<<

Redis co very of the Elements Sir Humph ry Davy and the Alkalis I I I

James L. Marshall, Beta Eta 1971 , and Virginia R. Marshall, Beta Eta 2003 , Department of , University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203-5070, [email protected] In a previous HEXAGON article on Joseph Black, 1h the three alkalis known in the 1700s were listed: “vegetable alkali” (), “mineral alkali” (soda), and “volatile alkali” (). 1h Figure 1. , 21 Albemarle St. (N51° 30.58 W00° 08.55), was founded in 1799 and has not All were known to react vigorously with acids changed its location since. The Institution was founded by Sir , Count Rumford and “to change the color of syrup of violets to (1753 –1814), an American born British scientist who through observing the boring of cannons realized green.” Ammonia was apparently a compound was created by friction. 10,11a of nitrogen and hydrogen ,2d as shown by His colorful history included his 1804 Claude Louis Berthollet (174 8–1822) at his marriage to Marie-Anne Lavoisier, the famous laboratory at Arcueil. 1c It was natural, widow of the famous . 11a therefore, that Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743 –1794) himself, the “father of modern Figure 2. Royal Institution, appearance in chemistry,” 1b who first recognized the true ele - 1838 (painting by Thomas H. Shepherd, ments and listed 31 that are now found in the 179 3–1864). At this time Michael Periodic Table, 3 would exclude the “fixed alka - Faraday was prominent among its scien - lis” —potash and sod a—from his list, 3 because tists, having succeeded , they might be compounds of nitrogen as well. who was the first to prepare elemental Lavoisier was even unsure of whether potash, and here in 1807. 10 produced commercially by the incineration of plants, existed before possibly being created in the plants. 2c He further speculated that “veg - ly between “vegetable alkali” an d “mineral cubic “halite” (NaCl) crystals; persons taking etable alkali” was synthesized from compo - alkali.” 2b Duhamel was a botanist; he devel - “low-sodium” in their diet are acquainted nents in the atmosphere and “mineral alkali” oped an agricultural/forestry farm at with the more bitter, astringent taste of KCl.) was formed naturally in the sea. 3 The true Denainvilliers, a suburb of Pithiviers (75 km Duhamel further showed that the alkali com - nature of potash and soda was not clarified south of ). Duhamel showed in 1736 that ponent common salt (sodium chloride) is iden - until the next century, at the Royal Institution in the salts of the two alkalis, as prepared from tical with the alkali of Egyptian natron (sodium (Figures 1, 2). mineral acids, differ in crystalline form, solubil - carbonate), and of borax (sodium borate). 2b ity, and taste. (Today mineralogists describe Duhamel’s estate still exists, complete with his The distinction between potassium and how “sylvite” (KCl) at Death Valley, , chateau and the original ventilated silo, sodium. Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau is the last to precipitate out and tends to form designed by him and reputed to be the first (1700 –1782) was the first to differentiate clear - granular masses compared to the distinctive ever constructed (Figure 3).

24 THE HEXAGON/ SUMMER 2015 Figure 3. Duhamel’s estate, complete with vented silo (left). 13 Rue Duhamel du Moncean, Denainvilliers, (N48° 9.02 E02° 14.47). Courtesy, Wikipedia Commons, public domain.

alkali” occurred during the 17th and 18th cen - turies. Early references (1690) to “soda” include “soude” 2a by Nicolas Lemery (164 5–1715), the advocate of the corpuscular theory of “pointy particles” for acids and “spongy particles” for bases. 1g From the ashes of burned wood came “pot-ash,” prepared by boiling the ashes in metallic pots. The name “potash” originated from the German Pottasche, and was approved by the Académie francaise in 1762. 2b By the beginning of the 19th century the dis - tinction between sodium and potassium com - pounds was clear, and each was now recog - Figure 4. Upon entering the Royal Institution, in nized as an elemen t 2f —in his lecture notes of the hallway is this portrait of Davy by Sir Thomas 1806 (176 6–1844) recognized Lawrence (176 9–1830), dated 1821. Davy joined “soda” and “potash,” and assigned each with its the Royal Institution in 1801. By the method of respective atomic weigh t5 (28 and 42; modern electrolysis he was the first to prepare metallic Figure 5. Statue of Humphry Davy at Market Jew values 22.99 and 39.10). But no one had ever potassium and sodium, and went on to prepare Street, , (N50° 07.14 W05° “seen” the elements in uncombined form. strontium, barium, , , lithium, 32.18). Davy never forgot his roots in Cornwall and boron. He was the first to recognize the and contributed scientific researches directed to the Humphry Davy (177 8–1829). The first person elemental nature of and . safety of the tin miners in the area. to prepare the alkalis in elemental form was Humphry Davy, at the Royal Institution in Two decades after Duhamel’s , Berlin name Salsola (meaning “salty”), given by London, in 1807. 6b ,7 Humphry Davy (Figure 4) chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf (1709 – Linneaus in 1753. 4 This thistle-like plant was was born in Penzance in Cornwall (Figure 5). As 1782), re produced Duhamel’s work and further burned in trenches by the seashore to produce a youth he was an alert and curious student; his differentiated “vegetable alkali” and “mineral alkali economically . Of this genus, two first love was roaming about the countryside alkali.” 1g He prepared the saltpetres (nitrates) of specie s—S. soda and S. kal i—were common observing nature, the community, and the fish - each with nitric acid and demonstrated (1758) sources of alkali. The “kali” was derived from ers and the tin miners. Drawing from the tales that “cubic saltpetre” (sodium nitrate) flashed Arabic “qily” meanin g “ashes,” and “soda” was and ghost stories of his aunts and grandmoth - yellow with charcoal and “prismatic saltpetre” derived from the Italian word for saltwort, ulti - er, he could tell stories that spellbound the (potassium nitrate) flashed blue-violet. These mately derived from the Arabic “suwwad.” common folks of Cornwall. This ability to capti - colors are the same as those observed in intro - Although incinerated plants generally pro - vate an audience was to prove beneficial later ductory chemistry classes by dropping metallic duced “vegetable alkali,” it was observed (e.g., when he presented public lectures on at sodium and potassium into . by Duhamel) that Salsola could give either kind the Royal Institution. 7 Davy was a visionary; as of alkali, and if Salsola was grown very close to he admitted himself, he preferred to “invent, The derivation of the names sodium and the brackish water then “mineral alkali” was the rather than imitate .” 8 As he rose through the potassium. On the coasts of the Mediterranean main ash. 2b ranks of the scholars, he became the most Basin and Western Europe, there exists a scrub - The adoption of the names “soda” and widely known scientific figure in the British by tidal plant named saltwort, with the generic “potash” for “mineral alkali” and “vegetable Isles, if not also on the Continent. 7

SUMMER 2015 /THE HEXAGON 25 t o r . s f e i n p a a l r l “ d y a b e

t e u c c

o o r v n v m g D e e e l s p o a r d s e v o b

e d y s u w l s (

’ e v l s F

w i e d o

t c i o s h l

g o i t

i r t

u a n r n i h g e i e b r t d n

c e s o i x l i n

a e e e

p r p

7 c a h e m

i l p w t ) l l c o y e e

b t r f w a s d A h

d i i i c i l l o n n r o e l h i

s o o o t n d c o A

d n i e u g h w i c s i n

p

r n l e h . q e e d o

f f l i a l g n w y n i

u e n I f

n l d h d s t

m ” g i e e

t a p d

b c e e e a w

h w d d w ( n k . r s y

c l N ” i r ; o u d s c t R a s d

o b h s

a e h o r m i m a e 5 s

t m

r o s i l s i h e n

o n

c v s i 9 b

t e y w / g p c s h c h e e e d x p °

q e a a o h e ( r t

y r w

a

i a o d u r 1 l i 2 l R a W , l

w n m r t

f g b s

c y g t u d s

7 i S r

2 e n

s

e

h d c e t

e e i a a t s w o o e 9 s f . o o h f n a e k G a n 0 o d u

l p

m s s r f u

2 s

m a c a s e e l f e o e 2 u s

c r t u y a – l t i o m h “ r

t

i

a u o e p t s t c -

e u e t r n 4 e y e

e e 1 b

t h E n , s a h o p c l

t i r n

h n - d r -

e... w x

f 8 s l

y h 1 v e e i

e o u u

t a

e L o t d d t p b n e t i c c B 4 o

w

8

e i i e h a s r a r f — l o S e y f t o a e

e u o e 1 r g e

f e d °

c i

s s

b III n s e o

w o f t v l o d 1 w c m u r a r ) f s

o R d

i t 6

e

r a

a

t 0 i z

c “ e g s r h 7 m n L b e l m t m i a e d v i h e -

l I h e n e d s m 3 e a e h n n p l o e e 9 c d G s i 9– o c d e l l o i i e i s i i n c d . n

i e o

o s e m e e a i s

b 9 i g c b n 0 r n a u a o ; p

H d S , s c c c

r e

n l c t t m r

h e

t 1 s 9 e 2 F f u p o

t h o s t d f h

v

o

e t w a v u a

d i T y i e t s o , 1 ) r i i t t

6 n o f o

e

o t r D n t v i p , i o i g . n l h R i

h e w n p

w

) e h : d d i s n n i d c t D

e n e n p

l u t t o T o

t a o - e a v t a a d o

F u

e 7 i e a h

i w h

a h r

n

r

o w t r s r o m i

e a v y t s u h i y t e

i l v e y e s r o

s o m i a

i h e g i n

t h a v o T n f a y n

n i o

n s o w

m e o

i

a u t l e f n 6 p e i u s t y w l ’

s n b f t l e

n f

g

. a s n s

o 1 o n t r

t

c . a

c e r f p ’ o A r p . y c

t

i p a h a l i . s n

p e a f

l 8 a n

o a E e t o n g h d y p a

r t 2 t

l i r s o c e y . l r ) c 0 r l a n e 8 l l s m c x

n ” m i o a e

0 J e

a c o ; y i o i r

l t n

0 s s c o a

h . i c c a b i i 0 t a

d p

p p

t d h c o a s

u t m , n d

R m a s

h g i t h b

0 s o i w e p i a i n b a n u y g o l a s l m s o t b

u e

s m o a o

i e e r e l i u p d r o a r d s l n c d g

a a A i w l n y t a a n m r

o a r

a t u c o e i u e - ,

y n u

n s r h

d a a t t

u o

i

o p l c b t a s m o w d v e c

t o o n s e d

i l t t t

i i A o m

e t t n n i u c

e r t l o e o h l t g

o f r b

s (

d i r I f e e y h e r

h d t t

a s i y d t n s t u l s

n o l r e y n e e

h y s h l m e d .

i q S h o t

i e t a

y a e

g y m g n s

n v n

b m

a e z s e

e

c n u , x m

n e n

, t

B i

u o

i y e o u w ( t i i

g i d d

t n i R o n o i

s c e d i d u F t e d s

n h l s e a r e f e e u A u w

i o D n

v

c o a i o a e r i t

t r l

a s e l t c e s

l

s g m t t a z i u c o v n y e e r m t f a d 1 p t

c s l t a / s i n a

o e t d h c u l e k o a - o q a h m

r l o l 8 d t

s v e i n p s , l V g

d e c l e n r l n e f a

u l a

o

y v , 1 y i r l

b e

o r e e e o

p

m i e

u j i

: s t i l a I

d h L e . 7 o u o t t

y e a c i o s

r r i

n e l n o s O r T h h s c r t r i y

e

d o y— m e d x r e o 6 u e s o

l s a y y t o x , h

p i i d e l p a

m u ( t ; r

n a t ) D f u u s ,

1 a r p y

x p i a , s i u i . d r r 2 e i l

( f l c

t m

h t g

m i m g i e l o r b

t y a e a u d 1 T a F c d t a r e a

i H b e h g e e e

i g m a u v

i w i s n 7 t b r

h l l t d e , o u m 1 y e i

a e

n

t i s w e e l y

e d 4 t a i o o i a .

s F g l a o n

n s o s p i s

l

6 s )

b n y T . l 5 a n

a r s e n v a r c i s , i h

a

b u s p

y , e o t g o t – n d h

t s a g :

n c

a i d E h u c i a e a

t l ( t h

a s a r m u t T o 1 n n e t e a o e n ; t D f t H e

n o n d

c a i c m e s

o . m u 8 r c m i h x o

v

” i m m B c i

d t n s d m t e a r a c e 2 t a w a g 1 ä e i f p e :“ ( e s e

a

v u o t p

e

n 7 l n a g F m 8 p

l s r e 6 D u i s o l g y r e D n c t h . o e )

t z u y s d 0 i l d

t ) u s u n s w .

t n g

a n . e e a f e s a

8 e

a t

m i

i l u r l d a t t . u n e o

v o e h b n d d d d a

i

v n t o 4 l c [ s u f

y s r e n

t s

o e o

y H A r

h e d D F i l o e D a i a d

s ’

i n

u u o u

f s t d

s l e r i n f t m

t

h o u

a m s

m a a n s b t m o e

d t s e a e s e e f v e v m m o

e n d o e

u n i l

t s s m y u .

y t x r s e s t o

d h e c s e h a p m , H o

I

h a c p m

e h

d i o n p i l n l e r o h m u

s h u e u f i w e

e 1

i

t t

t

e v s r s

n m m h i o s s J i a t p e a “ 0 y t s n

e

n l , o u f e

r t b e m f c l 0

e

e ]

a r . h t a i r a e d w s t f

h

c o i

a x a

i s W e h f c b e

e o e a c o

e i

t s e u a l t a o t t e r c s o t h p l e u u d h l m i i s g h t

. i u k d m r t

o

h

e s g ” A e a a h a ( v l a

t r

i i n F g

d

t m t h n s e i a i o L l l c t

o s g t e i e i

t h o l

e , c o u g n i o n i

k , x r s f t e o

n

e m u t w y w e u a t e a o x

r n

a i d

r a n l p o o i t a h w a p e e i l s

s

e e d s o n t s d c x

t o o

r

i f

a 8 G e e m o p A t o i a

s w r ) r m r h n w i e m u t a

n r

t a v h

r t c i e b y i a a o a i s o i n n u s m F l t - s t

i F n y . n a , t L e i n i

t

s o

g r n t

e h

a i u

. o H h i l t u n

n h d c , e T e o s f e r

t u t

i

d h s

o e i n s

a

m n e m

a w h r r e f t t a 7 e i

l g c m o y o c e t i m h . b 6 c

t

h d

a h ( m s R o e o i o a 1 o e A e r c t m

g o l s s o 7 h e b d

d r b h i

y p n s

n 7 g e n t f

W

t t e o c a i h e a i 8–

s e o

h t t z o ( e l w w i p a e e

n “

1 i 6 e e n 1 n t o I l b l t d r e 1 i h 7 .

h n d

h

o

p i s s t m n d c d 8 6 a c e s s a

e e a u e d e t

o t

5 a 9 t s e t k l i e l v a a r u i d g i e c h v y 0 m t – s t x n ! i a t i

g d r

u - c

e n s ) r 1 e t e G g e i b W . r r

e y t

b 8

g r w h m ( u N l c e ” e i i T e s i i 1 a n a b

o 5 e

m y o a a n l i h t h h

a 7 t y a n y n o 9 d e e d e l l— m e g f e e p

i e - n 7

: ) d n w

o d s r r

t w a

, L n r T 7 o n o i r p h f

r

e n G J m s s w p t—

o i –

u c l t h a g i a e o e t g t

s t e h D t a r e r 1 t r s e h a a h a c r e y h o u

u e o

e l a d e

s

8 l q s y n t n o

a e a v t v b b n o o m n r— t a w w

3

- u v “

t g

i e c e l i i s o f d c

c o t a n

L 8 s y i

e e e o u

d y t p o , i f k o o s

D d u t )

a p t

u n s o , r

a

c

w e

p h

e

t e d - d v e n y

s o o s h

n r o a T T o e r d n u d e i i e

i

e

h s a c f o t n v s

n

v h h n h r d

i

r

s a t a a e h e H

i o y s x p t h

o

l e h e e e é t l

e c r i p s

t o i c i i e

e s o y

l k o

s E a 1 . s n e s

d

t a a o r c v

p c d p . d

o

w i t D t e r 8

e X t s a n e t t e v u c a o e i o r e

r

h

r h

v 1 r ) v h

a e d A a o s m o d a P o v l t d

a l i e 1 6 e a e h h s r l v a l ’ o

b a b . e G g

n y a

o , e l w

É c m T

l y y s

( r u r r l e e s o t d a

t r O I 1 s e i y

d c e a H

w i f a s r n t i s h e e n f i

s 7 t m o

n o n

d r

u

f s N l b

l

t a b a d o E e 7 ’ H l w r e i

e b c w d a

m o e n ” d É e d s n e 7 g

h m o

l

a s

E

r H m a ,

t i c – w e w a d

e b b o o s s w s 1 p X s a o e b a 1 n r m e

p E e o y n d l a

h 8 o t

u n n l u

A 8 e d , g e i l e

i X d o a .

1 i l s c e m i t n 5 d e t e c G

n y

f c n

e i 3

l a

7 n A w b u h e

n e t a d d B p

1 , o o O s s e a )

d y

, m l

e i G 8 i e o e o

s

h c i w D s

h t N (

r n t 0 r d l m w h h d s t t

e a O f

y e n a h h

a 6 o

o i n t D w t o

c b r u a v a a

e e e l e r N h i d d o v r t y y r m a 8

r q d

e c k t 1 e t d a e e n d p

v D r A h e e u

/ i s D , d d d a

i e c f S f

y r r i n e s 6 r c u a s l e g n

t ' U b 6 a c o e

a o

s i v b h n s s d C d q o v 1 H .

m

i u y i u M c . i P l n n y

v u e s a o

l m e G G r ’

e

s d g e u M s t u r i

c r o P z n e g p a a a r e r a E

e h s n y y e t i t r b r d

o i i R i - - w

d b d v i n o e e L L i s e

y

- s 8 g

f d , m L 2 u u , 9

s

g 0 o s s i o u b a n s s u 1 n b a a s u

i 5 a c c - - s t Figure 11. In the Borax Visitor Center, this impres - sive crystal of kernite (Na 2B4O6(OH) 2•3H 2O) is displayed, with Jenny Marshall present, to show its enormous size. Ordinarily the only borate in a boron mine is borax (Na 2B4O5(OH) 4•8H 2O), but this mine is unusual in that it has three additional minerals: kernite, colemanite (CaB 3O4(OH) 3•H 2O), Figure 9. The famous California open-pit boron mine (N35° 2.94 W117° 40.98) is located in the Mojave and ulexite (NaCa B5O6(OH )6•5H 2O). Desert at Boron, 40 miles northeast of Los Angeles. This is the largest borate mine in the world. This deposit was formed 20 million years ago.

Figure 12. Royal Institution: Davy’s early designs of the safety lamp utilized small holes to cool the gases emanated from oil lamps so that pockets of firedamp would not be ignited.

homeland (Figure 14) —sometimes the flame of a lamp would ignite pockets of firedamp (methane) in the deep recesses of the tin mines, with disastrous consequences. Davy’s final was a lamp surrounded by a wire gauze which would not allow the flame to come in contact with the explosive gases. Other notable discoveries of Davy included the effect Figure 10. The Rio Tinto Borax Visitor Center, Suckow Road, Boron, California (35° 1.79 W117° 41.24), of laughing gas (nitrous oxide, N 2O, discovered has a large variety of exhibits explaining the history and uses of borax and its derivatives, as well as many by in 1772), suggested by Davy fascinating mineral specimens. as an anesthesia in surgical operations; 8 and the of ships’ hulls by plating had named i t “l’iode.” 1e Th e “romantic, qualita - in France, that no account of it was published with copper sheets. 8 tive” Davy and th e“cautious, quantitative” Gay- till the arrival of our English philosopher there.” Davy’s fame as a riveting lecturer drew Lussac ordinarily, in their dual roles, “served devoted audiences to the Royal Institution; his chemistry well;” 8 however, Davy could easily Other contributions of Davy. The most first lecture was given in 1801 on “The New overshadow Gay-Lussac, and the (London) important discovery of Davy was the alkali and Branch of Philosophy; Galvanism [chemically Royal Society delighted in noting (20 January alkaline earth metals, but the most important produced direct-current phenomena]. ” The 1814) that Gay-Lussac had been trumped: 6b invention was the safety miner’s lamp. 8 (Figures preeminent Philosophical Magazine reported “[Iodine] was discovered about two years ago; 12,13) Davy was always mindful of the dangers “Mr. Dav y . . . acquitted himself admirably, from but such is the deplorable state of scientific men associated with the tin mines of his Cornish the sparkling intelligence of his eye, his animat -

SUMMER 2015 /THE HEXAGON 27 ed manner, and the tout ensemble we have no weights, to explain his ideas. While this model doubt of his attaining a distinguished emi - proved essential for a descriptive model of the nence .” 8 nano-world and its atomic weights, it proved to be unwieldly for shorthand descriptions. For (1791-1867). 6c Davy’s devot - example, consider Glauber’s salt (modern for - ed attendant was Michael Faraday, whom some mula Na 2SO 4•10H 2O), which by Dalton’s sym - people have described as Davy’s greatest discov - bolism 2f would be rendered as: ery. (Figure 15) Davy and Faraday were oppo - site in temperament and class; whereas the buoyant Davy concentrated on attaining “a gentleman’s comprehensive education,” 8 the serene Faraday, son of a blacksmith, came to the Royal Institution with minimal education. I He heard his first lecture by Davy in 1812, and

I the next year became Davy’s assistant —just in

I time for the two-year journey to the Continent. Because of Davy’s fame, Napoleon had award - ed him a special medal and invited him to visit France, even though the two countries were at (The reader should not be confused by the war. Because Davy’s valet was afraid to take the incorrect stoichiometry; during the early 1800s trip, the threesome, Davy, his wife, and Faraday, a sulfate was considered to be S O3, water was took the risky 1813 –15 trip. Faraday actually believed to be HO, and sodium oxide was doubled as a luggage-bearing attendant; NaO.) Dav y’s wife treated him like a hireling, but Using equations, Thomas Thomson Davy was kind. Faraday tolerated the overbear - (177 3–1852) 2e attempted letter symbols, such as ing treatment and rose to the occasion; he w for , c for carbon, and h for hydrogen, brushed shoulders with the most famous scien - so that oxalic acid = 4w + 3c + 2h and sugar = tists in Franc e—Gay-Lussac, Ampere, and 5w +3c + 4h [ sic ]. 2e,6d Thomson, at the Figure 13. This is a “Cambrian lamp,” a modern Cuvier, as well as the visiting German scientist University of Edinburgh, was a most successful replica of th e “Clancy lamp,” the final version of Humbold t—and learned much. He even met author, writing a famous textbook, A System of Davy’s safety lamp. Davy never claimed a patent Count Rumford, the founder of the Royal Chemistry , and the very informative and clearly- on the safety lamp, instead developing the design Institution (see Figure 1), who had just separat - written History of Chemistry . Thomson was very as a charitable gift to the miners of his home ed from his wife, Marie-Anne neé Paulze important in the early years of the 19th century county. (From the collection of the authors) Lavoisier, the widow of Antoine-Laurent by embracing the new ideas that became mod - Lavoisier who had been guillotined in 1794. 8 ern chemical theory; for example, he was virtu - From his lowly background, Farada y— ally the first non-French antiphlogistinist. He described as “unmatched” as an example of championed the ideas of Dalton that promoted “self-taught genius” 8—rose to fame at the the concept of an atom-by-atom construction Royal Institution. 8,10 With the barest of mathe - of the universe. Soon Thomson was using the matical skills (he was trained only in algebra), initial letters of the names of elements, e.g., he was the one to develop the concept of the “Po” for potassium. electromagnetic field, later quantified by James Meanwhile, Berzelius was refining accurate Clerk Maxwell (1831 –1879). He developed atomic masses, which proved to be indispens - electrochemistry and introduced the terms able a few decades later for the conceptualiza - electrode, anode, cathode, and ion. 11 b In chem - tion by Mendeleev and Meyer for the periodic - istry he invented the precursor of the Bunsen ity of the elements. Berzelius, who discovered burner, discovered benzene, and liquified chlo - selenium, cerium, silicon, and thorium, 1d adopt - rine. In 1825 Faraday instituted the Christmas ed the “initial letter” symbols of Thomson and lectures at the Royal Institution, which contin - used these abbreviated symbols to represent ue to this day. (Figure 16) The unit of capaci - these compounds. With so many examples of tance (farad) was named in his honor. “S,” “P,” “O,”“So ,” and “Po ,” Berzelius toyed with the idea of symbolizing with dots and Epilogue. Why Sodium and Potassium water with an “Aq .” Glaube r’s salt would be rep - Chloride are not SoCl and PoCl. Dalton pio - resented by: neered the concept of atoms to explain chemi - • ••• Figure 14. A historic tin mine in Cornwall, near cal reactions, postulating a one-for-one combi - So S + 10 Aq the Camborne School of Mines, University of nation of atoms to demonstrate specific sum - But this was visually misleading and made Exeter. This cultural heritage site is in Pool, near mations of weights of the elements to form difficult the balancing of equations by inspec - Redruth (N50° 13.90 W05° 15.74). Two millennia compounds. Dalton was color-blind (hence, the tion. ago, nearby streams once enjoyed the visit of ter m“daltonism”) 1c and it was natural for him Latin names were used more commonly by Romans, traveling in boats of shallow draft, who to visualize featureless spheres, like clumps of Germanic nations than by the English or the collected tin ore for the home in Italy. grapes, which were differentiated solely by their French. Berzelius, for example, used the term

28 THE HEXAGON/ SUMMER 2015 Figure 16. The Royal Institution was famous for its lectures popularizing science, and soon evolved into an entertaining educational tool for the public, including the youth. The Christmas lectures were inaugurated by Faraday in 1825. This bronze replica by W. B. Fagan shows Michael Faraday lecturing. In the front row of the audience, from right to left, are Tyndal, Huxley, Wheatstone, Crookes, Darwin, Daniels, and Frankland. Acknowledgments. 4. http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.asp , Salsola Figure 15. Faraday’s statue. 2 Savoy Place, before soda Linnaeus 1753; Salsola kali Linnaeus the Institution of Electrical Engineers (N51° 30.58 The authors gratefully acknowledge 1753. W00° 07.12), on the Victoria Embankment of the Professor Frank A. J. L. James, head of the 5. J. Dalton, A New System of Chemical Thames River (John Henry Foley, sculptor). Royal Institution Centre for the History of Philosophy , 1808 , Manchester. Science and Technology, The Royal Institution, 21 Albemarle Street, London W1X 4BS, for fur - 6. J. R. Partington, A History of Chemistry , Vol. 4, “Kalibasis” for the potassium analysis of a nishing continued assistance and information 1962 , Macmillan (London), (a) 32-73; material. Berzelius substituted the Latinized regarding the history of the Royal Institution (b) 77-96; (c) 99-139; (d) 158-160. symbols, “Na” (natrium) fo r“So” and “K” (kali - and its scientists throughout the “Rediscovery” 7. R. King, Humphry Davy , 1978 , The Royal um) for “Po,” which removed the confusion of series. 1f For the Cornwall region, Dr. Simon Institution of , London. “So, ”“S,” “Po,” and “O.” Camm of the Camborne School of Mines, 8. G. Caroe, The Royal Institution , 1985 , John Dalton called Berzelius’ symbols “horrify - University of Exeter, has been especially helpful 6d Murray (London). in g;” it was “unnatural” for scientists to use and has served as a guide for the authors as symbols other than in a mathematic sense. they researched the tin mines, and the discov - 9. “The Napoleon Prize,” BBC News, 15 March Even Berzelius himself could not make much ery of titanium, previously described in The 2008 ,“Napoleon’s medal cast into the sea;” use of his own invention at first. However, the HEXAGON .1a Royal Society of Chemistry, “New Light symbolism gained greater acceptance after it Shed on French Wartime Honour for British was discovered that water contained two Chemist,” 14 March 1808, http://www.rsc.org/ hydrogens and one oxygen 1c and thus that References. AboutUs/News/PressReleases/2008/ Wartime one -to-one atomic combinations were not the 1. J. L. and V. R. Marshall, The HEXAGON of Honour.asp. rule. By the mid-1800s, with more accurate rel - Alpha Chi Sigma , (a) 2001 , 92(1) , 4-5; (b) 10. F. A. J. L. James, Guides to the Royal ative atomic mass determinations, the Berzelius 2005 , 96(1) , 4-7; (c) 2007 , 98(1) , 3-9; (d) Institution of Great Britain: 1 History , 2000 , formulations were mandated. However, they 2007 , 98(4) , 70-76; (e) 2009 , 100(4) , 72-75; (f) Royal Institution of Great Britain, London. originally employed superscripts rather than 2012 , 103(3) , 36-41; (g) 2014 , 105(2) , 24-29; 11. A. Greenberg, A Chemical History Tour , 2000 , subscripts, although in the first part of the 20th (h) 2014 , 105(3) , 40-45. Wiley-Interscience, (a) 162-163; (b) 193. century some texts, particularly those of the French, maintained the “superscript” conven - 2. J. R. Partington, A History of Chemistry , Vol. 3, 12. H. Davy, 1806 Bakerian lecture, “On some tion. 1962 , Macmillan (London), (a) 33; (b) 69-70; chemical agencies of electricity,” published Thu s—we have Berzelius to thank when we (c) 487-488; (d) 503; (e) 716-721; (f) 782-813. in Phil. Trans. , 1807 , 97, 1-56. write such formulas as Na 2SO4 (instead of 3. A. L. Lavoisier, Traité Élémentaire de Chimie , 13. A. Candoré, International Molinology , 1996 , So 2SO4) and K 3PO4 (instead of Po 3PO4). 1789 , Paris, 168. No. 53 (November).

SUMMER 2015 /THE HEXAGON 29