STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21

UNIT CONTENT PAGE Nr

I POSITION OF INDIA ON THE EVE OF INDEPENDENCE 02

II PRIME MINISTERS OF INDIA 06

III RAJIV GANDHI 09

IV PEASANTS STRUGGLE 13

V DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION 21

Page 1 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21

UNIT – I POSITION OF INDIA ON THE EVE OF INDEPENDENCE

Position of India on the eve of Independence Lord Louis Mountbatten (1900–1979), India’s last British viceroy, reached India in March 1947. The British decided to make their final settlement of political power. The British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act on July 18, 1947. India became independent at midnight on August 14, 1947. The transfer of power took place at Parliament House in New Delhi.

The Problems of Partition Sir Cyril Radcliffe drew the boundaries that would separate India from East and West Pakistan. The boundaries were not announced until August 17, 1947. It was only then that the real impact of partition began to be felt, as majority communities on both sides of the border attacked, looted, raped, and murdered the remaining minorities. Within a month newspapers were reporting 4 million migrants on the move in northern India. More than 1 million people lost their lives in partition violence. The entire population of the Punjab was reshaped in the process. By March 1948 more than 10 million Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs had fled their former homes on either side of the border to become refugees within the other country.

Integration of Indian States At the time of independence, Indian Territory was divided into three parts. First, the territories under the direct control of the British government second were the territories over which the hereditary rulers had suzerainty. The regions, which had been colonized by France and Portugal, formed the last. India, without the integration of these different territories under one roof, could not be considered as a unified country. Sardar Patel took charge of the states department in July 1947.

The problem of consolidating 562 independent states with India was difficult and delicate. Patel appealed to the patriotic and national spirit of the Princes and invited them to join the forming of a democratic constitution in the national interest. He insisted them to handover defence, foreign affairs and communication to the government of India. By August 15, 1947 all except Hyderabad and Kashmir acceded to India.

Nawab of Junagarh wanted to accede to Pakistan. When the people revolted, Patel intervened. Indian Government took over the administration. Patel amalgamated it with India by holding a plebiscite. Patel with an iron fisted hand subdued the Nizam. When the Nizam boasted anti-India feelings and let loose a blood both by the Razakars, Patel decided upon police action. He ordered the army to March into Hyderabad. The Nizam surrendered and Hyderabad was acceded to India.

The state of Kashmir had strategic importance on account of its international boundaries and it is bordered on both India and Pakistan. Its ruler Hari Singh was a Hindu, while nearly 75 per cent of the population was Muslim. Hari Singh did not accede either to India or Pakistan. On 24 October, 1947, He appealed to India for military assistance against Pakistan. on 26 October, 1947, He acceded to India and also agreed to install Abdullah as head of the state's administration.

States re – organisation

Page 2 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21

The movement for linguistic states The Demand of states on linguistic basis was developed even before independence of India. Orissa Province was the first Indian state formed on linguistic basis on 1st April, 1936 due to the efforts of Madhusudan Das, Gajapati Krushna Chandra Dev, etc. In Odisha linguistic movement started in the year 1895 and intensified later years with the demand of separate province first from Bengal and then from Bihar.

Need for Linguistic Reorganization of the States The need for linguistic states as administrative units was very strong. Language is closely related to culture and customs of people of India. Besides this the massive spread of education and growth of mass literacy can only happen through the medium of the mother tongue. Democracy can become real to the common people only when politics and administration are conducted through the language they can understand. But this language, the mother tongue cannot be the medium of education or administration or judicial activity unless a state is formed on the basis of such a predominant language.

Urge for redistribution of provinces on linguistic basis With the involvement of the masses in the national movement after 1919, Congress undertook political mobilization in the mother tongue and in 1921 amended its constitution and reorganized its regional branches on a linguistic basis. Since then, the Congress repeatedly committed itself to the redrawing of the provincial boundaries on linguistic lines. Gandhiji argued that 'the redistribution of provinces on a linguistic basis was necessary if provincial languages were to grow to their full height.' It was therefore more or less universally assumed that free India would base its administrative boundaries on the linguistic principle. The reorganisation of the states based on language, a major aspect of national consolidation and integration, came to the fore almost immediately after independence.

Dhar Committee In 1948, the government appointed a commission under S.K.Dhar, a judge of the Allahabad High Court, to examine the case for the reorganisation of states on the linguistic basis. The commission gave more importance to historical, geographical and economic considerations in the reorganisation of states. It favoured reorganisation on the basis of administrative convenience rather than linguistic considerations.

JVP Committee The public opinion was not satisfied, especially in the South, and the problem remained politically alive. The Congress appointed a committee (JVP) in December 1948 consisting of Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramayya, President of the Congress, to examine the question afresh. This committee advised against the creation of linguistic states for the time being, emphasizing on unity, national security, and economic development as the needs of the hour.

Creation of Andhra Pradesh On 19 October 1952, a popular freedom fighter, Patti Sriramalu, undertook a fast unto death over the demand for a separate Andhra state and expired after fifty-eight days. His death was followed by three days of riots, demonstrations, hartals and violence took place in all over Andhra. The government immediately gave its assent for the creation of a separate state of Andhra, which finally came into existence in October 1953. Simultaneously, Tamil Nadu was created as a Tamil-speaking state.

Page 3 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21

States Reorganisation Commission or Fazal Ali Commission In August 1953 the States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) was appointed with Justice Fazi Ali, K.M. Panikkar and Hridaynath Kunzru as members, to examine ‘objectively and dispassionately’ the entire question of the reorganization of the states of the union. Throughout the two years of its work, the Commission was faced with meetings, demonstrations, agitations and hunger strikes. The SRC submitted its report in October 1955. It recognized for the most part on the linguistic principle. It recommended redrawing of state boundaries on that basis. The Commission, however, opposed the splitting of Bombay and Punjab. Despite strong reaction to the report in many parts of the country, the SRC's recommendations were accepted, though with certain modifications, and were quickly implemented.

The States Reorganization Act was passed by parliament in November 1956. It provided for fourteen states and six centrally administered territories. The Telengana area of Hyderabad state was transferred to Andhra; merging the Malabar district of the old Madras Presidency with Travancore-Cochin created Kerala. Certain Kannada-speaking areas of the states of Bombay, Madras, Hyderabad and Coorg were added to the Mysore state. Merging the states of Kutch and Saurashtra and the Marathi-speaking areas of Hyderabad with it enlarged Bombay state. The strongest reaction against the SRC's report and the States Reorganisation Act came from Maharashtra where widespread rioting broke out and eighty people were killed in Bombay city in police firings in January 1956. The opposition parties supported by a wide spectrum of public opinion—students, farmers, workers, artists, and business persons— organized a powerful protest movement. Under pressure, the government decided in June 1956 to divide the Bombay state into two linguistic states of Maharashtra and Gujarat with Bombay city forming a separate, centrally administered state. This move too was strongly opposed by the Maharashtrians.

Nehru was unhappy because the Maharashdrians were hurted, in July to the formation of bilingual, greater Bombay. This move was, however, opposed by the people both of Maharashtra and Gujarat. The broad-based Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti and Maha Gujarat Janata Parishad led the movements in the two parts of the state. In Maharashtra, even a large section of Congressmen joined the demand for a unilingual Maharashtra with Bombay as its capital; and C.D. Deshmukh, the Finance Minister in the Central Cabinet, resigned from his office on this question. The Gujarat is felt that they would be a minority in the new state. They too would not agree to give up Bombay city to Maharashtra. Violence and arson now spread to Ahmedabad and other parts of Gujarat. Sixteen persons were killed and 200 injured in police firings. In view of the disagreement over Bombay city, the government stuck to its decision and passed the States Reorganization Act in November 1956.

It provided the following fourteen states and six centrally administered territories. They were: The states were Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Bombay, Jammu and Kashmir, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Mysore, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. The six union territories were Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Lacadive, Minicoy and Amindivi Islands, Manipur and Tripura. In 1960 as result of agitation and violence, the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat were created from the state of Bombay. With this the strength of the Indian states rose to 15. In 1963, the state of Nagaland was formed to placate the Nagas. However, before providing it the status of a full-fledged state, it was placed under the control of the Governor of Assam in 1961. With it the strength of the Indian states rose to

Page 4 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21

16. After the acquisition of Chandernagore, Mahe, Yaman and Karkal from France, and the territories of Goa, Daman and Diu from the Portuguese, these were either merged with the neighbouring states or given the status of union territories.

Shah Commission In 1966, the parliament passed the Punjab Reorganisation Act after an agitation for the formation of Punjabi Subha. This step was taken on the recommendation of the Shah Commission appointed in April, 1966. As a result of this act, the Punjabi-speaking areas were constituted into the state of Haryana and the hilly areas were merged with the adjoining Union Territory of Himachal Pradesh. Chandigarh was made a union Territory and was to serve as a common capital of Punjab and Haryana. With Punjab the strength of India rose to 17. In 1969, the state of Meghalaya was created out of the state of Assam. Initially the state was given autonomous status within Assam, but subsequently it was made a full-fledged state. This raised the strength of Indian states to 18.

Further division of states In 1971, with the elevation of the Union territory of Himachal Pradesh to the status of a state, the strength of Indian states rose to 19 and then to 21 with the conversion of the Union Territories of Tripura and Manipur into states. In 1975, Sikkim was admitted as a state of the Indian Union. Initially, Sikkim was given the status of an associate state but was subsequently made a full-fledged state. In 1986, Mizoram was given the status of a state and became the 23rd state of the Indian Union. In February 1987, Arunachal Pradesh, another Union Territory of India, became the 24th state of Indian Union. In May 1987, the state of Goa was created as 25th state by separating the territory from the Union territory of Goa, Daman and Diu, while Daman and Diu remained as Union territories. Three new states of Chhatistgarh, Jharkhand and Uttaranchal were created in November 2000. The recent state in the form of Telengana has been created from Andhra Pradesh in 2014.

Page 5 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21

UNIT - II PRIME MINISTERS OF INDIA Jawaharlal Nehru (1952–1964) Prime Minster Nehru, with his charismatic leadership, led the Congress to major election victories in 1957 and 1962. The Parliament passed extensive reforms that increased the legal rights of women in Hindu society, and further legislated against caste discrimination and untouchability. Nehru advocated a strong initiative to enroll India's children to complete primary education, and thousands of schools, colleges and institutions of advanced learning, such as the Indian Institutes of Technology were founded across the nation. Nehru advocated a socialist model for the economy of India — no taxation for Indian farmers, minimum wage and benefits for blue-collar workers, and the nationalisation of heavy industries such as steel, aviation, shipping, electricity and mining. An extensive public works and industrialisation campaign resulted in the construction of major dams, irrigation canals, roads, thermal and hydroelectric power stations.

Foreign policy and military conflicts Nehru's foreign policy was the inspiration of the Non-Aligned Movement, of which India was a co-founder. Nehru maintained friendly relations with both the United States and the Soviet Union. India had opposed the partition of Palestine and the 1956 invasion of the Sinai by Israel, Britain and France, but did not oppose the Chinese direct control over Tibet and the suppression of a pro-democracy movement in Hungary by the Soviet Union. India also negotiated an agreement in 1960 with Pakistan on the just use of the waters of seven rivers shared by the countries. Sino-Indian War In 1962 China and India engaged in the Sino-Indian War over the border in the Himalayas. Indian army was defeated by the Chinese forces. It occupied certain territories in the border area. It led to a re focusing on arms build-up and an improvement in relations with the United States. India had opposed China's claim over the smaller Aksai Chin territory that it controls on the western part of the Sino-Indian border. Jawaharlal Nehru died on 27 May 1964.

Lal Bahadur Sastri He was born on October 2, 1904, Mughalsarai, India. He was a great Indian statesman. He was served as the prime minister of India (1964–66). He is remembered for his honesty and efficient administration. As a member of Mahatma Gandhi’s non co-operation movement against British government in India, he was imprisoned for a short time in 1921. He studied in the Kashi Vidyapitha, a nationalist university, where he graduated with the title of shastri (“learned in the scriptures”). He was a follower of Gandhi. He was attained major positions in the Congress Party of the state of the United Provinces, presently Uttar Pradesh state.

Shastri was elected to the legislature of the United Provinces in 1937 and again in 1946. After Indian independence, he was appointed as minister for home affairs and transport in Uttar Pradesh. He was elected to the central Indian legislature in 1952 and became union minister for railways and transport.

He gained a reputation as a skillful mediator after his appointment to the influential post of minister for home affairs in 1961. In 1964, after Jawaharlal Nehru’s illness, Shastri was appointed minister without portfolio, and after Nehru’s death he became prime minister. He was criticized for failing to deal effectively with India’s economic problems, but he won great

Page 6 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21 popularity for his firmness on the outbreak of hostilities with neighbouring Pakistan (1965) over the disputed Kashmir region. He died of a heart attack after signing a “no-war” agreement with Ayub Khan of Pakistan on January 11, 1966, Tashkent, Uzbekistan, U.S.S.R.

Indira Gandhi Indira Gandhi, the daughter of Jawaharlal and Kamala Nehru, was born on November 19, 1917 in Allahabad. In February 1959, she was unanimously selected as the President of the Congress Party. She becoming the third one from the Nehru family in this post, after her grandfather, Motilal Nehru (1919 and 1938) and her father Jawaharlal Nehru and the fourth woman after Annie Besant (1917), Sarojini Naidu (1925) and Nellie Sengupta (1933). She held the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs during the times of Lalbahadur Sastri. After the sudden death of Lalbahadur Sastri, She was sworn in January 1966, and accordingly become the youngest Prime Minister of the country.

Domestic Policy The devaluation of the Indian currency to promote export and trade in the foreign market was initiated by Mrs. Gandhi in 1966 as a form of respite from economic hardships for the repaying of a $400 million loan for food imports amidst severe drought, shortage of rainfall and agricultural stagnation between 1964 and 1966. In her broadcast to the nation on the eve of nationalisation of the fourteen leading Indian banks, she summed up the objectives of the nationalisation as, "The present decision to nationalise major banks is to accelerate the achievements of our objectives. The purpose is to expand bank credit to priority areas which have hitherto been somewhat neglected. It also includes,

I. The removal of control by a few II. Provision of adequate credit facilities to agriculture, small industry and exports III. The giving of professional bent to bank management IV. The encouragement of new classes of entrepreneurs, and V. The provision of adequate training as well as reasonable terms of service for bank staff Emergency in India In India, "the Emergency" refers to a 21-month period in 1975–77 when Prime Minister Indira Gandhi unilaterally had an emergency declared across the country. Officially issued by President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed under Article 352(1) of the Constitution for "internal disturbance", the Emergency was in effect from 25 June 1975 until its withdrawal on 21 March 1977. Indira Gandhi imposed Emergency in India citing grave threat to her government and sovereignty of the country from both internal and external forces.

Indira Gandhi became the prime minister in January 1966 and then emerged victorious in the 1971 Lok Sabha elections. There was a failure of monsoon and unemployment rate had touched a high. Poverty was increasing. Industrial production was down and there was a massive labour and students unrest across India. The socialist stalwart Jaya Prakash Narayan popularly known as 'JP' openly led a mass movement against her calling her corrupt and autocratic. The firebrand trade union leader George Fernandes had successfully organised an all India Railways strike bringing the public transport and economy to a halt.

Indira Gandhi got scared and believed that the internal unrest was the handiwork of American spy agency CIA to unseat her and install a puppet government in India. When she thought that the things were really out of control, she imposed Emergency suspending civil

Page 7 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21 liberties. The Emergency draft was hurriedly sent to the President of India Fakruddin Ali Ahmed who signed it immediately. Indira Gandhi's second son Sanjay Gandhi, who was just 29 years old then, took charge of the administration and started sending opposition leaders and workers to jails across India.

The opposition movement against the Emergency was led by JP, George Fernandes, Morarji Desai, Nanaji Deshmukh, Subramanian Swamy, AB Vajpayee, LK Advani, Ramakrishna Hegde, HD Deve Gowda, M Karunanidhi, JB Patnaik, Jyoti Basu, Madhu Dandavate, Lalu Prasad Yadav, Mulayam Singh Yadav, Sharad Yadav and many others. The opposition was brutally oppressed. In the historic Lok Sabha election held in March 1977, Indira Gandhi-led Congress lost power. Both Indira Gandhi and her son Sanjay Gandhi were defeated in their respective Lok Sabha seats. Morarji Desai succeeded her as the Prime Minister and led the Janata Party government till 1980.

In the 1980 Lok Sabha polls, Indira Gandhi returned to power and remained in power till her assassination in 1984.

Birth of Bangladesh Indo-Pakistan War of 1971 The Indo-Pakistan War of 1971 was the third in four wars fought between the two nations. In this war, fought over the issue of self rule in East Pakistan, India decisively defeated Pakistan resulting in the creation of Bangladesh. The Pakistan army conducted violent acts against the people of East Pakistan, nearly 10 million people fled to India. Following the surrender of Pakistani forces, Gandhi invited the Pakistani president to Shimla for a week long summit. The two leaders signed the Shimla Agreement, agreeing to resolve the dispute of Kashmir by peaceful means.

Assassination During the 1980s, a Sikh separatist movement developed in India, which Indira Gandhi attempted to repress it. The Sikh extremists held a campaign inside the Golden Temple. Indira Gandhi ordered some 70,000 soldiers to enter the sacred space. Hundreds were killed in the raid. On October 31, 1984, a bodyguard, who was a Sikh, pulled out a 38 revolver and shot her point-blank. Another bodyguard, also a Sikh, then took out an automatic weapon and shot 30 rounds into her body. Gandhi died on the way to the hospital.

Page 8 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21

UNIT – III RAJIV GANDHI Rajiv Gandhi Rajiv Gandhi was one of the popular Prime Ministers of India. The developmental projects launched by him include the national education policy and expansion of telecom sector. Besides his achievement and subsequent popularity, Rajiv Gandhi also emerged as one of India's controversial Prime Ministers. He was allegedly involved in the "Bofors scandal" worth Rs 640 million.

Early Life Rajiv Gandhi was born on 20 August 1944, in the Nehru family. His mother Indira Gandhi was the first woman Prime Minister of India. Feroze, a key member of the Indian National Congress became the editor of the National Herald newspaper founded by Motilal Nehru in Allahabad. Rajiv Gandhi initially attended the Welham Boys' School and subsequently sent to the elite Doon School in Dehradun. Later, he went to the United Kingdom to study at the Cambridge University. Rajiv Gandhi exhibited least interest in the politics and focused into becoming a professional pilot. He, later, worked for Indian Airlines, as a pilot.

Entry into politics After the death of Sanjay Gandhi, the senior members of the Indian National Congress party approached Rajiv Gandhi, in order to persuade him joining politics. But, Rajiv was reluctant about joining and said "no" to them. After constant request from his mother Indira Gandhi, he decided to contest. His entry was criticized by many in the press, public and opposition political parties. Within a few months of his election as a Member of Parliament, Rajiv Gandhi acquired significant party influence and became an important political advisor to his mother. He was elected as the general secretary of the All-India Congress Committee and subsequently became the president of the Youth Congress. Following the assassination of his mother, on 31 October 1984, the Congress leaders and partisans favoured Rajiv as the immediate successor to the coveted throne.

Achievements Rajiv Gandhi endeavoured to eliminate the corrupt and criminal faces within the Indian National Congress party. To deal with the anti-Sikh agitation, Rajiv Gandhi signed an accord with Akali Dal president Sant Harchand Singh Longowal, on 24 July, 1985. The key points of the pact were: Along with ex-gratia payment to those innocent killed in agitation or any action after 1- 8-1982, compensation for property damaged will also be paid. All citizens of the country have the right to enrol in the Army and merit will remain the criterion for selection. For all those discharged, efforts will be made to rehabilitate and provide gainful employment.

Revived Policies The economic policies adopted by Rajiv Gandhi were different from his predecessors like Indira Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru. Rajiv Gandhi decided to improve the bilateral relationships with the United States of America and subsequently expanded the economic and scientific cooperation with it. A revived foreign policy, emphasizing on the economic liberalization and information and technology moved India closer to the West. In 1986, Rajiv Gandhi announced a "national education policy" to modernize and expand higher education programs across India. Rajiv Gandhi brought a revolution in the field of information technology and telecom. The idea helped in originating the Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited, popularly known as MTNL. Rajiv Gandhi was the man to transcend telecom services to the rural

Page 9 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21

India. Rajiv Gandhi's name had surfaced in the major controversies like Bofors and the formation of Indian Peace Keeping Force. Bofors Case The Bofors scandal that still haunts the political walls of the country was exposed during Rajiv Gandhi's reign. A strong corruption racket involving many stalwarts of the Congress Party was unearthed in the 1980s. Rajiv Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India and several others prominent leaders were accused of receiving kickbacks from Bofors for winning a bid to supply India's 155 mm field howitzer (a type of artillery piece).

IPKF In 1987, the Indian Peace Keeping Force was formed to end the Sri Lankan Civil War between the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) and Sri Lankan army. The acts of the military contingent was opposed by the Opposition parties of Sri Lanka and as well as LTTE. But, Rajiv Gandhi refused to withdraw the IPKF. The idea also turned out to be unpopular in India, particularly in Tamil Nadu. The IPKF operation cost over 1100 Indian soldiers lives and cost over 2000 crores.

Death On 21 May, 1991, At Sri Perumputhur, Rajiv Gandhi was garlanded by many Congress supporters and well wishers. At around 10 pm, the assassin greeted him and bent down to touch his feet. She then exploded an RDX explosive laden belt attached to her waist belt. The act of violence was reportedly carried out by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, expressing their resentment over the formation Indian Peace-keeping Force.

National Front Government NARASIMHA RAO (28 June 1921 – 23 December 2004) Pamulaparthi Venkata Narasimha Raoa, who was commonly known as P. V. Narasimha Rao, served as the 10th Prime Minister of the Republic of India. He was called the "Father of Indian Economic Reforms. He has remembered for launching India's free market reforms that rescued the almost bankrupt nation from economic collapse. He was also commonly referred to as the Chanakya of modern India for his ability to steer tough economic and political legislation through the parliament at a time when he headed a minority government. Rao's term as Prime Minister was an eventful one in India's history. He made a paradigm shift from the industrializing, mixed economic model of Jawaharlal Nehru to a market driven one. Rao's term saw the destruction of the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya which triggered one of the worst Hindu- Muslim riots in the country. Rao was popularly known as PV. He studied at Fergusson College and at the Universities of Mumbai and Nagpur where he obtained Bachelor's and Master's degrees in law. He could speak 17 languages including Urdu, Marathi, Kannada, Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Sanskrit and Oriya with a fluency akin to a native speaker. His mother tongue was Telugu. In addition to eight Indian languages, he spoke English, French, Arabic, Spanish, German, Greek, Latin and Persian.

Political Career Narasimha Rao was an active freedom fighter during the Indian Independence movement and joined full time politics after independence as a member of the Indian National Congress. Narasimha Rao served brief stints in the Andhra Pradesh cabinet (1962–1971) and as Chief Minister of the state of Andhra Pradesh (1971–1973).When the Indian National Congress split in 1969 Rao stayed on the side of the Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and remained loyal to her during the Emergency period (1975 - 77). He raised to national prominence in 1972 for

Page 10 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21 handling several diverse portfolios, most significantly Home, Defence and Foreign Affairs (1980- 1984), in the cabinets of both Indira Gandhi and Rajiv Gandhi. Rao very nearly retired from politics in 1991. It was the assassination of the Congress President Rajiv Gandhi that made him make a comeback. As the Congress had won the largest number of seats in the 1991 elections, he got the opportunity to head the minority government as Prime Minister. He was the first person outside the Nehru-Gandhi family to serve as Prime Minister for five continuous years, the first to hail from South India and also the first from the state of Andhra Pradesh. Rao won from Nandyal Constituency with a victory margin of a record 5 lakh (500,000) votes and his win was recorded in the Guinness Book of World Records. His cabinet included Sharad Pawar as defence minister and Manmohan Singh as his finance minister.

Economic Reforms Rao's major achievement generally considered to be the liberalization of the Indian economy. The reforms were adopted to avert impending international default in 1991. The reforms progressed further in the areas of opening up to foreign investment, reforming capital markets, deregulating domestic business, and reforming the trade regime.

Rao's government's goals were reducing the fiscal deficit, Privatization of the public sector, and increasing investment in infrastructure. Trade reforms and changes in the regulation of foreign direct investment were introduced to open India to foreign trade while stabilizing external loans.

National security, foreign policy and crisis management Rao energized the national nuclear security and ballistic missiles program, which ultimately resulted in the 1998 Pokhran nuclear tests. It is speculated that the tests were actually planned in 1995, during Rao's term in office. He increased military spending, and set the Indian Army on course tonight the emerging threat of terrorism and insurgencies, as well as Pakistan and China's nuclear potentials. It was during his term that terrorism in the Indian state of Punjab was finally defeated. Also scenarios of plane hijackings, which occurred during Rao's time ended without the government conceding the terrorists' demands. He also directed negotiations to secure the release of Doraiswamy, an Indian Oil executive, from Kashmiri terrorists who kidnapped him, and Liviu Radu, a Romanian diplomat posted in New Delhi in October 1991, who was kidnapped by Sikh terrorists.

Rao also handled the Indian response to the occupation of the Hazratbal holy shrine in Jammu and Kashmir by terrorists in October 1993. He brought the occupation to an end without damage to the shrine. Rao also made diplomatic overtures to Western Europe, the United States, and China.

He permitted Israel to open an embassy in New Delhi. He ordered the intelligence community in 1992 to start a systematic drive to draw the international community's attention to alleged Pakistan's sponsorship of terrorism against India. Rao launched the Look East foreign policy, which brought India closer to ASEAN. He decided to maintain a distance from the Dalai Lama in order to avoid aggravating Beijing's suspicions and concerns, and made successful overtures to Tehran.

Rao's crisis management after the March 12, 1993 Bombay bombings was highly praised. He personally visited Bombay after the blasts and after seeing evidence of Pakistani

Page 11 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21 involvement in the blasts, ordered the intelligence community to invite the intelligence agencies of the US, UK and other West European countries to send their counter-terrorism experts to Bombay to examine the facts for themselves.

LIBERALISATION, PRIVATISATION AND GLOBALISATION The concepts of liberalization, privatization and globalization are closely related to one another. This LPG phenomenon was first initiated in the Indian Economy in 1990 when the Indian Economy experienced a severe crisis. There was decline in the country’s export earnings, national income and industrial output. The government had to seek aid from IMF to resolve its debt problem. That is when the government decided to introduce the New Industrial Policy (NIP) in 1991 to start liberalizing the Indian economy.

Atal Bihari Vajpaye The General elections held in February 1998, brought the BJP the largest number of seats in Parliament (182), but this fell far short of a majority. On 20 March 1998, the President inaugurated a BJP-led coalition government with Vajpayee as Prime Minister. On 11 and 13 May 1998, this government conducted a series of underground nuclear weapons tests. India's nuclear tests prompted President of the United States Bill Clinton and Japan to impose economic sanctions on India pursuant to the 1994 Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act and led to widespread international condemnation.

In the early months of 1999, Prime Minister Vajpayee made a historic bus trip to Pakistan and met with Pakistan's Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif, and signed the bilateral Lahore peace declaration. In May and June 1999, India discovered an elaborate campaign of terrorist infiltration that resulted in the Kargil War in Kashmir. Indian forces killed Pakistan-backed infiltrators and reclaimed important border posts in high-altitude warfare. End of the millennium was devastating to India, as a Super Cyclone hit Orissa, killing at least 10,000.

The National Democratic Alliance government's credibility was adversely affected by a number of political scandals as well as reports of intelligence failures that led to the Kargil incursions going undetected, and the apparent failure of his talks with Pakistani President. Following the 11 September attacks, the United States lifted sanctions which it imposed against India and Pakistan in 1998. In 2002, 59 Hindu pilgrims returning from Ayodhya were killed in a train fire, in Godhra, Gujarat. This sparked off the 2002 Gujarat violence, leading to the deaths of 790 Muslims and 254 Hindus and 223 more people were reported missing. Throughout 2003, India's speedy economic progress, political stability and a rejuvenated peace initiative with Pakistan increased the government's popularity.

Page 12 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21

UNIT – IV PEASANTS STRUGGLE Peasants Struggle Agrarian struggles of enormous variety, ranging from the legendary Telangana peasant movement and the PEPSU tenants’ movement which continued from the pre-independence years, to the Naxalite or Maoist movement in the late sixties and the ‘new’ farmers’ movements of the eighties. Interspersed in between are many lesser-known struggles, such as the Kharwar tribals’ movement in M.P and Bihar in 1957-58, the Bhils’ movement in Dhulia in Maharashtra from 1967-75, or the Warlis’ struggle led by the Kashtakad Sanghatna headed by the Marxist Jesuit Pradeep Prabhu since 1978.

The peasants in Telangana suffered extreme feudal-type oppression at the hand of jagirdars and deshmukhs, some of whom owned thousands of acres of land. The Communists began to organize the peasants against the hated forced grain levy imposed by the government, and forced labour extracted by landlords and officials. The Muzara or tenants’ movement was largely spread in Patiala. Biswedars (the local term for landlords), who earlier had only some mafi claims or revenue collecting rights, due to their growing influence in the administration, succeeded in claiming proprietary status and relegated the entire body of cultivating proprietors of roughly 800 villages, comprising one- sixth the area of the state, to the position of occupancy tenants and tenants-at-will. The new tenants regarded the new landlords as parvenus, who had no legitimate right to the land which a traditional tenantry right regard their old, established, feudal landowners, whose right to the land had acquired a certain social legitimacy by virtue of its very antiquity. An Agrarian Reforms Enquiry Committee was set up to make recommendations, the PEPSU Tenancy (Temporary Provision) Act was promulgated in January 1952 which protected tenants against eviction.

Terrorism in Punjab A section of Sikhs turned to militancy in Punjab; some Sikh militant groups aimed to create an independent state called Khalistan through acts of violence directed at members of the Indian government, army or forces. Others demanded an autonomous state within India. In October 1983, some Sikh militants stopped a bus and shot six Hindu bus passengers. Another group of extremists killed two officials on a train. The Congress led Central Government dismissed its own Punjab's government, declaring a state of emergency, and imposed the President's Rule in the state. During the five months preceding Operation Blue Star, from 1 January 1984 to 3 June 1984, 298 people had been killed in various violent incidents across Punjab. In five days preceding the Operation, 48 people had been killed in the violence.

Foreign Policy of India The guiding principles of India’s Foreign Policy have been founded on Panchsheel, pragmatism and pursuit of national interest. The five principles of peaceful coexistence or Panchsheel were evolved during talks between India and the People’s Republic of China in 1954. The five principles which formed the basis of the non - aligned movement were laid down by Jawaharlal Nehru.

The Five Principles are:  Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty  Mutual non-aggression against anyone  Mutual non-interference in each other’s internal affair

Page 13 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21

 Equality and mutual benefit  Peaceful co-existence

During the cold war India’s policy was that of a neutral observer inclined towards self- interest rather than seeking alignment with any of the major power blocs. This attitude led her to sign two of the most important foreign policy agreements, i.e., Panchsheel and NAM (Non Alignment Movement) during this period. Nehru obtained a Soviet commitment to neutrality on the India-China border dispute and war of 1962. During the India-Pakistan war of 1965, the Soviet Union acted with the United States in the UN Security Council to bring about a cease-fire.

Indira Gandhi did not alter important principles of Indian foreign policy. She made it clear that the Soviet Union would not receive any special privileges- much less naval base rights in Indian ports, despite the major Soviet contribution to the construction of shipbuilding and ship-repair facilities at Bombay on the west coast and at Vishakhapatnam on the east coast. By repeatedly emphasizing the nonexclusive nature of its friendship with the Soviet Union, India kept open the way for normalizing relations with China and improving ties with the West.

The four most important variables that guided the framing of India’s foreign policy after the cold war were:  India’s search for its due place in the international order which is largely dominated by the US;  An accommodation with the global nuclear order as the international system comes to terms with nuclear India  India’s balancing act of tackling the challenge of global terrorism without alienating its Islamic minority and India’s search for energy security to ensure its current rate of economic growth.

Indo-US relations saw a new high with the latter acknowledging India as one of the emerging powers and boldly declaring to forge trade ties and engaging in mutual integration and co-operation owing to the shared interests in the global arena.

India and Non- Aligned Movement On 1 Sep 1961 the heads of 28 nations gathered in Belgrade to launch the Non- Alignment Movement. NAM has grown to more than 120 nations. Members of NAM initially had disputes on some issues due to gap in the level of technological and economical development. Also, the disputes between India and Pakistan questioned the very basic principle of NAM— peaceful coexistence.

NAM has made significant discussions on several issues of world importance. The extent of its need, importance and fame of this movement can be approximated from the increase in its membership. It’s most important achievement include postponing of wars, reducing their intensity and in some cases disputes were completely solved. NAM can be said to have played a vital role in maintaining world peace in this nuclear age. This brought cold war to ceasefire. Non aligned countries have been successful in establishing a foundation of economic cooperation amongst under developed countries. Another noteworthy fact is that it has transformed from a political movement to an economical movement whereby the developing and underdeveloped nations are demanding a New International Economic Order.

Page 14 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21

India and UNO India was a founding member of the United Nations, joining in October 1945. In 1953, the chief delegate of India at the time, Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit was elected the first woman President of the UN General Assembly. India had traditionally represented the interests of the developing nations and supported the struggle against colonialism and apartheid, its struggle towards global disarmament and the ending of the arms race, and towards the creation of a more equitable international economic order.

In the early 1950s, India attempted, like the Soviet Union, unsuccessfully to help the People's Republic of China join the UN but was rebuffed by Western powers. India also had a mediatory role in resolving the stalemate over prisoners of war in Korea contributing to the signing of the armistice ending the Korean War in 1953. India chaired the five-member Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission while the Indian Custodian Force supervised the process of interviews and repatriation that followed.

The UN entrusted Indian armed forces with subsequent peace missions in the Middle East, Cyprus, and the Congo. India also served as chair of the three international commissions for supervision and control for Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos established by the 1954 Geneva Accords on Indochina. India also has served as a member of many UN bodies including the Economic and Social Council, the Human Rights Commission, and the Disarmament Commission and on the board of governors of the International Atomic Energy Agency. In addition, India played a prominent role in articulating the economic concerns of developing countries in such UN-sponsored conferences as the triennial UN Conference on Trade and Development and the 1992 Conference on the Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro.

India and UN Security Council India has been elected seven times to the UN Security Council. Only three countries have served longer than that (Japan, Brazil, and Argentina), except for the Permanent Five, and Colombia has served the same amount of time. India has been seeking a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council as a member of the G4, an organisation composed of Brazil, Germany, Japan, and India, all who are currently seeking permanent representation. According to their proposal the UN Security Council should be expanded beyond the current fifteen members to include twenty-five members. If this actually happens, it would be the first time permanent Security Council status is extended to a South Asian nation and supporters of the G4 plan suggest that this will lead to greater representation of developing nations rather than the current major powers

India is the third largest contributor of troops to United Nations peacekeeping missions after Bangladesh and Pakistan, all three nations being in South Asia. Washington Post reported that "India was offered a permanent seat on the council 55 years ago, in 1955. But that offer, made by the United States and the Soviet Union, was declined by India's first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru. Nehru said the seat should be given to China instead." The council seat then was held by Taiwan (ROC). This decision by Nehru is seen as a blunder and the loss of an opportunity to attain a stronger diplomatic stature by India. If India were to accept this offer it would have required the United Nations charter to be amended to include India in place of Republic of China (Taiwan) in the Security Council or to expand the Council. It is not known whether the Taiwanese government representing China's seat at the time in the Security Council would have vetoed the amendment or accepted the amendment under US pressure as Taiwan was solely dependent on the US for its protection from mainland China. Although the

Page 15 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21

U.S. and other permanent Council members were not very supportive of expanding the Security Council, in his visit to India President Obama has offered his support for India to become a permanent member of the Council. However the reactions from other Council members are not very clear, particularly from China.

India and UN Peace keeping India is regular contributor to United Nations peacekeeping missions. The number of troops contributing to UN peacekeeping operations as of March 2007 was 9,471. It also suffered the death of 127 soldiers, who died while serving on peacekeeping missions. India also provided army contingent for performing peacekeeping operations in Sri Lanka between 1987 and 1990 as Indian Peace Keeping Force. In November 1988, India also helped restore the government of Maumoon Abdul Gayoom in the Maldives under Operation Cactus.

India is one of the main contributors to the UN regular budget. Indian contribution to United Nations Democracy Fund was USD 16 million for 2009. India has a permanent mission to the UN, which is led by the Permanent Representative (UN Ambassador). India, running unopposed in the Asian Group, was elected in 2010 as a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council for the period 2011-2012, after it gained 187 votes in the then-192 member General Assembly.

INDIA AND SOUTH ASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR REGIONAL CO-OPERATION (SAARC) The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is an organisation of South Asian nations, which was established on 8 December 1985 when the government of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka formally adopted its charter providing for the promotion of economic and social progress, cultural development within the South Asia region and also for friendship and cooperation with other developing countries.

It is dedicated to economic, technological, social, and cultural development emphasising collective self-reliance. Its seven founding members are Sri Lanka, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Afghanistan joined the organisation in 2007. Meetings of heads of state are usually scheduled annually; meetings of foreign secretaries, twice annually. It is headquartered in Kathmandu, Nepal.

Formation The first concrete proposal for establishing a framework for regional cooperation in South Asia was made by the late president of Bangladesh, Ziaur Rahman, on May 2, 1980. Prior to this, the idea of regional cooperation in South Asia was discussed in at least three conferences: the Asian Relations Conference in New Delhi in April 1947, the Baguio Conference in the Philippines in May 1950, and the Colombo Powers Conference in April 1954. In the late 1970s, SAARC nations agreed upon the creation of a trade bloc consisting of South Asian countries. The idea of regional cooperation in South Asia was again mooted in May 1980. The foreign ministers of the seven countries met for the first time in Colombo in April 1981. The Committee of the Whole, which met in Colombo in August 1985, identified five broad areas for regional cooperation. New areas of cooperation were added in the following years.

Objectives The objectives in the SAARC Charter include: promotion of welfare of people of South Asia and improving their quality of life; accelerate economic growth, social progress and

Page 16 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21 cultural development; promote and strengthen collective self-reliance; contribute to mutual trust and understanding; promote active collaboration and mutual assistance in economic, social, cultural, technical and scientific fields and strengthen mutual cooperation. The Charter also sets out the following principles: respect for principles of sovereign equality, territorial integrity, political independence, non-interference in internal affairs and mutual benefit. Such cooperation was not to substitute, but to supplement bilateral and multilateral cooperation and was not to be inconsistent with bilateral and multilateral obligations. The Charter has two important General Provisions that are of significance. One, decisions are to be taken on the basis of unanimity and bilateral and contentious issues are to be excluded from deliberations.

The first SAARC Summit was held at Dhaka in 1985. Despite the brief references to some bilateral issues, the Summit kept clear of controversies. There appeared a deliberate effort made 14 to ensure that the formation of the SAARC does not come into controversy at its inauguration.

The second summit at Bangalore in 1986 sought to continue the efforts at broad based cooperation. The bilateral issues between India and Pakistan surfaced in indirect references. Indo-Nepal issues also became a matter of debate. On the positive side, the Bangalore Summit decided to establish the permanent secretariat at Kathmandu. The Kathmandu Summit of 1987 took the bold initiative of signing a Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism in South Asia. It was for the first time that a ‘political’ issue had been made the part of SAARC deliberations. These nations pledged to refrain from organising, instigating, and participating in civil strife or terrorist acts in member countries. However, the Convention did not provide for extradition facilities.

SAARC also established the South Asian Food Security Reserve and the SAARC Audio Visual Exchange Programme. The Kathmandu Summit also saw the discussion on the possibility of including such issues like money, finance, banking and trade in SAARC deliberations.

The fourth summit at Islamabad in 1988 is of particular significance to India as it afforded the opportunity for a direct dialogue between the India and the Pakistan. Islamabad Summit suggested the preparation of a regional plan called SAARC 2000. It suggested providing the basic needs of shelter, education and literacy. The summit took up environmental issues of the ‘green house effect’ for study. It also called for a war against narcotics.

The period 1989-90 saw some uncertainty in the process of co-operation in SAARC. Sri Lankan reluctance to hold the summit on account of Indo-Sri Lankan bilateral issues put serious obstacles in the progress of SAARC. Sri Lanka raised the issue of the presence of Indian Peace Keeping Forces as reason for its inability to hold the annual summit. The IPKF, despite having been sent on the invitation of the Sri Lankan government, became a bone of contention. Eventually, the 1989 summit never took place and the fifth summit was then convened at Male in 1990.

The subsequent years have seen the cancellation or postponement of annual summits for relatively minor reasons. The Male summit of 1990 took place at the backdrop of an attempted coup in Maldives. India had assisted Maldives in its return to democracy. The major outcome of the Male summit was the signing of the convention on Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances. SAARC leaders also decided to initiate a dialogue with the European Union and the ASEAN.

Page 17 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21

The sixth summit was held in Colombo in 1991. The preparations for the summit had witnessed some political bickering. Sri Lanka itself was facing internal political turmoil in the Tamil regions of the north. The uncertainties were further complicated by the lack of consensus on the dates. Eventually the summit came to be held in December 1991. Colombo started the talk on the liberalisation of intra regional trade. The Sri Lankan president, in an interview, stated that his proposal for developing a preferential trading system in South Asia had been accepted. The period from 1991 to 1993 was to eventually see the emergence of trade as the central concern of SAARC.

The Seventh SAARC Summit meeting at Dhaka in 1993 reaffirmed the need to liberalise trade as early as possible through a step by step approach. The agreement on SAARC Preferential Trade (SAPTA) was the first step in this direction. A preferential trading arrangement is the first, and perhaps, the mildest form of regional economic integration. The agreement aimed at promoting and sustaining mutual trade and economic cooperation among the states of SAARC through the exchange of various concessions.

The Ninth Summit at Male held in 1997 was concerned about acceleration of economic cooperation in all areas. The leaders noted with satisfaction the progress of SAPTA but stressed upon the need to achieve the goal of free trade by the year 2001.

The Indian Prime Minister Vajpayee announced some major trade concessions at the Tenth SAARC Summit at Colombo in 1998. As a special gesture to SAARC nations, India announced the lifting of import curbs on over 2000 products on a preferential basis. India was also willing to consider bilateral free trade agreements with those countries which were interested in moving faster. In the wake of military coup in Pakistan in October 1999, India refused to attend the next summit. Thus, no summit meeting was held during 1999- 2001.

Trade relations continued to be addressed at the eleventh summit meeting held at Kathmandu in 2002. But, then again the next Summit meeting proposed for January 2003 at Islamabad could not take place due to India’s reluctance to attend it. Meanwhile, progress was made in the direction of achieving/enhancing free trade (SAFTA) in the SAARC Summit Meeting at Islamabad in early 2004.

Challenges of SAARC Since its creation in December 1985, the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) has sought after to boost economic unity between India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and the Maldives. The organization was designed to improve both the economic and social progress of its member states. Unlike the EU or ASEAN, however, trade between the seven SAARC States has remained limited despite the fact that all are positioned within a close proximity of one another and all are part of the World Trade Organization (WTO).

A growing emphasis on attracting foreign investment and seeking access to new markets in SAARC states indicates that economic progress is central to the future of South Asia. SAARC, however, is likely to play only a limited role in that future because of India’s considerable position of power over the other SAARC states. This imbalance of power within SAARC allows conflicts between India and its neighbors to undermine organizational unity. Clashes between South Asian countries end up jeopardizing the formation and effectiveness of regional trade agreements. They also lead individual SAARC countries to advance their

Page 18 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21 economic interests through bi-lateral agreements, reduce the incentive to connect in multi- laterally. It seems that SAARC will act more as a forum to encourage regional discussion through conferences and seminars than as an architect for economic policy in South Asia. There are some challenges to the effectiveness of this regional organization. SAARC is structured in a way that often makes regional cooperation difficult.

In the case of SAARC, India is the most powerful country in terms of its economic might, military power and international influence. Thus, India’s potential as a regional hegemony gives SAARC a unique dynamic compared to an organization such as ASEAN. Pakistan was initially hesitant to join SAARC due to fears of SAARC succumbing to Indian hegemony. Indeed, if India does take a prominent role in SAARC, it could further fears that India will use SAARC for hegemonic purposes. While the smaller states in South Asia recognize that they will need India’s help to facilitate faster economic growth, they are reluctant to work with India, fearing that such cooperation will admit Indian dominance in SAARC. Aside from a few overtures to its neighbours, India has done little to dispel the fears of other South Asian states. The core of these fears is likely derived from the displays of India’s power by New Delhi in the past. Realizing its considerable advantage in military and economic power, India has consistently acted in an - arrogant and uncompromising - manner with its neighbors. Bangladesh is afraid of India exploiting its geographical position to redirect water flows vital to Bangladeshi agricultural production.

Nepal and Bhutan are still worried about India’s control over their world trade and transit links as their geographical position will always make them dependent on India. These disputes between India and its neighbors have directly affected SAARC. The disputes between South Asian states have undermined SAARC efforts to promote regional trade. These disagreements make consensus building and cooperation among SAARC states complicated. SAARC attempting to promote regional cooperation while doing little to resolve regional conflicts makes its mission looks nearly impossible. Moreover, SAARC has no institutional mechanisms or punishments capable of preventing or fully resolving a dispute. Two examples illustrate how conflicts in South Asia have proven detrimental to SAARC. Indian intervention in Sri Lanka from 1986-1990 can be quoted. The Indian military intervention to suppress an insurgency by The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam made Indo-Sri Lankan relations tense during these four years. Subsequently, the apprehension between India and Sri Lanka was considered a primary reason behind Sri Lanka’s lukewarm support for SAARC into economic and social spheres of its member states until relations improved with India.

A second, more prominent example of a conflict tremendous SAARC progress is the Indo-Pakistani conflict. Pakistan has demanded a resolution to its dispute with India over the Kashmir Valley before discussing trade relations with New Delhi. India has recently attempted to improve its relationship with the rest of South Asia. Under the Gujral Doctrine established by former Indian Prime Minister I.K Gujral, India signed 30 years water sharing treaty with Bangladesh and a trade and transit treaty with Nepal. India also joined a sub regional group within SAARC comprising of Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal and India. Despite political impediments to trade, value of goods smuggled from India to Pakistan via a third party generally totals 250- 500 million per year. If trade between the states was opened, Pakistan would receive cheaper imports due to lower transport costs and the absence of payments to a middleman.

SAARC is planning establishment of a South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA). However, the agreement to establish this free trade zone will take 10 years of gradual tariff reduction. For

Page 19 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21 a proposal that has already been delayed, it will take some genuine political cooperation for the tariff reduction process to run smoothly. Comparing with the experience of ASEAN, an organization with a better track record in producing economic coordination among member states than SAARC, creating a free trade zone could become difficult. The ASEAN free trade agreement (AFTA) has been criticized for not producing substantial economic interdependence among the region. This lack of success results from distrust and protectionism among its member states.

Page 20 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21

UNIT – V DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION Development of Education To promote education, a full-fledged Ministry of Education was established on 29th August 1947.The nomenclature and responsibilities of the Education Department have undergone changes since Independence. At Present the Ministry has three Departments, namely: Department of Secondary and Higher Education, Department of Elementary Education and Literacy, and Department of Women and Child Development, Education, which was originally a state subject, was placed in the Concurrent List in 1976, making it the equal responsibility of the Union and States.

Compulsory Basic Education: Immediately after independence, in 1948, Maulana Azad, the Union Education Minister, convened an All India Education Conference, and proposed to achieve compulsory elementary education throughout the country in a time shorter than the forty years proposed by the Sergeant plan. The Ministry of Education established the National Institute of Basic Education. One of the merits of Basic Education is that it is a child-centered scheme making the child an active learner by introducing the principle “learning by doing”. By making the education craft centered if seeks to emphasize dignity of labor in the minds of the children.

NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION In 1964, a commission was appointed under the president ship of Dr. D.C. Kothari. It was authorized to prepare all the outlines of the various stages of national education and also chalk out its plan for implementation. The Kothari Commission admitted that both education and research are the decisive factors for the economic, cultural and moral development and progress of the country. It criticized and condemned the rigidity rampant in the educational system and laid stress on the need of the flexibility in the educational policy, which should be proper and appropriate in the changing circumstances. The Commission suggested that, in all standard educational institutions, social service, work experience, manual work, and production experience should be included and implemented as the essential component of General Education. Stress should be laid on growth of the spirit of moral education and social responsibility. Centers of Advanced Studies must be strengthened. Proper attention should be paid to the training of the teachers and stressed upon qualitative improvement. In the reconstruction foreign education, priority should be accorded to research in agriculture and allied sciences.

In 1968 Union government passed the resolution on National Policy of Education based on the recommendations of the Kothari Commission. It stressed among other points the trilingual formula with special attention to the development of the provincial languages. Equalization of the education of science and research, spending six per cent of the national income to the development of education, boosting education on agriculture and commerce, and improving textbooks were other suggestions. Educational policy and progress have been reviewed in the light of the goal of national development and priorities set from time to time. In 1986, a new National Policy on Education (NPE–1986) was formulated which was further updated in 1992.The New Educational Policy provides for a comprehensive policy framework for the development of education up to the end of the century. Free and compulsory education up to the age of 14, developing regional languages and three language formula, and

Page 21 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21 equalization of education of science and research, developing education for agriculture and industry are some of the important objectives.

The Central Advisory Board of Education has accepted the new 10+2+3 educational pattern laid down in the Policy. NPE states, “The investment on education is gradually increased to reach a level of 6 per cent of the National Income as early as possible. Since the actual level of investment has remained far short of that target, it is important that greater determination is shown now to find the funds for the programs laid down in this policy. While actual requirements will be computed from time to time on the basis of monitoring and review, the outlay on education will be stepped up to ensure that during the Eighth Five Year Plan and onwards it will uniformly exceed 6 per cent of the national income”.

The National Policy of Education 1986 promises to inculcate among others, the ideals of social justice, environmental protection, gender equality, scientific temper and work culture. Decentralized planning and management of elementary education is a goal set by the National Policy of Education 1986. The Policy visualizes direct community involvement in the form of Village Education Committees (VECs) for management of elementary education. The 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments provide for decentralization of the activities and facilitate transfer of power and participation of the local self-government institutions or the Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRIs). It has created a congenial ambience for the PRIs to play a more dynamic and proactive role. States are expected to evolve institutional arrangements both in rural and urban areas for undertaking these activities. These structures have been providing voice to women, Scheduled Castes and Tribes, minorities, parents and educational functionaries.

Rajiv Gandhi initiated ‘Operation Blackboard’ to extend education to every village. The scheme was launched in 1987-88. It aims at providing essential facilities to teachers and teaching learning equipment – in all primary schools in the country in a phased manner. The scheme was expanded during 1993-94 by providing third teacher to primary schools. The scheme has brought about a remarkable quantitative and qualitative improvement in primary education. In all, 523,000 primary schools have been covered as originally envisaged. These schools have been provided with central assistance. The scheme was subsumed in ‘Sarva Shiksha Abiyan’ from 2002-03.

A uniform structure of school education, the 10+2 system has been adopted by all the States and Union Territories of India. However, within the States and the UTs, there remains variations in the number of classes constituting the Primary, Upper Primary, High and Higher Secondary school stages, age for admission to class I, medium of instruction, public examinations, teaching of Hindi and English, number of working days in a year, academic session, vacation periods, fee structure, and compulsory education.

Secondary Education: Secondary education serves as a bridge between the elementary and higher education. It helps the young persons of the age group of 14-18 to prepare for entry into higher education. Education is free up to the secondary stage in many states. Students belonging to the scheduled castes and tribes get free education in all states and territories.

Page 22 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21

NCERT: The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) was established at New Delhi on 1st Sept, 1961. It assists the Union Ministry of Education in the formulation and implementation of its policies in school education. The council is entrusted with the task of revising the secondary level syllabi and textbooks. The NCERT under its National Talent Search Scheme (NTSS) awards about 1000 scholarships every year to brilliant students at the end of class X.

The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE): In 1952, the Board of High School and Intermediate Education of Rajputan (established in 1929) was converted into Central Board of Secondary Education. The schools affiliated to the Board are located in all parts of the country and even abroad. The schools affiliated to CBSE are expected to provide uniform school education. The Board has introduced the new pattern of education from 1975.The first examination for class X took place in 1977 and that of class XII in 1979. The Ministry of Education has entrusted the Board with the conduct of merit scholarship examinations for placement of children to the weaker sections in the approved residential schools all over the country. An open school was also set up by the CBSE in 1979 for propagation of Distance Education in the country.

Kendriya Vidyalayas: With the idea of encouraging secondary schools having common syllabus and medium of instruction and for providing uniform educational facilities throughout the culture for the children of transferable central government employees including defense personnel, the government of India approved in November 1962 the scheme of “Central Schools” or “Kendriya Vidyalayas”. As on 1999 there are 874 Kendriya Vidyalayas out of which one each is located in Kathmandu and Moscow. Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan was set up as an autonomous organization to establish and run the Vidyalayas.

Navodaya Vidyalayas: Navodaya Vidyalayas are residential co-educational schools for children, primarily from rural areas. At least one-third seats are for girls. Admissions for urban children are restricted to a maximum of 25%. From two schools in 185-86, now, these model schools have grown to 480 with over 1.40 lakh students on rolls.

HIGHER EDUCATION Higher Education is imparted through colleges and universities. In 1857, modern universities were established in India. The first three were Bombay, Calcutta and Madras universities. From 27 universities at the time of independence, they have increased to 291; including 162 general universities during the academic year 1999- 2000.Most of the universities are having affiliated colleges.

University Grants Commission (UGC). University Grants Commission was established in 1953. In 1956, by an Act of Parliament, autonomous status was given to UGC.Ample money was arranged for its smooth working by the government. It promotes and co-ordinates university education and maintains standards of teaching, examination and research in the universities and colleges.

Page 23 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21

Research Agencies: Research agencies for promoting specialized fields have been established by Union Government. The Council of Scientific and Industrial Rest (CSIR), The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), The Central Council for Research in Indian Medicine and Homeopathy, The National Committee on Environmental Planning and Coordination (NCEPC), The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) and the Department of Space (DOS) are important among them. Indian Council of Social Sciences Research (ICSSR); the Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR), the Indian Council of Philosophical Research and the Indian Institute of Advanced Studies are some other important agencies.

Planned Economic Development Following the adoption of the new constitution, the Government of India set up the Planning Commission in March 1950 to prepare a blue print of development taking an over-all view of the needs and resources of the country. The Prime Minister, Shri. Jawaharlal Nehru was the chairman of the Planning Commission. The Planning Commission fixed the medium term planning period at 5 years. The Draft outline of the 1st Five Year Plan was presented in July 1951.The plan was finalized in December 1952.Thus the planning era began with the financial year 1951-52.

The Five Year Plans so far undertaken are listed below

First Five Year Plan 1April 1951 – 31 March 1956 Second Five Year Plan 1 April 1956 – 31 March 1961 Third Five Year Plan 1 April 1961 – 31 March 1966 Annual Plans 1 April 1966 – 31 March 1969 Fourth Five Year Plan 1 April 1969 – 31 March 1974 Fifth Five Year Plan 1April 1974 – 31 March 1979 (The plan was terminated in 1978) Sixth Five Year Plan 1April 1980 – 31 March 1985 Seventh Five Year Plan 1April 1985 – 31 March 1990 Annual Plans 1April 1990 – 31 March 1992 Eighth Five Year Plan 1April 1992 – 31 March 1997 Ninth Five Year Plan 1April 1997 – 31 March 2002

The 4th Five Year Plan could not be launched from its scheduled dates namely 1st April 1966.A three year gap followed in which the country had only Annual Plans, but no five year plan.

National Income: During the Planning Period National income increased at an annual average rate of 3.5 to 4%. At current prices the national income increased from Rs. 8525 crores in 1950-51 to Rs. 8, 56,663 crores in 1995-96. At 1980-81 prices the national income increased from Rs. 40,454 crores in 1950-51 to Rs. 2, 30,497 crores in 1995-96.

Page 24 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21

Per Capita Income: The Per Capita income increased during this period at a lower rate due to excessive increase in population. Between 1950-51 and 1994-95 the per capita income increased at an annual average rate of 1.65%. According to the 1980-81 prices, India’s Per capita income was Rs. 1127 in 1950-51. Since then it rose to Rs. 2516 in 1995-96. At current prices the Per capita income during this period increased from Rs. 239/ to Rs. 9473.

Agriculture: In the case of agricultural output, during the plan period the growth rate was about 5% against 3% before independence. The production of food grains increased from 54 million tonnes in 1950-51 to 192 million tonnes in 1995-96. There was also substantial increase in the production of commercial crops such as oil seeds, raw cotton, raw jute etc.

Industry: A major achievement of planning in India has been the diversification and expansion of India’s industrial capacity with the public sector playing a leading role. Industrial production increased by more than 6% annually in the planned era. The country has become self sufficient in most of the consumer goods. During the planning period heavy electrical, heavy machine tools and iron and steel industries developed considerably. The growth of capital goods production has been particularly impressive.

Development of Infrastructure: Another achievement of significance is the creation of a large infrastructure such as transport, roads, railways, irrigation, hydroelectric projects which have given a big boost to agriculture and industry.

Modernization of the Economy: As a result of the five year plans, the Indian economy is modernized. This is indicated by a variety of structural and industrial changes in the framework of the economic activity of the country. The relative importance of agriculture has declined. There is considerable progress in terms of sophistication of technology and range of goods manufactured in the country.

Diversification of exports and import substitution: As a consequence of the policy of industrialization, India’s dependence on foreign countries for the import of capital goods has declined. Many goods which were imported earlier are being produced indigenously. This had led to import substitution.

Improved Public Health Services and Rise in Life Expectancy of Indian People: Planned development over the last four and a half decades has resulted in vastly improved health facilities. As a result the death rate has come down to very low levels. Life expectancy at birth has increased from 32 in 1950-51 to 64 in 1991.

Development of Huge Educational System: One of the great achievements of planning is the development of a huge educational system – the third highest in the world.

Page 25 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21

Development of Science and Technology: Another significant achievement of planning is the growth of science and technology and the development of technical and managerial cadres to run the modern industrial structure.

Transport and Communication Road Transport India has one of the largest road networks in the world with a total length of 42.3 lakh km (2008-09). About 85 per cent of passenger and (1961) was introduced to improve the conditions of roads in India. However, roads continue to concentrate in and around urban centres. Rural and remote areas had the least connectivity by road. For the purpose of construction and maintenance, roads are classified as National Highways (NH), State Highways (SH), Major District Roads and Rural Roads. The main roads which are constructed and maintained by the Central Government are known as the National Highways. These roads are meant for inter-state transport and movement of defence men and material in strategic areas. These also connect the state capitals, major cities, important ports, railway junctions, etc. The length of the National Highways has increased from 19,700 km in 1951 to 70,934 km in 2008- 09. The National Highways constitute only 1.67 per cent of the total road length but carry 40 per cent of the road traffic. The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) was operationalised in 1995. It is an autonomous body under the Ministry of Surface Transport. It is entrusted with the responsibility of development, maintenance and operation of National Highways. This is also the apex body to improve the quality of the roads designated as National Highways.

State Highways These are constructed and maintained by state governments. They join the state capitals with district headquarters and other important towns. These roads are connected to the National Highways. These constitute 4 per cent of total road length in the country.

District Roads These roads are the connecting link between District Headquarters and the other important roads in the district. They account for 14 per cent of the total road length of the country.

Rural Roads These roads are vital for providing links in the rural areas. About 80 per cent of the total road length in India are categorised as rural roads. There is regional variation in the density of rural road because these are influenced by the nature of the terrain.

Indian railways Indian railways network is one of the longest in the world. It facilitates the movement of both freight and passengers and contributes to the growth of economy. Indian Railway was introduced in 1853, when a line was constructed from Bombay to Thane covering a distance of 34 km. Indian Railways is the largest government undertaking in the country. The length of Indian Railways network is 64460 km. as on 31 March 2011. Its very large size puts lots of pressure on a centralised railway management system. Railway continues to remain the main means of transport for the masses. Railway network is relatively less dense in the hill states, north eastern states, central parts of India and Rajasthan.

Page 26 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21

Water Transport Waterways are an important mode of transport for both passenger and cargo traffic in India. It is the cheapest means of transport and is most suitable for carrying heavy and bulky material. It is a fuel-efficient and eco-friendly mode of transport. The water transport is of two types– (a) inland waterways, and (b) oceanic waterways.

Air Transportation Air transport is the fastest means of movement from one place to the other. It has reduced distances by minimising the travel time. It is very essential for a vast country like India, where distances are large and the terrain and climatic conditions are diverse. Air transport in India made a beginning in 1911 when airmail operation commenced over a little distance of 10 km between Allahabad and Naini. The Airport Authority of India is responsible for providing safe, efficient air traffic and aeronautical communication services in the Indian Air Space. The authority manages 125 airports. The air transport in India is managed by two corporations, Air India and Indian Airlines after nationalisation.

Communication Initially, the means of communication were also the means of transportation. Invention of post office, telegraph, printing press, telephone, satellite, etc has made the communication much faster and easier. Development in the field of science and technology has significantly contributed in bringing about revolution in the field of communication.

Among the entire personal communication system internet is the most effective and advanced one. It is widely used in urban areas. It enables the user to establish direct contact through e-mail to get access to the world of knowledge and information. It is increasingly used for e-commerce and carrying out money transactions. The internet is like a huge central warehouse of data, with detailed information on various items. The network through internet and e-mail provides an efficient access to information at a comparatively low cost.

Mass Communication System Radio broadcasting started in India in 1923 by the Radio Club of Bombay. Since then, it gained immense popularity and changed the socio cultural life of people. Within no time, it made a place in every household of the country. Government took this opportunity and brought this popular mode of communication under its control in 1930 under the Indian Broadcasting System. It was changed to All India Radio in 1936 and to Akashwani in 1957. All India Radio broadcasts a variety of programmes related to information, education and entertainment. Special news bulletins are also broadcast at specific occasions like session of parliament and state legislatures.

Television broadcasting has emerged as the most effective audio-visual medium for disseminating information and educating masses. Initially, the T.V. services were limited only to the National Capital where it began in 1959. After 1972, several other centres became operational. In 1976, TV was delinked from All India Radio (AIR) and got a separate identity as Doordarshan (DD). After INSAT-IA (National Television-DD1) became operational, Common National Programmes (CNP) was started for the entire network and its services were extended to the backward and remote rural areas.

Page 27 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21

Satellite Communication Satellites are mode of communication in themselves as well as they regulate the use of other means of communication. However, use of satellite in getting a continuous and synoptic view of larger area has made satellite communication very vital for the country due to the economic and strategic reasons. Satellite images can be used for the weather forecast, monitoring of natural calamities, surveillance of border areas, etc.

On the basis of configuration and purposes, satellite system in India can be grouped into two: Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) and Indian Remote Sensing Satellite System (IRS). The INSAT, which was established in 1983, is a multipurpose satellite system for telecommunication, meteorological observation and for various other data and programmes. The IRS satellite system became operational with the launching of IRS-IA in March 1988 from Vaikanour in Russia. India has also developed her own Launching Vehicle PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle). These satellites collect data in several spectral bands and transmit them to the ground stations for various uses. The National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) at Hyderabad provides facilities for acquisition of data and its processing. These are very useful in the management of natural resources.

Cultural Activities in India Music: The popular term for music throughout India is Sangit, which included dance as well as vocal instrumental music. The rhymes of the Rigveda and the Samveda are the earliest examples of words set to music. The oldest detailed exposition of Indian musical theory is found in Natyashastra, attributed to the sage Bharata who lived at the beginning of the Christian era. North Indian Hindustani classical music and South Indian Karnatak music are the two major forms of classical music in India. More specific schools of classical music are associated with particular gharanas. This is one aspect of Indian culture that has achieved worldwide recognition. Song and dance has always been a part of social gatherings and get-togethers in India. Fairs, marriages, festivals and other celebrations are not complete without them. Films, film songs and music have had an important role to play in the further popularisation of music among the masses in modern times.

Dance: Classical Indian dance is a beautiful and significant symbol of the spiritual and artistic approach of the Indian mind. Traditional Indian scriptures contain many references to nritta (music) and nata (drama). Dance and music are present at every stage of domestic life in India. One classification divides Indian dancing into three aspects-Natya, Nritya and Nritta. Natya corresponds to drama. Nritya is interpretative dance performed to the words sung in a musical melody. On the other hand, nritta signifies pure dance, where the body movements do not express any mood (bhava) nor convey any meaning.

There is a rich variety of classical and folk dances in India. Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh), Odissi (Odisha), Kathakali (Kerala), Mohiniattam (Kerala), Bharatnatyam (Tamil Nadu), Manipuri (Manipur), Kathak (Uttar Pradesh) and Chchau (Orissa, West Bengal and Jharkhand) are some of the most notable dance forms in India. Besides, India has a rich tradition of folklores, legends and myths, which combine with songs and dances into composite art forms.

Page 28 of 29 STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.A HISTORY HISTORY OF INDIA SINCE 1947 SEMESTER - VI, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020 - 21

Theatre: While classical dance in India is linked to its divine origins‘, the origin of Indian theatre lies with the people. Bharat‘s Natyashastra is still the most complete guide to traditional Indian theatre. Modern Indian theatre of recent times originated in three colonial cities— Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai. It is strongly influenced by conventions and trends of European theatre. Traditional Indian theatre includes distinct streams. This theatre remained confined to courts and temples and displayed a refined, carefully trained sensibility. In the second popular stream the spoken languages and dialects of different localities and regions were used. Theatre in India is usually staged in the post-harvest season when actors as well as spectators have free time. It is staged in open-air theatres. The narrative, often a myth already known to the audience, is enacted through dance, music, mimetic gesture and stylized choreography.

Page 29 of 29