Presented at the Mccord Museum from April 29 to October 22, 2006

Haida Art Mapping an Ancient Language

The complete texts of the exhibition Presented at the McCord Museum From April 29 to October 22, 2006.

Table of Contents

Introduction 3 1. Life and Art on Haida Gwaii 4 2. Ceremonial Art 7 2.1. Transformations 8 2.2. Containers of Wealth 10 2.3. Potlatch 11 2.4. Mythical Animals 13 2.5. Performance 15 2.6. Crests 17 3. Individual Styles 20 4. Art for Export 21 5. The Shaman's Art 26 6. George Mercer Dawson (1849-1901) 28 7. A Visual Grammar 29 8. Gambling Game 30 9. References 31 10. Credits of the exhibition 32

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 2 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 Introduction

We Haida were surrounded by art. Art was one with culture. Art was our only written language. Throughout our history, it has been the art that has kept our spirits alive. —Robert Davidson

On their lush island home off the Northwest Coast, the Haida fashioned a world of outstanding artistic expression, one that sustained them through near annihilation in the late 19th century. This exhibition shines a light on one strand of their rich heritage by presenting an outstanding selection of historic Haida artworks. Most of these objects were collected in 1878 by George Mercer Dawson during his travels in Haida Gwaii.

In the past, as today, Haida artists could be male or female. Their creative output was astonishing—carved and painted chests, lifelike masks, finely woven baskets, complex songs and dances, intricate tattoo designs, imposing totem poles. The Haida artworks in the McCord Museum reflect one collector’s tastes, and as the objects are mainly carved and painted, they were likely made by male artists.

Contemporary Haida artists are constantly exploring the ancient language of their art; it is the foundation on which new endeavours are built and the grammar with which future histories are written. We asked renowned Haida artist Robert Davidson to guide the selection of historic artworks and discuss their significance. His insights are woven into the exhibition commentary.

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 3 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 1. Life and Art on Haida Gwaii

Haida Gwaii is a homeland of towering cedar trees, spectacular seascapes, and a rich and diverse array of natural resources. Archaeology places the arrival of the earliest peoples on the Northwest Coast at about 12,000 years ago, as soon the last glacial ice receded. By 5,000 years ago, Haida ancestors were organizing seasonal harvests of salmon and halibut, hunting sea and land mammals, and filling baskets with edible plants. Clams and mussels, available in abundance, were steamed and consumed all year round.

Within this bountiful universe, their culture attained great sophistication and complexity, characterized by a growing population, a surplus supply of food, and an emphasis on wealth and status. Permanent villages facilitated the secure storage of food, tools and luxury goods, and allowed specialized craftspeople to devote more time to art. Although objects of carved and painted wood have not survived beyond a few hundred years, discoveries of engraved antler and bone objects dating back 2,500 years show that a recognizable artistic vocabulary already existed at this time.

Europeans Spanish explorer Juan Pérez was the first European to sight Haida Gwaii in 1774, followed by British navigator James Cook in 1778. Soon European and American merchants were exchanging clothing, glass beads and steel knives for sea otter pelts and a range of Haida goods, such as canoes, carved bowls and spoons, and painted storage boxes. The Haida first contracted smallpox from these visitors in 1791. Massive devastation did not strike until 1862, however, when travellers to Victoria brought a smallpox epidemic back to Haida Gwaii. Within two years, the population had declined so severely that entire villages were abandoned, leaving survivors to regroup in Masset and Skidegate.

Mortar Before 1860 Haida, artist unknown Basalt Collected by George Mercer Dawson, 1878 McCord Museum, ME892.33.3

When did the Haida begin to imbue all aspects of their world, including the ordinary, with a distinctive aesthetic sense? Why did their artistic production take the form it did? This undecorated mortar was created by pecking and grinding a boulder using stone tools. Despite the difficulty of shaping this material, the artist achieved both a practical and visually pleasing result.

Mortar Before 1860 Haida, artist unknown Basalt Collected by George Mercer Dawson, 1878 McCord Museum, ME892.33.2

This stone mortar, carved to represent a frog, may have been used for grinding burned clamshells to make lime, which was then mixed with flakes of dried native tobacco leaves. The

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 4 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 lime chemically released the psychotropic compounds in the tobacco, creating a mixture that was chewed on ceremonial occasions.

Mortar Before 1860 Haida, artist unknown Basalt Collected by George Mercer Dawson, 1878 McCord Museum, ME892.33.1

A frog is depicted on one end of this stone bowl, while a human being with hands upright is on the other. Stone bowls or mortars in the shape of animals may predate the production of carved wooden bowls, but stone examples continued to be made until the mid-19th century.

Seal or fish club 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Yew wood Collected by George Mercer Dawson, 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1204A

The Haida created a considerable body of art that appears to have used carved and painted embellishments to evoke magical or symbolic properties. This club, meant to kill trapped fish or seals, depicts a human being wearing a headdress in the form of a powerful killer whale.

Fish club 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Yew wood Collected by George Mercer Dawson, 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1204B

Eagles, whales and seals all consume fish, and therefore artists often represented these intimidating natural hunters on fishing gear. A whale or other sea creature is portrayed on this club, with a human figure as the blowhole.

Halibut hook 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Wood, spruce root, sinew, iron Collected by George Mercer Dawson, 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1239

Fish hooks were often designed and carved in the image of the marine life they were intended to entice. This hook depicts a fisherman with a halibut on his hat and another in his mouth—a clear indication of the desired outcome.

Halibut hook 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Wood, spruce root Gift of the Natural History Society of Montreal McCord Museum, M13176

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 5 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 Halibut hooks were made of two different types of wood. A barb to which the bait would be affixed was lashed to the lighter variety with spruce root. The denser wood was usually carved. Here it represents a cormorant, evoking the power of this skilled ocean diver.

Codfish hook and float 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Red cedar, vegetable fibre, spruce root, iron Collected by George Mercer Dawson, 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1242

For historic Haida artists, the line between practical necessity and aesthetic impulse seems to have been non-existent. This codfish hook is suspended from a wooden float. With minimal carving, the float has been transformed into a seal holding a fish in its mouth.

Paint dish Before 1878 Haida, artist unknown Basalt Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Skidegate, 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1206

The Haida artist’s palette has always consisted of three main colours: black, red and blue-green. Traditional mineral-based pigments, or trade pigments such as vermilion, were pulverized in a stone dish, mixed with oils or grease, and then applied with a paintbrush made of porcupine guard hairs. This paint dish depicts a frog.

Knife reworked into a chisel 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Wood (reworked walnut gunstock?), steel blade (stamped: J. Russell & Co., Green River Works), cotton cloth Collected by George Mercer Dawson, 1878 McCord Museum, ME892.18

Steel blades obtained from traders were mounted in elaborately carved handles. The haft on this reworked blade portrays a thunderbird grasping its tail. An important upper world creature in Northwest Coast beliefs, the thunderbird could cause thunder by flapping its wings and lightning with the flash of its eyes.

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 6 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 2. Ceremonial Art

Traditional Haida society was highly structured, reflecting differential access to resources and power, as well as complex religious beliefs about animal and spiritual realms. The Haida were divided into two social groups or moieties-Raven and Eagle-and each of these comprised a number of lineages. Marriages took place between Ravens and Eagles, with children joining their mother's moiety.

Permanent winter villages had as many as 40 huge cedar-plank houses arranged in rows along the shoreline, with each house occupied by 25 to 40 family members. The villages were politically independent units, using lineage-owned territories and led by the highest ranking chief.

Each lineage granted members entitlement to economic resources such as fishing spots, hunting or collecting areas and house sites. However, the wealth that provided the impetus and context for artistic production came mainly from intangible riches inherited from ancestors: the rights to dances, songs, names, masks and regalia, as well as to crests and other identifying symbols, made visible through the carved and painted creations of artists.

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 7 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 2.1. Transformations

At the heart of Haida belief and art lies the power of transformation. The mythical beings depicted derive their power, in part, from their ability to change their shape and travel from one cosmic realm to another. A bear becomes a human, an ovoid can be an eye or a joint, a U-form is a fin or perhaps a tail. Haida artists exploit these visual puns to the fullest, and in so doing, explore fundamental philosophical perceptions of duality and the nature of change.

Bowl 1790-1820 Haida, artist unknown Wood (alder?) Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Q’una (Skedans), 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1191

According to Robert Davidson, “These bowls rank amongst the highest of all the artwork. The shape, the execution, the form—it all comes together to create these beautiful pieces. Whoever made these was smiling.”

Bowl 1790-1820 Haida, artist unknown Wood (alder?) Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Q’una (Skedans), 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1192

These two elegant bowls are among the earliest works in the collection. The formline composition is at such a high degree of abstraction that the creatures represented are not identifiable. The meaning of such designs was embedded in oral tradition, ancestral privilege and the cultural knowledge of its maker and owner.

Spoon 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Mountain sheep horn, mountain goat horn (handle), copper rivets Collected by George Mercer Dawson, 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1233.7

A highly accomplished artist carved the handle of this spoon, possibly illustrating a popular myth—Raven with a broken beak. A blind halibut fisherman snares the beak of the mischievous Raven, who has been stealing bait. Raven struggles and finally his beak breaks off. He later snatches it back and hurriedly sticks it on, but the beak just dangles from his chin.

Horn bowl 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Mountain sheep horn Collected by George Mercer Dawson, 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1230

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 8 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 This graceful bowl was created by steaming a mountain sheep horn and bending it to fit into a mould, where it hardened. The carver then masterfully wrapped a human-like figure—perhaps representing the sun or wearing a sun motif headdress—across the outside of the bowl.

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 9 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 2.2. Containers of Wealth

A variety of carved and painted containers were made using the bentwood technique. A box is constructed from a single plank into which wedge-shaped cuts, or kerfs, are made where the corners will be. The plank is then steamed and bent at three corners, and pegged or sewn together with spruce root at the fourth. Large boxes were used to store a chief's regalia, preserved food or water, while smaller ones were serving dishes at feasts. Boxes were treasured possessions, often passed down from generation to generation.

Bentwood box 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Red cedar wood, paint Collected by George Mercer Dawson, vicinity of Alert Bay, 1878 McCord Museum, ACC542

Boxes were generally painted with conventionalized representations of animal or supernatural beings on two opposite sides, and simple, asymmetrical compositions on the remaining two sides. The “face” on the lower half of the box may represent Kugannjaad, Mouse Woman, who assists those who are about to cross the boundary between the human and non-human worlds. As Robert Davidson explains, “I like to see Kugannjaad as the spirit of the image. Without her, it’s not complete.”

Bentwood bowl 1790-1820 Haida, artist unknown Wood (alder?) Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Q’una (Skedans), 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1178

The complex imagery and distinctive shape of the ovoids confirm that this is an early bowl by a very talented artist. On one end is a sea creature with a human clutching its forehead and another human upside down under its muzzle. At the opposite end, a human’s legs and body emerge from another creature’s mouth.

Bentwood bowl 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Wood (alder?) Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Q’una (Skedans), 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1177

A hawk with talons drawn up under its hooked beak is depicted at one end of this bowl. The head of a thunderbird is carved on the opposite end. Formline wings and feathers take shape across the sides.

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 10 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 2.3. Potlatch

The potlatch is a large ceremonial feast hosted by a powerful family on the occasion of a birth, death, naming, installation of a new chief or raising of a totem pole. The hosts garner prestige and legitimize their social status by distributing gifts and displaying crests symbolizing their inherited rights. Between 1885 and 1951 the Canadian government outlawed the potlatch-an act that threatened the survival of Haida beliefs and traditional art. Yet the Haida persevered, and recent decades have seen an outpouring of new cultural and artistic energy.

Dish 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Alder or spruce wood, opercula Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Q’una (Skedans), 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1174

Dishes and bowls in a variety of shapes and sizes were expected at a feast, and those that were particularly well designed drew both comment and admiration from guests. The extremely fine walls of this bowl are covered in elaborate formline designs composed of ovoids and U-forms.

Dish 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Alder or spruce wood Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Q’una (Skedans), 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1189

The flared ends of square bowls are generally engraved to depict a creature that cannot be readily identified, perhaps linked to mythological and transformational themes. A head with two eyes is usually portrayed at one end of the dish. The hindquarters or tail is shown on the opposite end.

Dish 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Alder or spruce wood, opercula Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Q’una (Skedans), 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1198

Wooden bowls were sometimes decorated along the broad flange of the rim with an inlay of glossy white shells. These are the opercula, or “trap doors” of a marine snail (Astraea gibberosa). Opercula can be gathered easily in places along the coast where mink, who eat the snails, discard the shells.

Dish 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Alder or spruce wood, paint Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Q’una (Skedans), 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1197.2

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 11 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 Most dishes and bowls were originally painted, but the oils from the seafood they held penetrated the wood and destroyed the paint’s adhesion. The end carvings of this dish show faint traces of red and black staining that indicate the earlier presence of paint.

Dish 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Alder or spruce wood Gift of the Art Association of Montreal McCord Museum, ACC1845

As Robert Davidson points out, “There is a formula to bowls of this shape. There are no straight lines; the front and back are concave and the sides convex. They usually have the same structure and the creatures they represent are generic.”

Ladles 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Mountain sheep horn Collected by George Mercer Dawson, 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1232A, ACC1232B

These graceful ladles, made of steamed and shaped mountain sheep horns, would have been used at feasts to transfer food from serving dishes to eating bowls. The end of one handle has been carved and incised to depict a bird’s head.

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 12 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 2.4. Mythical Animals

The Haida artist's visual vocabulary consists of animals and mythological beings. Artistic representations of these creatures could be naturalistic or rendered in such an abstract form that interpretation, if possible at all, depended on the inclusion of standard recognition features. Raven is the trickster-creator of the Northwest Coast, and can usually be identified by his large beak. The most imposing natural animal of the Haida world, the killer whale, is signified by a tall dorsal fin, fluked tail and rounded snout with many teeth.

Bowl 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Wood (alder?) Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Q’una (Skedans), 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1172

A superb carver has depicted a raven’s head protruding from one end of this bowl, a human clasped in its beak. Another human with outstretched arms grasps the front of the bowl. A hawk’s head emerges where the raven’s tail should be, and complex formline designs trace wings (or are they killer whale teeth?) across the sides.

Painted basketry hat 1875–1900 Haida, woven by Isabella Edenshaw (about 1858-1926) and painted by Charles Edenshaw (about 1839-1920) Spruce root and bark, paint Gift of the Art Association of Montreal McCord Museum, ME928.57.3

The renowned weaver Isabella Edenshaw created hats and baskets on which her husband Charles painted beautiful designs. In this instance, he has depicted the myth of Raven with a broken beak. The hat displays Charles’s “signature”—a four-pointed star with each point divided into red and black segments.

Raven rattle 1800–1850 Haida, artist unknown Wood, paint, sinew, cotton Collected by George Mercer Dawson, 1878 McCord Museum, ME892.12.2

Raven rattles were an important part of a chief’s ceremonial regalia. A raven is shown holding something in its beak, possibly evoking the legend of Raven bringing sunlight to the world. A human reclines with his tongue extended to a frog’s mouth, perhaps a symbolic reference to exchange with the animal and supernatural world.

Mask 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Wood, paint, hair Collected by George Mercer Dawson, possibly in Q’una (Skedans), 1878

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 13 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 McCord Museum, ME892.32.2

In Haida myths, more than 50 supernatural killer whale chiefs are recognized as controlling the food resources of the sea. The whale chiefs can be identified by unique traits, including multiple dorsal fins. This mask may depict a supernatural human or ancestor with two blue killer whale fins over his eyes, indicating a lineage affiliation.

Killer whale rattles 1800–1850 Haida, artist unknown Wood, paint, spruce root and cedar bark string, pebbles or lead shot Collected by George Mercer Dawson, possibly in Q’una (Skedans), 1878 McCord Museum, ME892.11.1, ME892.11.3

Although these two rattles are readily identified as killer whales, we cannot assume today that all meanings and their subtle distinctions are translatable over boundaries of culture, time and space. Among the Haida, specialized knowledge of an object or image’s meaning was limited to those who held the rights to interpretation.

Carved killer whale fin 1800-1850 Wood, paint, cedar bark streamers Haida, artist unknown Collected by George Mercer Dawson, 1878 McCord Museum, ME892.7

This carved fin was once attached to a headdress or wooden helmet. Killer whale fins were frequently shown with a face at the base, sometimes explained as the creature’s spirit or a person carried by the whale. Cedar bark streamers originally fringed the back of the carving.

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 14 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 2.5. Performance

Dance performances are an integral part of a potlatch, feast or other ceremony. On such occasions, art is integrated with song, dance and re-enactments of the experiences of ancestors. A dramatic way of recreating the past is through the use of masks, which come alive when animated by the movement of a skilled dancer, especially in front of a fire. While dance presentations are deliberately crafted to impress, the purpose of the performance is to validate the ancient history and prerogatives of the mask owner's family.

Staff 1890-1910 Haida, artist unknown Wood Gift of the Art Association of Montreal McCord Museum, ACC1544

A ceremonial staff is carried as a symbol of the office and status of a chief. The staff is elaborately carved with crest figures and consists of two interlocking sections. During a potlatch, the chief pulls them apart to signal the beginning of gift distribution to the guests.

Mask 1813-1816 Possibly Haida, artist unknown Wood, paint, fibre Collected by Hudson Bay Company Chief Factor James Keith (1782-1851) Gift of the Natural History Society of Montreal McCord Museum, M10390

Many fine early masks collected on the Northwest Coast are now believed to have been made for sale to traders. Foreign visitors were anxious to acquire carvings and the local artists obliged them. Particularly popular were masks that portrayed women of high rank wearing a large labret, or wooden plug, in their lower lip.

Swan rattle 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Wood, paint, pebbles or lead shot Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Q’una (Skedans), 1878 McCord Museum, ME892.11.4

This unusual rattle, carved in the form of a swan, is one of only two known to exist. Though rattles representing birds are common, most utilize the bird’s body as the globe of the rattle. Here the swan is carved out of a piece of wood that has been split, hollowed and reassembled.

Puffin forehead mask 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Red cedar, paint, eagle feathers?, fur, fibre Collected by George Mercer Dawson, possibly in Q’una (Skedans), 1878 McCord Museum, ME892.10

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 15 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 Masks often represented mythological animals and birds. In Haida mythology, puffins occupy a significant place because they are diving birds that suddenly disappear into the cosmic zone beneath the sea. For this reason, puffin bills were suspended on shaman’s rattles.

Mask 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Wood, paint, animal hair Collected by George Mercer Dawson, possibly in Q’una (Skedans), 1878 McCord Museum, ME892.32.4

Masks were used by chiefs in winter ceremonies and potlatch performances, and by shamans in curing sessions. Blue masks like this one are sometimes associated with people who have narrowly escaped drowning, whose skin has changed colour from long exposure to cold water.

Rattle 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Wood, metal wire, paint, hide, pebbles or lead shot Collected by George Mercer Dawson, possibly in Q’una (Skedans), 1878 McCord Museum, ME892.9.2

This rattle’s spherical shape suggests that it may have been used by a shaman. The sounds of rattles provided rhythm for songs, dances and chants, and were believed to attract spirits to the ceremonies. The front of this rattle depicts a human face, while the back represents a bird, perhaps a raven.

Rattle 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Wood, paint, hide, pebbles or lead shot Collected by George Mercer Dawson, possibly in Q’una (Skedans), 1878 McCord Museum, ME892.9.1

This rattle has the face of an animal, perhaps a bear, on one side. As is often the case with round rattles, the back represents the body of the creature. Here, the animal’s joints and claws are depicted in formline on the reverse side.

Ceremonial whistle 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Wood, seal bladder, fibre, cotton, wool, paint Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Skidegate, 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1219

This carving is actually a wooden whistle, activated when the attached seal bladder was squeezed. It was used in a dance borrowed from the Kwakwaka’wakw, which re-enacts a young man’s possession by a cannibal spirit. Dance and songs along with rituals tame the man, bringing him back to his human self.

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 16 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 2.6. Crests

Animal images in Northwest Coast art of the 18th and 19th centuries are most often explained as crests: stylized representations of supernatural creatures encountered by ancestors. Stories related to these key events were told and retold, defining the social position of the specific family or lineage in Haida society. Certain prerogatives were associated with crest images, including names, songs and rights to ancestral lands, as were specific obligations. As symbols of power and prestige, crests were the primary subject matter of historic Haida art.

Bowl 1790-1820 Haida, artist unknown Wood (alder?), abalone shell, opercula Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Q’una (Skedans), 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1194

A beaver and a hawk occupy opposite ends of this striking bowl. Feet and feathers compete for space. Iridescent abalone shell lights up the creatures’ eyes, and the rim is embellished with inlaid opercula.

Bowl 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Wood (alder?) Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Q’una (Skedans), 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1170

A beaver is shown chewing on a stick. At the opposite end, a human face appears at the joint of the tail, symbolically evoking the beaver’s human attributes. As Robert Davidson explains, “ When we enter the supernatural world of the beaver, he is human and his cloak is hanging up. When he enters our world, he puts on his cloak and becomes a beaver.”

Bowl 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Wood (alder?) Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Q’una (Skedans), 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1169

A creature (perhaps a bear),with large ovoid eyes gazes out from the front of this bowl. At the opposite end, its tail has been replaced by a hawk’s face, with its characteristic hooked beak. Like many treasured feast bowls, this one has original repairs made with copper staples.

Bowl 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Wood (alder?), glass beads Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Q’una (Skedans), 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1193

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 17 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 A plump grouse or mythical bird is the carver’s subject on this unique feast bowl. The wing and tail feathers start as subtle formline designs but the tips are carved in relief. The artist has chosen to enhance the piece with inlaid European glass seed beads, obtained through trade.

Spoons 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Mountain goat horn Collected by George Mercer Dawson, 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1233.1, ACC1233.2

The Haida obtained sheep and goat horns in trade with the Tshimshian and other mainland groups. The very resilient material of these large tapered spirals can be carved with woodworking tools. Horn also becomes soft and flexible when soaked and heated.

Spoon 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Mountain goat horn Gift of the Art Association of Montreal McCord Museum, ACC1841

This horn spoon is unusual in having a very abstract design on the handle, and two engraved parallel lines running the length of the spoon.

Spoon 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Mountain goat horn, copper rivets Collected by George Mercer Dawson, 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1233.4

Many spoons are made in two pieces. In this instance, both the bowl and the handle are made of black mountain goat horn. The separate elements were attached using copper rivets. The figure may represent a bear in semi-human form.

Spoon 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Mountain goat horn, copper rivets Collected by George Mercer Dawson, 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1233.3

Only a master carver could create the interlacing abstract figures on this handle. They may be (bottom to top) a wolf or sea monster and on the back, a creature’s tail or Kugannjaad (Mouse Woman), and a sea monster or whale with a dorsal fin (abalone shell inlay in the teeth is missing).

Spoon 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Mountain goat horn, copper rivets McCord Museum, M5236

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 18 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 Haida horns spoons are among the most elaborate forms of artistic expression. The figures here may be (bottom to top) a mosquito with bulging eyes, a bear, a bear with an upside down human in its mouth, a bearded sailor, a killer whale or sea monster, and a raven.

Spoon 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Mountain goat horn, copper rivets Collected by George Mercer Dawson, 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1233.6

The figures on this spoon are difficult to decipher, with the exception of the creature at the top. It is a killer whale with a pierced dorsal fin—the hole may evoke a portal or doorway to the supernatural world.

Spoon 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Mountain goat horn, copper rivets Collected by George Mercer Dawson, 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1233.8

The figures may be (bottom to top) a killer whale holding a human in its mouth (the whale’s tail extends down the back of the handle), a raven, a human, and another human wearing a hat.

Spoon 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Mountain goat horn, copper rivets Gift of the Art Association of Montreal McCord Museum, ACC1839

This spoon depicts a raven and a watchman wearing a distinctive hat with rings symbolizing a family emblem or the number of potlatches given by the owner. Watchmen, thought to have supernatural powers, are often carved on the tops of totem poles, from where they survey the village and sea, warning the chiefs in the event of arriving danger.

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 19 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 3. Individual Styles

The Haida believe there is a supernatural being, Master Carpenter, who is the ultimate carver-artist. His creations look so real that they seem to be staring back at you. That's what these bowls are-they're alive. What gives them life is composition, proportion, flow and energy. They all have energy. —Robert Davidson

The fat harbour seal was a favourite theme of Haida bowl carvers, probably because seals were an important source of oil, and their meat and blubber were highly valued for feasts. These bowls are hollowed sculptural representations of the entire body of a seal. Other anatomical details, abstracted in formlines, cover the surface. Although the different carvers were all working within a strict set of artistic conventions, stylistic and conceptual differences can still be discerned. The variation in individual styles is outstanding.

Feast bowls 1800-1850 Haida, artists unknown Yew wood Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Q’una (Skedans), 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1171, ACC1175, ACC1176, ACC1181, ACC1182, ACC1184, ACC1185

These bowls date from over a century ago, yet they still exude oolichan and seal oil. Oolichan oil (extracted from a small type of smelt) was a nutritious, natural source of iodine that was used to season almost every meal. The Haida obtained it through trade with the Tsimshian.

Feast bowl 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Yew wood, opercula Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Q’una (Skedans), 1878 McCord Museum, ACC1186

This bowl resembles the graceful curves of the seal bowls, but it depicts other creatures. One end portrays a sea otter with large ovoid eyes and clawed feet, which can be seen on either side of the bowl. A hawk, with its hooked beak, is represented at the opposite end.

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 20 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 4. Art for Export

Haida art was much admired and was sought after by neighbouring groups as one facet of a thriving trade that extended across the Northwest Coast for millennia. Haida Gwaii lacked certain prized natural resources available on the mainland, such as mountain sheep and goats, oolichan oil and mineral pigments. In exchange, the Haida offered a range of products-canoes, copper shields, carved and painted chests, and basketry hats-all characterized by meticulous workmanship and artistic excellence.

Following contact with Europeans, the Haida tailored some of their artistic production for sale to seamen and traders. In the 1820s, Haida artists began carving argillite pipes, which were purchased as mementos and carried back to New England and Europe. As the sale of argillite artworks became an increasingly important source of revenue, artists responded by creating new forms: decorative panel pipes, plates and eventually miniature totem poles. Many of these carvings stand out as masterpieces of Haida art.

Argillite Argillite is a soft and fragile black stone from a quarry at Slatechuck Creek, near the village of Skidegate. A block of argillite was first cut to an approximate shape with a carpenter's saw. The artist then carved out the design using a chisel and file. The piece was next polished with a dried sea sponge or shark skin, and a dark glossy sheen was obtained by applying lamp black, petroleum or black shoe polish.

Charles Edenshaw One of the best known Haida artists is Charles Edenshaw. A master engraver, painter and carver, Edenshaw produced ceremonial and crest art for his own people, while at the same time creating art for sale to collectors and museums. He overcame the enormous challenges of his era-the onslaught of disease, the growing influence of Christianity, and the prohibition of the potlatch-to become a great innovator in Haida art and an inspiration to today's artists.

Model Totem Poles Haida argillite carvers began to make model totem poles in the 1860s, and the form became increasingly popular over the decades that followed. As with the full-size versions, the carved figures were crests or characters in the mythical adventures of lineage ancestors. Model poles were usually more freely sculptural than large poles, as carvers did not have to grapple with the physical and conceptual limitations imposed by the tree trunk.

Charles Edenshaw photographed with a few of his works, Masset, BC, about 1890, photographer unknown, Canadian Museum of Civilization, 88926

One of the best known Haida artists is Charles Edenshaw. A master engraver, painter and carver, Edenshaw produced ceremonial and crest art for his own people, while at the same time creating art for sale to collectors and museums. He overcame the enormous challenges of his era—the onslaught of disease, the growing influence of Christianity, and the prohibition of the potlatch—to become a great innovator in Haida art and an inspiration to today’s artists.

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 21 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 Pipe 1820-1850 Haida, artist unknown Argillite Gift of the Natural History Society of Montreal McCord Museum, M5059

This pipe is the earliest argillite carving in the McCord collection. The main figure is a raven. Beneath the raven's beak are two intertwined creatures, and on the other side, a seated bear. Behind the raven is a sculpin. The underside of the pipe depicts two human figures.

Pipe 1850-1900 Haida, artist unknown Argillite McCord Museum, M12565

Inspired by the scrimshaw and pipes made by European sailors, argillite carvers sometimes depicted foreign seamen. This example portrays two men playing a tug-of-war game, with a European-type face carved on the bowl. The pipe is unfinished; the figures on similar ones have heads carved of ivory.

Panel pipe 1920-1930 Haida, artist unknown Argillite Gift of Miss Marion Ives McCord Museum, ME940.23

As the trade in argillite pipes increased, some carvers began to produce more elaborate examples that have come to be called panel pipes. The figures are (left to right) an eagle holding a human being in its talons, Bear Mother in human form with her hand in a bear’s mouth and a killer whale.

Carving depicting the Bear Mother myth 1900-1925 Haida, artist unknown Brown argillite McCord Museum, ACC1201

This rare brown argillite carving illustrates episodes of the popular Bear Mother myth. A young woman out berry picking is seduced by a grizzly bear and gives birth to a pair of cubs, who become human children at will. Bear Mother is rescued by her brothers after they kill her husband. This mythical encounter underlies a set of agreements between humans and bears.

Platter 1890-1925 Haida, artist unknown Argillite Gift of the Canadian Guild of Crafts McCord Museum, M5050

This platter is impressive both for its size and elaborate design. The form evokes the general shape of a canoe and the design elements of a raven rattle. The main figure is a raven, with its body and wings detailed in formline. A hawk’s head emerges from the raven’s tail feathers.

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 22 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 Platter 1890-1925 Haida, artist unknown Argillite, opercula, abalone shell McCord Museum, MEL973.162

This spectacular oval platter portrays Wasco, a giant sea creature who is half wolf and half killer whale, alongside a much smaller dogfish. The eyes and tail fins of both creatures are inlaid with iridescent abalone shell. The composition is also enhanced by opercula inset along the rim and a textured background.

Bowl 1890-1900 Haida, artist unknown Argillite Gift of Dr. Frank Buller McCord Museum, ACC1199

The carver of this beautiful bowl clearly understood the composition of earlier wooden bowls—the carving marks are very long and confident. The bowl depicts a raven lying on its back, holding a grizzly bear in its beak, with another raven’s head on its tail.

Bowl 1900-1925 Haida, artist unknown Argillite, abalone shell Gift of the Canadian Guild of Crafts McCord Museum, M5052

This small bowl depicts a beaver shown in a typical pose, holding onto a stick. Although the overall design lacks complexity, the artist has enhanced the bowl's appearance by inlaying abalone shell for the beaver's teeth, eyes, ears and joints (one ear and a hat are missing).

Chest 1900-1925 Haida, artist: Thomas Moody (about 1877–1947) Argillite McCord Museum, M5922

This miniature chest, by Skidegate artist Thomas Moody, was modelled after the wooden chests designed to hold ceremonial objects in a chief’s home. He has depicted a bear on one side and a beaver wearing a hat with three potlatch rings on the other. The lid depicts a bear, in formline, with a frog in high relief.

Platter 1900-1925 Haida, artist unknown Argillite McCord Museum, M5049

The main figure on this platter is a shaman, shown with long hair and a nose ornament, who is healing a patient. This carving is unusual in having a formline design on the underside, depicting an unknown creature. Certain artists enjoyed experimenting with novel approaches.

Carving of mythological figures 1900-1925

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 23 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 Haida, artist unknown Argillite Gift of Dr. A. E. Johannsen McCord Museum, ME983.204

The use of texture in this compact depiction of interlacing figures is interesting. To the left is the shaman, with his back against a hawk; next is a bear, its paw in the hawk’s beak. The mythical creature Wasco (sea wolf), with its curled tail and dorsal or pectoral fin, is at the base.

Carving of a shaman 1900-1925 Haida, artist unknown Argillite, ivory Gift of Miss Marion Ives McCord Museum, ME940.26.1

A shaman is depicted in this powerful carving. He holds an ivory rattle; a second rattle is missing. Male shamans always wore their hair long, sometimes up in a bun. Here the shaman wears a hat and an apron fringed with deer hoofs or puffin bills.

Model totem pole 1900-1925 Haida, artist unknown Argillite, metal McCord Museum, M5060

This model pole is carved in the distinctive compact style of full-size Haida totem poles. The figures are (bottom to top) a bear or wolf, the turned-up tail of a killer whale with the head and dorsal fin shown on the side of the pole, a human, a small creature (a wolf or fox?), and a bear with a frog emerging from its mouth and a bear cub in human form between its legs.

Model totem poles 1900-1925 Haida, attributed to John Cross (1867- 1939) Argillite Gift of Hayter Reed McCord Museum, ME937.19.1-2, ACC4535

These two model poles may have been made by the same carver, Skidegate artist John Cross. In the 1870s, Cross was trained in tattooing and later turned his talents to argillite carving. The figures are (bottom to top) Bear Mother holding two cubs with a frog at her feet, a dogfish and fish swimming under her, a raven wearing a hat with a potlatch ring, and an eagle or thunderbird gripping a fish (salmon?) in its talons.

Model totem pole 1900-1925 Haida, artist unknown Argillite Gift of the Art Association of Montreal McCord Museum, ACC1807.2

This pole, representing the Dogfish Woman crest, is related to the story of a female ancestor who could turn into a dogfish (a small shark) and enter the undersea realm. The figures are (bottom to top) a frog, a beaver, a dogfish wearing a headdress showing the nostrils and gills of a shark, and Dogfish Woman.

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 24 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 Model totem pole 1921 Haida, attributed to Thomas Moody (about 1877-1947) Argillite Gift of the Art Association of Montreal McCord Museum, M1807.1

This is a model of a full-size pole that stood in the Haida village of T’aanuu. The figures are (bottom to top) Bear Mother holding her cubs, Sea Chief (a creature whose eyes fall out of their sockets at night and who has no teeth and swallows his food whole) and an eagle holding a human in its talons.

Model totem pole 1900-1925 Haida, artist unknown Argillite Gift of Mrs. Walter Molson McCord Museum, ACC5921

The figures are (bottom to top) a bear holding a halibut in its mouth, a raven in semi-human form, represented with a human head but with wings and a broken beak, and Bear Mother with a cub above her head.

Model totem pole 1900-1925 Haida, attributed to Thomas Moody (about 1877-1947) Argillite McCord Museum, M5923

The figures are (bottom to top) Bear Mother with two cubs above her head and a cub at her feet, Bear Mother’s brother holding two spears, and a raven with a halibut in his mouth and a human between his wings.

Shamans were powerful men, sometimes women, who served as intermediaries between the natural and supernatural world. They were called upon to cure the sick, to influence the weather and bring success in hunting and fishing, and to secure the outcome of trade or war expeditions. Their work was infused with art, as paintings and carvings brought powerful spirit helpers to physical life. Shamans sometimes created their own tools, but they might also direct artists to make them.

Soul catcher 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Animal bone Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Virago Sound, 1878 McCord Museum, ME892.16

Shamans were thought to see the soul departing from an ill person’s body. Their task was to capture the lost soul in a double-ended soul catcher, trap it inside with a plug of shredded red cedar and then blow it back into the patient. Special songs and dances were also a part of the cure.

Amulet 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Ivory, animal bone and teeth, hide thong Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Virago Sound, 1878 McCord Museum, ME892.8.1

Amulets were an important part of a shaman’s paraphernalia. The largest element of this amulet, made from an animal’s jawbone with one tooth still in it, depicts an eagle carved in deep formlines. The smaller charms may have served as a rattle, creating a sound thought to summon the shaman’s otherworldly helpers.

Crane amulets 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Animal bone, paint Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Virago Sound, 1878 McCord Museum, ME892.8.2, ME892.8.4

The shaman wore a neck ring, a wooden frame from which a number of amulets hung. They were made of different hard materials, mainly ivory, the canine teeth of bears and sea lions, antler and bone. Birds and otters were the most common figures, followed by fish and whales.

Killer whale amulet 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Animal bone Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Virago Sound, 1878 McCord Museum, ME892.8.3

Haida Art - Mapping an Ancient Language 26 © McCord Museum of Canadian History, 2006 Shamanic artworks show a strong emphasis on creatures from the liminal space of the intertidal zone, like octopus, or from the depths of the ocean, like halibut. Shamans frequently had a special association with killer whales and used carvings and painted motifs to draw on the supernatural strength of these powerful animals.

Amulet 1800-1850 Haida, artist unknown Animal bone, paint Collected by George Mercer Dawson in Virago Sound, 1878 McCord Museum, ME892.8.5

The creature represented by this amulet remains enigmatic. Shamans’ helpers often included mysterious animals made up of parts of different creatures or endowed with strange combinations of attributes. Amulets were designed to reflect the owner’s personal experiences in the spirit world.

George Mercer Dawson was born in Pictou, Nova Scotia, and moved to Montréal in 1855 when his father, John William Dawson, became principal of McGill University. At the age of 11, George contracted spinal tuberculosis, an illness that stunted his growth and left him with a hunched back. He nevertheless completed his education and went on to become one of Canada's pre-eminent scientists-first and foremost a geologist, but also an early anthropologist and pioneer photographer.

In 1878, while working for the Geological Survey of Canada, Dawson was sent to Haida Gwaii to describe the geology and geography of the islands. As was the case during previous surveys, Dawson expanded his mandate to include detailed reports on the lifeways, languages and art of the Aboriginal people he encountered. His published accounts of the Haida, and photographs of their villages and totem poles, are a historical resource that continues to be widely consulted.

Watercolour S. W. Entrance to Nodales Channel About 1878 Artist: George Mercer Dawson Watercolour on paper Gift of Mrs. Donald Byers McCord Museum, M982.81.7

MANUSCRIPTS:

Manuscript of “The Haida Indians,” published in George Mercer Dawson’s Report on the Queen Charlotte Islands, Geological Survey of Canada, Report of Progress for 1878-1879 (Montreal: Dawson Brothers, 1880). McGill University Archives, G. M. Dawson papers, MG.1022.

Field journal entitled “Queen Charlotte Island Cruise, 1878” [May 27-October 17, 1878], published in The Journals of George Mercer Dawson: British Columbia, 1875-1878, edited by Douglas Cole and Bradley Lockner (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1989). McGill University Archives, G. M. Dawson Papers, MG.1022.

Lecture by George Mercer Dawson entitled “Nature & effects of the so called Potlatch system among the Indians.” McGill University Archives, G. M. Dawson Papers, MG.1022.

PHOTOGRAPHS:

George Mercer Dawson, 1885. Photographer: William J. Topley. British Columbia Archives, A- 08368.

George Mercer Dawson (third from right) with his field crew at Fort McLeod, BC, 1879. Photographer unknown. Library and Archives Canada, PA-051137.

Over thousands of years, distinctive art styles developed along the Northwest Coast. The peoples of the northern region-comprising the Haida and their mainland neighbours, the Tlingit to the north and Tsimshian to the east-shared a highly sophisticated style of graphic representation. This formline design system can be compared to a formal language based on a kind of visual grammar. True masters of the art adhere to the "rules" while also achieving endless variations and surprising innovations.

The Formline Design System The design principles underlying the northern style were named by Bill Holm, an artist and art historian, in a landmark 1965 book, Northwest Coast Art: An Analysis of Form. The system is founded on the principle that creatures can be represented by delineating their body parts and details with varyingly broad formlines that always join to create an uninterrupted grid over the designed area. Holm identified two additional design units-the ovoid and the U-form-as building blocks of compositions.

The formline system was first and foremost a painted art. An artist's equipment included sets of different-sized templates of ovoids and U-forms that were traced onto the design field without prior sketches. A great deal of painting was also done freehand. The colours used were the typical black and red, sometimes complemented by green or blue. Holm concluded that when making a three-dimensional object such as a bowl, a spoon handle or a totem pole, the artist first conceived of the design in two dimensions and then mentally "wrapped" it around the three-dimensional surface before carving it out in relief.

Stretching the Alphabet Robert Davidson has developed his own way of describing the visual grammar of Haida art. He sees the ovoid and U-form shapes as the components of an alphabet that can be stretched, pulled, rendered as positives or negatives, and otherwise manipulated with endless possibilities, within a specific framework of understanding. Davidson views the formline as the skeleton of the composition, within which energy fields can be directed by creating and balancing positive and negative spaces.

Davidson's awareness of space-either defined within a shape or surrounding one- extends beyond purely formal concerns to the cultural and ceremonial space within which the composition has meaning. For although today we rely on written words to define the components of this artistic tradition, no historic word for "art" or for "formline" has been found in the Haida language. Within this oral society, artists composed images and communicated ideas: art was performed.

An Unusual Canvas Gambling games were popular among the Haida, and these, too, provided an opportunity for artistic expression. This set of gambling sticks was stored in a deerskin container, which opens up to reveal a formline painting that may depict a mythological aquatic creature. The 50 maple sticks are decorated with painted bands and motifs burned into the wood. The tips are inlaid with abalone shell. At first glance the drawings are difficult to appreciate as they are wrapped around the sticks. Decades ago, an as yet unidentified McCord Museum volunteer devoted many hours to sketching two- dimensional copies, providing a rare opportunity to study and appreciate these intriguing images.

Gambling game 1800-1850 Haida, artist unidentified Hide, paint, maple wood, abalone shell Collected by George Mercer Dawson, 1878 McCord Museum, ME892.2.0-55

In addition to the contributions made by Robert Davidson, the exhibition commentary was based on the work of numerous artists, community elders, art historians and anthropologists, presented in the following publications:

Berlo, Janet C., and Ruth B. Phillips. Native North American Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Davidson, Robert, and Ulli Steltzer. Eagle Transforming: The Art Of Robert Davidson. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre; Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1994.

Holm, Bill. Northwest Coast Indian Art: An Analysis of Form. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1965.

McDonald, George. Haida Art. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1996.

McLennan, Bill, and Karen Duffek. The Transforming Image: Painted Arts of Northwest Coast First Nations. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press; Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2000.

MacNair, Peter, Robert Joseph, and Bruce Grenville. Down from the Shimmering Sky: Masks of the Northwest Coast. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre; Seattle: University of Washington Press; Vancouver: Vancouver Art Gallery, 1998.

Suttles, Wayne (ed.). Northwest Coast. Vol. 7 of Handbook of North American Indians. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1990.

Vaughan, Thomas, and Bill Holm. Soft Gold: The Fur Trade and Cultural Exchange on the Northwest Coast of America, 2nd ed. Portland, OR: Oregon Historical Society Press, 1990. First published 1982.

An exhibition produced under the direction of Dr. Victoria Dickenson, Executive Director and Moira McCaffrey, Director, Research and Exhibitions, McCord Museum.

Curatorial Team Robert Davidson, Guest Curator Moira McCaffrey, Director, Research and Exhibitions, McCord Museum Guislaine Lemay, Curatorial Assistant, McCord Museum

McCord Museum Team

Project Management: Geneviève Lafrance, Coordinator, Exhibitions Design: Line Villeneuve, Head, Exhibitions

Dolorès Contré Migwans, Assistant, Native Programs Anne MacKay, Chief Conservator Alain Lalumière, Chief Technician, Exhibitions John Gouws, Technician, Exhibitions Denis Plourde, Conservation Technician Renée Riedler, Intern Erin Fraser, Technician Simon Lalumière, Technician Nike Langevin, Head, Communications and Promotion Amanda Kelly, Officer, Communications Karine di Genova, Officer, Communications Christian Vachon, Head, Collections Management Natalie Monet, Collection Technician Marilyn Aitken, Photographer Stéphanie Poisson, Coordinator, Information Management France Desmarais, Head of Strategic Initiatives

Revision and Translation Karin Montin, English revision Hélène Joly, French translation

The McCord Museum wishes to thank the McGill University Archives and Diane Randall, Assistant to Robert Davidson, for collaborating on this exhibition.