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bioRxiv preprint doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.04.17.046672; this version posted April 18, 2020. The copyright holder for this preprint (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder, who has granted bioRxiv a license to display the preprint in perpetuity. It is made available under aCC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license. Classes for the masses: Systematic classification of unknowns using fragmentation spectra Kai Dührkop1, Louis Felix Nothias2, Markus Fleischauer1, Marcus Ludwig1, Martin A. Hoffmann1,3, Juho Rousu4, Pieter C. Dorrestein2, Sebastian Böcker1 1 Chair for Bioinformatics, Friedrich-Schiller-University, Jena, Germany 2 Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, USA 3 International Max Planck Research School “Exploration of Ecological Interactions with Molecular and Chemical Techniques”, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany 4 Helsinki institute for Information Technology HIIT, Department of Computer Science, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland ABSTRACT Metabolomics experiments can employ non-targeted tandem mass spectrometry to detect hundreds to thousands of molecules in a biological sample. Structural annotation of molecules is typically carried out by searching their fragmentation spectra in spectral libraries or, recently, in structure databases. Annotations are limited to structures present in the library or database employed, prohibiting a thorough utilization of the experimental data. We present a computational tool for systematic compound class annotation: CANOPUS uses a deep neural network to predict 1,270 compound classes from fragmentation spectra, and explicitly targets compounds where neither spectral nor structural reference data are available. CANOPUS even predicts classes for which no MS/MS training data are available. We demonstrate the broad utility of CANOPUS by investigating the effect of the microbial colonization in the digestive system in mice, and through analysis of the chemodiversity of different Euphorbia plants; both uniquely revealing biological insights at the compound class level. INTRODUCTION Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS) can detect large numbers of small molecules from fractional amounts of samples, and has been widely adopted by the metabolomics community. LC-MS, when performed in an untargeted fashion, allows us to detect hundreds to thousands of metabolites from a single sample, but annotation of these metabolites remains highly challenging. Annotations are typically reached by searching fragmentation spectra (MS/MS) in spectral libraries1, 2 or, more recently, structure databases3. Yet, only a fraction of metabolites can be annotated in this fashion4. Spectral libraries are clearly limited in size and largely have been created with commercially available compounds 5; but even molecular structure databases, which can be orders of magnitude larger, usually do not cover all biomolecular structures from a particular sample. We do not expect that this situation is going to change fundamentally during the next decade. This means that for 1 bioRxiv preprint doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.04.17.046672; this version posted April 18, 2020. The copyright holder for this preprint (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder, who has granted bioRxiv a license to display the preprint in perpetuity. It is made available under aCC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license. most of the data that is acquired in such metabolomics experiments, little structural insights can be obtained. In particular, it is currently not possible to obtain a comprehensive structural picture of which metabolites are present in a sample, and which are up- or down-regulated between two experimental conditions. Here, we present CANOPUS, a computational method that addresses this problem by assigning compound classes to every metabolite MS/MS feature in an LC-MS/MS run; this includes “unknown” metabolites with structures not recorded in any database or publication. The problem of predicting the presence or absence of certain substructures has been considered since the 1960s, predominantly for GC-MS data6-8. FingerID9 and CSI:FingerID10 predict molecular fingerprints that encode several hundreds or thousands of substructures in a molecule, respectively. Substructures describe local parts of the molecule, such as the presence of a hydroxy group; in contrast, compound classes are usually substantially more complex. Compound classes have been defined in, say, the ChEBI ontology11 or the MeSH thesaurus12, but class annotations are available for only a small fraction of molecular structures. In contrast, ClassyFire13 enables deterministic assignment of classes solely from structure, allowing us to classify all molecular structures. ClassyFire definitions involve the use of logical expressions, substructures with variable length, and substructure count constraints. To understand what compound classes are detected from a sample, we need a method that can predict these classes directly from MS/MS data. Unfortunately, this task comes with fundamental challenges which have never been addressed so far, and which make class assignment an even harder problem than searching in molecular structure databases: First, can we predict classes for which limited or no MS/MS data are available in spectral libraries? As libraries are notoriously incomplete and most classes are sparse, we have, for the majority of classes, minimal reference data belonging to the class. The second challenge is more subtle and simultaneously more problematic: Even if enough MS/MS data appear to be available for some class, it is possible that compounds for which we have reference spectra are not distributed evenly (or not at all) among subclasses. As an 2 bioRxiv preprint doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.04.17.046672; this version posted April 18, 2020. The copyright holder for this preprint (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder, who has granted bioRxiv a license to display the preprint in perpetuity. It is made available under aCC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license. extreme case, assume our training data contain reference spectra for pregnane steroids but no other steroids. Training a model for steroids using this data will in fact only predict the subclass pregnane steroids, whereas all compounds from other subclasses (say, ergostane steroids) will be misclassified as “not a steroid” with high confidence. We will show that this seemingly theoretical issue can have massive practical consequences. For known class/subclass pair, we can identify and point out such “misguided classifiers” from the training data; but this is not possible for class/subclass pairs that are not part of the classification scheme. Third, can we predict classes for a compound that is truly unknown, meaning that not even its molecular structure has been recorded in any structure database? These “novel compounds” are arguably the ones for which class prediction is desired most; but how can we evaluate whether a method is able to target such “novel compounds”? At present, three strategies for structural classification exist: a) Cluster compounds based on spectral similarity, then propagate compound class annotations from database search in a semi- automated manner14-16 b) Search for the query compound in a spectral library17, 18 or a structure database19, 20; consider the top k hits for assigning compound classes. c) Use machine learning methods to directly predict compound classes from the MS/MS spectrum19, 21. None of these strategies can address all challenges mentioned above, as we detail in the Methods section; furthermore, no ready-to-use computational tools for automated compound class annotation from LC-MS data are publicly available. Results Here, we present the two-step approach CANOPUS (Class Assignment aNd Ontology Prediction Using mass Spectrometry) that addresses all of the abovementioned challenges. The workflow of CANOPUS is depicted in Fig. 1: Given an MS/MS spectrum as input, we use a series of support vector machines (SVM) to predict establish a probabilistic fingerprint of the query compound9, 10. This probabilistic fingerprint is used as input of a Deep Neural Network (DNN)22, which then predicts all compound classes simultaneously. SVMs are trained using reference MS/MS spectra; in contrast, the 3 bioRxiv preprint doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.04.17.046672; this version posted April 18, 2020. The copyright holder for this preprint (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder, who has granted bioRxiv a license to display the preprint in perpetuity. It is made available under aCC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license. DNN is trained on 1.11 million compound structures and does not require any MS/MS data. To train the DNN, we have to simulate a “realistic” probabilistic fingerprint for any given molecular structure, although no MS/MS data for this structure is available. This integration of two machine learning techniques allows CANOPUS to reach high-quality predictions for 1,270 compound classes. Because the predictions are now independent from the availability of MS/MS reference data, CANOPUS can predict compound classes even when there are no MS/MS spectra for training the method. Equally important, it can predict classes for which MS/MS training data is missing for a complete subclass. Uniquely, CANOPUS permits a global over view of the compound classes
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