Index A nourishment classes , 114–115 AAR. See Accumulation-area ratios (AARs) polar glaciers , 113 Ablation losses valley glaciers , 113, 114 annual cycle , 137–139 Accumulation areas subzones Batura glacier , 121–122 Alpine-and Mustagh-type glaciers , 101 Biafo glacier , 122–127 ‘apocalyptic’ destruction , 101 debris-mantled areas, Baltoro glacier , Biafo’s ‘Snow Lake’ , 100 134–135 dry snow and percolation , 99 description , 118 Karakoram glaciers , 98, 99 distributions , 118–119 lower accumulation zone , 98, 99 enhancing dusty and dirty conditions , percolation zone , 100 135–136 slush zone and slush fl ows ( see Slush zone ice facets and relief inversion, debris and fl ows) mantles , 136–137 superimposed ice , 100 mass balance assessments , 119 water, depressions , 101 net short-wave radiation , 119 wet snow vs. percolation subzone , 99 on-and off-ice observations , 128–129 Ahlmann, H.W. , 74, 113 seasonal snow cover and icy Alpine-type glaciers carapace , 142 ‘fi rn’ , 77 short-wave radiation , 141 nourishment types , 75, 78 snow, ice and debris covers , 119, 120 snowfall nourishment , 77 and supraglacial debris , 129–134 snow limit , 76 verticality relations , 120–121 substantial accumulation areas , 76 Ablation rates terrain proportions , 74 Biafo Glacier , 122 Archer, D.R. , 294, 345 debris-enhanced ablation rates , 135 Area-altitude distributions , 21–23, 56–59 meteorological stations, Biafo Glacier Area-altitude relations, mass balance and cloud cover , 123–125 ablation sub-Zone I, II and III , 159–160 scattered debris , 130 avalanche nourishment, ice , 157–158 short-wave radiation , 141 avalanche regimes , 156–157 weather conditions , 119 direct accumulation areas , 158–159 Ablation valleys , 208 dominant processes and elevation ranges , 154 Accidental variations , 295 highest snowfall zone , 158 Accumulation-area ratios (AARs) inputs, outputs and transfers I , 154, 155 fi rn , 114 Karakoram valley glaciers , 154, 155 glacier nourishment , 113 wind regimes , 154, 156 K. Hewitt, Glaciers of the Karakoram Himalaya: Glacial Environments, Processes, 353 Hazards and Resources, Advances in Asian Human-Environmental Research, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-6311-1, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014 354 Index Avalanche nourishment ice-thermal changes , 301 ice , 157–158 information sources , 300 subzones, accumulation basins , 107 kettle holes , 302 terrain/ruggedness effect , 104–107 landslide dams , 301 Avalanche regimes , 156–157, 179–180 LIA and , 298–299 Azhar-Hewitt, F. , 334, 339 Mango station , 122, 125 mid-glacier ablation zone station , 122, 123 on-and off-ice observations , 128–129 B profi les stakes , 126 Baltit-Sumayar landslide dam , 316 solar radiation , 126 Baltoro Glacier table and general glacier surface , 133 ablation, debris-mantled areas , 134–135 terminal moraines , 301 ablation zone , 67–68 terrain profi les , 65 cross-valley profi les , 169–170 topography and terrain features , 64, 66 heavy supraglacial debris , 67–68 velocity profi le , 167–168 higher velocities , 170 vertical mass balance gradient , 148, 149 ice fl ux estimates , 146 weather and ice surface conditions , 122 longitudinal profi les , 169 Bishop, M.P. , 223, 296, 305 perennial snow and ice , 65–66 Block motion relief basins spanning , 65 Biafo and Baltoro , 170, 172 rock walls , 66, 67 Blockschollenbewegung , 170 Batura Glacier Karakoram ablation zone margins , 170 ablation , 121–122 sharp line, shear , 170, 171 mass balance estimate , 146 velocity profi les , 170 surface velocity profi les , 167–168 vertical cascade of moisture , 172 Bedrock incision , 15–16 Boulton, G.S. , 190 Benn, D.I. , 210, 213 Bualtar and Barpu Glaciers Biafo accumulation zone Baltit-Sumayar landslide dam , 316 crevasse walls , 91, 93 glacigenous sediments , 312 environments and constraints , 91 GLM materials, gravitational freeze-thaw, ice lenses, dirt layers collapses , 315 and depth hoar , 89–90, 92 huge walls of lateral moraines , 312–313 ice lenses and dirt layers , 92 landslides , 314, 315 Lukpe Lawo , 92, 93 margin , 314 ‘polar’ or ‘cold’ temperatures , 90 massive rotational slumps , 315 snowfall , 92 minor valley glaciation , 314 snow measurements , 89, 90 trial excavation, snow pit studies , 89, 91 ‘warm’ or ‘temperate’ glacier , 90 C wind effects, absence , 93 Calciati, C. , 303, 304 Biafo Glacier Catastrophic outbursts , 259 ablation rates , 122–127 Chogo Lungma Glacier accumulation and ablation fl uctuations, timing and direction , 306 measurements , 145 LIA position , 307 accumulation zone , 64–65, 67 terminus variations , 306 climate change , 127 Chong Khumdan Glacier complications , 300 events 1926–1931 , 260 diversity, debris covers , 129 lake level , 260 glacier termini, fl uctuations , 298, 299 measurements , 258–259 heavy debris covers, ablation zones , 130 progress , 261 ice dam and outburst fl ood , 301 reverse fl ood waves , 260 ice depths determination , 83, 84 Climate change. See Karakoram glaciers ice facets , 137 Cogley, J.G. , 27 ice-margin thickening , 302 Conway, W.M. , 223, 231, 303 Index 355 Copland, L. , 223 glacier surface , 151 Cornices , 91, 109 limits/climatic snowlines , 151–152 Cryoconite , 136 Evans, D.J.A. , 65, 67, 74, 79, 81, 83, 98, 102, Cryosphere 104, 105, 110, 113, 121, 137, 147, catastrophic fl oods , 9 148, 150, 155, 190, 194, 204, 206, freeze-thaw , 7–8 208, 210, 284 Karakoram glacial environment , 8–9 Eyles, N. , 190, 208 landslides , 9 neoglaciation , 9 permafrost , 7–8 F phenomena , 20–21 Firn , 97–98 snowfall , 7 Flohn, H. , 18 Flood behaviour , 260 Fowler, H.J. , 294 D Fragmented drainage systems , 286 Dainelli, G. , 25 Freeze-thaw cycles , 23–24, 26, 128, 138 Dam impounded sediment , 316–317 Debris covers , 320 Debris-mantled glaciers , 284 G Debris-mantled ice , 206–207 Gardelle, J. , 301 Debris sources Gardner, J.S. , 223 avalanched , 269 Ghulkin Glacier , 308 ice-cemented , 269, 282 Giant bounding moraines , 317 rock glaciers , 284 Glacial hazards stream , 269 ice dam phases and outburst fl ood , 258 Derbyshire, E. , 190 Little Ice Age , 251 Desio, A. , 223, 251 supraglacial lakes , 247–248 Ding, Y. , 93 Glacial lake outburst fl oods (GLOFs) Disappearing glaciers advancing glaciers , 250 glacier change , 294 assessment , 246–247 global climate change , 292 Bhutan, dangerous lakes , 246–247 GLOF and , 292 characteristics , 255–257 Himalayan glaciers and Indus destruction , 246 waters , 293 elevation ranges , 257 LIA and , 293 glacial lakes ( see Glacial lakes) substantial fl uctuations , 293–294 ice dams, records , 251–255 temperature data , 294 impoundment phases and outburst events terminus variations usage , 292–293 ( see Glacier impoundments) Drainage interruption , 285–286 Karakoram glaciers, dimensions , 256 Drew, F. , 214 Karambar River, ice-dammed lake , 250 Dust storms , 22 mountain pastoralists , 246 self-dumping lakes , 250 status and interest , 262, 263 E threatening glacier , 256 ELAs. See Equilibrium line altitudes (ELAs) transverse glaciers , 256 Elevation range, Glaciers basins Glacial lakes Karakoram glaciers , 42–47 glaciers, characteristics , 255–257 Nanga Parbat’s west fl ank , 47 lateral ice-margin lakes , 248 Pisan Glacier , 42 small , 246 Siachen , 47 supraglacial lakes , 247–248 England, J. , 270, 271 terrain , 247 Equilibrium line altitudes (ELAs) weather conditions , 247 avalanches and wind action , 152 Glacial rock glaciers , 284 estimation , 152, 153 Glaciation hypothesis , 320 356 Index Glaciation limit Glacier impoundments East Central Karakoram, transect , 48–51 catastrophic outbursts , 259 elevation and terrain , 51 glacier advance and ice dam sealing , glacier thresholds , 49 257–258 interfl uve elevations , 47 ice streams, fl ow rates , 257–258 Karakoram glaciers, threshold outburst fl oods and timing , 259–260 features , 48 reservoir size and dam breaching , 258–259 K2 massif , 51 seepage and storage losses , 259–260 Windward fl anks , 50 valley geometry , 259 Glaciers Glacier long profi les Baintha Brakk , 57 glaciers and tributaries , 52, 53 basins, relief and elevation range , 42–47 Kaberi Glacier , 52, 54 glacierisation dimensions , 42 longest sections distance , 52 intermediate glaciers , 42 vertical descent , 52 perennial snow and glacier ice cover , 56, 58 Glacier mass balance , 70, 88 regional hypsometry , 56–59 Glacier mass balance I. See Snowfall and Siachen Glacier , 42 glacier nourishment Glacier ablation zones Glacier mass balance II. See Ablation losses ablation zone , 200, 201 Glacier mass balance regimes freeze–thaw and seasonal landforms , accumulation and summer ablation , 202–203 147–148 longitudinal on-ice forms , 205–206 area-altitude relations ( see Area-altitude on-ice landforms , 201 relations, mass balance) shoulder seasons , 203–205 conditions, ablation sub-Zone II , 160 Glacier basins ELAs , 151–154 avalanche regimes , 179–180 estimation ( see Mass balance estimation) Baltoro , 169–170 nourish and sustain , 144 Batura , 167–168 regional climate change , 160 Biafo , 168–169 vertical gradients , 148–151 block motion ( see Block motion) Glacier nourishment ELA , 166 avalanche ( see Avalanche nourishment) fl uctuating, movement , 172–173 estimating avalanche inputs , 108–109 hydrological factors , 182–183 ice derived , 104 icefalls and ogives , 174–179 subzones, avalanche , 107–108 ice structure , 164 wind redistribution , 109–110 inputs , 181–182 Glacier source zone landforms Karakoram , 167 climatic snowlines , 190 local melting and refreezing , 165 interfl uve and peak morphology , 193–194 mechanics and movement , 164 massive rock slope failures, mountain