania 239 PART TWO TRANSYLVANIA IN THE MEDIAEVAL HUNGARIAN PART THREE KINGDOM. 107 THE PRINCIPALITY OF TRANSy LVANIA ...... ··· ·· ·· · ·· · 2';"' ::

I. The Hungarian-Slav Period (895-1172) - ISTVAN Il6NA ...... 109 I. The Emergence of the Principality and its First Crises 2·,7 1. The Hungarian Conquest...... 110 (1526-1606) - G ABOR BARTA ...... •. .• .. •. .• . .. . •.... . 1. From the Kingdom of to the Principality 2. Transylvania and the Eastern in the 24':' Century Following the Hungarian Conquest (895-1003) 114 of Transylvania ...... The Byzantine Orientation and its Supporters 120 The Transylvania and the Disintegration of the Mediaeval Conquering in Transylvania 129 Hungarian 247 Towards the Formation of the Transylvanian State 251 Collapse and Revival 255 3. Transylvania in the Early 26.1 (1003-1172) ...... 138 2. Economy, and Culture in the New State ...... The Eastern Part of the Great Hungarian Plain up to the The New State 264 The Transylvanian State and the Last Third of the Twelfth Century 141 Transylvania after Outside World in the Second Half of the Sixteenth Century 1003 until the Last Quarter of the Twelfth Century 144 271 Saxon and Hungarian Towns 274 The Serfs 278 The Hungarians and Slavs 149 Politics in the Twelfth Century 281 The Decline of the Szekely Community 152 Economy and Population 154 Archaeological Evi­ 282 Power and those Who Held it 285 Culture and dence from the Times of the Establishment of the State 158 , Religious Tolerance 287 The Emergence of 161 The Early Roman Catholic 3. Transylvania in the Fifteen Years' War ...... 293 Church 168 Early Arpadian , Houses and Other Istv.m Bocskai's Uprising and the Resurrection of the Architectural Monuments 169 The First Frontier Guard Transylvanian State 297 Deployments to the East 172 Conclusions Drawn from the Study of Hungarian and Slavic Settlements up to the Great :',01 II. The Golden Age of the PrinCipality (1606-1660) - KATALIN J>trER Changes of the Late Twelfth Century 174 1. The Antecedents ...... 30'1 II. The Emergence of the Estates (1172-1526) - LAszL6 MAlcKAI 178 Population 301 The Free Election of a Prince and Gabor BMhory's Coup 303 In War and in Peace 306 The Prince 1. The Three Peoples of Transylvania (11 72-1241) ...... 178 without the Support of his People 307 The Formation of the Szekely and Saxon Settlements 178 The Peregrine Romanian 183 Romanians in 2. The Reign of Gabor Bethlen ...... 309 Transylvania and until the Mongol 189 The Porte RegainS its Power 309 Gabor Bethlen Stops the The Mongol Invasion and its Consequences 194 Romanian War 311 The Professional Prince 313 Gabor Bethlen and Kenezes and 195 his Country 315 Outdated Methods of Taxation and Modern Economic Policy 317 2. Nobles and Serfs in Transylvania (1 241-1360) ...... 199 The Disintegration of the Royal Counties 199 Anarchy 3. Transylvania in the International Coalition against :;".1. f; and Consolidation 203 The Noble Counties and the the . Hungary and the Thirty Years' War 318 G~bor BethJen as PART FOUR Prince of Hungary 319 A Is Elected but Not TRANSYLVANIA UNDER THE HABSBURG ...... 413 Crowned 321 BethJen Loses the Kingdom of Hungary 321 The Struggle fo r Hungary and G~bor Bethlen's Final Plans J. The Long Eighteenth Century (1711-1830) - ZsoLT TROCsANYI 322 The Contest for the Kingdom and Transylvania 324 and AMBRUS MISKOLCZY...... 415 4. A Prince under the Force of Circumstances...... 325 1. The ...... 415 Political Crisis and the Triumph of GyOrgy R~ k6czi I 325 Population and Society 417 The Counter-Reformation and Good External Relations and Internal Conflicts. Economic its Consequences 423 Romanian Religions and National Policy 326 A Victory over the Turks 329 War with the Movements 426 Feudal Constitutionalism and the Vien­ Habsburg, and Separate Peace 330 The Allies' Mutual nese Central Government 429 Indifference and R~k6czi's Final Plans 331 2. From the Enlightenment to ...... 435 5. Transylvanian Society under an Absolute Rule ...... 332 Enlightenment and National Cultures 435 The First The Serfs 333 The Lords 333 The Szekelys 335 The Decades of Enlightened Absolutism 440 The Horea­ Saxons 336 The Romanians 338 Reconstruction 339 The Clo~a Revolt 442 Administrative Reforms 445 Feudal Value of Work 342 Reaction and Reform 448 Culture and Bureaucracy 454 6. Culture and Education...... 344 II. The Reform (1830-1848) - AM BRUS MiSKOLCZV ...... 459 The Schools 344 The Intellectuals 345 Erudition 348 An Open-Minded Society 351 Hungarian Liberalism and the Feudal Constitution 460 The Hungarian Liberals' Attitude toward the Nationalities 7. The Miscarriage of Great Hopes ...... 352 464 Attempts at Social Reform 467 The Revival of the Connections with the Romanian Voivodates 352 The Romanian National Movement 471 Romanian Political Hopes of Politicians in the Kingdom 353 The Polish Aspirations 475 The Saxons' Awakening to their German Campaign and the Beginning of Transylvania's Decline Identity 478 The Conservative Counter-Offensive 483 355 Turkish War in Transylvania 356 III. Revolution and the War of Independence (1848-1849) - III. The End of Turkish Rule in Transylvania and the Reunification AMBRUS MiSKOLCZY...... 486 of Hungary (1660-1711) - AGNES R. VARKONYI ...... 359 Transylvanian Society in the "Springtime of the Nations" 486 The Bourgeois Revolution in Transylvania 494 Coun­ 1. Changes in Politics ...... 359 ter-Revolution and Civil War 501 Revolutionary Consoli­ Prince MiMly Apafi and the Turkish Wars of 1660-1667 dation and its Contradictions 513 Hungarian-Romanian 359 Apafi's Balancing Act and the Transylvanian-French Relations in the Spring and Summer of 1849 517 The Last 363 Secret Membership in the 367 Days of the War of Independence in Transylvania 522 Reunion with the Kingdom of Hungary within the Habsburg System 370 Ferenc R~k6czi II, 374 PART FIVE 2. Economy and Society ...... 382 FROM THE EMPIRE TO CIVIC HUNGARY - ZoLTAN SzAsz ...... 525 Population and the National Economy 382 Production and Governmental Economic Policy 385 Social Mobility in J. The Era of Neo-Absolutism (1849-1867) ...... 527 a Society of Estates 396 1. The Establishment of Despotic Rule...... 527 3. The Varieties of Culture...... 400 Reprisals and Consolidation 527 The Absolutist System Cultural Policy, the Intellectuals, and the Vernacular 400 529 Schools, Presses, and Science 403 Material Culture and 2. Political during the Absolutist Period ...... 331 Mentality 406 Art and Literature 408 The Abolition of Saxon Autonomy 531 The Repression of Romanian National Aspirations 532 Hungarian Resistance 533 The Hungarian Exiles and War in 535 The New Terms of the Emancipation of Serfs and the Compensation 4. The First World War .... 636 for the Landlords 536 The Impact of the 538 The First Years of the War 636 's Attempt to Occupy Transylvania 639 The Measures Following the 3. Autocracy in Decline ...... 539 Fighting 641 The Italian War and the Actions of the Hungarian Exiles 539 The Conservative Federalist Experiment: The October IV. Revolutions and National Movements after the Collapse Diploma 541 The Liberal Centralization of the Empire 543 of the (1918-1919) ...... 643 The Struggle for Local Power 545 The Plan for a Danubian Confederation 547 The Provisorium and the Nagyszeben The Michaelmas Daisy Revolution 643 The Emergence of Diet 548 The Termination of the Provisional Government, the Romanian 's Power Base 647 The Roma­ and the Kolozsvar Diet 552 nian National Assembly at Gyulafehervar 650 The End of Hungarian Rule in Transylvania 652 The Socialist Alterna­ n. Population and Economy in the Age of Capitalism...... 555 tive: The Republic of Councils 656 Counter-Revolution and the 659 1 . Population ...... , ...... , ...... , ...... ,. 555 Population Growth and Mobility 555 The Ethnic and Denominational Composition of the Population 559 PART SIX 2. Economy ...... ' ...... 564 TRANSYLVANIA SINCE 1918 - B ~LA KOPEaI 663 The Transition to Capitalism 564 The Establishment of a Communication Network 567 The Economic Policy of the Internal Forces 665 Internal Situation of the New Romania State 568 in Transition 573 The Moderniza­ 666 Economic Circumstances 669 Romanians in Predomi­ tion of and 578 nant Situation 670 Sufferings of the Hungarians 673 German Seaking Ways 681 The Second World War and 3. Cultural Life and the Ethnic Communities ...... 583 the Divided Transylvania 683 686 The Various and their Progranunes 584 Educa­ Southern Transylvania 688 The Extermination of the tion 587 The Changing World of Sciences 591 Literature Jewish Population 689 Fight against 690 Once and the Arts 593 More in Romania 691

III. Political Life and the Nationality Issue in the Age of Dualism List of Abbreviations ...... , ...... ' 693 (1867-1918) ...... , .. , .. , .. , ...... , ... . , 599 1. The Dualist System ...... , .. . . . , ...... , . ... , 599 Bibliography ...... •...... •.. .. 698 The Restoration of Constitutionalism and of the Union 599 Liberal Legislation and Patriarchal Power 600 The Atti­ List of lllustrations ...... 734 tude of the Hungarians 607 of the of Transylvania - KLARA HEGYI 2. The Crisis of Accommodation in the Saxon and Romanian and IsrvAN GvORGv TOrn ...... 745 National Movements...... 610 The Saxons' Position in the Dualist System 610 Romanian Politics: The Road to Passive Resistance 613 The Romani­ Index - IsrvAN Soa; ...... , ...... 763 ans of Transylvania and the 616 The Memorandum Movement 618 3, New Tendencies at the Turn of the Century ...... , 623 Changes in Government Policy at the Tum of the Century 623 Hopes for a Settlement Fade. Renewed Romanian Activity 625 The Coalition Period and 's Last Experiment: The Workshop of Francis Ferdinand 628 The Last Experiment of Budapest: Istvan 's Negotiations with the 631