Media Education in Kazakh Secondary Schools and the Role of Media Products in Foreign Language Learning

Home , Khabar Agency, Mass media in Kazakhstan

T. C. İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü İngiliz Dili Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı

Yüksek Lisans Tezi

MEDIA EDUCATION IN KAZAKH SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND THE ROLE OF MEDIA PRODUCTS IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING

Dana Altynbekova

2501070944

Tez Danışmanı

Doç. Dr. Nur Nacar Logie

İstanbul 2010 ABSTRACT

The media is now easily accessible to everyone and the youth is creating a new generation which is socially more aware and democratic. In the midst of this change the misinterpretation of information is quite remarkable. Accordingly, the proper analysis and evaluation of media content in Kazakh schools seem to be in deficiency. A lot of countries have successfully implemented media education by this time, while Kazakhstan has not yet integrated it up to the present time. This present research paper aims to accentuate the significance of media education in language learning and provide with the models of teaching media education as an integrated part of subjects in secondary schools in South Kazakhstan (Shymkent). Moreover, among the many factors educational, economic and social sizes of Kazakhstan are examined. In terms of writing present research paper were revealed, uses of media products in improving critical thinking ability and the possibilities which media technologies can offer to foreign language learning. In the result of surveys conducted on teachers to define the terms of media education and ways of integrating it, some affordable suggestions for future reference are offered. Another survey, conducted on the learners, gives data about the average range of media usage outside the school environment.

iii ÖZ

Medya artık herkes tarafından kolayca erişilebilir görünmektedir. Özellikle bu anlamda, daha fazla sosyal bilinç sahibi yeni bir nesil olarak genç nüfus, daha demokratik görüşlüdür. Bu değişim ortamında bilgiyi yanlış algılama olgusu oldukça yaygındır. Bu olgular göz önünde bulundurulduğunda medya içeriğini analiz ve değerlendirme eksikliği özellikle Kazak okullarında kendini hissettirmektedir. Bu zamana kadar gelişmiş olan ülkeler başarıyla medya eğitimini uygulayabildi fakat, bu konuda, Kazakistan medya eğitiminin müfredata dahil edilmesini henüz meydana getirmediği görülmektedir. Bu anlamda, çalışmamızdaki amaç, medya eğitimi elementlerinin bulunması gerekliliklerini irdelemek ve Kazakistan’nın Güney Ilindeki (Çimkent) okullarında yabancı dil eğitimine medya eğitimini giriştirme modellerini sunmaktadır. Ayrıca, Kazakistan’ın bu günlerdeki medya gelişiminin durumu, eğitim sistemindeki ilerlemeler ve stratejileri bilgileriyle sağlamaktadır. Bu çalışma sonucunda, medya ürünlerinin yabancı dil eğitimi derslerinde gençlerin eleştirel düşünme yeteneğini geliştirmesini sağlamasındaki yararları ve medya teknolojilerinin sunduğu olasılıkları ortaya çıkmıştır. Ayrıca, öğretmenlere yapılan anket çalışması sonucunda medya eğitimi teriminin açıklaması verilmektedir ve medya eğitimini intgre etme yolları önerilmektedir. Öğrencilere yapılan diğer anket çalısması sonucunda ise okul dışında medyayı kullanma ortalama oranı belirtilmektedir.

iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank my academic advisor, Asst. Prof. Dr. Nur Nacar Logie for her educational guidance throughout this study, for her insight and support. In addition, I want to thank Prof. Dr. Nilüfer Sarı Sezer, the teacher of Department of Communication, for providing me with bibliography, for her special help and supervision. Also thanks to all my teachers for their support during my master degree. Finally, my heartfelt gratitude to my family and friends for all their encouragement and unwavering confidence.

v TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ...... III ÖZ ...... IV ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...... V TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... VI LIST OF FIGURES...... VII LIST OF TABLES...... VIII LIST OF ABBREVATIONS……………………………………………………………………..………………………….IX INTRODUCTION ...... 1 BACKGROUND STATEMENT ...... 1 PROBLEM STATEMENT...... 1 RESEARCH QUESTION AND METHOD ...... 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND CHAPTER ORGANIZATION ...... 2 1 MEDIA TERMINOLOGY AND APPROACHES TO MEDIA EDUCATION...... 4 1.1 “MEDIA” TERMINOLOGIES ...... 4 1.2 WHAT IS THE MEDIA EDUCATION?...... 5 1.3 REASONS AND CHALLENGES IN TEACHING MEDIA EDUCATION...... 9 1.4 MEDIA EDUCATION\LITERACY CONCEPTS ...... 14 1.5 IMPLICATIONS OF THE MEDIA IN EDUCATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS ...... 16 1.5.1 Key Conditions for Introducing the Media into Schools...... 17 1.5.2 Key Configurations of Integrating Media Education...... 19 1.6 MEDIA EDUCATION IN THE USA, RUSSIA AND TURKEY CONTEXTS ...... 20 1.6.1 Media Education in the USA ...... 21 1.6.2 Media Education in Russia ...... 24 1.6.3 Media Education in Turkey...... 26 1.7 MEDIA EDUCATION IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES (ENGLAND, GERMAN, FRANCE) ...... 28 1.7.1 Media Education in England ...... 28 1.7.2 Media Education in Germany...... 30 1.7.3 Media Education in France ...... 32 2 THE MEDIA IN FLL MERGES WITH MEDIA EDUCATION...... 34 2.1 COGNITIVE EFFECTS OF THE MEDIA IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING ...... 36 2.2 MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES AND FLL...... 40 2.2.1 Printed Media ...... 43 2.2.1.1 The Importance of Using Newspapers...... 43 2.2.2 Non- printed Media...... 45 2.2.2.1 Teaching Students to View TV Critically In FLL Classes ...... 45 2.2.2.2 The Role of Radio in Foreign Language Learning...... 49 2.2.2.3 Computer Software and Network Assisted Language Learning...... 51 3 MEDIA EDUCATION IN KAZAKHSTAN (SOUTH KAZAKHSTAN, SHYMKENT)...... 55 3.1 THE MEDIA AND MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES IN KAZAKHSTAN ...... 55 3.2 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND STRATEGIES IN KAZAKHSTAN ...... 57 3.3 THE LANGUAGE OF KAZAKH MASS MEDIA...... 59 3.4 TECHNOLOGICAL EQUIPMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS...... 60 3.5 VIOLENCE AS A REASON FOR TEACHING THE MEDIA IN SHYMKENT ...... 61 3.6 MODELS FOR INTEGRATING MEDIA EDUCATION ...... 62 4 FINDINGS...... 66 THE CASE STUDY AND METHODS ...... 66 4.1 PARTICIPANTS ...... 66 4.2 QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 67 CONCLUSION ...... 71 BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 76 APPENDIX…………………………………….……………………………………………………...…...82

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Media Literacy...... 13 Figure 2. Findings of Web Questionnaire...... 18 Figure 3. Representing thinking in diverse language\symbol systems...... 37 Figure 4. Media Literacy Curriculum Model...... 63 Figure 5. The rate of media usage of pupils outside the school...... 69

vii LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. The experts’ attitude to variants of definitions of media education...... 6 Table 2. A list of leading countries in Media Education ...... 25 Table 3. Components of Media Education that can be aligned with components of Language Arts...... 35 Table 4. Media Literacy: a cultural-semiotic model ...... 64 Table 5. Results of questionnaire on teachers about Media Education definitions ...... 67 Table 6. Results of questionnaire on teachers about the ways of integrating Media Education into the classroom ...... 69

viii LIST OF ABBREVATIONS

CLEMI : Centre de liaison de l’enseignement et des medias d’information FLL : Foreign Language Learning GCSE : General Certificate of Secondary Education ICT : Information and Communication Technology MLOP : Media Literacy Online Project RTÜRK : Turkish Radio and Television Supreme Council SCFS : Soviet Cinema’s Friends Society

INTRODUCTION

Background Statement With the rapid advances achieved in media technology in the last few decades, the significance of the media for teaching and learning has encountered phenomenal growth. It is an important tool for the reason that the media can supply significant content materials for subject matters. The Media environment changes around us and questions arise about its availability, meaning and use in daily life as well as in learning language classrooms. This digital information age, which dominates public and private spaces, is an integral part of our lives. It has also changed the way of communication, business and learning quite abruptly. Particularly, nowadays, young people spend majority of their time using the media, which can have an influence on their social life as well as their learning process. Therefore, young people need to develop knowledge, values and critical thinking skills, communication and information skills to be literate in this new environment. Media education is an essential tool in helping them to acquire these skills.

Problem Statement Media education has been implemented in secondary schools and as a specialization in universities of leading countries as in Europe, America, Russia, Turkey and some other countries. However, Kazakhstan which has had great enhancement in economic, social and educational spheres in the last decade has not been introduced worldwide attracted issues. Overloaded with the stream of the media productions, young Kazakh people neither entirely comprehend the language of the media nor learn the media purposes. That is why, introducing media education into the curriculum is crucial to develop critical thinking skills. Moreover, young people imitate “heroes” of the media and are more aggressive which leads to crime. Violent behavior is wide spread among young people in Shymkent as statics show.

Research Question and Method As the media is not obligatory and an optional subject and is not properly used with the aim of developing critical thinking skills, in present, this research paper attempts to conduct a survey on teachers and students of secondary schools to find out about their attitudes on the notion of media education and implementing media education into curriculum. On the basis of the survey, the following questions will be answered: What actually media education is? Which ways of integration are affordable (Synthetic, Integrated and Autonomous, Required)? What purposes are intended to be reached in the use of media productions? In what range do the Kazakh students utilize the media? In the results of the reached data some proposals will be suggested. As, in implementation of media education educational, economical and social states are significant features, Kazakhstani states will be overviewed on these features as well. The data will give an opportunity to suggest the implementation of media education properly in Kazakh secondary schools.

Theoretical Framework and Chapter Organization This research is theoretically based on the critical analysis that aims to explore the effects of media on young people and provide educationists with deeper comprehension of association of media productions and language learning. The analysis is defined on the basis of the economic, social and educational state of the countries, as these three issues have an impact on integrating media education into curriculum and they differentiate in every country. The first part of the research paper, attempts to specify terminologies of the media and media education in relation to education. The significance of media education, reasons and challenges in teaching the media, along with implementation of media education experience of the leading countries are observed. 2

The following part is respectively concerned with the modes of the media such as printed and non-printed media. These modes of the media, which can be integrated into the classroom, are one the most accepted sources of information relating to reality. However, as far as foreign language learning is concerned, it is adjusted that a learning experience seeks to develop the skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing independently of the target language, and in this respect, the media will not necessarily strike learners as being strongly rooted in everyday reality. Certainly, conversation remains the central communicative activity, but communicative environment is shaped by the media. The third part of the study elicits data concerning the Kazakh secondary schools in Southern Kazakhstan. As Kazakhstan is a country where two languages (Kazakh and Russian) are equally spoken and diverse cultures are integrated, it is endeavored to conduct a study of the state and language of mass media as well. Moreover, the developments and strategies in the education system are going to be described. In the result of thoroughly examining of technological equipment, the education system and the media, some potential models for utilizing the media products will be furthered. However, these models are not relatively considered as accurate for the education system and require further analysis and discussion of appropriateness. The scope of this research design covers the period starting from the year 1991, when Kazakhstan gained its independence, into the present. The last part of the research paper is entirely concerned with the findings of the survey conducted on teachers and students. On the basis of the survey, it will be revealed what teachers understand by media education terminology and which ways of implementing media education is affordable according to their opinion. Moreover, the current chapter is provided with data about the use of the media by pupils of secondary schools outside the school environment.

1 Media Terminology and Approaches to Media Education

Pertinent to the present study, this review covers different terminologies of media education. Learners come to school with many varied experiences and mostly they retain it through the media. These means of communicating and receiving information which can provide the learners with chunk of background knowledge, how can it be useful? Relating to other countries experiences in media education, different attitudes to media education will be described.

1.1 “Media” Terminologies

Formerly, the term “media” and “media education” should be specified in meaning before studying its role in language learning process. The term, itself is used in various concepts by educationists which is rather confused. The “Media” is defined by Fedorov as the technical facility of creation, records, copying, spread, perception of information and exchange between subject (the author telecasts, film, etc.) and by object (the mass audience)1. The dictionary defines the “media” as a mediating means, instrument or agency: “it is the means or channels of general communication, information, or entertainment in society as newspapers, television and radio” or “an intervening agency, means or instrument by which something is conveyed or accomplished” 2. The media do not offer a transparent window on the world, rather they provide a channel through which representations and images of the world can be communicated indirectly. The media intervene, because it provides with selective versions of the world, rather than direct access to it. The term “media” as used here includes the whole range of modern communications media: television, the cinema, video, radio, photography, advertising, newspapers and magazines, recorded music, computer games and the internet. David Little3 also defined the media as the channels of mass and long distance communication like newspapers, radio and

1 A. Fedorov (b), Media Education in Russia, Moscow, 2000, p. 3. 2 http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/media 27.10.09

television, telephone and telex, and computer networks. There are media texts as well, which are the programs, films, images, web-sites that are carried by these different forms of communication. Many of these are often called “mass media,” which implies that they reach large audiences. However, some media are only intended to reach quite small or specialized audiences.

Some media educationists would also argue that more traditional forms such as books are also “media,”4 since they too provide with versions or representations of the world. It represents a way to closely study how language and culture are played out in a vast number of content realms. These are not only recourses for understanding language and culture, but are materials that all students interested in, motivated by, and quite accustomed to ‘reading’.

1.2 What is Media Education?

As the media includes all forms of communication such as magazines, newspapers, radio and other means of communication, how “education” can be related to. Education involves teaching people systematically to get knowledge and it is quite contentious, is it teaching about or through the media? Buckingham5 claims that media education concerns teaching and learning about the media not teaching through and with the media. Another definition of media education is given by UNESCO suggesting that media education is learning about the media as well: “Media education is about developing young people’s critical and creative abilities. Media education is concerned with teaching and learning about the media. This should not be confused with teaching through the media”.6 Educationists confirm that television or computers can be used as a means of teaching science, or history and these educational media also provide versions

3 D. Little, Bedhinn O Meadhra (Eds.), Media, media technologies, and language learning: some applied linguistic perspective, Dublin, Ireland, 1989, p. 9. 4 Divina Frau-Meigs (Edi), Media Education A Kit for Teachers, Students, Parents and Professionals, UNESCO, 2006, p. 20. 5 D. Buckingham (a), Media Education Literacy, Learning and Contemporary Culture, Oxford Polity, US, 2003, p. 4. 6 Divina Frau-Meigs, op.cit., p.29. 5

or representations of the world, and it should not be confused with educational technology and educational media. For the purpose of distinct definitions of media education Alexander Fedorov7 addressed to the leading Russian and foreign media educators asking them to answer the special survey. Fedorov offered three variants of the definitions of media education that they were supposed to be agree or disagree. Table 1. The experts’ attitude to variants of definitions of media education

N Numbers Numbers of of experts, experts, Definitions of Media Education: who who basically basically agree with disagree the given with the definition: given definition: 1 “Media Education 25 1 (3,85%) -deals with all communication media and includes the printed word and (96,15%) graphics, the sound, the still as well as the moving image, delivered on any kind of technology; -enables people to gain understanding of the communication media used in their society and the way they operate and to acquire skills using these media to communicate with others; -ensure that people learn how to * analyse, critically reflect upon and create media texts; * identify the sources of media texts, their political, social, commercial and/or cultural interests, and their contexts; * interpret the messages and values offered by the media; * select appropriate media for communicating their own messages or stories and for reaching their intended audience; * gain or demand access to media for both reception and production. Media education is part of basic entitlement of every citizen, in every country in the world, to freedom of expression and the right to information and is instrumental in building and sustaining democracy” [Recommendations Addressed to the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCO. In: Education for the Media and the Digital Age. Vienna: UNESCO, 1999, p.273-274. Reprint in: Outlooks on Children and Media. Goteborg: UNESCO & NORDICOM, 2001, p. 152].

7 A. Fedorov (c), Media Education and Media Literacy, Experts’ Opinions, Russia, 2002, p. 3. 6

2 “Media teachers today use the term ‘media education’, ‘media study’ 17 7 (26,92%) and ‘media literacy’ almost interchangeably. My personal preference (57,69%) is to use the term ‘media education’ as a broad description of all that takes place in media-oriented classroom. … “Media literacy” is the outcome of work in either media education or media study. The more you learn about or through the media, the more media literacy you have: media literacy is the skills of experiencing, interpreting/analyzing and making media products” [Worsnop, C. Screening Images: Ideas for Media Education (1999). Mississauga, Ontario: Wright Communications, p.x). 3 “Media education” is teaching about media, as distinguished from 12 11(42,31%) teaching with media. Ordinarily, media education emphazies the (46,15%) acquisition both of cognitive knowledge about how media are produced and distributed and of analytic skills for interpreting and valuing media content. In contrast, ‘media studies’ ordinarily emphasize hands-on experiences with media production” [International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Vol. 14 / Eds.N.J.Smelser & P.B.Baltes. Oxford, 2001, p.9494].

As a result, the majority of experts supported the first definition given by UNESCO. Numbers of experts, who are basically agree with the given definition are 25 (96,15%) and experts who basically disagree with the given definition are 1 (3,85%). The supporters of the second definition which claim that media education has a broad description and can occur in any media oriented classes were 12 (46,15%) and who disagree were 11 (42,31%) while 17 (57,69%) experts agreed with the third definition stating that media education is a teaching about the media. Fedorov also gave his own definition of media education: “The process of education and developments of personality by facilities and on the material of media, with purpose the formations of the culture of communication with media, creative capabilities, critical, individual and independent thinking, the abilities of the interpretation, analysis and estimation of a media text, of training for various forms of self-expression on the media basis.”8 Another definition of media education is given by UNESCO affirmed that: “All ways of studying, learning and teaching at all levels (primary, secondary, higher, adult education, lifelong education) and in all circumstances, the history, creativity, use and evaluation media as practical and technical arts, as well as the place occupied by media in society, their social impact, the implication of media communication,

8 A. Fedorov (e), On Media Education, Moscow, ICOS UNESCO ‘Information for All’, 2008, p. 6 7

participation, modification of the mode of perception they bring about, the role of creative work and access to media.” 9 As seen above definitions of media education the scope of teaching is quite sophisticated. Along with complexity, there are a number of widespread terms of media education which leads to more confusion such as “information literacy”, “information culture”, “information knowledge” “information competency”, “multimedia literacy”, “computer literacy”, “media culture”, “media awareness”, “media competence”. These terms are used as synonyms both in Russia and in other countries. However, media education appears to be as “media literacy” and “media study” as well. The term “media education” is mostly used in the countries where English, French and Spanish are spoken and because of English term “literacy” is not directly translated into some languages. Media education and media literacy have the same notion and used interchangeably. Therefore, the media can be taught as a domain (a subject on its own right) and dimension (or aspect of all other subjects).10 One can be suggested that as it is an optional subject or required subject of the secondary schools or as an element of all curriculum subjects, the purposes of media education are similar. Generally, it is the process through which individuals become media literate critically to understand the nature, techniques and impacts of media messages and productions. It incorporates production of media texts and critical thinking - decoding, analyzing, synthesizing and evaluating media to help students navigate through an increasingly complex media setting. As, the media provide versions and representations of the world, it is appropriate to integrate as the “teaching aids” namely, as an element of foreign language learning subject. In our context of study, mainly media education means; teaching through and with the media. There are several reasons for this argument:

9 Z. Morsy (Ed), Media education”, UNESCO, Paris, 1984, p.6. 10 D. Buckingham (b), Watching media learning: making sense of media education, London: Falmer, 1990, p.170. 8

Firstly, there is the fact that some teachers use the media of different kinds as “teaching aid” – not only audio-visual media, but also textbooks and other printed materials. This argument can be applied to the use of media production at schools. The media such as video or photography can sometimes be used to record classroom activities or as an alternative way for students to present their work; and some have affirmed that media production of this kind offers a new method of learning that can be used in many situations.

Secondly, in conditions where the young people are not interested in the meaning of media messages, to accustom them to think critically over media messages seems to be senseless. Rather, they should be taught to broad the range of interest about informational materials and then to think critically towards obtained information. Adjusting the didactic environment in a way of integrating media education as a subject requires further common principles of every course of the subject. Moreover, affirming which of the principles is priority or less effective in any case is controversial. As the teaching materials and training aids are multifunctional and can form the basis for achievement of any purposes of disciplines, can prevail media purposes as well. Therefore, integrating media education into the all subjects of a curriculum is supposed to be straightforward. Furthermore, there are more other reasons and arguments of using the media products in education as an integrated element of school disciplines.

1.3 Reasons and Challenges in Teaching Media Education

In this age of information, the scope of media education thoroughly becomes widened by the existence of cyberspace and other new digital media tools. Numerous questions are raised relating to the use of the media by young people. Therefore, it is hard to deny the tight relation between young people and the media. It is well known that the most frequent users of media are young people and they, nowadays, gain access to the media much more readily than their parents do. As David Buckingham11 claims young people are the most significant markets of the new technologies and cultural

11 D. Buckingham (b), ibid., p. 4. 9

forms, and even younger children are now coming to be seen as a powerful consumer in their right. Therefore, some educationists proposed an assumption of media education which is based on protection of vulnerable child from the dangers of media. Along with it, the young people are addressed not as weak minds which are in need of care but as active, shrewd and self-possessed. Moreover, the relations of adults and children are changing. Conservative social critics have confirmed the fact that childhood itself seems to be dying or disappearing. Children seem to be “getting older younger”: there is a rise in child crime and drugs have become a taken–for–granted aspect of many young people’s recreational experiences. On the other hand, childhood seems to be increasingly institutionalized: children spend more time in formal education. Though, traditional boundaries between adults and children are being eroded, while on the other it seems they are being reasserted. However, Z. Morsy12 argues that educational institutions are already using such media and doing so more and more often and claims neither the problem nor the challenge lies here. The problem is that, all over the world, there coexist two sources of information and knowledge for the child and the adolescent. There is the traditional school, that of writing and books with its separate subjects organized in stages from one and one level to the next: facing it, round about and pervading, is the “parallel school” of the media, whose techniques, operation, modes of presentation and even content are completely different from those of the school and which subject the intelligence, the emotions and moral character to a substantial influence that is not always in keeping with the aims pursued by education. The school, for its part, simulates ignorance of the media’s specific language and blinks away the evident fact that the knowledge, the values of intelligence instilled in the child by his teacher through the spoken word, the blackboard and reading are but an islet in the flood of information and demands of

12 Z. Morsy, ibid., p. 9.

attention, in the form of sounds and images to which the child is subjected on leaving the classroom. Canadian Association of Media Education Organizations which conducts manual research on media education presents some reasons for teaching media education:1 1. Media education encourages children and young people to question, evaluate, understand and appreciate their multimedia culture. It teaches them to become active, discriminating media consumers and users. 2. Media education brings the world into the classroom, giving immediacy and relevance to traditional subject such as History, English, Health, Civics and the Creative Arts. It serves as a perfect bridge for subject integration and interdisciplinary studies. 3. Media education embodies and furthers current pedagogy, which emphasizes student-centered learning, the recognition of multiple intelligences, and the analysis and management—rather than just the simple storing—of information. 4. Media education is grounded in the sound pedagogical approach of starting learning where kids are at. Media—music, comics, television, video games, the Internet and even ads—are a part of life that all kids enjoy. Media create a shared environment and are, therefore, catalysts for learning. 5. Media education encourages young people to use multimedia tools creatively, a strategy that contributes to "understanding by doing" and prepares them for a workforce that increasingly demands the use of sophisticated forms of communication. 6. In a society concerned about growing youth apathy to the political process, media education engages young people in “real-world” issues. It helps young people to see themselves as active citizens and potential contributors to public debate.

1 S. Michel, Media education booklet. Media awareness network, Ontario, 2006, p. 4. 11

7. In a diverse and pluralistic society, the study of media helps youth understand how media portrayals can influence how we view different groups in society: it deepens young people’s understanding of diversity, identity and difference. 8. Media education helps young people's personal growth and social development by exploring the connections between popular culture—music, fashion, television programming, movies and advertising—and their attitudes, lifestyle choices and self-image. 9. Media education helps children critique media representation, teaching them to distinguish between reality and fantasy as they compare media violence and real-life violence, media heroes and real-life heroes, and media role models and real-life roles and expectations. 10. With the majority of students turning first to the Internet for research, media education is an essential component of Information Communications Technology education, assisting young people in: developing critical thinking skills and strategies for optimizing searches; evaluating and authenticating information; and examining issues of plagiarism and copyright. Other reasons of teaching media education are given by Len Masterman 2: 1. The high production of media materials and modern society is embedded by media. 2. Information is issued, managed by the media. 3. The development of audio visual media. 4. The importance of information and need for life long learning 5. The impact of media on believes, behaving and thinking. People define themselves and interact through the mass media. Consequently, without clearly understanding and effectively using the media, individuals are unable to participate in public life and contribute to the public discourse. Therefore inevitably

2 Len Masterman cited in Adnan Altun, “Türkiye’de Medya Okuryazarlığı”, İlköğretmen Eğitimci Dergisi, Sayı:16,2008, p. 2.; Tessa Jols – Elizabeth Thoman, 21. Yüzyıl okuryazarlığı: Medya okuryazarlığına genel bir bakış ve sınıf içi Etkinlikler, Çev. Cevat Elma, Alper Kesten, Ankara Üniversitesi, 2008, p.14. 12

raises concerns over the ability not only of young people, but of any member of society to understand the characteristics, content and role of the mass media. Overall, it can be assumed that the media is a difficult extension of our general life competence as the following overview illustrates. Media literacy is often reduced to the ability to technically handle the new technologies, when actually it comprises far more than what is commonly being acknowledged: Figure 1. Media Literacy

The media run through our daily lives and the autonomous handling of media has become a key qualification for our society, and for a lot already the fifth cultural skill – almost as important as reading, writing. The cultural effect is crucial part also through which our culture expresses itself and communicates with itself. It is the means where cognition of various cultures is easily realized. J.Askarova3 states that every subject should be taught compliance with national education and daily lives of young people. The protection of cultural heritage and believes of target audiences should be provided while teaching other cultures. Any attempt to provide meaningful media education in the age of participatory culture must begin by addressing these above core concerns. Therefore, educators should work together to ensure that every young person can articulate his understanding and think critically over the media production.

3 Ж.А.Асқарова, “Ұлттық ақпараттық білім беру технологиясы”, Вестник КазНУ. Серия Экономическая, № (46), 2004, p.51.

1.4 Media Education\Literacy Concepts

The Media Literacy Online Project (MLOP) presented eight key concepts for media education\literacy4. While teaching with the media these concepts should be mainly taken account: 1. All media are construction 2. The media construct reality 3. Audiences negotiate meaning in the media 4. Media have commercial implications 5. Media contain ideological and value message 6. Media have social and political implications 7. Form and content are closely related in the media 8. Each medium has a unique aesthetic form. It should be fare to clarify these concepts: All media are construction: The media do not present simple reflections of external reality. Rather, they present carefully crafted constructions that reflect many decisions and result from many determining factors. Media literacy works towards deconstructing these constructions, taking them apart to show how they are made. The media construct reality: The media are responsible for the most of the explorations and experiences form which build up our personal understandings of the world. Much of our view of reality is often based on media messages that have been pre- constructed and have attitudes, interpretations and conclusions already built in. The media, to great extent, give us sense of reality. Audiences negotiate meaning in the media: The media provide us with much of the material upon which we build our picture of reality, and we all “negotiate” meaning according to individual factors: personal needs and anxieties, the pleasure or troubles of the day, racial and sexual attitudes, family and cultural background. Media have commercial implications: Media Literacy aims to encourage an awareness of how the media are influenced by commercial considerations, and how those affect

content, technique and distribution. Most of media productions are a business, and must therefore make a profit. Questions of ownership and control are central: a relatively small number of individuals control what we watch, read and hear in the media. Media contain ideological and value messages: All media products are advertising, in some sense, in that they proclaim values and ways of life. Explicitly or implicitly, the main stream media convey ideological messages about such issues as the nature of the good life, the virtue of consumerism, the role of women, the acceptance of authority, and unquestioning patriotism. Media have social and political implications: The media have great influence on politics and on forming social change. Television can greatly influence the election of a national leader on the basis of image. Form and content are closely related in the media: Each medium hast its own grammar and codifies reality in its own particular way. Different media will report the same event, but create different impressions and messages. Each medium has a unique aesthetic form: Essentially, the media has enjoyment forms and effects of the different media. Then, four key concepts were developed by UNESCO and key questions were derived from the concepts5: Production: who makes media? Languages: how do media communicate meaning? Representations: how do media portray the world? Audiences: how do people make sense of media? Above mentioned concepts are crucial points in teaching with the media. The answers for key questions in the activities given to learners of language should be sought. It does not complicate the tasks of language learning process, inversely; the media materials used by students every day inspire the interest in themselves.

4 K. Massey, Media Literacy Workbook. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005, p.5 5 Divina Frau Meigs, op.cit., p. 46 15

1.5 Implications of the Media in Education of Secondary Schools

As have been seen in statements above, it could be suggested that there is a likely to be a gap between young people’s worlds outside school and their experiences in the classroom. Relating to the misleading between two worlds of young people here can raise a question as what are the implications in education. While the social and cultural experiences of young people have dramatically changed, some schools do not make a sufficient effort to progress. It seems the ways of teaching and learning are organized whereas the kinds of skills and knowledge that are valued in assessment and a good deal of the actual curriculum content have changed only superficially. Indeed, some suggest that educationists are on the way of reorganizing schooling and establishing the new educational fundamentalism which can help to restore the relationship between adult and child. Furthermore, it is supposed schools need to make much stronger attempts to address and build connections with young people’s media cultures. Educators intend to produce well-informed responsible citizens who will be able to take distance toward the immediate pleasure of the media. To give students the critical knowledge and the analytical tools that will empower them and thereby enable them to function as autonomous, rational social agents as well. In the 1960s, according to Frau Meigs6 a member of the UE Media Literacy expert, the protectionist approach was predominant considering the all powerful status of the media at that time in schools. During that period the audience was perceived as passive and are therefore manipulated and influenced by media texts as advertisements. However, later Buckingham7 opposed the above protectionist view supporting the aim of the media education which is to prepare and empower the people to think critically. Indeed, some of the teachers have increasingly recognized that media education should not be a crusade to rescue children from the media and proposes protectionist approach

6 Divina Frau Meigs (a), “Media Regulation, Self-Regulation and Education, Debunking Some Myths and Retooling Some Working Paradigms, in Promote or Protect?”, Perspectives on media literacy and media regulations: The international Claringhouse on children, youth and media, Nordicom, Goterborg University, 2004, p.36. 7 http://nordicom.aub.aau.dk/mld/medialiteracy.do), retrieved; 25.10.08 16

to media education which is accepted by many as unneeded. However, nowadays younger teachers, who have grown up with electronic media are more enthusiastic about young people using media as forms of cultural expression. Accordingly, it can be truly suggested that the protectionist view is not applicable where young people are open and get easy any media productions. In this case, media education is crucial point in education to integrate it into required subjects.

1.5.1 Key Conditions for Introducing the Media into Schools

At least two conditions must be met to introduce the media into the educational institution: 8 1. Technological maintenance (space, hardware, etc.); 2. Suitable preparation of the teachers (all or just some) to provide them in an integrated manner with a technical initiation and teacher training. Recognizing the rapid growth of media technologies and drastic change of informational age it should be noted that for improving the media literacy of young people, firstly, there is a need for an experienced media educators. However, can the teachers of the foreign languages be as a media teachers? As the media teacher can not teach the language and foreign language teacher can not properly teach the media, there is a need for finding a joint feature. In this case, should the students of pedagogical institutions be prepared for teaching media education? Accordingly, online questionnaire9 was formulated to achieve results of responses. It is expected that respondents can be any visitors of web site page of questionnaire where the scope and state of respondents are not determined. It would be the visitors who are interested in media education.

8 Z.Morsy, ibid., p.9. 9 http://edu.of.ru/mediaeducation/news.asp?ob_no=47119, retrieved: 10.03.09 17

Figure 2. Findings of Web Questionnaire Is there any need of preparing students of pedagogical institutions for media education in schools? • Yes, it is necessary. 92 (45,1%) • There is no necessity as the students and young people have so much communication with the media. 12 (5,88%) • I have know idea. 6 (3,02%) • It is necessary not only to prepare the students of pedagogical departments to teach media education at schools, there is a need to open a new specialization "Media education" to prepare media educators for teaching at schools and universities of the country. 94 (47,24%) Figure 2 shows the percentage of the necessity to prepare students of pedagogical institutions for media education at schools. Four answers were given on the survey where the most 47,24% percentage of voters found it necessary not only preparing the students for media education and for establishing a new specialization. However, with a few little differences, 45,1% of respondents suggested the necessity of preparing students for media education in schools. It seems, the training students of pedagogical institutions are quite sufficient to teach the media. Furthermore, a few number of stakeholders (5. 88%) claimed that as the young people spend much time using the media, there is not any necessity for integration media education while others found it difficult to answer. Overall, the figures would appear to suggest that the vote takers supported the preparation of students of pedagogical institutions to teach media for the reason that young people are engaged with the media and should be taught to think critically over the media productions. Actually, the implication is not just that media educators need to engage with their students’ changing media experiences. It should be recognized how those experiences may be fundamentally different from their own and that those differences

may well have broader theoretical implications. Buckingham10 argues that the argument is not just that the media themselves are different but also that the ways which young people interact with them – the modalities of interpretation, engagement and investment are fundamentally changed as well. However, multiple readings and ambivalent reactions to media seem to be the norm in “a new phase of representation” 11 but media representations are more complex, and audiences more sophisticated and autonomous than in earlier times. According to Morsy12 there is the main criticism leveled against schools nowadays that conditions inside are not in peace with conditions outside. To improve this situation, attention must be paid to three important requirements: 1. Adaption for pedagogical purposes of the ways in which abstract knowledge is acquired. 2. Development of up-to-date principles and methods of illustration. 3. Much better practical use than hitherto of the possibilities implicit in audio – visual techniques. These kinds of requirements can be acceptable in any country where media education is integrated into education. For the reason that schools increasingly have to become places for the processing of information obtained outside and task should be to promote the acquisition of knowledge offered by the mass media.

1.5.2 Key Configurations of Integrating Media Education

According to UNESCO report, “the different definitions [of media literacy]…are largely rooted in the different needs and the goals of education system, the region, nation, local community, individuals and marginalized

10 D.Buckinghamm ibid., p.5. 11 E. Funge, Rethinking representation: Media studies and the postmodern teenager, English and Media magazine, 1998, p.32. 12 Z.Morsy, ibid., p.53. 19

groups. This should be the case since media education or media literacy must be anchored in the needs of the local community.” 13 The details and outcomes are noticeably vary in different countries and can be given David Frenche’s14 three configurations of variables; 1. The structure of the educational system and in particular how far it is open to innovation; 2. The relation between the media and intellectuals; 3. The legal and economic structure of the media systems, especially the relation between the public and private sectors. Media ownership, production and distribution have become increasingly internationalized and globalized. However educational answers have not proceeded at these developments. It seems there was much rhetoric but little research about media teaching and learning. That is why, there is a need for reviewing some countries’ experiences as the integration of media education is in a different range in various countries. Which country mostly considers the media importance at school disciplines and in what subjects are used has a different state as well.

1.6 Media Education in the USA, Russia and Turkey Contexts

In countries where the integration of media education in the curriculum has been addressed since the seventies, three possibilities have always been considered, and are still at issue:15 • To include its contents in different language and literature areas; social sciences and plastic arts. • To create specific subjects to study media.

13 C. Feilitzen, News from the international clearinghouse on children and violence on the screen, (ICCVOS), UNESCO International clearinghouse on children and violence on the screen, Goteborg, Sweden, 2000, p.37. 14 D.Frenche cited in Larry Gilbert and Alexander Federov, “A Model for Media education Research in Russia and the US”, 2004, p.1. 15 A. Hottmann, A. G. Martin, Media Education across the Curriculum, Berlin, 2006, p.10. 20

• To consider media education as a part of the basic education necessary for participating in modern society and, therefore, integrate into the curriculum and make it everyone’s responsibility. These possibilities are never regarded as mutually exclusive but rather complementary, and the significance of each one in the official curricula varies according to the different governments in charge of educational policy in each country. In other words, media education has not acquired the indisputable curricular subject status of mathematics, language or geography. However, grouping of countries giving below was made to examine the experience of integrating media education. As the USA is the one of the first countries which promoted the media in education and has a long history in this sphere, it was selected as one of the main example. Countries like Turkey and Russia have integrated media education few years ago, and it would be a good example too as a starting point for Kazakhstan which has not yet implemented it.

1.6.1 Media Education in the USA

The conception “media education” is used as the “visual literacy” in 60ths in America. Further as the synonym of it the term “media literacy” has appeared. During that period affect of signs like: speech, sounds and images of life were great on a person as well. Therefore, the nonverbal methods of communication and visual communication have to be taught. Starting from the interest in photographing, adds and then in films, TV and video has appeared. According to Kubey’s view the United States finds itself in the ironic position of being the world’s leading exporter of media products while it lags in the formal delivery of media education in schools in comparison with other major English-speaking countries in the world. For instance, Australia has mandated media education from kindergarten through 12th grade, Ontario has mandated it for grades 7-12 since 1987. Even the non English speaking countries like Russia and Israel increased media education initiatives at a rapid rate. The first National Leadership Conference on Media

Literacy even was convened by the Aspen Institute in 1992 and in spite of this the author argued that it has disregarded. One of the reasons of less development of media education is, not being in a close contact of the teachers with administrators and academics. Having fifty states with different educational authorities, has led to a greater isolation of media educators in the USA. However, at the very highest levels of education at elite universities media education obtains its importance while at the middle and lower levels of the social structure it is considered as an unnecessary extra feature that consumes time and money which can only come after the necessary subject areas are covered. Additionally, the U.S. is relatively isolated geographically and culturally because of the less foreign media products. It is more complicated than in Europe to entertain the possibility that they need to examine themselves or their own cultural products. It is supposed that educational institutions should be completely supplied by media education materials as well and this is the one of the crucial factors. For instance, in and around London and Glasgow, there are buildings that house large rooms fully dedicated to media education materials. It is telling, too, that media education is more developed in private and parochial schools than in public schools. Because private schools do not need beware of local and governmental authorities if they use media education as a way of teaching values, or engage in educational innovation or experimentation. In contrast, the public school teacher often needs to be much more attentive. Then, Robert Kubey16 strengthens his view with the Len Masterman’s statement:

Getting people think for themselves, to think clearly and coherently rather than produce clones of yourself. Otherwise there is no difference between education and propaganda. . . . To begin a progressive educational practice one must

16 R. Kubey, Obstacles to the Development of Media Education in the United States, Journal of Communication, Vol. 48, Issue: 1, 1998, p.58. www.medialit.org/reading_room/pdf/362_kubey_obstacles.pdf Retrieved: 24.07.08 22

begin by respecting the values and the ideas the kids are actually bringing into school with them.

The most intriguing factors for American educators, is that in the development of media education outside the United States, in other countries’ educational initiatives have partly compelled by the huge importation of U.S. television and film products. It can be confidently claimed that these products are loved and loathed. Therefore, the significant numbers of educators, policy makers and critics believe that the cultural integrity of their own country is threatened by so much foreign film and television product flooding across their borders. There is an opinion that in order to understand a culture, one has got to go outside it. Americans never go outside their own culture. That is why media education barely exists there. It seems U.S. educators have been historically less inclined to draw from the experience of teachers in other countries, or to know about foreign intellectual developments in media studies. After 1980 in America, the media education was integrated into curriculum as an element of all subjects. Baker17 who researched the school curriculum in 50 states of the country achieved such results: media in language learning subjects are integrated - 100%, public health education – 96% and in social sciences – 76%. It is evidently clear that youth tend to show the broadest range and most intense use of media and it can be explained by the strong and growing concentration of commercial media in USA. Accordingly, the teachers promote critical analysis, often including open discussion and criticism of prevailing media and social structure in the schools. However, USA didn’t adopt full related curriculum as a mandatory component in public schools, so it did not make a progress at all in integrating such media education curricula into schools. USA being the most developed in production and distribution of media technologies, according to Hart18, it is the most undeveloped English speaking country in the world regarding Media Education. There are more than 15,000 local school districts in the US

17 Baker cited in Adnan Altun, ibid., 2008, p. 4. 18 Hart cited in L.Gilbert and A. Federov, ibid., p.5. 23

and this occurrence militates against students encountering any type of national media education policy.

1.6.2 Media Education in Russia

The media education is not a core subject in Russia. The majority of teachers say about Media education in the class: “It is an additional job for me. I don’t need this because I was not paid additional money for this”19 Though, teachers are aware about the importance of the media education, they do not want to spend time for additional media materials. According to the survey conducted by Fedorov20 in some Russian schools, a majority of teachers have no idea about the existence of Media Education or what it is about. Some school teachers use media in their classroom just as an illustration for the lesson’s theme. A media text is not a matter of study in that case and only few teachers do try to integrate elements of the media.

Moreover, nearly 6% of Russians own a computer and it is the sharp economic differences of countries. There were governmental moves in Russia as well about closing down a major independent television channel. In Russia students and teachers were long prohibited from even discussing the relationship between media and prevailing culture. If to recall Soviet Union era, media education was controlled by the state in Russia. Informal forms of media education such as cinema clubs and foreign film were viewed with official suspicion. The approaches were aesthetic and recently replaced by Western style approaches focusing on critical analysis of media. The Status of Media Education is not strong in modern Russia. A General National Curriculum for Media Education does not yet exist. Still Media Education in Russia is a compulsory part of the basic education in some secondary schools. Media Education elements take place at different lessons in Russia: Language, Arts, History

19 A.Hart, Daniel Suss, Media Education in 12 European Countries, Zurich, 2002, p. 100. 20 A. Fedorov (d). Media Education in Secondary Schools in Russia, Taganrog, 2002, p. 2. 24

and Literature. Russian teachers prefer audiovisual media to printed media, but only few Russian teachers can use the Internet because of the difficult federal economic situation. According to the experts opinion due to the leading countries in media education Russia takes the sixth place in a list:21 Table 2. A list of leading countries in Media Education

The number of experts, in opinion of N Countries which, the development of media education in the given country is today on a high level: 1. Canada 17(65,38%) 2. Great Britain 16(61,54%) 3. Australia 11(42,31%) 4. France 7(26,92%) 5. USA 6(23,07%) 6. Russia 5(19,23%)

As it is shown in the table the survey has indicated to the unexpected results. The leading countries according to the experts’ opinion are Canada, Great Britain, Australia, France, USA and Russia. Other votes more or less are distributed in Western European countries (German, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Sweden and Switzerland) and Japan (11,54% of experts votes), Mexico, Taiwan and Republic of south Africa (7,69%), Austria, Argentina, Brazil, Hungary, Venezuela, Iceland, Spain, Italy, Cuba New Zealand, Chile and Belgium (3,85% of votes) Fedorov22 thinks that the problem of little formal media education in this country and other countries is because of broadness of definition to be adopted in over-burdened schools. Then, Federov gives some elements of definitions of media education relating to study which was conducted in 10 countries carrying out the survey of 27 media educators. These definitions were indicated in agreement with educators of media and it comprises the following elements;

21 А.В. Федоров, А.А. Новикова, Медиаобразрвание в ведущих странах запада, Таганрог, 2005, p.39. 22 L.Gilbert, A. Federov, ibid., p.3. 25

· Deals with all communications media ; · Fosters an understanding of how media enables people to gain an understanding of how media is used in their society; · Teachers identification of the political, social, commercial and cultural sources and influences of media texts; · Ensures that people can analyse, critically reflect upon and create media; and · It is a basic entitlement of every citizen in every country in the world. However, Russian Media Education News Scientific Research Group created the file of documents for the official registration of new specialization for Russian universities: Media Education. Russian Ministry of Education positively answered for this initiative: university level specialization (for future teachers) media education was officially registered with the number 03.13.30. in June 18, 2002. Sept.1, 200223 was the date of official including of specialization media education in the real process in Russian pedagogical university level. First start of this new specialization was in Taganrog State Pedagogical Institute and which the head of Department of Social and Cultural Development of Personality is Professor Alexander Fedorov.

1.6.3 Media Education in Turkey Turkey is a developing country where the media are used in a quite wide range. Taking for account the existence of 14 national, 13 public, and 203 local, 86 regional TV channels, and 873 local radio stations and 2,124 newspapers which 40 of them are national, 23 regional, 2016 local,24 it can be notified that the informational stream is in a high degree. According to the research results by RTÜRK (Turkish Radio And Television Supreme Council) adults watch TV 5 hours, young viewers 3.5 hours per day and 82 % 25 of the children decide themselves what to watch and how long to watch TV

23 A. Fedorov (c), ibid., p.11. 24 Y. İnceoğlu, İ.Çınarlı, A Critical Analysis of Turkish Media Landscape For A Better Media Literacy Education, http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/IMG/pdf/YaseminInceoglu.pdf Retrieved: 06.05.2009, p. 3. 25 10th Meeting Mediterranean Network Regulatory Authorities, Presentation on media literacy within Mediterranean by RTURK, 02 – 03 October 2008, p. 11. 26

programs. Therefore, the Turkish educationists also feel the need for media education and few years ago started to raise a question about media education of local citizens as other countries do. Essentially, the media education had a start to heed educationists massively when the first International Conference on Media Literacy was held in Marmara University in May 200526.

The first Turkish media literacy education project launched by The Turkish Ministry of National Education and Radio and Television Supreme Council in August 2006 and has been discussed further policies for developing media education. Promptly, in 2006 – 2007 media literacy education started in five primary schools for testing in Adana, Ankara, Erzurum, Istanbul and Izmir. Media literacy courses were given as an elective course in the curriculum of 2007 – 2008 at all primary schools of sixth, seventh and eight grades27 and in that means 35 thousand primary schools in 81 provinces have started its media education classes. Media education classes have its continuance for 2008 – 2009 academic years as an elective course. At present, nearly six hundred primary schools in Istanbul and as much as in Ankara, overall about 400 thousand students of sixth, seventh and eight grades have selected media literacy lessons. The Ministry of education assigned that media education courses will be given by social science teachers. However, educationists also expected probable failure of the project, because the question was “do they have enough knowledge and skills?”. Then, initial survey was conducted on 38 students of media literacy classes28. To obtain the results of media education these figures seem to be not satisfactory. Educationists explained it with not being able to obtain permission by the Ministry of Education and they could observe among five schools only one pilot school in Istanbul. However, the new specialization was established in masters’ art in some universities in

26 N. Öncel Taşkıran, Medya okuryazarlığına giriş, Istanbul, Beta yay. 2007, ss.97 – 133 27 N. Öncel Taşkıran, Medya okuryazarlığına giriş, Istanbul, Beta yay. 2007, s.99; Mutlu Binark, Mine Gencel Bek, Eleştirel Medya Okuryazarlığı Kuramsal Yaklaşımlar ve Uygulamalar, Istanbul, Kalkedon yay. 2007, s.90.

2008 and nowadays total numbers of Media Literacy Education teachers in Turkey is 12.153. Branches of Media Literacy Teachers: Social science teachers (6.111), Turkish Literacy teachers (2.730), Classroom teachers (1.153), Teachers from different branches (2.159). The total number of students who selected media literacy lesson for 2007 – 2008 academic years were: 6. class 153,103 students, 7. class 163.657 students, 8. class 71.371 students, totally 388.131.29 It is supposed that nearly 1.5 million students will select media literacy lesson in 34.000 schools for 2008 – 2009 academic years. However, media literacy lesson is provided as a domain as was already mentioned above and the results are quite satisfactory for the initial years.

1.7 Media Education in European Countries (England, German, France)

It is evident that variation of terms and translation of media education leads to different comprehension. However, the difficulties are more than translation of term. For now it has to live with a variety of names that reflect the particular nuances of the different national and institutional contexts in which it has grown. If the educators in the field do not share a name, they do, however, share certain common founding questions.

1.7.1 Media Education in England The actual changes in media education were made on British Film Institute – BFI in 90ths in England and media education for the first time was the integral part of national curriculum and British institute of film marked out six main aspects of socio- cultural education of audio and video production:

28 Y. Ýnceoğlu, İntroduction of Media Literacy Course in Turkey’s Curriculum, September, 2007, p.22. http://www2.mediamanual.at/themen/kompetenz/61Inceoglu-Introduction-of-Media-Literacy-Course-in- Turkeys-Curriculum.pdf, Retrieved: 28.03.09. 29 10th Meeting Mediterranean Network Regulatory Authorities, ibid., 2008, p. 25. 28

1. “category” – covers the realizing kinds of production (documentary film, soap opera etc.) and kinds of media technologies (films, print, non print, etc) 2. “agent” – producer, stages of production, time constraints, value. 3. “language” 4. “technology” 5. “audience” Studying the media culture was realized especially in English language discipline in secondary schools. Further, implying media in other subjects (foreign languages, history, geography, art, exact sciences etc.) of a curriculum was realized as well. C.Bazalgette30, coordinator of works on media education in the British Film Institute and one of the leaders in making media education policy in United Kingdom during 15 years considered that media education should be aimed at constructing more active and critical literacy, fastidious media user which can promote the development of the greater spectrum of a media production. However, it appears that media culture was taught superficially. The film materials were seldom used and even the TV programs were not discussed during the lesson. As distinct from universities, media education in the required disciplines has not any weight in secondary schools. Moreover, there was the lack of purposeful preparation of teachers and they were trained in a course of realization of the school program. However, Masterman31 blames the British Film Institution because of integrating media as an element of subjects especially in English language discipline, not as required subject. He thinks they accepted media education as an insignificant note in educational programs of TV and on ideology, economics, and social history. Bazalgette writes a letter of response to Masterman confirming that the core difference between them is that the viewpoint of Masterman represents needs of media educators which are interested in well defined structure of media education while his own represents views of learners and has to be responsible for laws and variable budget. Moreover, another

30 Bazalgette, C., Bevort, et.al., L’Education aux medias dans le monde: Nouvelles orientations, Paris - London: BFI, CLEMI, UNESCO, 1992, p.120. 31 Masterman cited in Àdnan Altun, ibid., p.120. 29

variety of perspectives lie on that Masterman is science researcher and conversely he is public officer, and that is why the both tasks are important while both of them are in a potential conflict.

Consequently, media finds a place in the National Curriculum, which in the case of English explicitly includes statements about the importance of media education and encourages education for media literacy as a significant part of the teaching of the subject.32 Media studies developed as an “A” level subject variously called “Communication studies” or “Media studies” and this in turn developed into what were GCE (General Certificate of Education) courses for 15 – 16 year old pupils.33 Nevertheless, the struggle for legitimacy continues in that there is no discrete provision in the National Curriculum for media studies, it is not a core subject, and the body which oversees curricular developments in the school sector, the School Examination and Assessment Council (SEAC), does not have a committee for communication and media studies even though a number of courses in the subject exist at primary, GCSE and “A” level.

1.7.2 Media Education in Germany

In Germany teaching media is also integrated and 72% of German teachers use media regularly in their subjects34. There is the National Research Institute of Film that publishes special issues and visual aids for schools. In Munich, other research center on media education was established and it works under the guidance of Bachmair in Kassel University. Media education in Germany is understood as a wide range of various media related classes. Within the general media education direction there are several divisions:35

32 D.French, M.Richards, Media education across Europe, Routledge,1994, p.88. 33 R. Kubey, ibid., p.56. 34 А.В. Фёдоров, А.А. Новикова, Медиаобразование в ведущих странах запада, Таганрог, 2005, pp.39-135 35 A.Fedorov (a), Media education: A historical perspective, Taganrog, 2005, p.11. 30

- Media training, and upbringing: defines the aims and pedagogic means necessary for this achievement; - Media didactics: defines which media can or should be used for the achievement of pedagogic aim; - Media research: embraces all scientific activity to find or/and prove aims, means, evidence, hypothesis related to media and systematizes them. In spite of making big efforts to integrate media education into the educational system in Germany, almost a quarter of around 17-year-old students are not fully convinced that media literacy is a necessary skill for future success. Though, Kohn confirms that for the teaching of English, media utilization forms a decisive part in all of the Germany states. According to the survey made in German, active media use in the classroom seldom takes place: 23.47% of the teachers have never used a computer in class. Around 40% have never been to one of the computer rooms with their students, 65% have never done a PC-based presentation or used a digital projector. In addition, 90.63% of the teachers and 51% of the students have never worked with a web-quest36. Teachers only marginally integrate the disposable technology in class. The author asserts that the reasons for the non-functioning of media integration in class are numerous, and can be identified easily as follows: • Technological foundations for a successful media education at school are given. • German schools are partially able to offer their students a basic media education. • The blackboard is still the dominating technical device in the classrooms. • When students leave school, technology-wise they are not yet prepared for using new media as a tool for academic or professional work. According to another research has been carried out in German schools, the percentage of the use of media in instruction could only be assessed roughly by the

36 Arnold, H, Pätzold cited in M. Magliæ, Media education in english language teaching: not our job, Novitas-ROYAL, Vol.: 1, 2007, pp.1-9 http://www.novitasroyal.org/marko.html Retrieved: 11.13.08 31

interviewed teachers. The statements fluctuate between 5-10 and 40% and the huge of scope of percentages probably results from greatly differing definitions of the term “media” as well as “working with\on media”.37 Virtually all the interviewed teachers complained over a lacking education respecting the use of media during their studies. The motivation of the teachers plays a crucial role as media-pedagogic qualifications were hardly offered by the universities. The area of the new media such as computers and internet were still also neglected. Moreover, using media is often impeded by the usually bad equipment of the schools. Media technologies how frequently are used depend on the motivation of the respective teacher and German young people often understand films made of literary works as a relaxing entertainment and do not reflect or judge them critically. Both surveys results show an expected conclusion which is similar with Russia, Turkey. Lack of teachers with knowledge of media, undesirable to integrate because of less time and lack of media technologies equipment were the main reasons. Moreover, various definitions of media education lead teachers to confusion and these matters can be resolved after thorough research in accordance with countries social, economical and cultural state.

1.7.3 Media Education in France

Media education which was named as “The Introduction to Communication and the Media project” came into being in 1964 – 1965. However, at that time it was known as “Introduction to Audio – Visual Culture (ICAV)” on the initiative of a research team established in the Centre Regional de Documentation Pedagogique (CRDP) in Bordeaux.38 This project was based on two trend of educational opinion: one proceed from groups advocating education concerning the film as an aspect of culture and introducing film – club activities on a wide scale in educational establishments while, the other was improved by a research group in teaching methods which was focused on the importance of images in a programmed learning system using television. However,

37 A.Hart, D.Suss, ibid., p. 47. 38 Rene La Borderie, “Media education in France”, Prospects, quarterly review of education, Vol., 14, No. 2,UNESCO, 1984, p.286. 32

the project has not been widely integrated into the national education system until the publishing of the official provisions in 1982. The realization of the project, surely, has taken a relatively long period concentrating on researching analysis of the subject. In terms of the period of integration the objectives are redefined and the “teaching of a culture” changed to a broader conception “communication”. The structure of such education is based entirely on a frequently very watertight division into subjects; objectives may indeed have been slightly realigned in the light of developments in communication, for instance, as approaches to teaching the mother tongue. However, most of teachers of these subjects accuse the media of wasting their students’ time since they have less time left over for legitimate cultural pursuits.

The project has two main aims: as creating and developing the ability to deal responsibly and critically with the phenomena of communication, principally the media and to know how to act on the system of communication and the teaching methods derived from it.

Nowadays, in France, media education has its continuation and is considered as a component of socio-cultural education. The first initiators who supported the usage of “new teaching material aids” 39 was S. Frehne.

The key concept of media education in France is the word combination l’education critique aux medias or le jugement critique - critical development. The distinguishing feature of media education is the emphasis on the education of a conscious, responsible citizen of a democratic society.

CLEMI (Centre de l’iaism, del’aseignement et de Moyens d’Information) realizes some programs in collaboration with UNESCO, Ministry of Education, and Ministry of foreign affairs and other organizations. CLEMI40 considers that media education can be integrated into all disciplines and even they made a survey about the

39 И. В. Челышева. Личностное развитие школьников в информационном обществе: перспективы медиаобразования. Таганрог, Таганрогский государственный педагогический институт, 2008, p.10. 33

impact of media education on young people. However, it was revealed that the aged teachers did not want to use new media and just 20% of French teachers have an eager to utilize the media in a proper way during the teaching.

2 The Media in FLL Merges with Media Education

The communication is always crucial for language learning to improve speaking skills. The media in foreign language learning can be used as a mean which promotes speaking, listening, reading and writing. In teaching processes to stimulate learners are used some traditional subthemes like “my family”, “my country”, “seasons of the year”. However, there is a so called “parallel school” which brings the stream of the information and has the great importance in students’ life. Alongside with traditional themes the introduction of themes like “advertising”, “internet”, and “television” are necessary. The main four skills which are crucial in learning language can be achieved with media education while media education reaches its purposes. There were developed “The Standards of Media Education as integrated in the humanities and natural science” at the laboratory of technical means of teaching and media education Institute of Russian Academy of education, and it states that “the study of those or another disciplines is expedient, alongside with achievement of the educational purposes of each of these disciplines ensures the achievement of media education purposes”.41 Media education is widely taught in Language Arts in many countries42 and researches indicate that on receiving media education training, students perform better in reading, writing and listening skills.43 It can be suggested that students’ creativity be strengthened through reading and listening to a broad range of imaginative texts

40 Mutlu Binark, Mine Gencel Bek, a.g.e, 2007, p.75.; А.В. Федоров, А.А. Новикова, ibid., p. 115. 41 А.А. Новикова. «Медиа на уроке английского языка: техническое средство обучение или медиаобразрвание», Библиотека литературы по медиаобразованию, 2005, c.13. http://edu.of.ru/attach/17/40148.doc Retrieved: 23.12.08. 42 Hart, Hammett, B.H.C. Barrell (Eds.), Digital expressions: Media literacy and English Language Arts, Canada: Detselig Enterprises, 2002, p.42.

including poems, novels, short stories, plays, films, jokes, advertisements, songs, radio, and television programs, and demonstrate sensitivity in their critical appreciation of these texts. Most of these ‘imaginative texts’, however, are not print-based and thus have a different grammar which students may not find familiar. The “reading and listening” of these texts will be greatly facilitated if students are equipped with the skills required to appreciate and make sense of such non-traditional texts, and this is exactly what media education is designed to achieve. There are three components of media education which can be aligned with three components of the language arts:44 Table 3. Components of Media Education that can be aligned with components of Language Arts

Media Education Language Arts Assessment Instrument Component Equivalent Experiencing media Wide reading, reading Journals, logs, observation for enjoyment records, personal response Interpreting media Studying literature Criticism, critical response Making media Writing Rubrics

The similarity with language arts can be interpreted as follows: teachers should look to reading assessment theory and practice to inform the way experiencing media is assessed; to the theory and practice of literary criticism and response (audience theory) to inform the way interpreting media is assessed; to the theory and practice of writing assessment to inform the way making media is assessed. The teachers should not be intimidated by the scope of media education. It gives an opportunity to balance student involvement in both personal and critical response to media texts and the production of

43 Hobbs and Frost cited in “Education Refrom as an Agent of Change: The Development of Media Education in Hong Kong in the last, 1998, p.8. 44 C.M. Worsnop, Screening images: Ideas for media education, Mississauga, ON: Wright Communications, 1994, p.3. http://www.readingonline.org/newliteracies/worsnop/index.html#menu retrieved: 22.07.09. 35

their own texts in a range of media. Teachers need to plan learning experiences in which students45 • develop and apply strategies for accessing information • access and interpret data, information, and ideas from a variety of information sources • select information from numerous texts from a critical perspective • evaluate the reliability of information • develop a range of transferable skills and strategies that they can apply to their learning in other areas of the curriculum. Moreover, students can be encouraged to develop their own ideas and investigating and producing of media products. For presenting media products teachers also need to deal with technology as well, because the most of students are comfortable with technology in the media world.

2.1 Cognitive Effects of the Media in Foreign Language Learning

Haas46 states that the media can be defined by its symbol systems, and processing capabilities. The most obvious characteristic of the media is its technology: the mechanical and electronic aspects that determine its function and, to some extent, its shape and other physical features. These are the characteristics that are commonly used to classify a medium such as a television, a radio, and other medium. Moreover, the cognitive effects of these characteristics, if any, are usually indirect. Characteristics such as size, shape, and weight make it more likely that a learner will learn with a book but not a computer while on a bus, although this predilection is changing as computers get smaller, lighter, and cheaper. A few cognitive effects of technology, however, are more direct. For example, the size and resolution of many computer screens are such that reading their texts may be more difficult than reading the text of some books. Using

45 Atlantic Provinces: English Language Arts 10-12 p.2. http://www.media- awareness.ca/english/resources/educational/media_education/atlantic_provinces/subject_level_overviews/ apef_ela_10-12_ov.cfm

symbol systems requires structure and organization, which are often described as syntax and grammar. Externalizing symbol systems requires a medium to record or transmit the symbols. The media, from this perspective are the capabilities or affordances rather than the artifacts of the recording or transmission. (Fig.2) 47 External use of symbols allows the broad sharing of information, relief of scarce cognitive resources, and an iterative process of creation with media. Figure 3. Representing thinking in diverse language\symbol systems

Langauge\Symbol Systems Examples: - syntax speech - grammar writing Internal computing music Can be cognitive Can store information strategies etc. Media External Representative uses Generative uses used to convey\store used to stimulate information cognition

However, symbol systems alone are not sufficient to describe a medium and its cognitive effects. Information is not only represented in memory, it is processed. Actually, learning is an active and constructive process whereby the learner strategically manages the available cognitive resources to create new knowledge by extracting information from the environment and integrating it with information already stored in memory. Moreover, this process is constrained by such cognitive factors as the duration and amount of information in short – term memory, the task – relevant information that is available in long term memory, the structure of this information, the procedures that are activated to operate on it. Consequently, the process is sensitive to characteristics of the external environment, such as the availability of specific

46 Haas cited in R.B. Kozma, “Learning with media”. JSTOR; Review of Educational Research, Vol.: 61, No. 2, Summer, 1991, p.180. robertkozma.com/images/kozma_rer.pdf Retrieved: 14.05.09 47 B. Hokanson, S. Hooper, “Computers as cognitive media: examining the potential of computers in education. Computers in Human behavior”, ScienceDirect, Vol.:16, Issue 5, 1 September 2000, p. 540. 37

information at a given moment, the duration of availability, and the way the information is structured. The relationship between the internal and external cognitive environments is explicitly addressed by the emerging discussion of distributed cognition as well. Surely, the capacity for linguistic communication comprises four skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) which operate via two channels (spoken and written) and in two modes (receptive and productive). These distinctions are helpful, but it should be focused on the different kinds of relationship that can exist between the producer and the receiver of the message. Accordingly, there is a distinguishing between “reciprocal and non-reciprocal communication” 48. The paradigm of reciprocal communication is conversation and the meaning is negotiated by two or more participants who repeatedly exchange the roles of message- producer and receiver. While, in non-reciprocal communication the message usually has one producer who may be separated from the receiver in space and time. The examples of non-reciprocal communication are speeches, lecturers, letters and books, and articles. However, drama straddles between spoken and written communication. What is more, some kinds of non-reciprocal communication can shift to the reciprocal mode. Accordingly, the most of discourse is produced and received by process of interaction and these are significant issues for understanding of the impact that media has on linguistic communication within and between societies. David Little divides the development of linguistic communication into three periods:49 1. Spoken communication was always face-to-face, whether it was reciprocal (conversations) or non-reciprocal (e.g., political speech) and writing provided the only really effective means of communicating across distance of space and time at the end of nineteenth century. Literary and academic texts were almost the only products of target- language communication available to language learners, relatively one of whom would ever travel to a country where the language was spoken.

48 H.G Widdowson, Teaching Language as Communication, Oxford University Press, 1978, p.213. 49 D.Little, Media, Media technologies, and language learning: some applied linguistic perspectives, Dublin, 1998, pp. 9- 18. 38

2. The invention of the telephone inaugurated the second of our three historical periods by removing the face-to-face constraint from conversation. The advent of radio greatly increased the potential range and impact of non- reciprocal spoken communication as well. 3. The third period is characterized by an upsurge of interactivity made possible partly by the “democratization” of broadcast media and partly by the arrival of computers. It is fair to note that the media have become the indispensable means of communicating and receiving information and the most people derive the greater of their world knowledge from media. Therefore, it is important to recognize how much of learners’ L1 communicative experience is likely to come from the media and to be shaped by them. Along with this, David Little argues that as far as foreign languages are concerned the learning experience which seeks to develop the four skills independently of target language, media will not necessarily strike learners as being strongly rooted in everyday reality. The conversation remains the central communicative activity for all of us, but the conversation that learners have each day in their mother tongue take place in a communicative environment mostly shaped by the media. Therefore, it is not realistic without using the media in a foreign language learning. Significantly, there are cases when a language is being learned at a distance from the target language community, and in this case the target language media can be arranged in classroom. The authentic newspapers, radio and television can offer more solutions. So, language learning requires content like newspaper and magazine article, books, short stories, novels, poems; but also content which can be provided by the electronic media, specially radio and television broadcast. Allan Collins50 suggestes that there are five dominant media; 1. Face-to-face communication,

50 Allan Collins, Peter Neville,et.al., “The role of tthe diffrerent media in designing learning environments”, International Journal of Artificial intelligence in Education, Vol.:11, 2000, pp.144- 162 39

2. Text, 3. Video, 4. Computer software, 5. Networks. He asserts that different people will have different interests and abilities with respect to these media, both producing media and receiving them. However, Clark confirms that “… researchers [to] refrain from producing additional studies exploring the relationship between media and learning unless a novel theory suggested”51. He extended this challenge after reviewing the existing comparative research on media and concluding that “… media do not influence learning under any conditions … media are mere vehicles that deliver instruction but do not influence student achievement any more than the truck that delivers our groceries causes changes in our nutrition”52. Clark’s confirmation can be strikingly unaccepted because the media is a language, image and sound. Any learner who uses the media is affected by its language, image and sound which lead them to further process of learning. All languages are mass media. The new mass media – film, radio, TV are new languages, however, their grammars as yet unknown. Each codifies reality differently; each conceals a unique metaphysics. Linguists tell that it is possible to say anything in any language if there are used enough words or images. The media is a diverse range of technologies and processes that human use to explore, express or communicate ideas.

2.2 Media Technologies and FLL

As it was already mentioned above, technology is often simultaneously and interchangeably used with media. That is why it is rather impossible not to mention about the impact of technology, because media technologies can offer some possibilities to learning language as well. However, media and media technologies are supposed to be fairly different from each other and it can be stated that “media across the

51 Clark cited in Robert B. Kozma.op.cit., p. 179. 52 ibid., p. 179 40

curriculum” degenerates into “media technologies across the curriculum”. “The media” concerns to “mass media” and they support and mediate instruction: this includes everything from chalk to desktop publishing: from felt boards to 3-D graphics generators; from teacher’s voice to a multimedia simulation53 or according to David Little’s54 assertion, the media is supposed to be channels of mass, long-distance communication like newspapers, radio and television, computer networks and other tools of communication, and receiving information. While, by media technologies he meant those technologies that enable us both to receive and reproduce media messages and to create and manipulate messages of our own – in particular , broadcast receivers, audio and video recorders, and computers. Nonetheless, at the age of new technology, some educationists started to use “new media” and they argue that the term “new media” is gradually being dissociated from “mass media”. Usov55 presented pragmatic model (practical media technology training) based on the uses and gratifications, and ‘practical’ theories of media and ICT education. One can not teach about the contemporary media without taking account of the role of the internet, computer games and the convergence between “old” and “new” media. These new media need to be integrated as objects of study. The variation of traditional media and ICT lies on that the TV provides both aural and visual input and can give the learner visual clues to the meaning of what is being said. Printed media can be easier to deal with than spoken text. However, “ICT is a medium incorporating electronic versions of the various media with which we are already familiar and enabling us to combine them as appropriate”.56 Therefore, equipping the schools by the new technologies is also significant in promoting media education. On one hand the introduction of IT helps transform learning and teaching, the growth of internet also gives rise to many problems. Television has now been joined by

53 C. Meskill, Teaching and learning in real time: media, technologies and language acquisition, Houston, Athelstan, 2002, pp. 11-13. 54 D. Little, ibid., pp. 9-18. 55 J.Usov, “Virtual thinking as a condition of emotional, intellectual and spiritual development of schoolchildren”, International research forum on children and media, N 9, 11, 2000, p. 12.

the attractions of the Internet, which is increasingly used by young people for communication, enjoyment, and obtaining information. Students do not only need the training of IT skills, but also the critical literacy skills to help them survive in the cyberspace where information is most often overloaded and sometimes confusing. Media education is about the encoding and decoding of media messages, nurturing students to be more critical in the reception of messages, and ‘read’ in a critical manner.57 Besides equipping students with the necessary skills for the future workplace, IT has a profound impact on teaching and learning. Students can explore and learn information by themselves in their own time and space. With the implementation of IT in education, there will be a “paradigm shift” from a largely textbook-based and teacher-centred approach to a more interactive and learner-centred approach. Teaching of media education fits in and it requires an approach very different from the traditional “chalk and talk” method. Students are encouraged to find out information through the encoding and decoding of media messages, and by engaging actively in media production to become critical viewers of the media. In media education, the main focus is on children-centred learning. This requires a media pedagogy which encourages investigation and critical and reflective thinking on the part of students. Learning by doing is important. Students are encouraged to explore learning at a deep and meaningful level. When IT is fully implemented in schools students would be able to be engaged in media production, providing a platform for students to immerse in learning through exploring and doing. In the past, it was difficult for pupils to participate in media production as equipment was expensive and required a high level of skill to operate. This is no longer the case, as advances in communication technologies have made the cost of purchasing equipment more affordable and the skills needed to operate equipment more easily acquired. Media production gives pupils a sense of satisfaction when products are created. Students can now hold digital cameras, or sit in

56 G.Davies, “Introduction to new technologies and how they can contribute to language learning and teaching”, 2008, p.6. www.ict4lt.org/en/index.htm Retrieved: 25.11.08 57 D.Frechette, Developing media literacy in cyberspace: pedagogy and critical learningfor the twenty- first-century classroom, Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2002, p.24. 42

the control room to operate the panel, and feel that they have some control over what they want to learn.

2.2.1 Print Media

2.2.1.1 The Importance of Using Newspapers

Using newspaper material is quite important, some suggestion questions which are significant especially to teachers can be raised; will learners find the material interesting? Are the materials appropriate in terms of their existing knowledge and language level? Should they use only materials from today’s newspapers? Certainly, according to the levels and abilities of learners every teacher can response differently. Paul Sanderson58 suggests some arguments of using newspapers in language learning environment: 1. General educational value: Newspapers keep us informed about what is happening in the world, thereby extending our knowledge and deepening our understanding. It is important to develop general education as well as language skills. 2. Cultural information: Language and culture are inextricably linked, and the newspapers of a given target community reflect its culture through the language they contain. It permeates language through references to the people, places, customs and traditions of that community. This is achieved through the cultural associations of words and the shared experiences, knowledge, values and attitudes that a writer assumes. 3. Language change: Newspapers reflect changes in the language and help keep abreast of such changes. They are linguistically topical and up-to-date, and provide valuable linguistic data. 4. Reader interest: The enormous variety of subject-matter in newspapers means that any one newspaper will invariably contain something of value or concern to every

58 Paul Sanderson, Using newspapers in the classroom, Cambridge university press, 1999, pp.2-4. 43

reader. This motivates and interests learners to use it in learning process or in everyday home reading. 5. Reading for pleasure: Reading newspapers are enjoyable for some people and there is no difficulty to use it as an aid for learning language. However, for others who do not read newspapers even in their own language, reading newspaper as the aim of learning language will encourage them to do so. 6. Authentic materials: Newspapers are an invaluable source of authentic materials and they are can be more interesting than fake materials. 7. Subject-specific materials: The diversity of information in newspapers enables to choose which are suits the precise needs and interests of learners. 8. Multi- level: Newspapers can be used effectively with a wide range of levels from Elementary to Advanced. This means that every foreign language learner can choose suitable material. Moreover, in spite of the new technologies introduced in the mass media, the use of the newspaper in learning is a growing practice. As an instructional material, it is one of the most economical and practical devices to use.59 In point of using the foreign language newspapers, students can be provided with features that other printed material cannot match. For the reason that, it deals with the present reality of the outside reality. It inevitably contains something of interest for every student and here is one of the example activities can be introduced into the classroom: Activity 1 Magazine vs. Zine 60 Choose a magazine that is published in print form as well as electronically online as a zine. Then answer the following questions.

1. Compare and contrast the content of both the print and electronic versions of the magazine. Explain why you think some content is altered while other content is simply reproduced exactly in both versions. Evaluate advertisements separately.

59 Rafael A. Olivares, “Using the Newspaper in the Bilingual Classroom”, The Journal of Educational Issue of Language Minority Students, Vol.:.15, Boise State University, 1995. p. 9.; Jacque Habert. “What foreign language newspaper can do for students”, Journal of Educational Sociology, Vol.: 32,No. 5, The Foreign Language Press and Foreign Language Teaching, 1959, pp.194-199, http://www.jstor.org.stable/226431 Retrieved: 30.03.09. 60 Kimb Massey, Media Literacy Workbook, Thomson, Canada, 2005, p. 18. 44

Advertising Content:

Find out which version of the magazine has the highest readership (search online). Why do you this is the case. 2. If you were going to start a magazine, what kind would it be? Would it be in print form or electronic? Who would be your target audience? What kind of advertising would pay for it? Explain your answers.

2.2.2 Non - Print Media

The media which is in contrast to print media and refer to works with both a sound and visual component in many sources appear as, audio – visual media and electronic media. The free encyclopedia Wikipedia defines that any equipment used in the electronic communication process (e.g. television, radio, telephone, desktop computer, game console, handheld device, and internet) can be considered electronic media, while audio – visual media is defined also as works including sound and visual production or equipment involved in presenting such works. Moreover, the term non- print media is also broadly used referring to all above mentioned definitions. Therefore, use of term non – print media in current study paper has not any accurate reason, and there could be used another terms as well.

2.2.2.1 Teaching Students to View TV Critically In FLL Classes

Foreign language learners can access to the most prevalent forms of information and entertainment of the target culture and target language and bend it to their own purposes. TV can provide an extraordinary number of programs originating from different cultures and different language communities, and deliver them to our homes or classrooms. Kellner61 argues that television has become a powerful socializing machine. Both television entertainment and information may well gain in power precisely because individuals are not aware that their thoughts and behaviors are being shaped by the ubiquitous idea and image machines of their home.

61 Kellner cited in Semali, M. Ladislaus, Teaching media: English teachers as media and technology critics, Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995, p. 208. 45

Television—or any video medium—differs from books in several ways that may affect cognitive structures and processes62; Firstly, the technology of these media makes both their verbal and visual symbol systems transient rather than stable. Secondly, linguistic information can be orthographic as in captioned films; but more often it is oral and, like the images on the screen, disappears quickly. Because of this transience, and because the two symbol systems are presented simultaneously— learners may process the information in video media very differently from the way they process similar information in books and newspapers. Lastly, it is also possible that the symbol systems and their transient nature affect the mental representations that learners create. Furthermore, it can introduce the culture of the target language, namely, the learner can see what life among users of a foreign language is like, not his or her vision of it. However, it should be kept in mind is there any educational advantage to be gleaned from the discourses of prevailing genres of TV, that is, from the linguistic, visual, and cultural content that they offer to the viewers. Therefore, understanding of genres and textual properties within genre are essential parts of the learning processes. Kress and van Leeuven63 state that the visuals have their own independent grammar which is not like that of the sentence. Moreover, some of the educationists and Sneed64 state that the most appropriate time and place for students to start studying the media is in the secondary schools social sciences curricular. On account of the fact that in adolescence, young people are more balanced in their assessments of the influences of the medium, both positive and negative.

62 Ulrike H. Meinhof, Language learning in the age of satellite television, Oxford University Press, 1998, p.54. 63 G. Kress and T. van Leeuven, Reading images:Grammar of Visual Design, London and New York: Routledge, 1996, p.16. 64 Sneed, Don, et al. "Media Literacy Ignored: A Qualitative Call for the Introduction of Media Studies across the High School Social Science Curriculum." Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, 1989, p.13. 46

Television fiction, especially in serialized form, is one of the key attractions of TV entertainment, wherever it occurs. They are key elements in broadcasters’ attempts to produce channel loyalty in their viewers. In the most countries can be heard or seen the same serialized American or UK films which already are known by everyone. However, the last decades some countries as a fight back create their own soap operas. The Khabar TV which is operated by Khabar agency was the first channel of the young Republic of Kazakhstan that transmitted initially home – produced soap opera Perekrjostok (Crossroads). Levy65 states that the Kazakh soap Crossroads, inspired by Coronation Street and supported in its initial stages by the British government’s Know- How Fund, uses soap with the declared aim of helping the Kazakh people to learn how to cope with personal and economic problems caused by the transition of their country from a Soviet state economy to a Western- style market economy. The daily environment is modeled as closely as possible on the appearance of the outside world. For example, the passage of the day, with breakfast and evening meal are strictly observed. They do recreate aspects of everyday life in another culture quite unparalleled by any other form. When it was asked about the reasons for preferring Crossroads to all the other imported soaps on Kazakh TV, a viewer specifically mentioned: “how Almaty, our Kazakhstan as shown on TV; normally we are used to watching Santa Barbara, America or Brazil – here you are looking directly at our Almaty, and you say ‘I know this places’ or ‘I have been here myself”.66 For language learners, these pictures of the everyday environment could provide the most valuable stimulus for reflecting on cross cultural differences as well. Any media products which present TV are more attractive than other media does and it is concerned on improving critical viewing of students. Therefore, to develop

65 P. Levy, “Showing Kazakhs the way the world turns”, Wall street journal Europe, ARTE June 1997, p. 123. 66 P.Levy, ibid., p.45. 47

students’ ability to distinguish between objective and subjective reporting during the language learning classes some activities can be suggested:67 • distinguish between local, national and international news; • analyze the TV news program as to the priorities given to news items; • compare and contrast the nightly newscasts of the three networks for the content, selection, and emphasis of the day's news; establish their own criteria for local, state, national, and international news and • to analyze the TV news using these criteria; compare the TV news to newspapers and news magazines in terms of content, depth, emphasis, and objectivity; • to become aware of the process of news gathering on a local, state, national, and international level. For instance, the activity is given below helps to be aware about the programs and their contents transmitted in cable channels.

Activity 2 Cable Interaction68

Research indicates that most cable viewers consistently watch the same 7 or 8 channels instead of taking advantage of the wide variety of cable offerings. Is this the case for you?

1. One of the presumed advantages of cable is that it is able to “niche” program: create more specific content for particular groups instead of producing general content for the masses. Make a list of 5 cable channels you are familiar with that program a very specific format. List the target audience is for this content.

Channel:______Audience:______Channel:______Audience:______Channel:______Audience:______

2. With so many choices available, how do you stay informed about program offering on your cable network? How much preparation (if any) do you do to make the most of your television\cable viewing time? 3. Can you think of any content that is not found on cable? Why not?

67 M. Ploghoft, "Children and Television: A Basic Concern in Social Science Education." Occasional Paper, No. 6. Oxford: Ohio Council for the Social Studies, 1985, p.26. 68 Kimb Massey, ibid, p. 28 48

2.2.2.2 The Role of Radio in Foreign Language Learning

Radio Technology was first developed during the late nineteenth century and came into popular usage during the early twentieth century. There was an interest in education to use radio, while the coming of television and computer shifted interest away from radio. However, now it is used as a means for news, entertainment- relaxation, advertising, and education-culture.

As one of the purposes of the language learning is to have proficiency in hearing, the radio can serve as an easily accessible means of improving this skill. Fundamentally, the learning of a language is achieved by listening repeatedly to the spoken language as used by a native speaker until it is understood. Therefore, as far as foreign language education is concerned, listening to the voice of the native speaker is the most important requirement. So, this is not likely possible through textbooks, but it is possible through continuous use of listening. Moreover, learning the language even through the radio helps to understand the culture of the foreign language speaking people and increasing their international understanding. According to Jamison’s statement utilizing a radio in education fall naturally into three broad categories69: 1. Improving educational quality, 2. Relevance lowering educational costs (or the rate of increase of costs) 3. Improving access to education, particularly in rural areas. Moreover, he suggests radio has four categories which can affect on listener; - it can motivate, - inform, - teach, - change behavior.

69 D.Jaminson , E.McAnany, et.al., Current Trends,Methods and Technologies in Distance Education for Primary School Teachers , a working paper for common Wealth of Learning , Vancouve, 1973, pp.12-18. 49

Nevertheless, some of the limitations of radio for education are that interaction is limited, instructor feedback and clarification is generally unavailable as well. Moreover, the instruction is uninterruptible and not reviewable, the pace of the lesson is fixed for all students and note-taking is difficult. That time for reflection on the content is minimal too. However, at the present time where the high developed age of technology, it seems the role of radio is not foregoing. But, studies by the U.K. Open University70 have demonstrated that radio has a greater value for weak students who benefit from radio as a supplementary learning tool. The Agency for International Development has shown that radio is more cost- effective and results in a greater learning effect size than textbooks or teacher education. Radio has the advantage of teaching subjects in which classroom teachers are deficient or untrained. An added benefit for multi-grade classrooms is that it provides instruction for one group of students while the teacher works with another group. Radio can also bring new or unavailable resources into the classroom71 and can be presented some functions of radio in learning language.72 Initially, it offers more intensive backup to language presented on TV. This is why TV language courses have accompanying radio series which revise more intensively the language taught on TV. Secondly, as already was mentioned radio is a way of developing listening ability. It helps to train the ear of the learner and also to improve fluency. There is one of the activities can be helpful to train the listening and content comprehension:

70 S.Tripp, W.Roby, in D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology, Auditory presentations in language laboratories. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 1996, pp. 823. 71 J. Muller, Radio for Literacy. A Reader on the Use of Radio in Literacy Programmes. Bonn, Germany: German Foundation for International Development, ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 265 372 cited at All India Radio: growth and development, 1998, p.1. http://www.air.org.in Retrieved: 25.12.09. 72 B.Tomalin, “Video, TV and Radio in the English language classroom”, JSTORE: TESOL Quarterly, Vol.:27, No. 2, Summer, 1993, p.317. http://www.jstor.org/pss/3587152 Retrieved: 19.10.08. 50

Activity 3. The structure of the news73

All news broadcasts have a structure. The first stage in teaching is a recognition exercise. a) The teacher explains the structure of the news and puts the three parts up on the board: News headlines, News in detail and the main points. b) They hear the news headlines – a brief summary of the main stories. c) The news in detail. There may be more news stories than were mentioned in the headlines. d) Finally, the main points will be summarized again. The news is the most accessible broadcast for use live in class. It provides a motive for listening. News broadcasts are usually hourly and therefore can be heard in class time. However, not all news is easy to use in class, so what kind of news must be? The difficulty of reception of external radio broadcasts suggests that the first rule of selection is in “whatever broadcast in target language you can pick up”. However, quite advanced learners can find it hard to follow a news broadcast where there are several different voices and acoustics. Therefore, in choosing a radio broadcasts, the two criteria should be, first, what broadcast is easiest and most clearly received, and second, a broadcast with a single newscaster. With these two criteria fulfilled, it still is not enough just to turn on the radio and play a news broadcast. It is worth introducing comprehension tasks at different levels of difficulty.

2.2.2.3 Computer Software and Network Assisted Language Learning

In recent years the computer has established itself as important tool of informational era, numerous works concerning to computer assisted language learning (CALL) are presented. Therefore, in present research paper, some advantages and disadvantages of computer are going to be briefly described and reviewed.

As it is well known the computer can be used as for revision, reinforcement, extension and for other variety of purposes. It may communicate with the learner visually by displaying text, graphics or video images on a screen. It may also present

73 Barry Tomalin, Video, TV and radio in the English classroom, London, 1990, p.91 51

sound, in the form of speech, or music. Although, there is not possibility for user carrying on a spoken dialogue with the computer, however, it can be realized with the help of internet. Khurshid Ahmad74 represented some advantages of the computer and divided into three types: - those which are part of its inherent nature, - those which benefit the teacher and, - those which benefit the learner. Moreover, it offers individualized, user-controlled learning which is flexible and inexhaustible like “expanding storage capacities make on-board dictionaries, reference grammars and drill-and-practice activities which are easily accessible”.75 Conversely, learners learn everything form computer and teachers are redundant. The computer in short, cannot effectively conduct an open-ended dialogue with a learner. The internet can help learners create many of the conditions for optimal language learning environment. The internet76: • Increases self-esteem by empowering both the teacher and the learner • Accommodates different learning styles and empowers learners regardless of physical challenges or social and cultural differences • Encourages and motivates learners to become involved in authentic projects • Promotes critical thinking Furthermore, the internet as a main source of information draws an attention more than other technologies. As it is well known, it is easy accessible and provided with TV, radio and electronic versions of printed media as well. In a sense, there are practically no need for TV and radio broadcasting. Computer network is the most interactive of the media and in fact synthesize the capabilities of the other media. The media hypertexts and hypermedia engage the user and offers much information than other media technologies. Bolter explains the significance of hypertext; “Electronic text

74 K.Ahmad, G. Corbett, et.al., Computers, Language Learning and language teaching, Cambridge University Press, 1985, p.4. 75 William Brierley and lan R. Kemble, Computers as a tool in language teaching, England, 1991, p.7.

is the first text in which the elements of meaning, of structure, and of visual display are fundamentally unstable”77. Addressing to this issue it can be stated that some things are easy to produce and modify for computer networks, creditability is uncertain and involvement is typically high in chats. Using internet is one of the motivational tool for developing critical thinking and other four language skills. A teacher can present internet based activities in a variety forms to the classroom using teaching skills. One of the activities presented below gives students practice using the internet and evaluating the resources. Students will develop critical and evaluative skills of internet sources and ultimately learn to use credible sources for support of messages. Activity 4. Using the Internet as an Information Source78

This activity is meant to supplement the standard discussion about the credibility and reliability of sources, specifically targeting the use of internet sources of a communication assignment.

Materials: www.library.cornell.edu\okuref\research.webeval.html www.library.ucla.edu\libraries\colledge\help\critical\index.htm Other research articles or Web sites may also be used. Or, provide hard copies or a transparency of the Web pages. The checklist (below) for internet sources should be given to each student.

Procedure:

1. Display the Web pages and go over them with the entire class, or have students work on their own as homework. Students need to go over the Cornell and UCLA sites and the read the article in the final site. The first two sites are tutorials; the Cornell site offers tips on both internet and non-internet information sources, and the UCLA site includes a series of questions developed by librarian Esther Grassian the Web researches can ask about sources. The final site is one entitled “Feline Reactions to Bearded Men”. The article reads as if it were a scholarly article, but as students begin to apply the questions regarding reliability and credibility to this internet source, they find how utterly ridiculous the source is! For those with limited Web access, instructors can provide a copy of the feline article for students to read or put it on a transparency or projector for students to read along.

76 Joy Egbert, Elizabeth Hanson Smith, CALL Environments Research, Practice, and Critical Issues, USA, 1999, p.69. 77 Bolter cited in Ken Beat, Teaching and Researching Computer assisted language learning, London, 2003, p. 37. 78 Pamela Cooper, Shrewyn Moreale, Creating Competent Communicators, Activities for teaching speaking listening and media literacy in grades 7-12, Scottsdale, Arizona, 2003, p.48. 53

2. As students read “Feline Reactions to Bearded Men”, have them apply the “Internet Sources” checklist to the article.

Debriefing: Discuss students’ perceptions after completing the assignment. Generally, following the completion of this exercise, students will be less likely to use questionable Web-based information as part of their assignment.

Assessment: Ask students to evaluate the Web sources they use and include that assessment with their refernce pages. You can also administer a classroom assessment instrument for students to rate their understanding of course objectives and principles. Using a Likert-like scale (1 is “strongly agree” and 5 is “strongly disagree”), have students respond to these statements: 1. The discussion of internet sources and how to evaluate them has increased my ability to carefully analyze sources. 2. I know how to find sources for my speeches from the internet and how to evaluate their credibility.

Checklist: Internet Sources

1. What is the site’s purpose? 2. Will its information be unbiased? 3. Who sponsors the site? 4. What are the organization’s values or goals? 5. Can you contact the sponsors should questions arise? 6. Is the information in the site well documented? 7. Does it provide citations to sources used in obtaining the information? 8. Are individual articles signed or attributed? 9. How does the value of the Web-based information you have found compare with other available sources, such as print?

In these kinds of activities competent speakers demonstrate the ability to adapt communication strategies appropriately and effectively according to the needs of the situation and setting. Moreover, it helps better understand the speaking process and use language appropriately as the activity is selected to demonstrate speaking situation.

3 Media Education in Kazakhstan (South Kazakhstan, Shymkent)

The general meaning of media education had existed in the Soviet Union, but it was mostly concerned with the hearth of film, as films were the main items of entertainment and they had access to a number of amateurs which were growing rapidly. The Soviet Cinema’s Friends Society (SCFS) was organized in 1925 and though a lot of films were shot, they had their own objectives. The objectives of SCFS were to study the mass audience and to teach by means of cinema. However, every step in the media was controlled by the rulers of the country, and creative attempts were destroyed by the Stalin regime in 1934 and, as a result, SCFS was closed. At the same time, media education was developing through the press, but it had to be issued having two main goals; 79 the spread of the communist ideology and the liquidation of illiteracy of population. The system of ruling the country was rather the same in Kazakhstan as in Russia. Then, these films were seldom shown on few existing television channels and videos. Personal computers were only dreamt about. However, nowadays people have easy access to all sorts of information by means of media technologies. Essentially, media education is not a compulsory subject in secondary schools and some teachers confuse media education with using the media as a technical aid and as a concrete subject. They are mostly concerned with media education as far as journalism while it can be integrated across the curriculum including language learning and other subjects. The curriculum is mostly goal-oriented. It is not comprehensive and detailed in terms of covering media education and media literacy.

3.1 The Media and Media Technologies in Kazakhstan

The information which is retrieved and provided by the media technologies is accessible to every citizen of the country. Nevertheless, the government controls the printing presses, radio and TV transmission facilities. It operates the country's national

79 A. Fedorov (e), op.cit., p. 49. 55

radio and TV networks. There are the government-backed presses in Russian and Kazakh which are less issued than the private presses. Moreover, there is only one state - owned Kazakh TV (The First Channel) in Kazakh and Russian languages, and one channel (Eurasia TV) which is state - run. It rebroadcasts Russia's Channel One. The influential Khabar agency runs several TV channels as well, in Kazakh, Russian and English languages. There are a variety of Radio channels, one of which is a state – owned Kazakh Radio. These are also broadcasted in two languages (Kazakh and Russian). Moreover, there are foreign news agencies such as “ITAR TASS”, “RIA”, “News”, “Reuter”, “France Press”, “Xinhua”, which are accredited and transmit foreign news through the country. The most popular foreign satellites in Kazakhstan are: PanAmSat which broadcasts MTV, BBC, CNN and other Indian channels, and the second satellite is 703/704 which transmits European and Chinese programs.80 According to the data of Statistical Agency of Kazakhstan (www.kaz.stat.kz), only Kazakh printed presses which are state-run and private presses are registered. However, it can be observed that a large amount of foreign printed media is on sale. Nowadays, there are 1586 mass-media variations in Kazakhstan: 1047 of them are newspapers, 400 of them magazines, 125 of them broadcasting companies and 14 of them are news agencies.81 Another kind of the media, the internet, for the first time, appeared in the territory of Kazakhstan in April 1991 and since that time, the supply of internet has steadily been growing. In 2000 there was a study about internet users conducted by the company “Actis System Asia” and agency “Brief Central Asia”. According to the results of the\this research, the number of internet users reached ‘394.000’ and in 2002 the active number of internet users were 500.000-700.000. At the present time it has probably reached more than 1.000.000 users. This result shows that the number of people who have access to information is growing every day, and Kazakhstan is on the

80 С.Х. Барлыбаева, Развитие информационного общества в мире и в Казахстане, Алматы, Қазақ Унверситеті, 2006, б. 167. 81 С.Х. Барлыбаева, op.cit., б.169. 56

way of full informatization. Accordingly, educational state politics is introduced and the interdepartmental program "The Internet - in schools" is asserted as well. For instance, “in the USA and Great Britain the process of liberalization of the market was carried out gradually, under the control of the state and took from 7 to 15 years.”82 It should be noted that in none of the countries of the world, media technologies have improved as quickly as in Kazakhstan, which has a history of 18 years of independence. All foreign TV channels and printed media, mentioned above, give a huge opportunity to use foreign media products in language learning process in the classroom. However, do learners have satellite a TV or any access to foreign channels at home in order to contribute their knowledge into the language process at schools? In the next part of this research paper, data is collected to find answers to this major question.

3.2 Educational Planning and Strategies in Kazakhstan

As one of the influential aspects in integrating media education is educational system of the country, it is fair to revise further development of education. According to the data collected it can be stated that Kazakhstan has rapidly developed in all spheres of social life, economic status and educational settings in the last decades. The rapid growth of technology and informatization in the digital age has been the main cause to revise the educational policy of the country. A strategy to make the country one of the world’s fifty most competitive countries was adopted. Decree no. 345 of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan a Council on National Sustainable Development was established. As it is well known, there was a project according to “United Nations Decade 2005 – 2014 Education for Sustainable Development” to be realized in Kazakhstan.83 The Implementation of the project “Promoting education for sustainable development in the formal and informal education system of Kazakhstan” is supported by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), Strategy

82 Проект, Долгосрочная программа развития образования до 2020 года, Астана, 2008, c.23. 83 Project, Education for sustainable development in the formal and informal education system of Kazakhstan, UNESCO, 2006, p.5. 57

for Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) in the Republic of Kazakhstan and a pilot project on ESD in Central Asia As a result, schools and other educational institutions have been properly equipped with the new technologies. This assertion was stated at the “Developing of ICT in educational institutions of Kazakhstan and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)” 84 conference in 2006 in Almaty. In the last few years the ICT development in Kazakhstan has had a rapid growth in equipping the schools with new technologies. One of N. Nazarbayev’s official messages on acquiring proper Information and Communication Technologies was one of the evidences. Moreover, the state –run educational Development Program was implemented in the Republic of Kazakhstan between the years of 2005 and 2010. The state – run program of educational development in Kazakhstan between 2005 and 2010 was elaborated pursuant to the Presidential Address to the nation as of March 1, 2004 titled “Towards a Competitive Kazakhstan” 85, a competitive economy and a competitive nation. The program was called forth by the need for drastic changes to upgrade the quality of education and attend to strategic tasks set before the education system amidst a new economic and socio – cultural environment. The program is to be implemented in two stages – the first stage from 2005 to 2007, and the second stage covering the years between 2008 and 2010. According to this Program, another strategy was devised for the establishment and development of educational television in Kazakhstan for the period of realization between 2008 and 2009 years. In order to be competitive in the sphere of education, it aims to reach to the higher standards of the educational system of developed countries, and it is supposed to be improved at the expense of ICT. Another improvement achieved was in the media concerning the subtitling of several programs in different languages. The talks between the President of Kazakhstan N.Nazarbayev and the Supreme commissioner of Security and Cooperation in Europe national minorities Knut Vollebek held in October 2007 gives an idea about learning

84 А. Оразымбетова, “Білім беру жүйесінде ақпараттық технологиялардың келешегі зор”, Ақиқат, №11, 2008, б.23. 85 Қазақстан Республикасы Президентінің 2004 жылғы 11 қазандағы N 1459 Жарлығы, б.19. 58

languages. 86 Subtitling TV programs by all means is one of the most essential ways of learning foreign languages; however, while learning the language, critical observation has to be implemented. International experts, representatives of mass-media, public associations, linguists also participated in this forum. According to the chairman of Committee of languages Yerden Kazhybek, the sphere of application of subtitles is very wide. He said; "They can be applied in any language. If a certain diaspora wants to learn the language and have a local TV, they can use any video material with subtitles in their native language".87 Subtitling does not only serve to improve young people’s own languages, but it also puts emphasis on the social and cultural significance of a multinational country. This meeting was held upon using the captions in different languages of Diasporas so that they don’t forget their native languages in Kazakhstan. Besides, it gives vast opportunity to members of other Diasporas to learn languages as well. For instance, Georgians can learn the German Diasporas’ language, namely, German language via the media. It should be noted that “the representatives of 130 nations and ethnic groups live in the country”. 88

3.3 The Language of Kazakh Mass Media

Both Kazakh and Russian languages are spoken in the country. Therefore, most of the mass media items are broadcasted and issued in these two languages. There are newspapers printed in Uyghur, Korean, English, and German, and in other languages. The channel “Caspionet” of the leading agency “Khabar” is internationally transmitted abroad and in the country as well. It is broadcasted in Kazakh, Russian and English languages. However, the government passed a law in Kazakhstan about modification and additions in mass-media in May, 2001. According to the decree, starting from 2002, of

86 “Телевизионные субтитры – мосты языковой гармонии”, http://www.internews.kz/newsitem/07-05-2008/3787 Retrieved: 20.05.08, с. 1. 87 “Телевизионные субтитры – мосты языковой гармонии”, ibid., б.2.

all the programs on TV, not more than 50% of them should be broadcasted in Russian or other languages, and in 2003, foreign programs took 20% of all broadcasting time.89 However, this norm is not distributed to cable and satellite broadcasting. As information is easily and efficiently available and has great influence on people, it is important to bear in mind that the impact of informational stream on culture, on education and on the way of living is extremely great. The aforementioned issues show that for the people of the country learning a second language with the help of the media is practicable. However, utilizing ICT, interpreting the media for critical thinking in the school environment and developing learners’ critical thinking skills with media products, seem to be in deficiency.

3.4 Technological Equipment of Secondary Schools

As it was already mentioned, in order to integrate media education into schools, schools should met two criteria: technological maintenance (space, hardware, upkeep. etc) and suitable preparation of the teachers so, that they could be provided with technical initiation and teacher training. However, relative to the first condition Kazakh schools are poorly equipped in Shymkent. 30 (37%) schools out of 81schools have language laboratories and multimedia equipment. Moreover, in every school, there are 2 – 3 computer classes where just one computer device is used by 50 students. There are overall 1926 computer devices in schools, and 1417 of them are outdated and need to be upgraded or renewed. 19 (24.4%) schools are equipped with channels for long distance education and 64 (79.1%) have electronic books in Kazakh language. Moreover, only 38 schools of 81 have interactive desks.90 These figures are fairly good when compared with the conditions of earlier years, but overall the program has not been satisfactory in introducing media education in secondary schools.

88 Постановление Правительства Республики Казахстана от 28 июня 2006 года N 593, c.3. 89 С. Х. Барлыбаева, ibid., б.171.; Закон Республики Казахстан от 11 июля 1997 года N 151-1 О Языках В Республике Казахстан Глава III. Язык в сфере образования, науки, культуры и средствах массовой информации Статья 18. Язык печати и средств массовой информации, c.34.

However, all these shortages are meant to be revised and schools are considered to be re-equipped between 2008 – 2010 Development Programme in Education in Shymkent. Therefore, this new development programme is supposed to meet the criteria in technological condition for teaching media in schools. Additionally, teacher training is one of the main aspects in teaching the media. As the pedagogical departments in higher educational institutions have not got media elements in their teaching programs, it can be deduced that teachers do not utilize media productions properly, so that they are able to teach how to think critically and create their own media product.

3.5 Violence as a Reason for Teaching the Media in Shymkent Violence on television and films, video games, and music reveals unequivocal evidence that media violence increases the probability of aggressive and violent behavior in both immediate and long term contexts. By the time children are eighteen years old, they will have witnessed on television (with average viewing time) 200,000 acts of violence.91 This is the indication of spending more time (44.5 hours per week- 61/2 hours daily92) in front of computer, television, and game screens than any other activity except sleeping. The negative impact of the media on young people can be observed in their aggressive behavior leading to more severe forms of behavior and what’s more, the aggressive attitudes strike on the teen’s peers as well as his\her school environment. Almost all schools along with teachers’ staff have a school inspector who controls emergencies in Shymkent. However, violence tends to occur more than 10 times every week93 among young people in school environment, and it is highly regrettable that they

90 Шымкент қаласында білім беруді дамытудың 2008 – 2010 жылдарға арналған Кешендік Бағдарламасы, Шымкент, 2008, б.5. 91 A.C Huston, et al., Big world, small screen: The role of television in American society, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1998, p. 42. 92 Kaiser Family Foundation, “Generation M: Media in the lives of eight to eighteen year olds,” 2005, http://www.kff.org/entmedia/entmedia030905pkg.cfm, Retrieved: 25.01.09. 93 À. Жусанбай, “Пагон Таққан Педагогтар Қашан Көбейеді?”, http://dmk.kz/?p=831 3.05.09 Retrieved: 3.05.09. б.1. 61

imitate action films by using guns and causing injuries forcefully. According to statistics, 70 percent of violence among young people in the Southern region continuously occurs in Shymkent.94 The media products containing violence, watched and read by students can be discussed in the classroom. While teaching, students try to group articles or newsletters into “categories” and then discuss how these categories can be identified. Surely, they are given plenty of opportunities to discuss personal preferences and perspectives. Although foreign language teachers should use models and methods of narrative structure, which is reasonably well known to media specialists, English teachers may not be familiar with them. Plenty of activities which have critical dimension in the classroom can be utilized; however, it should be taught according to models of teaching the media, which are represented in the following chapters.

3.6 Models for Integrating Media Education

It's important that educators teach inductively, and begin using students' direct experiences with the media whenever possible. The basic method of media studies is that of a "spiral curriculum," a concept developed by educator Jerome Bruner.95 The fundamental principle of this method is that the key concepts of any discipline can be taught in some form to students at any level. Thus, concepts initially introduced in simple form at the elementary level are, in successive years, explored, developed and extended in increasingly sophisticated ways as the student matures and develops.

As the field of media is broad and amorphous, ranging in variety from traditional media such as newspapers, magazines, television and films, to now encompassing many areas of popular culture such as fashion, toys and dolls and celebrity gossip. Anyone

94 Айжан Жеңісқызы, “Газеттерге Шолу”, http://www.azattyq.org/content/article/1149654.html, Retrieved: 03.05.09. б.1. 95 Barry Duncan, Media Literacy resource Guide, Teaching Strategies and Models for Media Education, Specific Approaches to Media Literacy, Ontario Ministry of Education, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 1989, p.28. 62

attempting to make sense of this area needs a clear conceptual framework that will allow discussion of a variety of complex and interrelated factors. In order to integrate media into the subject, teachers should work on a basis of a framework. A number of such frameworks have been developed in various parts of the world in the last few years, as media education has moved forward globally. Most of them express the same ideas in different ways: instead of having a specific framework, what appears to be important is just having a framework. In North York, Media Literacy Curriculum Model, based on the critical framework developed by Eddie Dick of the Scottish Film Council, was adopted and modified.96 Figure 4. Media Literacy Curriculum Model

The core concept of the model is the idea that all communication and discourse are the construct of reality. Every description or representation of the world, fictional or otherwise, is an attempt to describe or define reality, and is in some way a construction - a selection and ordering of details to communicate aspects of the creator's view of reality. There are no neutral, value-free descriptions of reality - in print, in word or in

96 Canadian Council of Teachers of English and Language Arts, “A Critical Framework for Media Education”, English Quarterly, Toronto, Ontario Vol.: 25, 1992, pp. 2-3. 63

visual form. An understanding of this concept is the starting point for a critical relationship to the media. This concept leads to three broad areas within which questions can be raised that will help students to deconstruct the media: text, audience and production. There is another constructed model, which has a remit to develop media literacy, applied by the Office of Communication (OFCOM) in the United Kingdom97. There is a recurrent emphasis on the function of digital media to provide information, and another emphasis on the corresponding neglect of these functions such as narrative, fantasy, role play, social networking, which are arguably the functions that are most important to young people: Table 4. Media Literacy: a cultural-semiotic model

Cultural context Social functions Semiotic processes Lived Cultural Discourse Selective Creative Design/Production Recorded Critical Distribution Interpretation

In addition, the models are used by Russian media educators can be generalized into the following types98: 1. Educationally-informational models (studies of the theory and history of media and media language); 2. Instructionally-ethical models (study of moral, philosophical problems on the media material); 3. Developing models (social and cultural development of a creative person in aspects of perception, imagination, visual memory, interpretations, analysis, critical thinking, etc.). Russian educator Zabonina99 stated that integrating media education into the humanities and natural – sciences of school disciplines assists in preparing young people

97 Andrew Burn and James Durran, Media Literacy in Schools: Practice, Production and Progression, London, 2007, p.8.; Mutlu Binark, Mine Gencel Bek, ibid., p.77. 98 A.Fedorov, “Russian Media Education: from 20s to the Information Age”, http://www.unesco.ru/eng/pages/bythemes/stasya18022005145853.php Retrieved: 22.01.09. 99 Л. Зазнобина, “Медиаобразование В Школе: Как Же Выжить В Мире СМИ”, Человек, 1999, с.8. 64

to the life of the information age. In other words, the proximity of the main subject and the outside information flow should be elucidated and then the task of media education confronting the multitude subject material should be set. Nevertheless, some teachers can feel that they are not trained enough to be media teachers as they were trained to teach language or geography. However, lack of training does not have to be a drawback and it might be acceptable to approach media as an area for constant investigation, exploration and discovery. It should strongly mean that media can be used as a way of engaging students in working on outcomes that are vital to the whole curriculum. Media education can be used as an ideal way of integrating the content of traditional subject areas, or of casting a new light on a traditional subject area. Teachers need to pay attention to some size giving below so that they can integrate media in a proper way:100 1.problem solving 2.investigation 3.critical thinking 4.effective use of technology 5.understanding the world as a set of related systems 6.collaboration 7.responsible citizenship 8.career education 9.aesthetics It should be noted that thoughtful media integration does neither hinder nor impede language learning – it helps to experience it. Thus, a media-based language acquisition process is, in fact, a real learning process leading to knowledge generation. At the same time, experiencing the language fosters an active use of the technological devices so indispensable for active participation in our society.

100 C.M. Worsnop,John Pungente, et al., Integrating Media Lessons into the Classroom, Media Literacy Resource Guide, Ontario Ministry of Education, Toronto, ON, Canada, 1989, p.63. 65

4 FINDINGS The Case Study and Methods Pertinent to this present research paper, an attempt to conduct a survey in secondary schools in Shymkent was made. These schools are public schools in which nearly twenty five pupils were placed in every classroom. Along with an inquiry on pupils, teachers were also asked to respond to some questions. The purposes of this qualitative research were to describe how media products are reflected in the foreign language classrooms of secondary schools in Shymkent and identify what teachers comprehend by the “Media Education”. As the purpose of this research implies, the study will entail a small range of questions for learners and teachers. The key questions to fulfill the aim of the study were: What is the media education? Which ways of integration are affordable (Synthetic, Integrated and Autonomous, Required subject)? What purposes are intended to be reached in the use of media products? In what range do the students utilize the media technology and media products?

4.1 Participants Participants of the study were teachers of foreign language and in the questionnaire fifteen teachers were involved. As the media education is not implemented in secondary schools properly, the research\survey aimed to define the “media education” terminology used by our respondents. After determining the term of “media education” and constructing the general picture of media education, teachers were proposed ways of integrating media education into the classroom in compliance with the economic, social and educational state of the country. The pupils of grade 7 – 8 were questioned to gauge the general state of use of the media by the young respondents. In the survey eighty pupils of both genders were involved.

4.2 Questionnaire Results and Discussion

Before presenting the survey to teachers we attempted to find out about their opinion of the term ‘media education’. Most of the teachers have at least more than five years experience in the field of language teaching, and almost all the teachers arrived at the same conclusion. A great number of teachers used the term “media classes” and “multimedia classes”. However, by “media classes” and “multimedia classes” they assumed these terms meant teaching English using technology as a method of an intensive course. Nevertheless, in our context these terms meant “the media in education” whose aim is the development of learners’ critical thinking with the use of media products; otherwise the research group related these terms to journalism. Moreover, some teachers did not hide the fact that they rarely use media products and that’s the reason the pupils cannot keep pace with the school program. The use of media product, which is rare in classrooms, aimed at activities such as recognizing the grammar and finding new vocabulary. The presented media education definitions, which are mentioned in Part I, were taken from A. Fedorov’s survey. However, these definitions were given to respondents in Russian language and the results are following: Table 5. Results of survey on teachers about Media Education definitions

N Numbers of teachers, who basically: Definitions of Media Education: agree with disagree the given with the definition given definition: 1 “Media Education 15 (100%) -deals with all communication media and includes the printed word and graphics, the sound, the still as well as the moving image, delivered on any kind of technology; -enables people to gain understanding of the communication media used in their society and the way they operate and to acquire skills using these media to communicate with others; -ensure that people learn how to * analyse, critically reflect upon and create media texts; * identify the sources of media texts, their political, social, commercial and/or cultural interests, and their contexts; * interpret the messages and values offered by the media; 67

* select appropriate media for communicating their own messages or stories and for reaching their intended audience; * gain or demand access to media for both reception and production. Media education is part of basic entitlement of every citizen, in every country in the world, to freedom of expression and the right to information and is instrumental in building and sustaining democracy” [Recommendations Addressed to the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCO. In: Education for the Media and the Digital Age. Vienna: UNESCO, 1999, p.273-274. Reprint in: Outlooks on Children and Media. Goteborg: UNESCO & NORDICOM, 2001, p. 152]. 2 “Media teachers today use the term ‘media education’, ‘media study’ 14 1 (6.67 %) and ‘media literacy’ almost interchangeably. My personal preference (93.33%) is to use the term ‘media education’ as a broad description of all that takes place in media-oriented classroom. … “Media literacy” is the outcome of work in either media education or media study. The more you learn about or through the media, the more media literacy you have: media literacy is the skills of experiencing, interpreting/analyzing and making media products” [Worsnop, C. Screening Images: Ideas for Media Education (1999). Mississauga, Ontario: Wright Communications, p.x). 3 “Media education” is teaching about media, as distinguished from 6 (40%) 9 (53.33 %) teaching with media. Ordinarily, media education emphazies the acquisition both of cognitive knowledge about how media are produced and distributed and of analytic skills for interpreting and valuing media content. In contrast, ‘media studies’ ordinarily emphasize hands-on experiences with media production” [International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Vol. 14 / Eds.N.J.Smelser & P.B.Baltes. Oxford, 2001, p.9494].

As it can be seen above, the results point to the fact that a great number of teachers gave preference to the UNESCO definition. Indeed, this definition provides teachers with the main goals of media education and it generally defines the frame of ‘Media Education’. As a result, it turned out that most of the supporters (14 (93.33%)) of the second definition, which is represented interchangeably, used terms such as “media education”, “media literacy” and “media study”, and they also agreed with the given definition. However, the third definition, which is a more controversial one among educationists, has also presented division of opinions. Most of the teachers (9 (53.33 %)) proposed using the media as an aid for teaching, while the other 40% of voters agreed with the given definition. The second point of our questionnaire offered three different ways of integrating media education into the classroom.

Table 6. Results of Survey on teachers about the ways of integrating Media Education

N Ways of Integrating Media Education\Media Literacy Mean rating 1 Synthetic (synthesis of integrated and autonomous ways) 2 2 Integrated (integrated into required subjects) 7 3 Autonomous (elective courses) 5 4 Required subject 1

There is a clear distribution of voices among the four various ways of introducing media education. The majority of teachers proposed an integrated way, while five of the voters offered media education to be taught as an elective course. A\the synthetic way was selected by only two teachers and it was not proposed as a required subject. Essentially, there is not a sharp differentiation between the rates, but it is clear that most of the teachers proposed media education as an integrated aspect. This can be due to an inspiring interest in students to combine two subjects of teaching; the first is the subject matter, which learners get from the media world. Afterwards, they bring it to the class and distribute it to the second subject: Geography, Language learning or History. Another questionnaire aims to check the learners’ range of the media use outside the classroom. The use of media technology and media products are not properly utilized in language learning process as most of the learners claimed. The chart below presents the rate of media usage by eighty students outside the school

Figure 5. The rate of media usage of pupils outside the school

Newspaper & Magazine 25 (31.25%) Satellite TV 68 (85%) Satellite TV

Radio Internet 32 (40%) Radio Newspaper & Magazine Internet 53 (66.25%)

As we can see on the chart, 68 pupils out of 80 watch satellite TV at home, and these pupils have the option to choose from various types of programs. In the present, Alma-TV, one of the leading satellite agencies, provides viewers with mostly Russian, American, Uzbek and Turkish channels, which can be viewed by paying an affordable fee. However, the use of internet is less than satellite TV, and only 53 students go online on a regular basis. Most of the users asserted that not all of them have a network connection at home; thus, most of them connect to the internet at internet cafes and clubs. The variety in the distribution of these results between satellite TV and the internet can be due to economic reasons. Network connection services and the fees for connecting to channels are arguably higher than what the common citizen can afford; moreover, some families cannot even afford to purchase a computer. However, in spite of the drawbacks, students keep using the media and are shaped by the media world.

CONCLUSION

With the appearance of media education in the 60s, in America, media education was applied to the curriculum of secondary schools with a great emphasis, and since then, it has been used in other countries as well. However, by reason of various approaches of some educationists on media education, the fields of teaching media education are still quite disputable. In current research paper, terminologies and fields of teaching media education are discussed and findings were empowered by the valuable reasons. In present paper was revealed that most of the educationists argue that media education is about teaching the media, while others state that media education is teaching with the media. It can be stated that teaching the media in one country depends on the structure of its education system, the relationship between the media and intellectuals in the system, and finally the economic and social states of itself. Therefore, in the case of Kazakhstan research design relates to these three aspects, namely, education system, social and economic states of Kazakhstan. Essentially, the notion of media education has existed since the Soviet Union and media education was related to film industry. Nowadays, in modern Kazakhstan media education has reference to journalism. Considerably, when were asked opinions of teachers, it was revealed that a great number of teachers assume it is a method of intensive courses by using technology namely, ‘the media classes’ and ‘multimedia classes’, while in our context it means “the media in classes” which aims to develop learners’ critical thinking on the media products. The term “media education” is itself frequently confused with other terminologies and is often confused with “media literacy”. After a careful study of these terms, it can be concluded that the term “media education” is more applicable in the case of Kazakhstan. “Media education” has a direct translation as “медиа білімі” (media bilimi), while “медиа сауаттылық” (media sauattylyk) is an equivalent to “media literacy”. Actually, media education has a broad description that takes place in a media –

oriented classroom whatever the classroom subject matter be; language, history or geography. However, media literacy is the result of work on media education. The more we learn about or through the media, the more media literacy we will have. According to the results of the survey that was conducted on teachers of secondary schools, a great number of teachers gave preference to the UNESCO definition. Indeed, this definition provides the main goals of media education and generally defines its frame. The second part of the questionnaire presented four ways of introducing media education. In the result of the survey, a clear distribution of voices among the four variants has been shown. Majority of the teachers proposed an integrated way while five of the voters offered media education to be taught as a non-compulsory course. There is not a sharp differentiation between the rates; however, it is clear that most of the teachers proposed media education as an integrated subject. This can be due to an inspiring interest in students to combine two subjects of knowledge; the first is the subject matter, which learners gets from the world of media and brings it to the class and distributes it in the second subject; Geography, Language Learning or History. In the case of this research paper, media education is proposed to be integrated into foreign language classes. In foreign language learning communication always was the crucial and four main skills are aimed to be reached. However, everyday communication is shaped by the media. Thereby, foreign language learning reaches its own purposes while media education get its aim at the same time. Therefore, the knowledge of learners which they have already possessed and have got outside the school should be used in the classroom and the media product is motivational tool in teaching. The fact is that the youth in Kazakhstan spend more time using the media outside the school environment. They are active consumers of the media products and media technologies, which subconsciously manipulate their mind and provide them with subjective information. Rising of violence among young people which occurs more than 10 times every week is one of the main reasons of teaching media education. It is highly

regrettable that they imitate action films by carrying guns or even causing injuries. According to the statics, 70% of violence among the young people in the Southern region occurs in Shymkent. With the aim of defining the average range of media use, the survey included 80 pupils. According to the results, 68 out of 80 pupils watch satellite TV on a continuous basis at home and the types of programs vary. In the present, one of the leading satellite agencies Alma-TV provides Kazakh citizens with mostly Russian, American, Uzbek and Turkish channels, which can be viewed by paying an affordable fee. However, the use of internet is less than satellite TV, and only 53 students go online on a regular basis. Most of the users asserted that not all of them have a network connection at home, and they mostly go online at internet cafes and clubs. The variety of distribution of satellite TV and the internet can be due to economic reasons. Network connection services and the fees for connecting to channels are arguably higher than what the common citizen can afford; moreover, some families cannot even afford to purchase a computer. However, in spite of the drawbacks, these students keep using the media and are shaped by the world of media. There are 1586 kinds of mass-media in Kazakhstan: 1047 of them are newspapers, 400 of them magazines, 125 of them broadcasting companies and 14 of them are news agencies. As both Kazakh and Russian languages are spoken in the country, most of the mass media items are broadcasted and issued in these two languages. However, in certain regions of Kazakhstan, where Diasporas are located, different local languages are also spoken. It should be noted that representatives of 130 nations and ethnic groups live in the country. Therefore, the broadcasting of information occurs in several languages, for instance; the population of Uzbeks is denser in Southern Kazakhstan, and in this region programs are broadcasted and issued in Uzbek language. Moreover, there are local Uzbek channels which are transmitted only in Uzbek language along with satellite TV channels. As it can be seen, the culture of the country is remarkably diverse, and every issue of the media, which varies in languages, has a great impact on young consumers. This variation of languages gives students the opportunity

to learn languages, although they are not taught to think critically about the media products. In this case, media education endeavors to teach students how to analyze, evaluate and create their own media products. Countries like Turkey and Russia integrated media education into curricula as an elective subject in schools just few years ago. Examining the experiences of other countries and the social and economical state of Kazakhstan, it can be concluded that media education can be integrated as an integral part of a required subject. Moreover, media education can be distinguished into several fields: 1) media education for journalists, editors, producers and moviemakers, 2) media education as a part of education in secondary schools. Besides, it can be integrated into the curriculum as a compulsory course or it can be taught as a non-compulsory subject. At least two conditions must be met in order to introduce the media into the educational institutions: technological maintenance (space, hardware, upkeep. etc); proper preparation of the teachers so that they can present an integrated manner if they go through a technical initiation and teacher training. The media technology equipment of schools is quite unsatisfactory in Southern Kazakhstan (Shymkent). Out of 81 schools, only 30 (37%) have language laboratories. In every school there are 2 – 3 computer classes where just one computer device is used by 50 students. Overall, there are 1926 computer devices in schools, and 1417 of them are outdated. They need to be renewed or upgraded. Moreover, only 38 schools out of 81 have interactive desks. These figures are fairly good in comparison with the conditions of schools a few years ago, but the project to implement media education into the curriculum of secondary schools will not be successful so far. However, all these shortages are meant to be revised and reconsidered. The new Development Programme in Education for 2008 – 2010 periods considers reequipping schools in Shymkent. Therefore, it is supposed to meet higher standards in technological development so that in schools media education can be taught properly. Moreover, appropriate preparation and training are significant issues in media education.

Another online questionnaire was conducted and it concerned the need to provide the students in the pedagogical departments of higher educational institutions with media education. The question of the survey was; “Is there any need to train the students in the pedagogical departments of higher institutions about media education?” The results show that 92 (45, 1%) of the stakeholders think it is necessary, while 94 (47, 24%) of them support the idea that there is a need to open a new class in schools and higher educational institutions. In order to integrate media into the any subject matter, teachers should work on a basis of a framework. As media education has moved forward globally, a number of such frameworks have been developed in various parts of the world in the last few years. Most of them express the same ideologies in different ways, and it appears that there is not a specific framework which is agreed upon by all educationists. Afterwards should be set the task to “host” the subject material using media education. However, some teachers can feel that they are not trained enough to be media teachers, as they were trained to teach geography or language, but this does not have to be a drawback. It might be wise to approach media as an area for constant investigation, exploration and discovery. It should be kept in mind that media can be used as a way of engaging students in working on outcomes that are vital to the whole curriculum. Potential models given in previous parts of paper are not considered to be relatively accurate for the education system of Kazak secondary schools and they require further analysis and discussion of appropriateness.

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APPENDIX