Index

A nourishment classes , 114–115 AAR. See Accumulation-area ratios (AARs) polar glaciers , 113 Ablation losses valley glaciers , 113, 114 annual cycle , 137–139 Accumulation areas subzones Batura glacier , 121–122 Alpine-and Mustagh-type glaciers , 101 Biafo glacier , 122–127 ‘apocalyptic’ destruction , 101 debris-mantled areas, Baltoro glacier , Biafo’s ‘Snow Lake’ , 100 134–135 dry snow and percolation , 99 description , 118 Karakoram glaciers , 98, 99 distributions , 118–119 lower accumulation zone , 98, 99 enhancing dusty and dirty conditions , percolation zone , 100 135–136 slush zone and slush fl ows ( see Slush zone ice facets and relief inversion, debris and fl ows) mantles , 136–137 superimposed ice , 100 mass balance assessments , 119 water, depressions , 101 net short-wave radiation , 119 wet snow vs. percolation subzone , 99 on-and off-ice observations , 128–129 Ahlmann, H.W. , 74, 113 seasonal snow cover and icy Alpine-type glaciers carapace, 142 ‘fi rn’ , 77 short-wave radiation , 141 nourishment types , 75, 78 snow, ice and debris covers , 119, 120 snowfall nourishment , 77 and supraglacial debris , 129–134 snow limit , 76 verticality relations , 120–121 substantial accumulation areas , 76 Ablation rates terrain proportions , 74 Biafo Glacier , 122 Archer, D.R. , 294, 345 debris-enhanced ablation rates , 135 Area-altitude distributions , 21–23, 56–59 meteorological stations, Biafo Glacier Area-altitude relations, mass balance and cloud cover , 123–125 ablation sub-Zone I, II and III , 159–160 scattered debris , 130 avalanche nourishment, ice , 157–158 short-wave radiation , 141 avalanche regimes , 156–157 weather conditions , 119 direct accumulation areas , 158–159 Ablation valleys , 208 dominant processes and elevation ranges, 154 Accidental variations , 295 highest snowfall zone , 158 Accumulation-area ratios (AARs) inputs, outputs and transfers I , 154, 155 fi rn , 114 Karakoram valley glaciers , 154, 155 glacier nourishment , 113 wind regimes , 154, 156

K. Hewitt, Glaciers of the Karakoram Himalaya: Glacial Environments, Processes, 353 Hazards and Resources, Advances in Asian Human-Environmental Research, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-6311-1, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014 354 Index

Avalanche nourishment ice-thermal changes , 301 ice , 157–158 information sources , 300 subzones, accumulation basins , 107 kettle holes , 302 terrain/ruggedness effect , 104–107 landslide dams , 301 Avalanche regimes , 156–157, 179–180 LIA and , 298–299 Azhar-Hewitt, F. , 334, 339 Mango station , 122, 125 mid-glacier ablation zone station , 122, 123 on-and off-ice observations , 128–129 B profi les stakes , 126 Baltit-Sumayar landslide dam , 316 solar radiation , 126 Baltoro Glacier table and general glacier surface , 133 ablation, debris-mantled areas , 134–135 terminal moraines , 301 ablation zone , 67–68 terrain profi les , 65 cross-valley profi les , 169–170 topography and terrain features , 64, 66 heavy supraglacial debris , 67–68 velocity profi le , 167–168 higher velocities , 170 vertical mass balance gradient , 148, 149 ice fl ux estimates , 146 weather and ice surface conditions , 122 longitudinal profi les , 169 Bishop, M.P. , 223, 296, 305 perennial snow and ice , 65–66 Block motion relief basins spanning , 65 Biafo and Baltoro , 170, 172 rock walls , 66, 67 Blockschollenbewegung , 170 Batura Glacier Karakoram ablation zone margins , 170 ablation , 121–122 sharp line, shear , 170, 171 mass balance estimate , 146 velocity profi les , 170 surface velocity profi les , 167–168 vertical cascade of moisture , 172 Bedrock incision , 15–16 Boulton, G.S. , 190 Benn, D.I. , 210, 213 Bualtar and Barpu Glaciers Biafo accumulation zone Baltit-Sumayar landslide dam , 316 crevasse walls , 91, 93 glacigenous sediments , 312 environments and constraints , 91 GLM materials, gravitational freeze-thaw, ice lenses, dirt layers collapses, 315 and depth hoar , 89–90, 92 huge walls of lateral moraines , 312–313 ice lenses and dirt layers , 92 landslides , 314, 315 Lukpe Lawo , 92, 93 margin , 314 ‘polar’ or ‘cold’ temperatures , 90 massive rotational slumps , 315 snowfall , 92 minor valley glaciation , 314 snow measurements , 89, 90 trial excavation, snow pit studies , 89, 91 ‘warm’ or ‘temperate’ glacier , 90 C wind effects, absence , 93 Calciati, C. , 303, 304 Biafo Glacier Catastrophic outbursts , 259 ablation rates , 122–127 Chogo Lungma Glacier accumulation and ablation fl uctuations, timing and direction , 306 measurements, 145 LIA position , 307 accumulation zone , 64–65, 67 terminus variations , 306 climate change , 127 Chong Khumdan Glacier complications , 300 events 1926–1931 , 260 diversity, debris covers , 129 lake level , 260 glacier termini, fl uctuations , 298, 299 measurements , 258–259 heavy debris covers, ablation zones , 130 progress , 261 ice dam and outburst fl ood , 301 reverse fl ood waves , 260 ice depths determination , 83, 84 Climate change. See Karakoram glaciers ice facets , 137 Cogley, J.G. , 27 ice-margin thickening , 302 Conway, W.M. , 223, 231, 303 Index 355

Copland, L. , 223 glacier surface , 151 Cornices , 91, 109 limits/climatic snowlines , 151–152 Cryoconite , 136 Evans, D.J.A. , 65, 67, 74, 79, 81, 83, 98, 102, Cryosphere 104, 105, 110, 113, 121, 137, 147, catastrophic fl oods , 9 148, 150, 155, 190, 194, 204, 206, freeze-thaw , 7–8 208, 210, 284 Karakoram glacial environment , 8–9 Eyles, N. , 190, 208 landslides , 9 neoglaciation , 9 permafrost , 7–8 F phenomena , 20–21 Firn , 97–98 snowfall , 7 Flohn, H. , 18 Flood behaviour , 260 Fowler, H.J. , 294 D Fragmented drainage systems , 286 Dainelli, G. , 25 Freeze-thaw cycles , 23–24, 26, 128, 138 Dam impounded sediment , 316–317 Debris covers , 320 Debris-mantled glaciers , 284 G Debris-mantled ice , 206–207 Gardelle, J. , 301 Debris sources Gardner, J.S. , 223 avalanched , 269 Ghulkin Glacier , 308 ice-cemented , 269, 282 Giant bounding moraines , 317 rock glaciers , 284 Glacial hazards stream , 269 ice dam phases and outburst fl ood , 258 Derbyshire, E. , 190 Little Ice Age , 251 Desio, A. , 223, 251 supraglacial lakes , 247–248 Ding, Y. , 93 Glacial lake outburst fl oods (GLOFs) Disappearing glaciers advancing glaciers , 250 glacier change , 294 assessment , 246–247 global climate change , 292 Bhutan, dangerous lakes , 246–247 GLOF and , 292 characteristics , 255–257 Himalayan glaciers and Indus destruction , 246 waters , 293 elevation ranges , 257 LIA and , 293 glacial lakes (see Glacial lakes) substantial fl uctuations , 293–294 ice dams, records , 251–255 temperature data , 294 impoundment phases and outburst events terminus variations usage , 292–293 (see Glacier impoundments) Drainage interruption , 285–286 Karakoram glaciers, dimensions , 256 Drew, F. , 214 Karambar River, ice-dammed lake , 250 Dust storms , 22 mountain pastoralists , 246 self-dumping lakes , 250 status and interest , 262, 263 E threatening glacier , 256 ELAs. See Equilibrium line altitudes (ELAs) transverse glaciers , 256 Elevation range, Glaciers basins Glacial lakes Karakoram glaciers , 42–47 glaciers, characteristics , 255–257 Nanga Parbat’s west fl ank , 47 lateral ice-margin lakes , 248 Pisan Glacier , 42 small , 246 Siachen , 47 supraglacial lakes , 247–248 England, J. , 270, 271 terrain , 247 Equilibrium line altitudes (ELAs) weather conditions , 247 avalanches and wind action , 152 Glacial rock glaciers , 284 estimation , 152, 153 Glaciation hypothesis , 320 356 Index

Glaciation limit Glacier impoundments East Central Karakoram, transect , 48–51 catastrophic outbursts , 259 elevation and terrain , 51 glacier advance and ice dam sealing , glacier thresholds , 49 257–258 interfl uve elevations , 47 ice streams, fl ow rates , 257–258 Karakoram glaciers, threshold outburst fl oods and timing , 259–260 features, 48 reservoir size and dam breaching , 258–259 K2 massif , 51 seepage and storage losses , 259–260 Windward fl anks , 50 valley geometry , 259 Glaciers Glacier long profi les Baintha Brakk , 57 glaciers and tributaries , 52, 53 basins, relief and elevation range , 42–47 Kaberi Glacier , 52, 54 glacierisation dimensions , 42 longest sections distance , 52 intermediate glaciers , 42 vertical descent , 52 perennial snow and glacier ice cover, 56, 58 Glacier mass balance , 70, 88 regional hypsometry , 56–59 Glacier mass balance I. See Snowfall and Siachen Glacier , 42 glacier nourishment Glacier ablation zones Glacier mass balance II. See Ablation losses ablation zone , 200, 201 Glacier mass balance regimes freeze–thaw and seasonal landforms , accumulation and summer ablation , 202–203 147–148 longitudinal on-ice forms , 205–206 area-altitude relations (see Area-altitude on-ice landforms , 201 relations, mass balance) shoulder seasons , 203–205 conditions, ablation sub-Zone II , 160 Glacier basins ELAs , 151–154 avalanche regimes , 179–180 estimation (see Mass balance estimation) Baltoro , 169–170 nourish and sustain , 144 Batura , 167–168 regional climate change , 160 Biafo , 168–169 vertical gradients , 148–151 block motion ( see Block motion) Glacier nourishment ELA , 166 avalanche (see Avalanche nourishment) fl uctuating, movement , 172–173 estimating avalanche inputs , 108–109 hydrological factors , 182–183 ice derived , 104 icefalls and ogives , 174–179 subzones, avalanche , 107–108 ice structure , 164 wind redistribution , 109–110 inputs , 181–182 Glacier source zone landforms Karakoram , 167 climatic snowlines , 190 local melting and refreezing , 165 interfl uve and peak morphology , 193–194 mechanics and movement , 164 massive rock slope failures, mountain process regimes and dynamics , 164 walls , 194–196 pronounced thrust planes , 166 North face, Gannissh Chissh/Spantik , soft and subglacial sediments , 165 190, 191 subglacial debris , 166 rock walls, perennial snow zone , 191–193 thermal regimes , 174 Glacier termini lakes , 248–249 warm and cold ice , 165 Glacier transhumance wind regimes , 180–181 chiragha’s , 334 Glacier climates and orographic effects men’s work , 335 area-altitude and seasonal relations , 21–23 pasture , 334–335 cryosphere phenomena , 20–21 Shimshal’s summer high pasture , 334–335 freeze-thaw cycles , 23 Glacigenous sediments , 312 precipitation and thermal conditions , 21 Glen, J.W. , 259 rain-snow interface , 22–23 GLOFs. See Glacial lake outburst fl oods seasonal patterns , 22 (GLOFs) topoclimatic effects , 23–24 Godwin-Austen, H.H. , 16, 301, 305–307 Index 357

Goudie, A.S. , 74, 296, 308–310, 312 HKH , 4 Grant, L. , 223 maritime , 6 Greater Karakoram Range satellite image , 4 anticyclonic conditions , 18 High Stand moraines , 312 climatic environments , 17–20 Hindu Kush-Karakoram–Greater Himalaya confl icting impressions , 19–20 (HKH), 4, 41, 292, 346 elevation , 7 Hispar Glacier , 303–304 humid , 19 Hopar Villages and Barpu-Bualtar Glaciers Indian Himalaya , 7 glacial hazards and responses , 336 monsoon , 18 glacier transhumance , 334–335 monthly weather data , 20 hidden hazards and invisible distress , summer contributions , 19 338–339 westerly disturbances , 17–19 human activities, patterns and verticality , 334 The Great lateral Moraine (GLM) landslides and land loss , 337 broader implications , 318–320 map , 333 Bualtar and Barpu Glaciers , 312–316 village land , 332–333 debris covers , 320 Human life high stand GLM moraines , 317 amenities , 336 High Stand moraines , 312 contributions, snow and ice (see Snow and ice dynamics , 320 ice contributions) Karakoram glaciers, sample , 319 cooperation , 346–348 Kukuar Glacier , 311 glacier geography, national and trans- LIA identifi cation , 312 boundary issues, 346 pleistocene trunk glacier , 318 Hopar Villages and Barpu-Bualtar post-glacial landslides and fragmented Glaciers, 332–339 drainage, 316–317 Indus Waters (see Indus Waters) Quartz-rich rock , 318 inhabited mountains , 330–332 Transitional Landsystems II and III , 311 Yarkand river waters , 340 valley fl oor conditions , 320 Hutchinson, G.E. , 250

H I Hambrey, M.J. , 82 Ice dams and outburst fl oods, records Haserodt, K. , 312 Chong Khumdan outburst , 259 Hayden, H.H. , 223, 231, 303, 307 Indus fl ood , 253–254 Hazards Kaqun station , 255 catastrophic landslides , 336 Kyagar ice dam , 255 gender division , 339 Shyok GLOFs fl oods , 253–254 hidden and invisible distress , 338–339 sites , 252 landslides and outburst fl oods , 336 Upper Yarkand Basin inventory , 253, 254 lethal disaster , 336 Ice depths and volumes , 83–85 traditional economy , 339 Ice dynamics , 320 women’s work , 339 Ice facets , 136–137 Heavy winter precipitation , 344 Icefall (IF) Hedin, S. , 251 broken seracs and marginse, Sherpigang Hewitt, K. , 41, 145, 168, 223, 253 icefall , 174, 175 High-altitude snowfall , 89, 104 downslope movement , 176 High Asia heavily crevassed ice , 174, 175 Baltoro Glacier, elevation source zones , 5 Nangma valley , 176 Biafo Glacier mid-ablation zone , 6 ogives , 177 geographical setting , 2 seasonal/secular changes , 174 glaciated areas, inventories , 3 steep tributaries , 176, 178 Greater Himalayan Region, river streams , 176, 177 systems , 2 IF. See Icefall (IF) 358 Index

Indus River , 9–10 Karakoram glaciers Indus Waters accumulation and ablation zones , 62, 63, agricultural employment , 342 69, 71 farmers and public utilities , 341 Baltoro , 65–68 issues and concerns , 340 Baltoro Glacier , 303 Tarbela Dam , 342 Batura Glacier , 305 water development , 341, 342 Biafo , 64– 66 water supply aspects , 341 Biafo Gyang Glacier , 297–302 well water , 341 characterisation , 62, 63 Inhabited mountains Chogo Lungma Glacier , 305–307 bio-resources , 330 classifi cation farming and herding , 331 Alpine type , 67, 74, 76 labour , 332 Mustagh type , 74–76, snowfi elds and small ice masses , nourishment , 74–76 330–331 ‘snowlines’ , 76 temporary visitors , 331–332 Turkestan type , 74, 76 terraced fi eld systems , 331 Wind-fed type , 76 vertical transhumance , 330 windward slopes , 76 Inoue, J. , 136, 148 climatic and thermal classes , 82– 83 Intermontane river valleys , 15 combined nourishment and morphological Intermontane sedimentation , 14–17, 318 classifi cation Irrigation systems caldron type and ice stream type , 77 labour division , 331 ice masses , 78–80 land loss , 337 Mustagh-type glaciers , 76 landslides , 337 ‘valley glacier’ , 78–80 seepage , 343 distinction arises , 62 Ives, J.D. , 41 English-language studies , 74 erratic advances , 309–311 frozen and snow-covered areas , 62 J German-language studies , 70 Jiskoot, H. , 229 Ghulkin Glacier , 308 hazards (see Hazards) Hispar Glacier , 303–304 K human aspects (see Human life) Kalvoda, J. , 312, 318 ice depths and volumes , 83–85 Karakoram Geological Environment icefall (IF) , 176, 177 geology and tectonics , 11–14 ice-margin depositional features , 64 quaternary events and intermontane inhabited and historic mountain range , 328 sediments, 14–17 longitudinal and transverse glaciers , 310 Karakoram glacierised areas Minapin Glacier , 307–308 glacial landscapes , 188 minor, disconnected ice masses , 81 glacier source zone landforms , 190–196 movement , 167 landsystem IV (see Debris-mantled ice) network and disconnected tributary ice periglacial environments, glacier basins , masses, 63 213–214 ogives , 179 seasonal landsystems I (see Glacier Panmah Glacier , 304–305 ablation zones) Pasu Glacier , 308–309 transglacial and paraglacial conditions , perennial snow and ice cover , 65, 70 214–215 PSI and glacierised areas , 70, 71 transitional landsystem I , 196–200 rock walls , 70, 73 transitional landsystem II and III snowfall , 179 ( see Landform assemblages) socio-economic problems , 329 verticality relations and landsystems , terrain and environments , 62 188–190 Toltar-Baltar , 68–69 Index 359

valley glacier complexes , 78 disappearing glaciers , 293 water supplies , 329 identifi cation , 312 Karakoram Surges late culmination , 310 1986 and 1989 Bualtar Surges , 235–237 position, Chogo Lungma Glacier , 307 climate and glacial record , 240 terminal moraines, Biafo Glacier , 301 glacial sediments , 226 Longstaff, T.G. , 223 –Himalayaa , 221–223 Karambar glacier , 233 Khumdan glaciers , 233–235 M Kutiah glacier , 232–233 Marinelli, O. , 25 locations and dimensions, valley glacier , Markgren, M. , 198 221, 224 Mason, K. , 223, 230, 251, 253, 256, 257, Mouchuhar , 232 295–298, 304, 305, 307–310, 312 satellite tracking , 221 Mass balance estimation surface forms , 224, 225 ablation, ice , 145 tributary glaciers, locations and accumulation and ablation zones , 145 dimensions , 221, 225 Baltoro Glacier , 146 tributary surges, Panmah , 237–240 Batura Glacier , 146 water mills , 231 Biafo Glacier , 145, 147 Kaser, G. , 113 glaciers remains , 144 Kayastha, R.B. , 146 heavy debris mantle , 147 Khan, M.I. , 132 ‘inputs’ and ‘outputs’ , 144 Kick, W. , 295, 306, 307, 310, 312 terrain and high-altitude Klimek, K. , 40 environments , 144 Knight, E.F. , 305 Massive rock slope failures (MRSFs) , Koncza, M. , 303 194, 195 Kotlyakov, V.M. , 176 Matthes, F.E. , 198 Kreutzmann, H. , 223 Mayer, C. , 65 Kuhle, M. , 317 Meiners, S. , 311 Kukuar Glacier , 311 Menzies, J. , 99, 101 Kyagar Glacier , 260–262 Minapin Glacier , 307–308 Minor valley glaciation , 314 Mountain communities , 332 L Mountain walls Landform assemblages failure/primary break-up, rock Baltoro Glacier , 212 slopes , 194 concentrated deposition , 209 Gannissh Chissh/Spantik Peak , 194, 195 debris-covered and rock glaciers , 210 landform evolution , 196 debris delivery , 208 MRSFs , 194, 195 Ghulkin type , 210 MRSFs. See Massive rock slope failures Karakoram conditions , 210 (MRSFs) landslide-fragmented rivers , 213 Müller, F. , 99, 101, 102, 141, 173, 203 lobes, Shimshal valley , 210, 211 Mustagh-type glaciers moraine-dammed ice , 210 Firnkessel and Firnstrom , 77 small tributary glacier, Nangmah ice streams , 76 valley , 211 nourishment types , 74, 78 valley glacier landsystems , 210 regional climate , 83 valley-side troughs/ablation valleys , ‘stream’/‘caldron’ forms , 77 208–210 terrain proportions , 74 Landslides and land loss , 337 Mustagh-type gradients Lateral ice-margin lakes , 248 ablation zones , 150, 151 LIA. See Little Ice Age (LIA) mass balance , 149 Little Ice Age (LIA) snowfall accumulation , 151 Biafo Glacier , 298–299 wind and avalanche redistribution , 151 360 Index

N Precipitation sources , 90, 94, 95 The Nanga Parbat-Haramosh Massif Protalus rock glaciers , 283–284 (NPHM), 12 PSI. See Perennial snow and ice (PSI) NPHM. See The Nanga Parbat-Haramosh Massif (NPHM) Nye, J.F. , 145 Q Quaternary events and intermontane sediments bedrock incision , 15–16 O intermontane river valleys , 15 Oestreich, K. , 208, 306 valley fi ll materials , 16–17 Off-glacier slopes Quincey, D.J. , 170, 223 actual off-ice surface areas , 55 Baintha Brakk, south aspect , 56, 57 features , 55 R rock walls , 56 Rain-snow interface , 22, 23 slope angles, distribution , 55 Rapp, A. , 198 slope profi les , 56 Regional climate Ogives. See also Icefall (IF) cryosphere , 7–9 longitudinal variations, ice velocity , 178 glacier climates and orographic effects, 20–24 satellite images , 179 Greater Karakoram Region , 6–7 wave-ogives , 177 High Asia , 2–6 Osmaston, H. , 113 Indus and Yarkand River Basins , 9–10 Östreich, K. , 70 Karakoram climatic environments , 17–20 Ostrem, G. , 48–50 Karakoram Geological Environment, 11–17 Owen, L.A. , 190, 270, 271 snowlines , 25–28 Regional tectonics and geology age determinations , 13 P bedrock , 13 Panmah Glacier , 304–305 continent-to-continent collisional event , 11 Paraglacial , 269, 279 earth’s crust , 12 Pasu Glacier , 308–309 geological interpretations , 11 Paterson, W.S.B. , 97, 99, 165 glacier basins, trend and morphologies , 14 Pecci, M. , 65, 223 Indian Plate basement rocks , 13 Penck, A. , 194 Karakoram region location map , 12 Penitentes/nieves penitents , 82 Northwestern Syntaxis , 13 Perennial snow and ice (PSI) cover rock formations , 11–12 area-altitude distribution , 56, 59 Reverse fl ood waves , 260 Bualtar Glacier , 40, 41 Rock glaciers glacier cover and principal basins, map , 38 active, inactive and relict forms , 281–282 glaciers dimensions , 39, 40 avalanche , 284 steepness and elevation ranges , 40, 41 bird’s-foot delta , 281 Periglacial complex, combined and interacting lobes , Karakoram Region , 270 278, 280 mountain resources and , 285 critical water resources , 270–271 patterned ground , 269 debris stream , 269 Talus-derived rock glaciers , 283 distribution , 271–276 transitional forms and processes , 269 diversity , 270–271 Periodicity. See Terminus fl uctuations elevation limits and relations , 274–275 Post-glacial landslides and fragmented drainage fi rm identifi cations , 269 dam impounded sediment , 316–317 free zones , 274 giant bounding moraines , 317 genesis and development , 282–284 ice-marginal ramp , 317 glacier-head-type , 278–279 lacustrine deposits , 316 huge tip-heap terminus and steep fl anks , 281 valley fi ll, trenching and degrading , 317 hydrological roles , 285 Index 361

ice-cemented debris , 269 Biafo Glacier , 111 ice cores , 283 depth profi le, Biafo ablation zone, 111, 112 identifi cation and typology , 269 direct snowfall and ice avalanches , 113 inactive and relict , 274 east slopes, Hispar Pass , 107, 108 interfl uve thresholds , 276 estimation, avalanche inputs , 108–109 intermediate zone , 280 fi rn , 97–98 Karakoram background , 270–271 freeze-thaw , 113 long profi les , 277 ice derived , 104 lower limits , 276 Karakoram , 89 Mitre Peak , 273 mass balance , 88 moraine-dammed glaciers , 284 measurements , 93, 94 morphology and associated features, 276–281 moisture sources , 94–95 mountain ranges , 272 orographic effect, vertical gradient as resources , 286–287 and ablation season, 111 source , 274 rock faces , 88 spans , 274 subzones, accumulation areas (see thresholds , 49, 274 Accumulation areas subzones) Twins Peak, lowest main lobe , 283 temperate, subpolar and high polar , 113 verticality , 273–276 temporal and spatial variability , 95–96 visual indicators , 279 terrain/ruggedness effect , 104–107 zones , 274 Turkestan-type glaciers and Mustagh types , 107 wind redistribution , 109–110 S Snowlines Schneider, H.J. , 65 climatic , 25–27 Secular variations , 295 daytime albedo , 28 Semiarid Himalaya , 19 regional , 25 Shipton, E.E. , 54, 100, 223 snow covers, perennial and seasonal , 28 Shroder, J.F. Jr. , 223, 296, 305 transient , 25–27 Slush zone and fl ows weather conditions , 28 description , 101 well-defi ned interface , 28 heavy snow pack , 102 Snow pits , 89, 94, 95, 100 Panmah Glacier , 102, 103 Solar radiation ‘slush swamp’ , 102, 103 ablation zones , 120 weather and soaking , 104 air temperature , 121 Smiraglia, C. , 65, 223 nocturnal and day-time ablation, ice Snow and ice contributions meteorological stations, 126 area-altitude relations , 344 supraglacial debris , 129–134 golden egg of glacier hydrology , 345 surface micro-relief , 136 high elevation watersheds , 343 Starkel, L. , 40 ice ablation , 344–345 Steepland. See Off-glacier slopes rainfall-runoff , 343 Supraglacial debris seasonal snowfall , 346 ablation rates , 131 seasonal variations , 344 Barpu Glacier , 132, 137 sources range, identifi cation , 344 Biafo Glacier , 131, 132 substantial glacier contributions , 343 distribution , 132, 134 summer monsoonal rains , 343 heat absorption , 130 Snowfall and glacier nourishment heavy mantles cover , 130 AARs , 113–115 Himalayan ranges , 129 ablation and accumulation zones , 112 passive’ transport , 134 ablation and fl ow rates measurements , 93 Rakhiot Glacier , 131 avalanches and Wind-redistribution , 112 short-wave radiation and ablation, avalanching , 107 ice facets , 132, 138 Biafo accumulation zone , 89–93 thermokarst processes , 131 362 Index

Supraglacial lakes , 247–248 Upper Panmah Glacier, Nobande Sobonde Surge-type glaciers Branch, 197 classic two-phase events , 229 Transverse glaciers , 256 glacier behaviour , 228 Tributary Surges, Panmah historical records, Karakoram surges , post-surge conditions , 238 221–226 Shingchukpi Glacier, Nobande ice margins, 1987 Bualtar Glacier Sobande , 239 surge , 228 surface changes , 240 ice mass , 220 Turkestan-type glaciers incidence and behaviour , 220 ice masses , 76 Karakoram main glacier , 231–237 nourishment types , 75, 78 and main valley and tributary , 226, 227 regional climate , 83 north-orientated ice streams , 226 terrain proportions , 74 phases , 229 Turkestan-type gradients surge dynamics , 229–230 avalanche-fed , 151 defi nition , 151 mass balance , 149 T vertical mass balance , 149, 150 Talluvium , 213–214 winter snow falling , 151 Talus , 279, 283–284 Temporal and spatial variability , 95–96 Terminus fl uctuations U Central Karakoram, glacier change , 297 Untersteiner, N. , 119 classes of behaviour , 295 evidence , 296 glacier fl uctuations tracking , 295 V Terrain/ruggedness effect Valley fi ll materials , 16–17 Bualtar-Barpu Glacier system , 105 Valley glacier complexes , 78, depositional zone , 106 Valley wall rock glaciers , 283–284 ice stream , 106 Verticality rock walls , 104 defi nition , 40 snow avalanche , 105 elevation and topography , 40 steep walls and disconnected tributary glaciers and basins , 42 glaciers, 106, 107 Himalayan region , 40 Turkestan-type glaciers , 105 Karakoram (see Perennial snow and ice Threatening glacier , 256 cover) Todd, H.J. , 223 Verticality relations and landsystems Toltar-Baltar Glacier orographic and seasonal climatic accumulation and ablation zones , 69 conditions , 188–190 ice stream areas , 69 transitional systems , 190 perennial snow and ice zone , 68 valley glaciers , 190 topographic map and glacierised area , 69 Visser, C. , 77, 208, 223, 305, 307 watershed point and fall, , 68 Visser-Hooft, J. , 7, 25, 77, 208, 223, 305, 307 Topoclimate , 23–24 Visser-Hooft, P.C. , 7, 25 Transglacial and paraglacial forms , 214–215 von Wissmann, H. , 3, 25, 27, 28, 77, 153, 312 Transhumance glacier , 334–335 vertical , 330 W Transitional landsystem I Wake, C.P. , 89, 94–96, 100, 169 chute systems , 198–199 Water resources ELA , 196 Hindu Kush , 346 icefalls , 199 Hindukush-Karakoram-Himalaya , 346 Karakoram valley glaciers , 197 Hindu Raj glaciers , 346 Turkestan-type glacier , 197, 198 Indus and Tsangpo-Brahmaputra , 346 Index 363

Indus Waters , 340–342 Wind regimes national and transnational , 329 mass balance , 154, 156 Wenying, W. , 180 redistribute and snow , 154, 156 Wind redistribution Workman, F.B. , 223, 306 avalanche contribution , 112 Workman, W.H. , 306 east slopes, Hispar Pass , 108, 109 feeds innumerable minor ice masses, 109 Y Karakoram snow , 109 Yafeng, S. , 180 physical modifi cations, snow , 110 Yarkand River , 9–10 speeds and snowfalls , 110 Yoshida, M. , 136 ‘wind drift accumulation of snow’ , 109 Younghusband, F.E. , 251, 305