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B23745514.Pdf Copyright Undertaking This thesis is protected by copyright, with all rights reserved. By reading and using the thesis, the reader understands and agrees to the following terms: 1. The reader will abide by the rules and legal ordinances governing copyright regarding the use of the thesis. 2. The reader will use the thesis for the purpose of research or private study only and not for distribution or further reproduction or any other purpose. 3. The reader agrees to indemnify and hold the University harmless from and against any loss, damage, cost, liability or expenses arising from copyright infringement or unauthorized usage. IMPORTANT If you have reasons to believe that any materials in this thesis are deemed not suitable to be distributed in this form, or a copyright owner having difficulty with the material being included in our database, please contact [email protected] providing details. The Library will look into your claim and consider taking remedial action upon receipt of the written requests. Pao Yue-kong Library, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong http://www.lib.polyu.edu.hk The Hong Kong Polytechnic University School of Hotel and Tourism Management THE CONTRIBUTION OF EARLY MEDIEVAL CHINA (AD 220-589) TO THE TRAVEL CULTURE OF LANDSCAPE APPRECIATION Libo Yan A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy February 2010 CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY I hereby declare that this thesis is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it reproduces no material previously published or written, nor material that has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma, except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text. Libo Yan i ABSTRACT Tourism has a long history that in the Western culture dates back to ancient Rome and Greece. In imperial China, tourism has a tradition independent of Europe, and is defined in the present study as “the travel culture of landscape appreciation”. At the heart of the travel culture was mainly landscape encountered, rather than society encountered as was in the European tradition. The aim of the study is to explore the factors contributing to the tradition formed in early medieval China (AD 220-589). The subject was the aristocratic literati, who lived an affluent life based on the manorial economy as well as the political privileges guaranteed by the Nine Rank System. The decline of Confucianism and the rise of Taoism justified their concern with the individual life, and thus differentiated them from the ancient Confucian gentlemen who tended to fully devote themselves to politics and society. The change in social values paved the way for individual pursuits, including the appreciation of landscape. The method for the present study was historical studies combined with content analysis. The main sources were literary works and discourses left by early medieval literati, with the aid of their biographies in the official histories. Induction was employed for exploration of the evolution of the travel culture of landscape appreciation. Case studies were used when a general situation remains unknown for ii the lack of sources. The story of the evolution of the travel culture was told in a manner that integrated historical interpretation into historical narrative. The major findings are summarized below. By regarding mountains as immortals’ dwellings and ideal sites for self-cultivation, the Taoist perspective stimulated interest in visiting mountains. Some literati or Taoist laymen entered famous, scenic mountains for herb gathering, thus finding the beauty of nature. Among the literati class, the Taoist perspective aroused a desire for wandering in famous mountains, but the desire was difficult to be put into practice because of temporal and spatial constraints. The early medieval literati, therefore, used the suburbs as a substitute, making frequent excursion to the outskirts of cities for recreation as well as landscape appreciation. In the process of appreciating suburban scenery, the literati class cultivated a strong consciousness of landscape, which then made their tours different from ancient travelers who traversed scenic areas but seldom praised them. The convergence of a large group of influential, outstanding literati and artists in Kuaiji Commandery significantly contributed to the formation of a culture of landscape appreciation, and meanwhile made traveling from the commandery to the capital an important part in their social life. Finally, the culture of landscape appreciation reached its maturity in the long journeys associated with taking offices in different places in the South. From then on, official travels had been extensively linked to landscape appreciation. iii The major conclusions are as follows. The decline of Confucianism was a prerequisite for the emergence of landscape appreciation. A rectification of the imbalance in literati’s social life occurred when social conditions changed rapidly, which then led to the transformation of value-orientation, from devotion to hedonism. Accompanying the transformation was the quest for meaning of life, which finally resulted in the justification of landscape appreciation. The permission from religion and philosophy paved the way for landscape appreciation. Confucianism took a moral perspective on mountains and rivers, which made the literati class close to nature in theory. By contrast, Taoism brought about practices of proximity to the nature world. Taoism drove the early Taoists and literati to mountains for nonmaterial reasons. Wandering in scenic, famous mountains for herb gathering contributed to literati’s awareness of the beauty of nature. The locale of the suburbs was significant for the evolution of landscape appreciation. With the influence of Taoist thoughts and practices, literati in the third and fourth century tended to have a desire for wandering in remote, famous mountains. However, the temporal and spatial constraints made them resort to the suburbs which were regarded as a substitute for remote scenic mountains. In spite of the superficial aesthetic experience they attained in the suburbs, the inclination for excursions to the suburbs did bring scenery close to the literati class, and enhance the consciousness of landscape. In the mid fourth century, a collective conscious of iv landscape was forged among the literati class. The travel involved in political careers finally brought the culture of landscape appreciation to its maturity. The two types of travels hunting for positions and taking offices, offered important opportunities for appreciating scenery which would be otherwise inaccessible. With these opportunities, the traveling literati sought for secluded and unusual sights, and explored the features and details of landscape, which brought about the aesthetic appreciation in the full sense. In the beginning of the fifth century, landscape appreciation became a significant part of literati’s social life, and the link between travel and landscape appreciation was well established. To a large extent, the above four factors account for the emergence and flourish of the travel culture of landscape appreciation in early medieval China. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Firstly, I would like to express my deep gratitude to my supervisor, Prof. Bob McKercher. This study started with his insight as well as the financial support of HK PolyU three and a half years ago. Every step of success in the research progress and in other related aspects is closely related to Prof. Bob McKercher. I would like to thank Prof. Haiyan Song, Dr. Honggen Xiao and Dr. Hanqin Zhang for their comments and suggestions in the early stage of my study. Dr. Xiao’s and Prof. Song’s kind help in other aspects are also appreciated. Furthermore, I would like to express my special thanks to Dr. Thomas Bauer for his comments following my presentations. It is an honor for me to have Prof. Adele Ladkin as the chair of Board of Examiners, and Prof. Lee Elizabeth Jolliffe at University of New Brunswick in Saint John and Prof. Bihu Wu at Peking University as external examiners. Their efforts in reading and examining this thesis are greatly appreciated. I would like to thank Prof. Kaye Chon who leads the school to an outstanding level, who creates a desirable study environment for us, who shares his research, teaching and other experiences with us research students. Furthermore, I am indebted to the following two academics for their indirect help in terms of sources interpretation: Prof. Zhang Bowei as a guest professor at Hong Kong Baptist University, and Dr. Thomas M. Lavallee as an assistant professor at Southern Illinois University Edwardsville. vi This thesis can not be smoothly completed without Ms. Leslie Yu’s help in various aspects, as well as Mr. Enoch Tai’s technique support. Meanwhile, the following two academics at English Language Centre, Dr. Nancy Choi and Ms. Barbara Cheng’s help in the aspect of language are also appreciated. It should be noted that while credit for this work goes to many people, the responsibility for its shortcoming is mine alone. My fellow research students created a friendly and supportive environment, and I would like to thank the following ones: York Yan, Patrick L'espoir Decosta, Jin Wang, Sara Wang, Haibo Zhao, Alexander Grunewald, Sunny Yang, Sam Huang, Iris Mao, Xin Jin, Simon Song, Haiyan Kong, etc. Finally, I would like to express thanks to my family members: my father who showed me the world of classical
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