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SURVEY OF INDONESIA for LONG VEGETABLE FIBER DEVELOPMENT
C92
J. M. Dempsey Fiber Agronomist' USOM/Saigon VIET-NAM
'A.I.D. Reference Center Boom 1656 NS , SURVEY OF TDONFSIA
For
LCNG VEGETABLE FIBER DEVELOPMENT
J. M. Dempsey Fiber Agronomist USOM/Saigon VIET-NAM TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. ITINERARY and MEETINGS 1--4
-3. GMERAL 4
A. Geographical Aspects. B. Clin.atological Data. 4-5 and 7-12 and 0. Soils. 5-6 13-14 6 4. ROSELLE A. General. 6 B. Botanical Characteristics. 15 C. Agronomic Aspects. 15
1. Soils. i5
2. Fertilization. 15-16 3. Photoperiodism. 16-17 17 4. Climatic Requirements. 5. Land Preparation and Seeding. 17-18 6. Seed Production. 18-19
7. Pests and Diseases. 19
D. Harvesting. 20-21 E. Retting and Stripping. 21-22 23 F. Grading. 24 G. Roselle Production in Indonesia. 24 1. General. 2. Central Java. 24-26 27 3. Pabrik Karung nDelangguJ 27-29 4.' East Java. 29-30 5,; Pubrik Karung PRoselle"'. PAGE
5. ' KENAF 30 A. General. 30-31 B. 'Botanical Characteristice. 31
C. Agronomle Aspects. 91-32 D. Pests and Diseases. 32-33
E. Fiber Characteristics. 33-34 F. Crude Ribbon Utilization. 34-35 6. RAMIE 35 A. General. 35-36 B. Botanical Characteristics. 36 C. Agronomic Aspects. 37 1. Soils 37
2. Rainfall 37-38 3,' Photoperiodism. 38 4. Temperature. 38 5. Var.ieties. 38-39 D.* Culture. 39
1. Propagation Methods. 39-40
2. Land Preparation and Planting Procedure. 41 3. Growth Characteristics and Cultivation. 42 4. Fertilization. 42-44 5. HLrresting, Extraction and Yields. 44-47 6'; Pests and Diseases. 47-48 E. Degumming and Fiber Characteristics. 48-50 F. Ramie Leaf Utilization. 50;51
G. Ramie Production in Indonesia 51 V
PAGE
1. General. 51 2. Ramie Research in West Java 52 a.' Green Weight Yields. 52-53 b. Physical Characteristics. 53-54
c. Spacing Trials.- 54 d. Fertilization Trials. 5 56 e. Station Testing Facilities. 56-7
3. Ramie Cultivation and Processing in Central Java and 57 Jogjakarta.
H. Ramie Cultivation and Processing in North Sumatra 58
1. Martoba Estates Project. 58
2. Glugur-Rimbun Estates Project. 58-60
3. P.T. Rami Siantar, Pematang. 60-62 7. FIBER PRODUCTION POSSIBILITIES IN SOUTH KALIMANTAN 62
A. BMPT Land Development Dry Land Project. 62
B. BMPT Polder - Tamban Project. 63
0. Gambut. 63
8. SISAL AND ABACA PRODUCTIM IN NGiTH SUMATERA 64-66 9. SUNMARY 67-68
10. REOMNDATICNS 69-70
f A
STRVET OF INDONESIA
For
LONG VEGETABLE FIBER DEVELOPMENT li INTRODUCTION
This reports primarily agronomic in nature, is concerned with a prelimi liary survey of Indonesia made dufing the period November 22-- December .18, i960 at the request of the Indoiesian Ministry of Agriculture and USOM/Djakarta. The purpose of the survey Us td evaluate long vegetablb fiber prddudtion and its potentiai development with special emphasis on roselle now being grown commercially in Central and East Java and ramie presently being developed in Central Java and North Sumatera. Basically, the intent of this report is to:
a. Describe findings. b. Detail generally accepted long fiber cultural and processing techniques. c. Present a correlation of analytical data concerned with long fiber crop production. d. Offer recommendations for improved fiber crop production. 2. ITINERARY AND MEXINGS November 22-23, 1960 - In Djakarta meeting with:
1. USOM personnel including: Dr. Raymond B. Allen, Mission Director; Dr. Benjamin Birdsall, Chief Agricultural Division; Messrs. Anderson Renshaw, L.E. Wakefield and Verne R. Hillman, USOM Agricultural Division.
2. Ir. Ka.lan A. Tohir, Secretary General, Department- of Agriculture.
3. BMPT personnel including Ir. Gunung Iskandar, Managing Director; Dr. Soengkono Wirjowerjodo, Director Land Development Mechanization; Ir. Partola, Tidal Areas and Reclamation and Ir. Walujo, Land Development.
4. Mr. Prajitno, Asst. Chief, Commercial Crops Division and technicians Soeroso and Sodeli, Ministry of Agriculture Extension Service (Pasar minggu).
November 24-25. 1960 - In Bogor meeting with 2
1. Ir. Soeharsono, Director, General Agricultural Experiment Station; Ir. Dabro, Chief, Agricultural Research Institute and Messrs. Jo Jan Lim, Head, Division of Perennial Crops, Samsulhadi, Roselle Section; Jo Keng Soen, Ramie Section and Adrang, Cotton/Kapok Section, all technicians of Agricultural Research Institute.
2. Twenty-five technicians of Agricultural Research Institute to present lection on ramie. 2
3. Ir.H. Jahja, Head, Institute for Soil Research. November 26. 1960 - In Lembang accompanied by Messrs. Dahro, Jo Jan Lim and Samsulhadi, meeting with Mr. Amas Adjar, Agronomist and Kamsah Sama amidjaja, Extension Agronomist, Margahaju xbcperiment Station.
November 27, 1960 - Lembang to Semarang accompanied by Messrs. J.Flanagan, Jo Jan Lim and Samsulhadi. November 28, 1960 - AM iti Semarang meeting with Mr. Koeswarno, Commercial Crops Section of Agricultural Service and Messrs. Warjatmo and Sujono, Agricultural Section, PPN-Baru, Djakarta. Later inspected Pabrik Karung uDelanagu" meeting Samadi Danudiningrat, Mill Manager and- other bag mill personnel and visited Delanggu roselle plantings made by PPN-Baru. In afternoon inspected roselle plantings enroute Klaten-Jogjakarta. November 29, 1960 - Visit to Magelang calling on Mr. Poedji Poerwowidigdo,, Chief, Agricultural Service of the Residency of Kedu and PPN-Baru ramie plantings and pilot decortication plants at Tangulredo and Purworedjo. November 30. 1960 - AM meeting with Mr. Mustakim, Agricultural Service Inspector of the Special Province of Jogjakarta and inspection of ramie cooperative at Pakem, later driving to Surabaja and calling on Mr. John Lloyd, American Consul. Decemhber 1-3, 1960 - In East Java, meeting with and visiting:
1. Mr. Sutamat, Inspec Lor of Agricultural Service of East Java, Surabaja.
2. Pabrik Karung "Rosella", Ngagel (Surabaja) meeting Messrs. Sarsono, -Vice Manager; Baggod Kadarisman, Personnel Director and Moekaja, Business Administrator.- 3.- BMPET meeting Ir. Soengkono and other personnel. 4. Tani Mulja, Bangsal meeting Mr. Hasjim Koewari, Head of East Java Section and roselle and urena plantings near Djombong,
December 4, 1960 - Surabaja - S.Kalimantan accompanied by Messrs. Flanagan and Partola meeting at Ulin Airport Mr. Mohamed Saleh, Inspector of Agricultural Extension Service, Bandjar-Baru, S.Kalimantan, Messrs. Soewarjo and Mohamed Senang, Agricultural Extension Service, Bandjar-Barn and BMPT personnel. Later inspected Gambut peat soil area. December 5-6, 1960 - South Kalimantan activities included: 1. Meeting Governor of South Kalimantan, Hadji Maksid, Bandjarmasin. 2. Inspection of BMPT peat soil drainage project at Tanban with BMPT and Agricultural Service personnel.
3. Inspection of BMPT Land Development projects at Pleihari, Tadjan petja and Djilatan with Messes. Partola, lalujo, Adrak, other BMPT personnel and Inspector Saleh. 3
Dedember 7. 1960 - South Kalimantan - Djakarta - Bogor AM meeting with Mebsrs. Saleh and Lauw, latter in Technical Section, Ministry of Adticulture, Bandjar Baru prior to departure.
December 8. 1960 . In Bogor meeting with Messrs. Flanagan, Hines and Bell of USOM and Irs Soeharsono, Dahro and im of Agricultural Experiment Station and Research Institute.
December 9. 1960 - In Djakarta meeting with Ir. Saksono, Director, PPN-Baru accompanied by Messrs. Birdsall, Hines, Flanagan and Lim.
December 10-11, 1960 - In Bogor meeting with Messrs. Lim and Samslhadi at Agricultural Research Institute accompanied by Messrs. Flanagan and Bell.
December 12. 1960 - Bogor - Djakarta meeting with IrH. Jahja, Head Institute for Soil Research, Bogor; Ir. Soengkono, BMPT, Djakarta and USOM/Djakarta personnel including Messrs.Birdsall, Bell, Renshaw and Hillman.
December_13. 1960 - Djakarta - Medan, accompanied by Messrs. Flanagan and Sujono meeting in Medan, Mr. Radjamin, Director PPN-Baru North Sumatera and Messrs. Pratasik, Coordinator; Faris Lubis, Public Relations, PPN-Baru and Mr. Jan S. Simandjuntak, Agronomist, Ministry of Agriculture, Medan.
December 14. 1960 - Medan - Glugur - Courtesy call to War Administration meeting Major Nuhud, S.U.I. Kodam II,Medan followed by inspection trip to Glugur Estate observing ramie plantings and pilot plant for fiber processing.
December 15. 1960 - Pematang Siantar - Madjawdji. AM left Medan accompanied by PPN-Baru personnel including M essrs. Radjamin, Sujono, Barat, Pratasik and Farius Lubis; also Mr. Flanagan and Mr. J.S. Simandjuntak of Kantor Pertanian, Medan and first visited P.T. Ramie Siantar at Pematang Siantar meeting with Mr. J.A. Sitompul, Mill Director and Mr. Ahmad Mathrab, Mill Manager. Later inspected nearby area on Madjawdji Estate where ramie growth failed in 1957. December 16. 1960 - Dolok-Ilir - Laras Estates. Met with Managers of Dolok Ilir Estate, Mr. S. Poerba; Laras Estate, Mr. K. Sukanda; Bandar Betsy Estate, Mr. W.F. Lumy; Inspector Daerah I, Mr. R. Sujadi and Chief Agricultual Division, Mr.M. Karta. Inspected sisal and abaca plantings and closed docu-rtication plant on Dolok Ilir Estate and operating docortication mill on Laras Estate under the management Mr. Ferdinandus. of
December 17. 1960 - Medan meetings with:
1. Messrs. Radjamin, Lubis, Sujono and Choo Kim Soen, latter Chief, Export Division, PPN-Baru, North Sumatera.
2. Ir. Tan Hong Tong, Director, Research Institute of the Sumatera Planters Assn. '4
3. Mr. Gatot Pangudijatno, Soils Engineer from Soil Research Institute, Bogor, now engaged in mapping soils of North Sumatera.
December 18. 1960 - Departed Medan for Bangkok.
3. GENERAL
A. Geograhical Asects
Indonesia, a group of islands extending along the Equator between 60 Latitude North to 11o Latitude South and 950 Longitude East has a land area of approximately 1,905,890 sq. km. and a population in the neighborhood of 93 million people. The area and population density of three major islands are as follows: Island Area (Ha.) Estimated Population Density/Sq. Km.
Java 13,217,410 60,000,000 455.0 Sumatera 47,360,590 15,000,000 31.7
Kalimantan 53,956,000 3,500,000 6.5
This report is concerned with three major areas, namely Central and East Java, North Sumatera and South Kalimantan as regards the present and future development of long vegetable fibers. Central and East Java are densely populated. The average land holding per family in Central Java is only 0.196 hectare and in East Java 0.65 hectare. While roselle is now grown in both places, the possibilities for expansion appear remote since this crop would complete with food production. The same applies to ramie in Central Java even to a greater extent since it is a perennial crop.
North Sumatera is not densely populated. It possesses certain basic requisites which would apparently make it the most desirable area in Indonesia for expanded fiber crop production. South Kalimantan despite its vast land area is of secondary importance for fiber crop extension at present, primarily due to lack of labor and other consideration which will be mentioned later. B. Climatological Data.
In order to thoroughly appraise the climatic conditions in various areas of Indonesia where fiber-crops are now grown or may be cultivated later, a series of tables follow which will be used for reference from time to time in this report. 5
Table I lists the mean monthly rainfall pattern in various areas of West, Central and East Java, South Kalimantan and North Sumatera. Table 2 gives comparative rainfall in roselle and ramie growing areas of the Philippines, Viet-Nam, Florida and South Korea. The average monthly temperatures for selected areas in Indonesia are listed in Table 3 and for other countries in Table 4. Average monthly daylight hours for Indonesia at various latitudes are listed in Table 5 and for other countries in Table 6.
C. Soils The soils of Indonesia where fiber crops are now grown will be mentioned to some extent later. The main intent of this report portion is to show analyses of soils in Indonesia which seem most suitable for fiber crop exploitation in comparison with soils of otlrr countries where roselle and ramie are grown commercially. In this connection, soil samples of andosol and forest peats from North Sumatera and forest peat soils from South Kalimantan were sent to a well known laboratory in Florida for analysis since complete information could not be obtained otherwise. Probably the best area for ramie and roselle expansion in Indonesia is in North Sumatera where PPN-Baru has the administration of some 250,000 hectares of estates of which 170,000 hectares is in production of various crops. Specifically noted below in Table 7 is an analysis of typical andosol (0-10 cm.) from Glugur Estate where ramie is now grown, in comparison with mineral soils from other countries. The analysis of the Glugur soil indicates a good percentage of organic matter with excellent total nitrogen and exchangeable calcium, but low phosphorus and potassium. This soil should respond to a general NPK appli cation as do all of the other mineral soils listed. It is believed that this andosol would support good ramie growth for many years without use of manure if proper chemical fertilizers were applied at intervals along with all decortication waste. Undeveloped forest peat soils in South Kalimantan and to a lesser extent in North Sumatera represent a tremendous potential area for commercial expansion in the future with proper water control. Comparative analyses are found in Table 8. As would be expected the Indonesian forest peats have a low pH and are highly deficient in phosphorus potassium and minor elements. The same is true for Florida peat soils. On the basis of the above analyses, which more or less correspond to the description given them by Ir.H. Jahja, Soil Research Institute, Bogor, they would require extensive fertilization. 6
4. ROSELLE A. General
The fiber plant roselle, botanically known as Hibiscus aabdariffa (L0.) var. altissima is an annual belonging to the family Malvaceae whose origin is thought to be West Africa. The lignified,? soft bast fiber derived from the plant, also known as roselle, is very similar to jute and is used for the same purposes. Belonging to the same family is another closely related species known as Hibiscus cannabinus (L.) commonly called kenaf.
Little is known regarding the introduction of roselle into Indonesia, but it probably todk place in the early 1920's from India when first plantings were made by the Government and later by.large estates in view of the great demand for bags by the sugar industry. Roselle was planted commercially in Central Java in the Delanggu area in 1937 with some 1,044 hectares cultivated on 14 estates. During the Japanese occupation 1942-19L5, the acreage izicreased td 4,000 hectares annually and afterwards decreased appreciably. Today roselle is grown commercially in only four countries as follows:
1960 Average Annual
Cauntry . Hectares : Latitude Rainfal mm.1
India 250,000 - 10 - 220 N 1,15 - 2,300
Thailand 55,000 15 -- 190 N 2,000 2,400
Viet-Nam 3,500 11 - 150 N 1,800 - 2,300
Indonesia 2,950 7 - 70451S 1,700 - 3,000 TABLE I Page 7 Indonesia Mean Monthly Rainfall (mm. ) West Java Fiber Location Latitude : Crop : Jan. : Feb. : Mar. : Apr. :a : June : July :4g.: Sept. : Oct. : Nov. :,Dec. : Total Bogor : 6037? S. : Ramie : 422 : 391 : 385 : 404 : 362 : 266 : 238 : 241 : 321 : 455 : 395 : 355 4,255 Lembang :700 8. : Ramie : 112 : 366 : 325 : 261 : 296 : 108 : 157 : 7 : 18 : 134 : 370 : 155 2,259 Central Java
Magelang 70301 8. Ramie : 427 : 402 : 424 : 274 : 192 : 125 : 65 45,: 65 153 301 : 400 2,873 Purworedjo : 7045? S. Ramie : 399 : 328 : 352 : 285 : 196 : 134 : 61 50 64 296 368 : 406 2,889 Semarang : 700; S. : Roselle: 375 : 335 : 247 : 201 : 145 : 90 : 66 56 88 : 138 199 : 255 2,195 Surakarta : 70359 8. : Roselle: 361 : 344 : 378 : 262 : 183 : 145 : 91 87: 119 :319 : 374 398 3,061 East Java
Surabaja : 70151 8. :,Roselle: 311 : 293 : 265 : 185 : 108 : 87 : 47 : 13 : 13 : 37 : 118 : 249 : 1,726 0 Kediri 7 /45f S. :Roselle: 304 : 296 : 276 : 188 : 119 : 80 : 29 : 17 : 22 : 55 : 147 : 260 : 1,726 South Kalimantan
Ramie Martapura : 300? S. :(or :255 :302: 209 : 220 : 161 : 143 : 97 : 86 : 98 : 134 : 216 : 321 : Roselle 2,312 North Sumatera
Glugur : 3030N. Ramie :199.: 130 1: 192 : 201 : 281 : 206 : 186 : 232 : 323 : 368 : 317 : 280 : or 2,915 Rimban :.. 11 :Roselle: 249 :168 :213 : 222, : 317 : 217 : 204 : 261 : 343 : 421 : 372 : 321 : 3,308 TABLE 2 Page 8 Philippine Mean Monthly Rainfall (mm.)
Fiber Location. : Latitude : Crop : Jan. Feb. : Mar.: ApR. : : June : July : Aug. : Sept : Oct.: Nov. : Dec. : Total Pandag, Minda-: 6o/7' N. : Ramie: 22 : 64 : 84 : 156 :218 : 253 :326 : 218 : 290 :174:201 : 98 : 2,104 nao Ma M Ria (mm.)
Viet-Nen Mean Monthly Rainfall (mm.)
Banmethuot 12411' N.: Ramie 2 : 8 17 :116 :244: 248: (and 241 :360: -300 :198: 78 : 31 :1,843 0 Pleiku 13 5 9 1 N.:(Roselle: 7 12 : 108 42 : : 189 : 328 : 438 : 499 : 386 : 208: 55 : 11 : 2,283
Florida Everglades Mean Monthly Rainfall (mm.)
Belle Glade : 27015' N.: Ramie : 41 42 : : 75 : 85 : 110 : 241 : 209 : 212 : 228 : 132 : 60 : 38 : 1,473
Eouth Korea Mean Monthly Rainfall (mm.)
Iri : 35049' N.: Ramie : 20 : 26 : 49 : 72 : 78 : 150 : 230 : 236 : 126 : 44 : 47 : 36 : 1,114 Page9
TABLE 3
Indonesgia Mean Monthly Temperatures (o00
West Java'
Elevation Location : Crop : Meters :,Jan': Feb. :Mar.: Apr. : My: June :July : g: S : Oct. : Nov. Dec. Average
Bogor :lRamie : 250 : 25.0 :25.2 : 25.7: 25.7 - 25.9: 25.7 : 25.6 : 26.2: 25.8: 25.8 : 26.3 25.1
Lembang : :Ramie : 1300 :19.1 :19.3 : 19.4: 19.3 : 19.0: 18.0 : 18.5 : 19.0:.19.3: 19.1 : 20.0: 20.7 : 192 .
Cential Java
Madlang : Roselle: 380 : 24.7 : 25.1 : 25.4: 25.1 : 25.4: 24.9 : 23.9 :24.3: 25.4: 258 26.1 :24.3: 25.0.
East Java
Surabaia. ' :,Roselle: 7 26.7: 26.8: 26.7: 26.5_: 26.3: 26.4: 25.1 : 25.3: 26.5: 27.2 : 28.3: 26.1-: 26.5
Nojith Sumatera .
Medan Ramie : 25 : 25.2 : 25.9 : 26.2: 26.4 : 26.6: 26.6 : 26.3 26.0 :25.9: 25.7 : 25.4 : 25.0 : 25. PaRe 10 TABLE 4
Philippine Mean Monthly Temperatures (C)
Elevation Location : Crop: Meters : Jan. : Feb. : Mar. : Apr, : Ma: June : : Au.: Sept : Oct. : Nov. : Dec. : Average
Pandag, Minda- : Ramie - : 27.2 : 27.5 : 28.1 : 28.6 : 28.3: 27.8 : 27.2 : 27.2: 27.3 : 27.5 : 27.5 : 27.3 : 27.6 nao
Vietnamese Mean Monthly Temperatures (o) Banmethuot Ramie 488 : 21.8 : 23.9 : 25.1 : 26,7 : 26,5: 25.5 24,8 : 25.1: 24.8 : 24.2 ; 23.4 ; 22.5 : 24.5 & Pleiku :Roselle 780 : '20.1 : 21.4 : 22.8 : 24.4 : 24.2: 23.4 : 23.4 : 22.8: 22.8 : 22.0 : 21.2 : 20.4 : 22.3
Florida Everglades Mean Monthly Temperatures (0)
Belle Grade : Ramie : 2 : 17.0 : 19.1 : 21.1 : 21.7 : 21.7: 26.0 : 26.7 : 27.0: 26.3 : 24.3 : 20.3 : 16.1 : 22.2
South Korea Mean Monthly Temperatures (oC)
Iri ; Ramie : - . 2.5 : 0,1: 5.2 : 11.3 : 17.2: 21.8 : 26.1 : 26.3: 20.8 : 14.2 : 7.6 : 2.0 : 12.5 TABLE 5 Page 11 Average Monthly Daylight Hours - Indonesia
West Java Maximum Variation Location Latitude : Jan. : Feb. : Mar. : Apr. : May :-June : July : Aug. : Sept. : Oct. : Nov, .: Dec. : (Minutes
Bogor 6037? S. 12.28 12.20 12.09 11.59 11.50 11.45 11.47 11.55 12.04 12.15 12i25 12.29 40 Lembang 700' 8. 12.30 12.21 12.10 11.58 11.49 11.44 11.45 11.54 124 12.16 12.27 12.31 47
Central Java
Magelang 7030! S. 12.31 12.22 12.10 11.58 11.48 11.43 11.44 11.54 12.04 12.17 12.28 12.32 49 Purworedjo 7045? 8. 12.32 12.23 12.10 11.57 11.46 11.41 11.43 11.53 12.04 1218 12.29 12.34 53 Semarang 700 8. 12.30 12.21 12.10 11.58 11.49 11.44 11.45 11.54 12.04 12.16 12.27 1201 47 Surakarta 7035t S. 12.31 12.22 12.10 11.58 11.48 11.43 11.44 11.53 12.04 12.17 12.29 12.33 50
East Java Surabaja 7015f 8. 12.30 12.21 12.10 11.58 11.49 11.44 11.45 11.54 12.04 12.16 12.27 12.31 .47 Kediri 7045t S. 12.32 12.23 12.10 11.57 11.46 11.41 11.43 11.53 12.04 12.18 12.29- 12.34 53
South Kalimantan
Martapura 30' 8. 12.17 12.13 12.08 12.03 11.59 11.57 11.59 12.01 12.06 12.12 12.15 12.17 20
North Sumatera
G1ugur 30301 N. 11.59 12.03 12.09 12.15 12.17 12.17 12.18 12.10 12.05 12.01 11.58 11.58 21 Page 12
Average Monthly Daylight Hours - Philippines
-Maximum Variation Location Latitude : Jan. : Feb. : Mar. : Apr: May :_June : July : Aug. : Sept : Oct..: Nov. : Dec. (Minutes)
Pandag, Minda- 6047! N. 11.82 11.93 12.06 12.18 12.28 12.32 12.30 12.21 12.10 11.98, 11.87 11.55 nao 57
Average Monthly Daylight Hours Viet-Nam Banmethuot 12041 N. 11.27 11.43 12.03 12.25 12.43 12.53 12.49 12.32 12.12 11,51 11.32 11.22 91 0 Pleiku 13 45tN. 11.24 11.40 12.02 12.26 12.46 12.56 12.51 12.34 12.13 -11.50 11.30 11.19 97
Average Monthly Daylight Hours.- Florida Everglades Belle Glade 0 27 15'N. 10.37 11.15 11.59 12.48 13.29 13.50 13.41 13.06 12.20 11.32 10.49 10.28 202
Average Monthly Daylight Hours - South Korea fri 350491'N. 10.00 10.54 11.54 13.06 14.00 14.30 14.18 13.24 12.14 11.12 10.12 9.42 288 Page 13 TABIE 7
Comparative Analyses Mineral Soils
Glugur Est. Mindanao Banmethuot Camaguey Iri N.,'SUMATERA PHILIPPINES VIET-NAM CUBA S., KOREA Andosol Sandy Loam Red Laterite : Red LoamyClay Sandy Loam
Total Nitrogen % 0.53' 0.24 0.27 0.310 0.117 Ash % 80.88 86.94
Organic Matter % 9.39 19.38 - 2.08 Exchangeable Calcium (CaO) % 0.21 0.265 0.017 0.531 0.304
Exchangeable Magnesium (MgO) %4 0.014 0.010 0.011 0.018 -- 0.086 Exchangeable Phosphorus (P2 05') 2 o.ooo6 0.0005 0.154 0.117
Exchangeable Potassium (K2 0) %4 0.027 0.037 0.082 0.038 0.065 Total Acid Soluble Copper (Ou) PPM 33.1 178 -
Total Acid Soluble Manganese (Mn) PPM 185.0 1,674
Lbs./Gu. Ft. 58.45 71.88 pH Value 6.3 5.9 4.6 5.8 5.8 Water Soluble Chlorides %4 0.010 0.025
14. Page 14
TABLE 8
Comparative Analyses Organic Peat Soils
Florida Tainhan, Adjaniu, Adjanu, Everglades S. Kalimantan . ma ra N. Sumatera Sawgrass Block O7 Fore t Peat Forest Peat Forest Peat *Rw) .Raw) (Cultivated) :(Raw) Total Nitrogen 2.24 1.85 1,06 1.40 Ash 12.94 5.93 6.10 24.49 Organic Matter 85.40 91.44 92.28 74.26
Exchangeable Calcium C, (CaO) 0.92 0.20 0.17 0.14
Exchangeable Magnesium (Mgo) % 0.016 0.019 0.022 0.024
Exchangeable Phosphorus (P205) % 0.064. 0.0034 0.0011 0.0017 Exchangeable Potassium (K20) %. 0.012 0.037 0.018 0.019 Total Acid Soluble Copper (Cu) PPM 26.0 29.5 33.1 25.9 Total Acid Soluble Manganese (Mn) PPM 34.0 56.0 114.0 56.0 Lbs/Cu. Ft. 36.00 30.95 31.54 33.29 pH Value 5.4 4.1 3.7 3.4 Water Soluble Chlorides -% 0.0/+0, 0.061 0.038 0.036 15
B. Botanical Characteristics:
Roselle is a hemaphreditic plant, therefore generally considered as autopollinated, however, in some cases a small amount of cross-pollination is effected by bees and other insects. The predominentroselle type has bell-shaped cream to light yellow flowers with a scarlet to magenta throat and a green stem with a circular reddish pigmentation on the stem-surround ing the basal portion of the petiole. Another type has a green stem, the same yellow flower with a deep yellow throat. A third and rarer type has a deep red stem; The leaves of all these types are typically palmate, deeply lobed and alternately'borne on the stem. The seed capsules are cylindrical, pubescent. The plant is normally non-branching when closely planted and the stem ranges fzom 12-25 mm. in diameter at the base, attaining a height of 2 - 4 meters depending upon-soil fertility, climatic conditions and time of planting. Seed are dark brown, kidney shaped, smaller than that of H. cannabinus and average 60,000 per kilogram. The chromosome number of roselle is (2n - 72) whereas Hibisotis cannabinus is (2i - 36).
There' has been a considerable amount of breeding and selection carried out on roselle in India, especially by the Jute Agricultural Research - Institute, Barrackpore, West Bengal and the'Mesta Research Station, Amada lavalsa, Andhra Pradesh. Work has been done in Thailand by Tha Pra, Non Song and Sri Somrong Agricultural Experiment Stations and in Java by the Agricul tural Research Institute, Bogor. Much research has been carried out on roselle by the Fiber Crops Experiment Station, Tainan, China as regards regional adaptability and cultural practices although the crop is not yet grown commercially in that country. In Viet-Nam, most of the experimental work has been concerned with fertility studies, spacing and time of planting trials..
C. Agronomic Aspects.
1. Soils
Roselle apparently has a fairly wide range of adaptability to soil types provided proper levels of fertility are maintained with adequate drainage. The plant tolerates a wide variation of soil but prefers acid soils with a pH range of 4.4 to 6.5. It grows fairly well on the poorer lateritic soils in Southern-India, clay soils in Alabama and well drained peat soils of Florida. In Thailand the main acreage is on a sandy loam of moderate fertility. In Viet-Nam it does well on sandy loams, heavy laterites and well drained alluvial clays.
2. Fertilization
Although roselle is grown in India and Thailand on relatively poor soil types, it is heavily manured whenever possible and is 'rotated. In Viet-Nam even on newly cleared forest soils, mostly lateritic, there is a marked response to chemical fertilizers, particularly nitrogen and potassium with little response to phosphorus. There is a substantial decrease in growth the second year on the same soil even if fertilizer is used. For this reason roselle must be considered as soil depleting 16
since the nutritional requirement of the plant is extremely high as shown by Table 9. In fact, yields of roselle may range from 30 to 80 M.T. of green plants per hectare. For this-reason it is extremely important that leaves be returned to the soil since they contain 62% of the nitrogen, 36%of the phosphate and 70%of the potassium removed from the soil. Unfortunately, unless field ribboning is carried out, nutrients removed by the woody stem and bast are lost. It is recommended..that roselle always be rotated with a green manure cover crop .which should also be worked into the soil before replanting. With the exception of Indonesia, roselle matures during the dry season and cannot be followed up immediately with a cover crop. In Viet-Nam, the following crop will probably be soybeans or some other edible legume since the farmer will not grow a green manure crop without some return.
50 M.T. Green Roselle Plants (1 hectare)
Green Leaves (30.5%) Wet Raw Ribbons (29.5%) Wet Woody Stem (40%) 15,250 kg. 14,750 kg. 20,000 kg. I t Dry Leaves (22.6%) Dry Raw Ribbons (27.3%) Dry Woody Stem (32.7%) 3,447 kg. 4,027 kg. 6,540 kg.
Dry Ratted Riber (50.0%) 2,013 kg.
TABLE 9
Roselle Nutrient Withdrawal/Ha/Annin - 50 M.T. Green Plants
5 in % in Dry : % in :I g. Total Kg. as Element : Dry Leaf Woody Stem : Dry Bark : Element Cxide
Nitrogen 3.20 0.80 0.40 178.7
Phosphorus '.06 0.04 0.03 5.9 13.6
Potassium 3.80 0.40 0.70 185.4 222.5
3. Photoneriodism
Roselle is markedly affected by photoperiod. Even in Java at 70 Latitude S. where the variation in daylight hours during the crop season is only 15 to 27 minutes, flowering is always in mid-April when sowing 17 takes place between September and January.. Unlike kenaf, however, if planted from February to August, the plant will continue to grow after blooming. The same has been observed in Viet-Nam. In producing countries other than Java, most plantings are made at 14 - 160 Latitude N. where variations in daylight hours during the crop season may range from 65 to 78 minutes and flowering always takes place the third week of October. In Taiwan at 240 Latitude N. plantings made from February to August all bloomed about mid-November. In Viet-Nam, 'the optimum planting time is early May or June when annual rains begin. July, August and September plantings become progressively shorter and all flower at the same time in late October.
4. Climatic Requirements
Roselle is generally grown commercially under tropical conditions although has been grown successfully in sub-tropicdl to temperate areas of the U.S.A. from South Florida at 270 Latitude N. to South Alabama at 320 Latitude N. and South Korea at 350 Latitude N.
The plant is highly resistant to drought requiring much less rain than kenaf. For this reason roselle is gradually supplanting kenaf and jute in India. since it can be grown in low rainfall areas. Excessive rains and cloudy weather prior to harvest can injure the crop since this promotes attacks by fungi. The total rainfall in Viet-Nam during the 5 months growing period ranges from 900 to 1800 mm., depending upon area, or from 125 to 400 mm. per month with an average monthly temperature range of 23 - 260 0. In Central and East Java the total rainfall during the crop period ranges from 1250 to 1600 mm., or from 110 to 400 mm. per month with an average monthly temperature range of 25 to 270 0. In India, a good crop may be produced with as little as 800 mm. of rainfall.
5. Land Preparation and Seeding
Roselle grows best on well prepared land, flat to undulating. There should be no low places for water to stand. Steep killsides are not recommended,
Whereas both India and Thailand plant by broadcasting, this procedure is not recommended since stands are often spotty, cultivation is difficult, fertilizer is not used to the fullest extent and yields are generally lower'.
In Viet-Nam best results are obtained by either of two planting methods. The first is .to open shallow rows 20 cm. apart to a depth of about 2 to 3 cm. Usually this is done with a large home-made rake having 4 to 6 bamboo teeth spaced 20 cm. apart. Fertilizer is then spread by hand in the row, The rake is again drawn through the same rows which mixes the fertilizer with the soil. Seeds are then hand dropped, spacing about 4 - 5 cm. apart as single or double seed. Covering to a depth preferably no more than 1 cm. is accomplished by turning the rake upside down and pulling over the row. This planting procedure takes about 16 man days per hectcre. The seeding rate is 15 to 18 kg. per hectare. The second procedure is to fertilize with a hard-pushed single row model 219 Planet Jr. fertilizer drill with covering shoe and seed in the same row immediately afterwards with a hand-pushed model 300 A Planet Jr. seed drill. Mechanical seeding is somewhat more irregular than hand planting but the same yields are obtained. Only 5 man days per hectare are required for mechanical fertilizing and seeding as described above. If seeds are treated with a fungicide, which is becomihg necessary in. Viet-Nam, the mechanized method must be used since threated seed should not be handled without rubber gloves. A third planting procedure which might be used for large estates would be the use of a tractor drawn combination seed and fertilizer drill which would simultaneously plant from 10 to 16 rows at the rate of 1 to 2 hectares per hour.
If roselle is planted on properly prepared soil in rows, cultivation is seldom required and the plants do not require thinning like jute. In India, the broadcast plantings are hand cultivated once. 6. Seed Production
Roselle is usually harvested for seed when the lower seed capsules are mature even though the plant may still be blooming. Any delay will result in much loss by capsule shattering. The upper stem portion bearing the seed capsules is normally cut off, tied in bundles and taken to a central point where the bundles are allowed to dry thoroughly before threshing. The most simple threshing procedure is to beat the dried bundles with a stick. -The seeds are then winnowed to remove dust and extraneous material and sometimes sun dried for several days before sacking. Care should be taken when threshing seed not to come in body contact with the dust or chaff.., The roselle seed capsule is covered with prickly hairs which are highly irritat ing to the skin.
Well cleaned, fresh roselle seed have a high germination of 96-98%. Since the seed have a high oil content they tend to gradually lose germination so should be best stored in a cool, rat-free place. After 6 months seed germination may drop to 80%. After one year it may be 50% or lower. Roselle seed are subject to weevil pests during storage. Recommended control is to treat seed with the equivalent of 3% DDT dust at the rate of 50 gas, per 100 kilos before prolonged storage.
There is very little information regarding the yiel'd roselle seed per hectare. Repeated nursery trials in Viet-Nam have been highly variable regardless of spacing or time of planting. The average yield is about 300 kg. per hectare. It is usual practice for the farmer to reserve about 5% of his planting for seed. The rule of thumb is that 1 hectare of seed will produce sufficient to plant 20 hectares. In Java the seed crop is usually planted in January and harvested in June. 19
Yields at Bogor using of 1 x 1 meter have produced 500 to 600 kg. of seed per hectare, but the average farm yield is half this amount.
7. Pests and Diseases Roselle is an extremely hardy plant in comparison with a. cannabinus and jute, but is subject to attacks by some of pests and diseases.
The most common pest of roselle in Viet-Nam is a small black beetle of the family Crysomelidase. These beetles normally attack the plants when they near maturity, first destroying the leaves and will actually seriously damage the stem eating off the outer bark layer and exposing the bast. Control is possible with 5%DDT applied as a dust or spray at the rate ,of 10 kg. per hectare. A second pest frequently noted is a stem borer of the family Pharustidae. This insect bores into the terminal bud killing same thus causing a stunted plant which will branch.
The dreaded root-knot nematode, Meloidoae spp., a major pest of kenaf infrequently attacks roselle. Only one small nematode infestation on roselle has been noted in Viet-Nam. The worst diseases noted on roselle in Viet-Nam are fungal in nature, the main ones being Coticiua salmonicolor and Sclerotium. The soil borne fungi normally attack the plant when it nears maturity, infection apparently first killing the root system and gradually working up the stem from ground level. The affected plant lodges and eventually dies. In 1958, less than 1%fungus disease was noted on roselle. In 1959, possibly 5%. In 1960 the incidence rose appreciably due to prolonged wet weather. In 1961 steps are being taken to combat these diseases, by treating all seed with a fungicide and planting with hand-pushed seeders. The effectiveness of this program remains to be seen.
The major disease attacking roselle in Java is a soil borne fungus Phvtovthora narasitica, Dast. which is also reported to attack kenaf in -Guatemala. It is characterized by wilting of the plants in the middle of the day with apparent recovery at night, but eventually the wilt becomes permanent. Unfortunately the most vigorous and best growth is most subject to attack. In the initial stages, before wilting occurs, the plant foliage has a reddish color. An examination of the root system will disclose rotting of one or more of the roots which possess a reddish color. The disease gradually extends 15 cm. or more from soil level up the stem with the zone of infection in the cambium and phloem layers which are especially favorable for this pathogemic agent. The disease may occur at any stage of growbh if growing conditions for the plant are poor, but usually is most serious during the flowering period. It is especially prevalent after heavy rains or where the soils are heavy and poorly drained. For this reason soils possessing good drainage should be selected. TABLE 1,0 Page 20
1957 Thai Red Kenaf Trials Non Song Experiment Station, Thailand
Age in M.T. Green : Kg. Retted % Fiber in Tensile Days Strength Length to break Plants/Ha. : Fiber/Ha. Green 1000 lbs./sq.in. Plants : Kot-1no 1000 Ft. ------ ------ : 2Ko
80 42.7 1, 062 2.50 32.9 11.7 81.0 28.9 90 50.7 1,200 2.37 36.9 12.4 88.0 31.0 100 61.5 1,370 2.23 33.2 11.0 78.6 26.4 110 70.9 1,722 2.43 30.2 10.0 74,4 23.5 120 74.0 2,120 2.87 33.7 12.2 83.9 36.2 130 72.0 -2,450 3.53 31.4 11.0 75.1 27.2 140 79.0 3,170 4.02 43.0 14.0 100.1 35,2 150 80.3 3,240 4.04 36.2 11.8 85.7 29.2 160 80,0 3,431 4.29 38.8 11.6 91.4 26.5 170 63.5 2,960 4.65 36.6 12.5 83.4 26.5
Plant spacing - 10 x 60 cm.
Fertilizer - 60-30-60 kg./ha. N-P 2 0K 2 0 Retting - 11 - 17 days. 21
D. Harvesting Roselle is considered a late maturing crop in comparison with kenaf. It is normally harvested for fiber between 140 and 180 days at which time the plants attain a uniform height of from 2 to 4 meters depending upon soil fertility, climatic conditions and other factors. The optimum harvest period is 140 to 160 dayb in Thailand as shown in Table 10i In Taiwan, maximum yields were obtained at 190 to 210 days, but the Tainan Fiber Crops Experiment Station recommends harvest at 150 days which not only will produce a good yield, but permit a follow-up crop on the same soil the same year. In Viet-Nam, late harvest has proven undesirable since older plants are prone to fungal attacks, retting is not uniform and fiber is hard to clean without high fiber loss. Roselle is always hand harvested despite the fact that the crop could easily be harvested mechanically. This is apparently purely a question of economics since usually the area planted by a single farmer is small. In India, the average plahting per family is 0.4 hectare, in Viet-Nam 0.2 to 0.3 hectare and in Thailand 1 to 1.5 hectares.
After harvesting, the roselle plants are tied in bundles and preferably piled-in the field so that the leafy tops are covered for two or three days. After that time most of the leaves defoliate or may be readily removed by shaking. This is a highly importqnt operation, since returning the leaves to the soil will replace much of the nutrient. It also reduces transport by 30% and finally, defoliated stems ret more uniformly and produce the best quality of fiber. Apparently defoliation prior to retting is not practised in Java and retting producers could be improved to produce better fiber grades. A second method used to some .extent in Viet-Nam on roselle and in Taiwan on jute consists of hand tibboning freshly harvested plants in the field and retting the crude bast ribbon. This procedure offers several advantages, such as leaving all residues in the field effecting a 65% seduction in weight to be transported to retting ponds, far less water is required for retting, the retting time is shorter and fiber washing is easier. 'Retted fiber produced from ribbons is inferior in color to that produced from whole stalks.
In almost every country the woody roselle stem is used for fuel, small fences or other purposes, In India where fuel is so scarce the farmers crop is often harvested, retted and stripped without charge just for the woody stem.
E. Retting and Stringing Retting is a procedure whereby bast fiber stalks or ribbons are immersed in water for a certain period of time. During this immersion, bacteria and fungus attack, soften or dissolve the plant gums, thus permitting an easy extraction of fiber from undesirable components such as wood, bark and gums. 22
In the case of retting stems, tied baadles are first placed upright in the retting pool, ditch or stream submerging the butt ends to depth of 50 to 75 cm. -for two or three days which permits retting to begin on the coarse butts. The bundles are then totally submerged in a horizontal position in alternate layers and weighted down with logs to keep them under water since they tend to rise due to formation of gas during retting. This procedure produces a more evenly retted fiber. If entire stems are retted at the same time, the tips may be over-retted resulting in weak fiber while the butt portions are under-retted. Retting may take from 6 'to 30 days depending upon temperature and movement of the water, amount of retting organisms present in the water, age and size of stems. If the temperature of the water is around 300 0. complete retting should take about 10 -- 12 days. Retting is more uniform if the sinerged bundles are trampled each day. This movement breaks up gas pockets and stirs the water somewhat which is beneficial.
Fiber quality is largely determined by correct retting procedure which requires care and close watching to determine when completee In the case of stalk retting, if the best layer may be readily removed from the wood and bark easily washed off, the process is finished, At this time the fiber will have good strength and posses a luster, Over-retted fiber is weak and Cull or lifeless.
Stem stripping of retted stems may be accomplished by several methods, but fiber is always removed from butt towards tip, Usual procedure is to take a handful of stems, beat the butts with a stick to loosen the bast, break the stems about 30 cm. from the butt and shake out the woody butts. The stripper then grasps the fiber, jerking same through the water to remove remainder of the wood. The fiber is then washed to remove all softened gums and bark, wrung out and dried. The average laborer can strip and wash about 20 kilos of dry fiber per day, but a skilled laborer may strip twice as much.
If ribbons are retted, the worker loosens a bundle separmting a handful. They are gripped by the butt and pulled back and forth through the water until the upper two thirds of the fiber towards the tip is cleaned and the same process is repeated to clean the butts. If the butts are not wholly retted, as is sometimes the case, they are softened by beating with a stick, rinsed to remove extraneous matter, wrung out and dried. The average laborer can wash about 50 kilos of dry fiber per day from ribbons. The yield of retted roselle fiber per hectare from commercial plantings is highly variable, The average yield in India is ?00 kilos, Thailand 1250 kilos, Viet-Nam 800 to 1600 kilos and Java 750 to 2,000 kilos. Ebcperiment station trials in several countries have indicated yields up to 90 M.T. of green plants per hectare and as high as 3- M.T. retted fiber, however, this is seldom achieved by farmers. 23
F. Grading
Unlike jute, retted roselle fiber is seldom graded into more than three line grades except for a new grade in Thailand called Selected A which is a hackled fiber. Since most Thai fiber is exported, the coarse butt ends are cut off and sold separately. Short tangled fiber recovered from retting or hackling called "tangles" is also produced in Thailand. A similar tangled fiber in Java is called "Wool"
Normal A grade fiber is 1.75 meters or longer, silky, clean and free from wood or bark. Grade B is 1.0 to 1.5 meters in length and possibly not quite so clean. Grade C is definitely poorer in quality and contains some bark and wood. The value ratio in Thailand is 100%for A, 90%for B, 80% for C and 72-75%for cuttings.
There is some production of hand scraped roselle fiber in each producing country. The hand scraped ribbon is easily prepared and the yield per hectare is almost twice that of retted fiber. Depending upon demand, scraped ribbons may even sell for more than retted fiber, but usually bring about 60% that of retted. This fiber is widely used for small hand-made cordage, rope, tying twine and in Viet-Nam for hammocks.
TABLE 11
Production Percentage by Grades of Roselle Fiber in Various Countries
0. Java Grade Thailand : Viet-Nam Estates : Farmers
Selected A 5
A 35-40 90 60 12
B 35-40 8 30 30
0 5-10 2 10 58 Cuttings 10 -
Tangles 5 24
G. Roselle Production in Indonesia
1. General Indonesia has an apparent annual requirement of 20 milliof sacks. At the present time there are two roselle bag mills .inJava producing about 12% of the domestic needs, the entire production being used for sugar sacking. The largest and oldest mill, Pabrik Kanig "Delanggu' in Central Java, presently making 1.5 million sacks per year operates at about 40% of the rated 3.8 million capacity. Pabrik Karung "Rosella' in Surabaja, East Java made 0.9 million sacks in 1960 operating at 50 to 60% of rated 1.5 to 1.8 million capacity. Even if both mills operated at 100% capacity, they could only produce 28%of Indonesia's annual needs. Based on Indonesia's need for 20 million sacks per year, the raw fiber requirement would be about 22,000 M.T. of roselle fiber annually. This is the equivalent of 15,000 to 22,000 hectares estimating 1,000 to 1,500 kg. of fiber per hectare per annum. With present mill facilities capable of producing 5.6 million sacks annually, the shortage would be 14.4 million. This would require roughly 5 new bag mills each with an annual output of 3 million sacks. The main problem confronting sack production in Indonesia at present is lack of raw material. Individual farm production of roselle is low, of poor quality and the farmer receives a poor return in comparison with other crops. The main producing areas are in the most densely populated sections of Java and roselle has to compete with food crops. In an effort to relieve the situation, two Government agencies in the past have been concerned with acquisition of fiber from farmers and estates production of roselle on lessed land. These agencies, the Agriculture Extension Service and Tani Mulja, the latter a branch agricultural operation of B.I.N. (Bank Industri Negara), have recently been taken over by PPN-Baru (Pusat Perkebunan Negara), or Central Government Enterprises, an Agency of the Ministry of Agriculture who now is in charge of all fiber production in Indonesia.
It is the aim of the Government Sack Planning to eventually produce sufficient roselle -fiber to operate existing mills efficiently, to increase production and to install additional mills to meet national requirements. For this reason, PPN-Baru and a second Government organization, BMPT (Badan Perusahaan Produksi Bahan Makanan Dan Pembukaan Tanah) have given considera tion to the possibility of producing roselle in areas other than Java. These include BMPT Land Development and Tidal Areas and Reclamation agencies in South Kalimantan, and PPN-Baru estates operations in North Sumatera. 2. Central Java The principal roselle areas in Central Java comprise some 2,400 hectares for 1960-1961 of which roughly 38% is grown by farmers and 62% under the management of PPN-Baru as follows: 25
Areas Hectares 1960-1961 Growers Solo, Klaten and Banjumas 900 Farmers Petjangaan, Majong and Pati 1,200 PPN-Baru Delanggu 300 it
Roselle production by individual farmers is primarily in the Solo-Klaten area. A portion of the fiber produced is used for domestic hand-made sewing twines and rope. This fiber is sold at uncontrolled prices ranging up to Rp.30 per kilo, whereas the controlled price for retted fiber used by the bag mills is only Rp.4j- to 5 per kilo, thus creating an unhappy situation. The low value of retted fiber is not especially profitable considering roselle is a 6 months crop. As. a result, little effort is devoted to intensive roselle culture by farmers. The fiber yield is generally low, averaging only 750 kg. p r hectare according to the Agricultural Research Institute. On the other hand, figures listed in Table 12 given by the Ministry of Agriculture Extension Service though erratic, indicate excellent to poor yields.
TABLE 12
Central Java Roselle Production 1954-1959
:195&: 1955 : 1956 : 1957 : 1958 : 1959 Hectare Planted 987 1,137 2,516 3,189 1,901 1,446
M.T. Fiber Pro- 1,258 2,017 1,800 1,343 3,293 2,545 duced Yield/Ha. (kg. 1,270 1,770 717 422 1,730 1,760 Retted Fiber)
It is understood that considerable support was given to roselle production in the Petjangaan-Majong area N,E. of Semarang by the Agri cultural Extension Service beginning in 1952 with 100 hectares. The soils in this area are predominently a reddish-brown laterite of moderate fertility. PPN-Baru leases paddy land in this area paying Rp.2,000 per hectare for 8 months rental and carry out an entire roselle production operation from planting through retting and distribution to the mill at Delanggu. Planting generally takes place in September-November, depending upon beginning of rains and the crop is harvested 5 or 6 months later. Seeding rate is 15-20 kg. per hectare in rows 12-15 cm. apart using three seed per hill 12-15 cm. apart in the row. Fertilization consists of 300 to 400 kg. of ammonium sulphate and 100 kg. of double superphosphate per hectare or the equivalent of 60-80 kg. N and 45 kg. P205 . No potassium is used since it is not available. The properly planted and fertilized Petjangaan soils supposedly yield up to 2 M.T. of retted fiber per hectare. 26
In the Delangga area, near the bag mill Pabrik Karumg "Delanggun PPN-Baru has recently leased 300 hectares of paddy land for roselle, paying Rp.9,000 for 8 months rental. This soil is considered some of the most fertile in Java, yielding up to 6 M.T. of paddy per hectare. It is believed that roselle yields will range from 2.5 to 3 M.T. of retted fiber per hectare. One field observed which was planted in Mid September had reached a height of 1.75 meters which is good, but by no means outstanding.
There exists the distinct possibility of expanding sack fiber production in Central Java due to peculiar circumstances, however, the crop-would be early maturing Hibiscus cannabinus instead of roselle because of a tine factor. According to Mr. Jeff Flanagan, Water Resources Engineer, USO/ Djakarta, there is an estimated 10,000 hectares of land and possibly more adjacent the highway between Surakarta and Jogjakarta which has a plentiful supply of underground water close to the surface. These paddy soils are a dark sandy loam of volcanic origin from Mt. Merapi with a hardpan 15 to 20 cm. below the surface thus giving good water holding capacity. Ample water for irrigation may be found under these soils at a depth of 2 to 6 meters even during the dry season. There is a distinct dry season in this area for a four months period from June through September at which tine much of the land is idle except for some plantings of tobacco, cane and soybeans which are hand irrigated using surface water. -If the farmers could irrigate during the dry period it would be possible to produce a 90-110 day crop of kenaf thus augmenting their annual income considerably.
Mr. Flanagan proposes drilling shallow wells and installation of a hand operated reciprocating pump having a capacity of 50 gallons per minute. If this pump were operated 6 hours per day it would irrigate 0.6 hectare, or say 3 farmers per pump, each irrigating 0.2 hectare. The cost of the pump at US$35 plus 4" spiral steel casing, plastic suction and discharge pipes would cost a total of US$60 or the equivalent ofRp.2,700 at 45:1. The apparent economic benefit appears worthy of a trial as shown below, especially in view of the fact that the equipment required is on hand and could be readily installed under the supervision of Mr. Flanagan.
Irrigation and Fertilization Costs for 0.6 Hectare Kenaf
Pump installation complete (no amortization) Rp. 2,700
Pump maintenance at 5%/year " 135 Ammonium sulphate, 180 kg. at Rp.380/Cwt. 684
Double superphosphate 60 kg. at Rp.490/Cwt. 294 Total Rp. 2,813
Estimated production 1,200 kg. kenaf fiber at Rp.5/kg. Rp. 6,000 n profit first year " 3,187
" it succeeding years 27
3. Pabrik Karung "Delanggu" This mill, located about 21 km. S.W. of Surakarta, was established in 1936. The principal product is standard "A" twill sugar bags made from 100% roselle fiber weighing 1e29 kg. each. Cost of fiber is Rp.6 per kilo and the finished bag sells for Rp.25. Present mill production is only 1.5 million bags per year due to lack of fiber. The rated mill capacity is 3 .g million bags per year. Most of the mill equipment is manufactured by James Mackie & Sons, Dublin, Ireland and consists of 5 lines with only 3 being used at present and a portion of 1600 spindles and 100 flat looms. The mill employs 1000 people, all men, working three 6 hours shifts per day, 6 days for week. Daily wage is equivalent to Rp.10 for which Rp.5.3 are paid in cash and the remainder as rice, salt, etc. Ratted fiber being used by the mill was of very inferior quality, but it was explained that this was the last of the season. Yarns produced -bythe mill, 10,8 lb. warp and 33 lb. weft, were of fair quality considering the raw material processed. The operating efficiency of the Delanggu mill is apparently low considering the large amount of labor used. Much of this may be attributed short shifts, poor raw material and antiquated equipment. A modern mill with one-half the spindles and one-third the labor could'produce double the present Delanggu production.
4. East Java Roselle plantings in East Java were initiated by the Agricultural Extension Service in 1955-1956. Farmers did not find the crop profitable and since it -was competitive with tobacco, small holders decreased plantings. Operations were gradually taken over from Extension Service by the East Java Division of Tani Mulja.
The three main areas of roselle production in East Java located S - S.W. of Surabaja are Modjokerto, Lumadjang and Kediri. The soil is a volcanic sandy loam which responds appreciably to nitrogen. The annual rainfall in these areas is somewhat low, averaging 1750 mm. per annum with distinct dry season from June through October. Whereas rains generally begin in October, and most roselle is planted that month, earlier plantings were noted. Usually all plantings are made on wet lands. TABLE 13
Roselle Production in East Java
Small Holders Estates Year : M.T. Fiber Hectares :M.T. Fiber 1955/56 78 1956/57 302 - 1957/58 464 200 450
1958/59 290 125 194 1959/60 89 423 1960/61 (Est.) - 480 585
*Also 100 hectares Urena lobata by Tani Mulja.
A visit was made to the East Java Division of Tani Mulja at Bangsal, 45 km. S.W. of Surabaja and two of their roselle and urena plantings in the vicinity of Djombang. Tani Mulja is concerned with private production of roselle, leasing land for 8 months each year at prices ranging from Rp.l,600 to 2,500 per hectare. They prepare, plant and harvest estates acreages and purchase farmer grown roselle fiber which they grade, bale and ship to Pabrik Karung "Rosella" in Surabaja. In addition, at Bangsal some roselle selection trials were observed.
The individual farmer production of roselle fiber is almost poorly retted and of poor quality. It is purchased by Tani Mulja from the farmer as a sing)i grade regardless of quality at a price of Rp.3.25 Par kilo, regraded at Bangsal and made into 200 kg. bales. This fiber was sold to the mill for an average of Rp.7 per kilo, but the new price is Rp.8 per kilo.
One estate planting of roselle noted at Djombang comprising 15 hectares planted September 15 had attained a height of 1.75 meters and supposedly should yield 2 to 2.5 M.T. of retted fiber per hectare in February. The seeding rate.was 15 kg. per hectare in rows 20 cm. apart and 15 cm. in the row and fertilizer used was 300 kg. of ammonium sulphate per hectare. Some disease was noted, mainly Phytonhthora narasitica, also leaf chlorosis and curl which -could be a deficiency of potassium or magnesium. It is doubtful if high fiber yields will be obtained due to wide spacing and spotty stands. A second 20 hectare planting nearby which was planted in July and August looked fair. Plantings of urena lobata were spotty. Tani Mulja has planted 100 hectares of urena since the mill will pay a premium of Rp.o.3 per kilo for this fiber over roselle. While urena is 29
a finer fiber, the yield in comparison with roselle is low, growth is irregular and seed hard to harvest and clean. Urena is indigenous throughout the Far East, but has never been produced commercially except in Belgium Congo and some production from wild growth in Madagascar.
5. Pabrik Karun nRosellan
This mill, located in Ngagel, a suburb of Surabaja, was financed by B.I.N. (Bank Industri Negara) and commenced operations in April 1955. The main article produced is 44 x 27 in. "A" twill bags sold exclusively to sugar manufacturers. The raw fiber used is purchased from Tani Mulja consisting of 12% Grade A, 30%Grade B and 58% Grade 0 retted roselle fiber presently costing Rp.8 per kilo average. Value of the finished bag is Rp.25. Production since 1955 is as follows:
Year Raw Material : Bags Produced (Million)
1955 12% jute-88% roselle 1.2
1956 n 1.3
1957 n 1.3
1958 100% roselle 1.4
1959 U 1.4
1960 " .9
The mill normally employs 600 people, mostly men. Operation is 3 shifts of 7, 7 and 6 hours each per day or 20 hours, 6 days per week9 Labor is paid Rp.9 per day plus a bonus for set production goals making an average daily wage of Rp.15. The operation prior to recent shut-down for lack of fiber was about 60% of total mill capacity which is 1.5 to 1.8 million sacks per year. The mill requires 1.4 kg. of fiber to make a 1.2 kg. sack even with the addition of 6.5% oil emulsion, indicating more than 12% loss in processing which is excessive0
In general, the mill lay-out and equipment manufactured by James Mackie & Sons is excellent. The mill has a single line consiting of the following:
1 Softener 2 Weft Drawing Frames
1 Tester Card 3 Warp Drawing Frames
2 Breaker Cards 320 Weft Spindles (28 lb. yarn)
3 Finisher Cards 600 Warp Spindles (13 lb. yarn) 30
The major problems affecting the "Rosella" mill are indifferent labor and low operating efficiency due not only to lack of raw material, but having to process low quality fiber. Until recently the cost of raw material was Rp.7 per kilo and finished sack price was Rp.16. Actual mill cost was Rp.21 per bag therefore the mill operated at a loss. -Since bag prices have been increased to Rp.25 and fiber to Rp.8 per kilo, the mill expects to break even and possibly show some profit.
In Viet-Nam the average cost of retted roselle fiber delivered to the mill is VN$15 per kilo. Cost of an HC standard B twill 40 x 28 inch bag weighing 1.1 kilos is VN$25. Fiber losses in this well run mill operation are 2%, however, with the addition of batching emulsion and sized yarns one kilo of fiber will make one bag. Labor at the mill averages VN*30 per day or about double that of the East Java mill, yet the operation is profitable. This may be attributed to good raw material and efficient conversion.
5. KENAF
A. General
Kenaf, botanically known as Hibiscus cannabinus L. is an annual plant very similar in many respects to Hibiscus sabdariffa. The ligni fied soft fiber derived from the bast layer of the plant is also called kenaf, a word of Persian origin. Other common names include "Bimlipatm jute" or "bimli" and "mesta!' in India, "teal" or "til" in Egypt, "da" and "gambo" in Africa, "stokroos" in South Africa and "Java jute" in Indonesia.
The plant has its origin possibly in Africa where it is found growing widely in a wild state; also in Asia, even well into the subtropical regions. The possible geographical range of kenaf cultivation is extreme ly wide, from 45 to 480 L. North in Russia and Manchuria to 300 L. South in the Union of South Africa.
Kenaf has, by far, received more attention than any other related Hibiscus in terms of technical study and publicity. It has been grown experimentally in practically every country, but actually from a commercial standpoint the world wide production of fiber is far less than that of roselle.
Present known countries procuding kenaf commercially include:.
Country Latitude 1960 Hectares
India 10-260 N 60,000 Egypt 28-300 N 1,000 Spain 35-380 N 900 Guatemalaa 150 N 500 31
U. of S. Africa 300 S 300 Mozambique 70 S 300 Viet-Nam 10-160 N 200 Salvador 140 N 200 Cuba 220 N 200
B. Botanical Characteristics
The flowering habits of kenaf are identical to that of roselle except the flower of the former is much larger and the throat a more pronounced scarlet. Kenaf stalks range in-color from green to red to purple. Both simple and compound leaves may be found on the same plant or some types may have all one leaf shape. Seed of kenaf are dark grey in color, kidney shaped and larger than roselle, averaging about 40,000 per kilo.
In general, there are four definite varieties of kenaf based on external characteristics, i.e. leaf shape and color of stem as follows,
Variety Stem Color Leaf Shape
Viridis Green Simple
Vulgaris Green Compound Simplex Red Single Purpureus Red Compound
Much breeding and selection work has been carried out in India, Cuba, Java, Guatemala, Egypt, 'Morocco, U.S.A. and other countries. High fiber content and disease resistant strains have been developed as well as early, medium and- late maturing types. Varieties which seem best adapted to Viet- Nan out of some 92 importations are common Salvador and disease resistant selections from Salvador variety made by Everglades Experiment Station, Belle Glade, Florida.
C. Agronomic Aspects
Kenaf has a wide range of adaptability to soil types and pH range. It is more tolerant to high soil moisture than roselle, particularly during the latter stages of growth. The plant is a heavy feeder, similar in almost every respect to roselle as to nutrient requirements.
The sensitivity of kenaf to photoperiod is marked, the best results for fiber production are obtained by planting during the maximum daylight period. For seed production, plantings may be made one or two months after those for fiber or during the declining daylight period. This gives a 32 shorter vegetative cycle and intensifies fruiting. It is preferable that the seed crop be harvested during the dry season which permits rapid seed maturity.
Work has been carried out in Cuba and later in Guatemala by Dr. Bowen Crandall, USOM towards selection of intensitive kenaf types. Some of these selections are now being tried out in Viet-Nam with success. A truly intensitive kenaf type which would make normal growth during short daylight periods with ample rainfall is highly desirable for many areas in Viet-Nam which otherwise could not grow the crop without irrigation. Intensitive varieties would also permit periodic plantings to allow longer harvest periods.
Kenaf is always sown in rows for both fiber and seed production and should be fertilized in the row prior to seeding for most efficient utiliza tion of fertilizer. Suggested spacing for fiber production is in rows 20 cm. apart with 4 - 5 cm. spacing in the row. This is the equivalent of 25 to 30 kilos of seed per hectare. For seed production about one-half the quantity of seed and double the spacing for fiber is recommended. Kenaf matures more quickly than roselle. Depending upon variety, the fiber crop requires from 90 to 140 days to mature. It is usually harvested for fiber when first flowers appear. The yield of fiber per hectare has variously been reported from 1000 to 3500 kilos. In 1960, some commercial plantings in Viet-Nam averaged 2,000 kg. per hectare. The seed yield is usually superior to roselle, ranging from 400 to 800 kilos per hectare.
D. Pests and Diseases
Kenaf is subject to a number of pests and diseases which attack the root system, stems, leaves and seed capsules. Probably the worst pest of kenaf is the parasitic root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne spp. Most kenaf types are highly susceptible to these minute worms. The use of potassium fertilizer apparently provides some resistance to nematode infestation. Kenaf should never be planted in soils known to be infested with nematodes. The best soils are those that flood for some tine each year, thus eliminating the nematode problem. Hibridization work is now being carried out in India, Taiwan, U.S. and Guatemala to develop nematode resistant varieties. These include crosses of a. canaginu and H. radiatus in India, H. cannabinus and H. eetveldianus in Taiwan and 1. cannabinus and H. acetosella in Florida and Guatemala. Undoubtedly before long nematode resistant Hibiscus crosses will be widely planted. The major insedt pest in Viet-Nam, also found in New Guinea and Africa is a small black flea beetle of the family Chrysomelidae previously noted. The common cotton stainer, Dvsdercus suturellus may cause serious damage to the seed crop. Recommended control consists of 3 sprayings to be applied after seed capsules form at intervals of two weeks apart using the equivalent of 700 gms. per hectare of Dieldrin as 100%active ingredient. 33
Kenaf is susceptible to several fungal diseases, the worst of whith is Colletotrichum 1b iggc Polacci better known as "anthracnose" or "tip blight". The disease is characterized by apical stem swelling and leaf lesions, curling, distortion of both and eventual necrosis. Several C. biocresistant strains of Salvador have been successfully selected by Everglades Experiment Station, Belle Glade Florida and have done well in Viet-Nan.
Pellicularia filamentosa (Pat.) Rogers (Rhizoctonia solari Kuhn) is a group of fungal diseases which may attack all varieties of kenaf at any stage of growth. These soil borne filiform fungi are responsible for poor germination and the so-called "damping-off" disease of young plants by attacking the root system. In older plants, the disease attacks stems in the form of circular lesions with fungus forming a greyish collar on the stem at and just above ground level. It attacks the leaves and is characterized by large circular white areas surrounded by a reddish zone causing eventual defoliation. The disease is most active under conditions of high humidity at temperatures ranging from 25 to 500 C. on alkaline soils having a pH in excess of 7.0. The most effective control of this and other fungus diseases is to treat the seed with either an organic mercurial fungicide such as Cereoan M or non-mercurial organic fungicide such as Arasan 75, 5 days before planting. Recommended treatment is 125 grams of either fungibide per 100 kilos of seed.
Sclerotium roJfsij Sace. or "collar rot" is a fungus disease which is world-wide and rather easy to detect. Usually in kenaf, 15 or 20 young plants will wilt at the same time in a localized area, apparently revive and then permanently wilt and die. An examination of infected plants will show a cottony fungus on the basal portion of the stem imbedded with small, hard, yellow to tan fruiting bodies (solerotia). The disease will attack kenef at any age, but is usually more prevalent near maturity. Common control measures isolation of infected areas and crop rotation other than rice which is also susceptible.
Sleratiuim batcola Taub. or "carbon rot" is a saprophytic fungus which may attack kenaf at all stages of growth. The first symptoms are midday wilting of plants and the disease is characterized by root rot which is black in color and which extends upwards on the basal portion of the stem. Usually this disease is found on plants weqkened by other causes, such as an elemental deficiency, hence is of a secondary nature.
E. Fiber Characteristics
Properly retted kenaf and roselle fibers have almost the same character istics. They are silky, soft and lighter in color than jute, usually possess more strength and are more resistant to rot. They are coarser and less flexible than jute, therefore are not usually spun into fine yarns, although they are quire suitable for sacking and some hessians. There is no problem in producing excellent quality sacking yarns from 100%kenaf on conventional jute equipment. Comparative tensile strength of several lignified soft fibers are as follows: 34
Fiber Tensile Strength (lbs./sq.in.)
Retted jute 25-30,000
Retted roselle 30-43,000
Rettec kenaf 35-45,000 Decortidated kenaf 30-35,000
F. Crude Ribbon Utilization
About five years ago considerable work was carried out in Cuba to determine if crude, unretted kenaf ribbons could be used to replace retted fiber as raw material for yarns and sacking. Thus was evolved the so-called "coarse process" whereby crude ribbons were successfully spun into relative ly coarse yarns on the jute system. A second mill in San Salvador adopted the same procedure shortly afterwards and began manufacturing coffee bags from crudd ribbons. A new mill, Productos de Kenaf, S.A., established in Guatemala in 1960, only uses crudely decorticated kenaf ribbons as raw material for coffee sacks. It has been determined that processing of crude ribbons involves one extra passage of ribbons through conventional jute softening equipment, some additional amount of oil emulsion, a 5 to 6 day batching cycle and passage through both a teaser and breaker card. The resulting fiber can only be spun into yarn counts above 18 lbs., thus the Guatemala and Salvador mills weave a standard bag with medium count weft and warp yarns using circular looms. Conventional bag structure is made from a light 10 to 12 lb. warp yarn and a coarse 28 to 32 lb. weft yarn, thus crude ribbons might only be used for the coarse weft yarn in Mackie equipped mills such as found in Java. In 1958, Ste. Vietnamienne du Jute, Saigon carried out spinning trials using crude roselle ribbons with little success since this Mackie equipped mill did not have proper opening equipment. Trials were resumed in late 1960 after the mill had installed teaser cards. Thus far the mill has been able to spin 32 lb. weft yarns successfully from a blend of 55% crude roselle ribbons and 45% retted fiber. The mill will resume trials when new crop material is available in late 1961, but feel that about 30/ of the raw material in the future may be crude ribbons. Crudd ribbons are easily prepared by semi-decortication although mechanical ribboners are used in some countries where labor costs are high. Elimination of retting will cut down on labor 50%and the crude fiber yield per hectare is double that of ratted fiber. Processing of crude ribbons requires extra steps in the mill processing with fairly high carding losses, but this should be offset by cheaper raw material. Undoubtedly the mills at Delanggu and Surabaja could use some percentage of crude roselle ribbon in their coarse yarns. At least trials should be made. 35
If Indonesia is to establish additional bagging mills in the future, some consideration should be given to use of the "coarse process A number of countries plan new bagging mills which will use raw ribbons rather than ratted fiber.
6. RAMIE A. General Ramie, Bopheria nivea (L.) Gaud. is a perennial stingless nettle plant -of the family Urticaceae. It is indigenous to Central and Western China, and to East Java according to the Agricultural Research Institute, Bogor; Some varieties of Boehmeria are found growing wild in Viet-Nam. While ramie has been grown throughout the world in tropical, sub-tropical and temperature zones, the fiber, despite its unique characteristics, is of secondary importance in international trade. Undoubtedly this may be attributed to lack of suitable fiber extraction equipment which was not developed until recent years.
Mainland China is probably the largest single producer of ramie fiber, the plant being cultivated there in small plots, as in the case of many countries where hand labor is employed for fiber extraction. Prior to World War II, the annual production in China was estimated &t 80,000 metric tons representing approximately 70 to 80% of the total world production. Some 80 years ago, prizes were offered by India for a machine which would extract ramie fiber economically, but trials carried out or many models were unsuccessful. Faure developed a hand-feed decorticator in France which was patented in the United States in 1896 and became the foreranner of later modified models used extensively in Japan, Brazil and the Philippines. A further series of improvements were made in the U.S. and Japan from the period 1945-1960 resulting in a highly efficient in decorticator which is now in use Viet..Nam. ortable raspador type hand-feed
Large scale decortication equipment was first used on ramie prior to World War II on Mindanao in the Philippines by Japanese interests, but this installation was later destroyed. With the establishment of sizeable ramie acreages in south Florida in 1944, 'large scale processing machinery was developed and operated successfully from 1946 to 1955. This was a highly mechanized operation and the decortication equipment was a modification of the German Krupp Corona built originally for sisal. In 1954 two companies established ramie plantations and processing plants in the Philippines which were patterned after the Florida operatioin. These companies are producing ramie commercially today. As of 1959, the free world countries were producing an estimated 15,OOQ metric tons of ramie fiber annually as follows: 36
1959 Production Country M.T. Fiber
Brazil 10,000
Philippines 1,300 Japan 1,250
Taiwan 1,150 S. Korea 750
Thailand 500
Others 50
B. Botanical Characteristics
Boebmeria nivea is the most important fiber plant of the Urtioaceae famitly with many types or varieties. The fiber, also called ramie, is derived from the bast layer of the stem and is classified as a soft fiber.
Ramie is characterized by a leaf which is green on the topside with a silvery white underside, the whole being covered with inconspicuous hairs. The leaves are broad, ovate, abruptly accuminate, with serrated margins and are borne on long petioles in an alternate arrangement. As the plant matures, the leaves defoliate naturally from the lower portion of the stem. At maturity the leaves comprise roughly 40% of the green plant weight, being located on the upper third of the stem. The ramie plant is monecious with small greenish-white flowers borne in declinate clusters in the axile of the leaves. The pistallate flower clusters are formed on the upper portion of the stem and the staminate flowers below. -Some crops may bear either staminate or pistillate flowers at different periods resulting in sterile seed. The small seeds are dark brown in color, ovate in shape .and are produced in very large quantity.
Ramie stems are slender, non-branching and erect, sometimes striated, ranging in diameter from 8 to 16 mm. at the base. They attain a height of 1.5 to 2.5 meters at maturity. The stems are usually hollow, being partially filled with dried pith and may be readily crushed between the fingers. If allowed to grow beyond normal harvest maturity ramie stems become quite coarse and woody, especially towards the butt, The bast layer also becomes coarse and adheres tightly to the woody portion. The plant tends to releaf and branch from previously defoliated stem nodes as age progresses rendering it unfit for decortication..
Ramie has a dimorphic root system consisting of reproductive or rhizome roots and bulbous of faciculate storage roots. The budded rhizomes run laterally from the parent alon just below the soil, being seldom found at a depth greater than 5 cm. The smooth storage roots 37 which. are not budded, penetrate the soil vertically, sometimes to a depth of 25 cm. or more.
C. Agronomic Aspects
1. Soils
Ramie is essentially an exacting plant for proper growth and optimum yields. The desirable characteristics as regards soil might be divided into several categories,.all of equal importance. Ramie grows best on open type soils which are light in structure. These include true peats or intermediates such as sandy or silty peat. Also preferred are soils of volcanic origin or pumaceous types and friable looms. A well aereated soil which has no water logging capacity is essential. Despite the fact that ramie is fairly shallow rooted and its feeding zone seldom more than 5 cm. from ground surface, the preferable profile should be one with a relatively deep topsoil in order to allow the toproots to penetrate naturally. Heavy clay, gravelly or stony soils should be avoided, and those having a shallow topsoil with an impervious hardpan or types which tend to become sodden or waterlogged. The heavier soil types are undesirable primarily from the standpoint of abnormal moisture holding capacity, lack of aereation and the tendency to prevent normal development of the root system.
Topography is also very important. Ramie does beqt on relatively flat areas which are not subject to flooding. Flood water standing on ramic growth for a period of 24 to 36 hours will decimate the stand. Gentle sloping lands are suitable provided the soil is not eroded. Basically ramie requires a fertile soil preferably with a high organic content. Growth is best in acid soils with a pH range of 4.8 to 5.6 for organic soils. On mineral soils a pH of 5.4 to 6.4 is satisfactory. Calcareous soils are totally'unsuitable for ramie, despite its high demand for calcium.
2. Rainfall
Ramie requires a moderately heavy rainfall during the true growing season, Actually the plant will tolerate heavy rainfall if adequate drainage is provided. On the other hand, ramie 'is quite resistant to drought bit is not productive during dry periods. In moat countries where ramie is grown commercially there is a dry season, usually during the cooler months having short daylight hours. During this period the plant makes little growth and is more or less semi-dormant. The plant will respond to irrigation during such periods and produce a good crop as shown hi the Philippines and Viet-Nam. Usually during the growing period from 80 to 95% of the total annual rainfall takes place. This may range from an average of 160 mm. monthly in Korea and Florida to 200 mm. in the Philippines and 240 to 275 mm. in Viet-Nam and Sumatera. 38
Ramie normally requires 60 days to produce a crop if rainfall is adequate. In Florida, Taiwan, Korea and Viet-Nam, only 3 crops are harvested annually, the first requiring 70 days, the second 60 and the third 45 to 55 days. Ramie plantings have, been made in arid areas under irrigation in Haiti, Morocco and Israel, but have never proved practical from a commer cial standpoint. There is one commercial overhead irrigation system used on ramie in the Philippines during the dry season which permits harvest of two additional crops per year.
3. Photoperiodism The ramie plant is fairly sensitive to length of day even under near equatorial conditions where the daylight period varies only a few minutes from month to month. The response to photoperiod is even more marked at higher latitudes. The lengthening daylight hours permit fairly rapid growth sometimes with only the formation of staminate flowers. Growth is -most rapid during the period of maximum daylight hours and may exceed 5 cm. per day. During the period of lessening daylight hours the plant tends to mature more rapidly with early flowering.
4. Temperature The effect of temperature, within certain limits, is not a critical factor for proper ramie growth, but a fairly uniform temperature is desirable. Most B. nivea types grow best under tropical conditions, although certain selections are more suitable for temperate zones, notably the Japanese variety Hakuhi and Russian 0ln E. The optimum mean temperature for temperate or sub-tropical ramie types is 20 to 240 0. and 24 to 2800. for tropical types. Ramie will withstand low winter temperatures provided the roots do not freeze.
5. Varieties Much work has been carried out selection and breeding of ramie in many countries, especially in Japan at Government Experimental Stations of Miyazaki (Southeastern Kyushu), Tochigi (South Central Honshu) and Ishikawa (Central Honshu). Other countries include Russia, Formosa, Indonesia and the United States. In practically every country where ramie is grown commercially, the predominent or better varieties are Japanese such as Murakami in Brazil, Myazaki 110 in Florida, Miyazaki 112 in Taiwan and Saikeiseishin in the Philippines. In Japan proper, the main varieties planted are Hakuhi, Saikeiseishin and Miyazaki 112. Excellent yields have also been obtained in Indonesia from Japanese varieties which will be discussed later. 39
In the selection of ramie varieties, those preferred should:
a. Grow best under existing conditions of soils, temperature and rainfall.
b. Possess suitable characteristics for mechanical decortication, i.e., little woodiness, maximum stalk length with greatest length between nodes.
c. Have few leaves at maturity with no tendency to branch.
d. Be pest and disease resistant.
e. Have ability to withstand wind without lodging.
f. Possess desirable characteristics of fiber uniformity, strength and fineness.
D. culture
1. Propagation Methods
Commercial ramie plantings are always made from vegetative plant material, never seed since the ramie plant is heterosygous. Seeds are only used for nursery selection work since usually the majority of ramie seed lings are inferior to the parent plant.
Ranie may be propagated by four methods which are listed below in the order of importance:
a. Rhizome cuttings
b. Division of parent rootstock
c. Layering
d. Stem cuttings.,
a. The main method employed for commercial plantings directly in the field is by use of rhizome cuttings. It is the usual practice to dig or plow these roots from plantings that are three years old or older. If possible, the roat masses should be dug just before cutting and kept shaded and moist at all times. The time factor between digging, cutting and planting should be as short as possible to obtain maximum germination. If the entire operation is carried out rapidly, a germination of 95% may be obtained.
Usually one year old roots have few mature rhisomes, being composed principally of smooth tuberous storage roots which are unsuitable for planting purposes and must be discarded.. The planting ratio is about 10:1. 40
That is, one hectare 4till provide enough planting material for ten hectares. Two years old roots provide a ratio of 20:1 and rdots 3 years or older 80:1. Care should be taken in selection of rhizomb-fr6m root masses. The usual procedure is to first remove and discard all-storage roots. The rhizoines are then removed and should be medium to dark brown in color. They should be out into' lengths of about 12 cm., care being taken to make a clean cut without damaging the cuticle or crushing. One:man can- out about 4,000 to 6,000 cuttings per day if provided with good roots.
In Japan, where rootstock is sometimes in short dupply, small rhizome pieces are used averaging 6 cm. in length, or about lalf normal length. In this chse, a well prepared and composted area is delected for a seed bed, preferably with shading. The small root pieces are planted about 6 cm. apart each way at a depth of 1.5 to 2 cm. and are kept watered. They are fertilized with nitrogen and phosphate about one month after plaiting. The young plants may be transferred to the field in 4 to 6 months. Germination rate from small rhizome pieces is about 80%.
h. When plantings are to be made from the parent alon, the root mass is divided into fairly large pieces by means of a large knife or sharp hatchet after all taproots have been removed. Care should be taken that the pieces are cut clearly without bruising. Each piece should have a modular surface or incipient buds. The percentage of germinatibli from this type of planting material is about 90%, but budding is slow. g. The third method of ramie propagation is b layering. This procedure is often used to increase the number of pldnts in a .field or to fill in open spaces. Layering is accomplished by selecting tmiiature ramie plints one meter or more in height. These are carefully bent over to touch the ground without breaking while still attached to the roots. As-much stem length as possible except the tip is placed in contact with the ground surface and then covered with soil to a depth of about 5 cm. After about two weeks, roots will develop-from each leaf node and send up new plants. After 4 to 6 weeks, the stalk may be cut apart in sections and the new plants dug up and transplanted as desired. Usually from 6 to 8 plants may be obtained from each stem by layering.
d. Propagation by stem cuttings is the least preferable method of planting due to low germination and time interval required to produce plants suitable for fiber extraction. The procedure consists of cutting mature stems just above ground level with a sharp knife and then dividing only the more mature lower portion of the stem in about 3 pieces averaging 20 cm. in length. The cut stem pieces should then be planted in a fertile seed bed, preferably shaded. The stems may be planted straight or at a 450 angle with the basal portion in the soil to a depth of 12 cm.., leaving 8 cm. above the ground. It takes several months for stem cuttings to develop a suitable root system for transplanting. Germination of stem cuttings is highly variable, ranging from 30 to 80%. 41
2. Land Preparation and Planting Procedure
In all cases where ramie is field planted, the land should be well prepared. One or more plowings may be necessary to a depth of at least 15 to 25 cm. followed by several discings at intervals and .finally leveling. The soil should be well pulverized and free of lumps. It should be level and well drained. Plantings are preferably made on a level surface, never in beds. If lime is required, 'it should be applied at least one month before planting and well worked in the top 5 cm. soil surface.
In the case of planting rhizomes, usually manure, if available, and some chemical fertilizer is put down in the row and well mixed with soil before the roots are dropped. In the case of hand planting, the roots should be covered with soil promptly after dropping to a depth not to exceed 5 cm. with a hoe or the foot and soil firmly tamped. Plantings are usually made at the beginning of the rainy season.
Root spacing varies according to the country being based primarily on soil conditions. Usually if the soil is heavy or low in fertility, narrow spacing is used since the roots will take a long time to cover the ground. In Florida pest soils which are very open, wide spacing is possible since the rhizomes will form a perfect mat within one year. Listed below are spacings used in various countries.
TABLE 1k
Coutry Sacing (Cm.) Roots per hectare
Florida, U.S.A. 120 x 60 14,000
Viet-Nam 80 x 40 31,500
'Philippines 80 x 30 41,500 ti 90 x 20 55,000
Taiwan 50 x 40 50o,000 Korea 60 x 25 66,800 Japan 60 x 20 83,500 Java 100 x 50) 20,000 it 75 x 50 Trials 27,000
50 x 50) 40,000
Sumatera 60 x 60 28,000 42
3. Growth Characteristics and Cultivation
Under normal conditions and with ample soil moisture, r amie planted from rhizomes will sprout rapidly and begin to break the ground surface in from 4 to 7 days. Some roots take longer, especially pieces from the parent clon which may take several weeks to .appear. It is usual practice to replant all failures or skips after one month. This is highly important as it is almost useless to replant open spaces after the older plants have become well established since they will shade out the new ones& A perfect stand is highly desirable in any event.
It is necessary to cultivate ramie by hand hoeing or mechanical means at intervals to control weeds and grass until a good stand is established. This may take as many as 4 or more cultivations. One particular pest in the Orient which should be controlled at all times is MIMna u.1g.
First growth ramie after planting is usually bushy and not suitable for fiber extraction. It is cut back at about 70 days and left in the field. The first usuable crop is normally harvested 60 days later. The stalks ordinarily are coarse and have a low fiber content. First year ramie growth is usually the tallest and coarsest. In subsequent years the growth is not quite so tall, the stalks smaller in diameter and contain more fiber. Maximum yield of fiber is usually obtained at the third year and remains fairly constant for a number of years. On Florida peat soils a decline in fiber yield has been noted at the 9th year. Plowing and discing of the root bound fields to expose and kill many of the roots was an effective method of renovation, and replanting was not necessary. On mineral soils in Taiwan where relatively close planting is employed, fields become rootbound after the 3rd or /th year and stalk growth is numerous and short thus reducing yield. This is remedied by cutting off the older parts of the root system and pruning exposed roots. Heavy discing should be more effective for large scale plantings.
4. Fertilization Ramie is a gross feeder, especially of nitrogen and calcium. These elements must be available to the plant as well as an adequate supply of phosphate, potassium and magnesium. On peat soils which are normally deficient in minor elements, periodic small applications of copper, manganese and zinc are necessary. On mineral soils it is essential that all decortication waste be returned to the soil since theoretically 96% of nutrient removed from the soil is in this waste. Organic manures for mineral soils are also highly desirable if available in quantity, but are not absolutely essential if the soil is high in organic matter to start. Ramie responds primarily to nitrogen and potassium fertilizers and little to phosphorus. 43
45 M.T. Green Ramie/hectare (6 outs/annum)
Green Leaves (50%) Green Stems (60%) 18,000 kg. 27,000 kg.
Dry Leaves (18%) Dry Stems (20%)
Decorticated Fiber 1,350 kg.
TABLE 15
Ramie Nutrient Withdrawal/Hectare/Annum - 45 M.T. Green Plants
% in : Kg. in: % in : Kg. in: Kg. Total : Kg. Total Element : Dry Leaf: Dry Leaf: Dry Stem: Dry Stem: Element : Oxide
Nitrogen 4.18 135.4 1.26 68.0 203.4
Phosphorus 0.29 9.4 0.19 10.3 19.7 45.3 Potassium 1.32 42.8 1.02 55.1 97.9 117.5
Calcium 5.50 178.2 0.93 50.2 228.4 319.8 Magnesium 0.92 29.8 0.40 21.6 51.4 85.3
On Florida peat soils the usual fertilization for ramie on new land is to first pretreat with 50 kg. of copper sulphate per hectare one month prior to planting. At planting the fertilizer used is 0 - 30 - 150 as kilos of N - P2 0 - K 0 per hectare plus 12 kg. each of copper, zinc and manganese sulphatd. Tis is all applied in the row at the time of planting. For subsequent years, one annual application of 0-30-150 plus the same quantity of minor elements is broadcast distributed prior to first growth in the early spring. No decortication waste is returned to the soil. In Viet-Nam where the soil is deficient in calcium, the usual practice is to lime the soil one month before planting with 2 M.T./ha. of calcium oxide. At planting one-half of the formula 90-30-90 as kilos of N-P2 05K 20 per hectare is used in the row plus 2 kg. of 50%Dieldrin for termite control. The remaining half of the fertilizer is applied as side dressing after the first 44 crop. No compost is used since none is available. Second year fertilization is still 90-30-90, one-half in the early spring and one-half as side dressing after first crop. All decortication waste is left on the field from portable decorticators. In the. Philippines the soil is also pretreated with 2 M.T. of calcium carbonate per hectare and a total annual application of 120-30-120 as kg. of N-P2 0..K2 0 per hectare in several applications. No manure is used, but decor ication waste is applied to the harvested fields. In Taiwan 20 M.T. of compost is applied to the soil during the winter before planting. This is followed by 44-20-60 in the row at planting, 23-10-30 three weeks after planting and 23 kg. of N 3 weeks later or a first year total of 90-30-90 as kilos of N-P2 0 -K2 0 per heoEare plus decortication waste. Second year fertilization is 90-30-90 plus manure.
In Korea where soils have a very low organic content, the fertilization consists of large quantities of manure, night soil and ammonium sulphate applied before first crop and after first and second crops. In, Japan the soils are pretreated with 17 M.T. of manure per hectare and 10 M.T. of manure in the row at planting plus 40% of an annual application of 120-40-90 as N-P2 05 -K2 0 as kilos per hectare The remainder of the chemical fertilizer plus decortication waste is added after each crop harvest. In second year ramie the same 120-40-90 is applied in 3 lots plus 10 M.T. of manure per hectare. The value of decomposed ramie decortication waste which is an excellent fertilizer is shown as fpllowss
Analysis Ddcomposed Decorticator Waste
(Air Dry Basis)
Nitrogen (N) 3.24
Available (P205) 1-.10
Potash, Water soluble K2 0 2.24 Calcium (CaO) 6.70
5. Harvesting, Extraction and Yields
Ramie is normally always hand harvested. The only exception was mecha nized large scale operations in Florida from 1945 to 1955 when converted binders were used. Mechanical harvest impractical except in the case of large plantings. 45
Although ramie grows rapidly, care should be taken not to harvest when the plants are too young since the fiber content increases substantially during the last 10 days before maturity, On the other hand, if the plant becomes overripe the fiber becomes coarse and difficult to extract. When we speak ,of maturity, we mean the optimum time for harvest and fiber recovery, not complete maturity of the plant. This period lasts for about 10 days and the most suitable time for harvesting may be determined by the following indicationd: a. When stalk growth ceases.
b. Lower half of the stalks turn light brown.
c. Central portion of the stalk is hollow and easily crushed. d. Stalk is fibrous almost to the tip.
e. New sprouts appear just above the ground surface0
Since ramie requires approximately 60 days to produce a crop and the optimum harvest period is only 10 days, it is possible to "pre-stage" large scale plantings to permit continuous harvest at the same degree of maturity. This is accomplished by cutting back the major portion of the acreage (fi e sixths) over a period of 50 days. For example, if there is a 120 hectare planting, 20 hectares are allowed to grow normally, the second 20 hectares are cut back over a ten day period followed by the third 20 hectares over a ten day period, etc. It is then possible to harvest the first 20 hectares at 60 day maturity for 10 days, then the remaining acreage over 50 days. This is a highly important procedure which will permit maximum use of decortication equipment.
Recovery of ramie fiber from the green plant, until recent years, has always been a problem. The oldest method is by hand stripping and scraping the bast to remove outside bark and some gums. This process is only feasible in countries having exceptionally low labor costs since the daily production is only one or two kilos per person per day. Although different types of blunt lnives are used in various countries for hand scraping, the end product is essentially the same, a green to tan or brown crude ribbon containing about 33 to 35% gums. The main method of mechanical fiber recovery, an operation known as. decortication, is by use of small, fixed or portable, hand feed raspador decorticators. These units are usually driven with a 3 to 7± HP gasoline or diesel engine and may be one or two man feed with a daily output of 30 to 150 kilos of dry fiber per unit, depending upon the number of feeders and type of ramie processed. Machine decorticared ramie fiber is somewhat cleaner than hand scraped ribbons, containing 30 to 32% gums. 46
Viet-Nam has adopted a highly efficient raspador decorticator for ramie which is presently made in Japan and Ireland, although the original machine was developed in the U.S. This machine is basically a two man feed unit, directly driven with a -7y'HP gasoline engine equipped with clutch and reduc tion gear. One of the main features is micro-worm gear adjusting device which permits rapid and accurate adjustment of clearances to produce fiber of any desired cleanliness while the machine is in operation. Fiber produced by this machine has a grade equivalent to Philippine RD-1 without washing and the daily output per unit is 100. to 150 kilos of dry fiber. All ramie decortication in VietNam is carried out in the field, each decortication unit being mounted on a conventibnal rubber tired farm wagon. The advantages of a portable unit are obvious, but probably the most important one is that all decortication wastes are left in the field as a necessary mulch. The cost of a portable ramie decorticator delivered Indonesia including decorticator, motor, farm wagon and locally made wagon bed is estimated at US$ 1,600. This unit can process about 20 hectares per year if the ramie is staged, based on only 100 kilos production of dry fiber per day or 30 M.T. per year at 1,500 kilos yield per hectare. If this unit were amortized over a 5 year period including 10% interest, the amortization rate per year would be US$ 352 or for 20 hectares, would be US$ 17.60 per hectare per year.
Production costs for properly fertilized ramie using the decorticator described above, based on a second year yield of 1,500 kilos of fiber per hectare appear attractive as shown below:
Fertilizer (120-30-120 as N-P2 O5K 20/ha.) Rp.3,810 Decorticator amortization/ha./annum plus interest " 792 (US$ 17.60) Repairs and spare parts 10% n 79 Labor (75 man days at Rp.25/day) ' 1,875
Fuel (20 liters gas/day x 15 : 300 x Rp.2.10) n 630
Total Rp.7,186
Production cost based on 1,500 kg. of fiber per hectare is Rp.4.8/kilo, of which 53% is for fertilizer and 47% for decorticator, amortization, labor and fuel. Based on 400 kg. of fiber valued at Rp.35/kg. or Rp.42,500/ha., the production cost, not including planting,is 16.91. 47
The yields of ramie fiber per hectare vary considerably from country to country but depend largely upon soil fertility and moisture, processing methods and varieties. Almost without exception where unimproved local varieties are used the yield is low. Listed below are comparative annual- yields: Country : Kg. Fiber/Ha : No. Crops Processing Method
Florida, U.S.A. l5O0-- 2,250 3 Large machines
Philippines 1,720 4-5 Large and small machines
Japan 530 - 1"$800 3 Small machines
Brazil 1,000 - 1,500 3-5 "i
Taiwan 500 - 1,000 3-4 Hand
Thailand 730 3 n
Vietjam 500 - 1,000 3 Small machines
Korea 490 3 Hand
6. Pests and Diseases
a. Pests - White ramie as a rule is remarkably resistant to pests and diseases, some may be regarded as serious in certain countries and control measures should be taken if infestation occurs. The most serious and widespread pest of ramie is the leaf roller, Pilicrocis ramentalis lederer which has been noted in practically every country where ramie is grown including Indonesia. This insect was especially destructive in Florida with heaviest infestations occuring in July, August and September. The adult months deposit eggs upon the leaves, and the hatching larvae feed on the leaves until large enough to roll up the leaf from the outer edge toward the mid rib. The developing larvae, whitish green in color, and ranging up to 10 mm. in length, feed and pupate within the rolled leaf. Heavy infestations cause complete defoliation, cessation of growth ahd undesirable secondary growth. Good control has been obtained by aeroplane dusting at the rate of 12 kg. of 5% impregnated DDT dust per hectare. The wireworn, Melanotus communis and other unidentified species have caused much damage in Florida attacking newly planted roots. Usually wireworms are found in newly cleared land whose original cover was grass and weeds. If wireworms are present'in the soil, good control may be obtained by applying 50% Aldrin or Dieldrin dust mixed with fertilizer in the row at the time of planting at the rate of 2 kilos per hectare equivalent of either product. -48-
Another serious pest in Viet-Nam is the termite, Order Isoptera who is especially destructive to new plantings during the dry season. Effective termite control is essentially the same as for wireworms using 2 kilos of 50% Dieldrin per hectare mixed with fertilizer and applied in the row at planting time.
Many types of cutworms, Order Lepidoptera. -Family Noctuidae attack young ramie plants causing severe damage. These noctirnal feeding worms sever the young plant at ground level. Control consists of broadcasting 3% DDT dust on the soil around the plaits at the rat6 6f 20 kilos per hectare;
b. D - Probably-the worst disease of ramie which has been noted in Japan and Viet-Nam is the white fungus Rossellinia pecatrix Prill, Berl. This filifom fungus first attacks the root system and is difficilt to detect in the early stages since the damage occurs underground. Usual symptons are plant wilt and yellowed leaves. An examination at this stage Pill show that the hair roots have been destroyed and the remainder of the root system covered with a veil of white, thread-like forms. Infected plants should be carefully dug up entirely and burned and the area disinfected with chloropicrin solution. Some measure of control in new plantings is claimed by first soaking rhizome cuttings for 3 hours in a 1:1000 solution of mercuruc chloride just p ior to planting.
In Russia, the greatest damage to ramie has been caused by the fungus Phoma boebmer-ia., Henn. which attacks the plant stem at ground level in the form of black lesions which penetrate the bast layer. The disease causes lodging and necrosis of the affected plant. Minor attacks have been noted in Florida and Viet-Nam.
The leaf spot disease, Cercoaora boehmefia, Wor.is fairly widespread, having been noted in practically every country when ramie is grown. It is identified by the presence of numerous small rusty brown spots on the leaves, especially the lower ones. This disease is not considered serious and usually associated with plantings on poor soils or inadequately drained soils. Proper fertilization will control leaf spot.
In Indonesia, some incidence of Phytophthora parasitica Dast. has been noted on ramie, but is not considered serious.
E. Degumming and Fiber Characteristics
Raw ramie fiber after hand scraping or decortication contains a fairly large percentage of gums (30 to 35%). These gums are insoluble in water and must be removed before the fiber can be mechanically spun.' They are composed principally of arabans and zylans which are readily soluble in alkaline solutions. Many chemical degumming processes have been developed for ramie over the years and usually are considered secret by textile mills. They all actually follow a similar pattern consisting of the following basic steps. 49
1. Boiling of the fiber one or more times in an aqueous alkaline solution with or without pressure and agitation and with or without penetrants or reducing agents.
2. Washing with wafer and newtralising. .3. Bleaching with dilute hypochlorites or bydrogen peroxide (optional). 4. 'ashing with water and neutralizing. 5. Oiling with a sulphonated hydrocarbon. One of the better degumming procedures developed in Florida by the writer consists of two pressure cookings with caustic soda in combination with a reducing agent, sodium sulphite to prevent oxidation, a scouring agent, sodium tripolyphosphate and a penetrant, Victawet 35-B. In the first stage, essentially all of the alkali is consumed and the fiber is.dark brown in color. The cooking liquor is discarded. After washing the fiber is recooked with the same concentration of chemicals, but 6nly a, snlall percentage is consumed for complete degumming and the residual chemical liquor is reused for the first stage of a se.cond cook. Below are listed the steps in the procedure.
Newport Ramie Degummina Process
let Step: Cook raw ramie ribbons one hour at 80 lbs./sq.in. (15600.) at a water to dry fiber ratio of 6:1 with: 6%Sodium hydroxide 3% Sodium sulphite 3% Sodium tripoliphosphate 3%Victawet 35-B (Victor Chemical Co., Chicago, Ill.) 2nd Step: Blow off liquor and discard, wash fiber with water 3rd Step: Same as No.1.
4th Step: Blow off liquor saving some for first step of next batch and wash fiber with water. 5th Step: Bleach 1 hour in a vessel with 1%hydrogen perozide at 830C., pH 9.0. (This is an optional step). 6th Step: Rinse fiber with dilute acetic acid and water.
7th Step: Mix fiber with an oil emulsion such as a sulphonated hydro carbon using 3 to 4% in weight- of dry fiber. 8th Step: Centrifuge fiber saving excess emulsion for next batch and dry fiber. 50
Ramie fiber when properly degummed is the longest and strongest of all vegetable fibers. The fiber is lusterous and possess high tensile strength. It is extremely absorbent and gains strength appreciably when moist. It is highly resistant to mildew and rot. Physical characteristics of ramie and other fibers are listed as follows: TABLE 16
Physical Characteristics of Various Textile Fibers Individual Fiber Width Tensile Fiber Length (mm,) : (1/1000 mm.) Strength (gms.)
Ramie 140 -180 35 25 - 45 Flax 25 20 18.0
Hemp 20 22 15.6
Cotton 32 30 6.2
Samples of several varieties of ramie grown in various countries were evaluated in Switzerland several years ago and the results are listed in Table 17. Ramie may be combed and spun by several methods. The finest yarns are produced on the spun silk system developed by the Japanese, but this system requires much labor. In Europe (Switzerland, France, Germany and Italy), a modification of the woolen system is used which produces a coarser yarn with little labor. Ramie may also be spun on the worsted and long draft cotton systems, but in the latter case stapled noils are used, and usually blended with cotton or synthetics. Ramie fiber is relatively coarse in comparison with cotton, therefore is hever spun in fine counts on the cotton system.
Among the major products made from ramie are: Army uniforms for countries such as Japan, France, Switzerland and the Philippines; 100%or blended suitings, shirtings, sheetings, dress goods, table cloths and napkins, toweling, handkerchiefs, fish net twines, upholstery, gas mantles, mosquito netting, special ropes, fire hose, belting canvas, shoe thread, marine packing and knitting yarns. F. Ramie Leaf Utilization
Ramie leaves or young plants are used extensively as a source of high protein feed for livestock and poultry in CentrAl America. At one time dehydrated ramie leaf meal was prdduced commercially in Florida and found a ready market to animal feed processors. Not only are ramie leaves high in protein, but calcium and carotene as shown by the analysis below. ' TABLE 17 PAGE 50a
Comparison Various Degummed Ramie Fiber Samples
Florida Florida Florida Chinese Japanese Phili ine Miyazaki 110 : Saikeiseishin : Tatsutayama Chuma SaikeiseishinZanaeoeria : FloridCppSaikeiseishin
Fineness (denier) 7.5 6.3 - 7.46 4.55 '5.5 7.7 7.4 Average Strength (grams) 31 -37 32.5 19.0 25.5 35.1 31.8 Strength per Denier (grams) - 4.8 5.5 4.36 4.2 4.7 4.5 4.3 Average Elongation (%) 2.3 - 2.6 2.'4 1.5 1.8 2.3 2.3 Average Fiber Length (mm.) 150 - 175 180 175 170 16o 145 Maximum Fiber Length (mm.) 340 330 330 280 350 340 Minimum Fiber Length (mm..) 38 38 38 4.4 Yield in Degumming (%) 70.0 65.8 . 64.8 65.Q 66.0 65.0 51
TABLE 18
Proximate Analysis of Dehydrated Ramie Leaf -Meal.
Moisture % 8 - 10 Protein % 24 - 26 Fat % 5 - 6 Nitrogen Free Extract % 12 - 16 Calcium (Ca) % 5 - 6 Carotene r/g - 200 - 300
Numerous livestock and poultry feeding traila have been carried out in the U.S., Central America, Taiwan and Viet-Nam using fresh and dry ramie leaves, tops and young plants with excellent results. It is quite possible that farmers in Indonesia could use ramie leaves as an animal feed..
G. Ramie Production in Indonesia
1. General
It is estimated that Indonesia produces only approximately 5%of the raw material required by the country for clothing.-. According to F.A.0. the average per capita consumption of cloth is one kilo per-annum, or a.b6t 5 to 6 suare meters per year.. .This is roughly the equivalent of 93 million kilos of fabric per year based on the present population.
Cotton is the major textile fiber used in 'Indonesia. 'Past ,experience has shown that this is not- a satisfactory crop for' the country since yields are poor and the plant is subject to many pests and diseases. -On the other hand, trials with indigenous ramie have shown high ,yieldswith little damage by pests and disease. Undoubtedly certain areas of Indonesia possess every basic requirement for ramie culture including suitable soils with proper climatic conditions. There is no reason why ramie cannot be produced comiercially in volume,at' low cost, especially in North Sumatera. While ramie would probably never supplant cotton for all domestic uses, it should have a defi nite place particularly for such items as work clothing, uniforms and industrial uses. There is no conmercial production of ramie in Indonesia at present although extensive research work has been carried out to determine best fertilization, procedure's and varieties and there are several pilot decortication plants in operation. There is one excellent ramie spinning mill, P.T. Ramie Siantar, located in North Sumatera which began operation in 1957 but at pres6nt is not operating efficiently due-to lack of raw material.
Under the eight year plan of the State Planning Board, the Indonesian Government plans to increase ramie production to 2% of the domestic clothing requirement. This is based on planting 5,000 hectares between 1961 and 1968 with the establishment of adequate textile mills. 52
2. Raaife Research ii West Java -
Work has been carried out for a number of years on ramie at Margahaju Experiment Station near Lembang and at Bogor by the Agricultural Research Institute. The two areas are quite different from the standpoint of soil and .climatic conditions. At Lembang the altitude is about 1200 meters, rainfall aboit 2,200 mm. annually with a dry season during August-September. The soil is a volcanic sandy loam.: At Bogor the altitude is 250 meters, rainfall 4,200 mm. annually with no dry season and a higher temperature than Lembang. The soil is a chocolate colored deep phase lateritic clay, apparent ly having low fertility.
a. Green Weight Yields - Initial trials carried out at Lembang during the period 1955-1958 on 12 selected ramie varieties indicated a consistent decline in green weight yields from 21 to 38%, depending upon variety, as shown in Table 19.
TABLE 19
Ramie Green Weight Yields at Margahaju Station, Lembang
- Average M.T. Green Plants per Hectare (50 cm.- o'r taller) After 15 Cuts: After 21 Cuts After 27 Cuts : After 33 Cuts Variety : 1955 1956 1957 1958 ------
1Florida 11.60 10.53 9.46 8.98 2 Kumamoto 11.05 10.22 9.16 8,'68 3 Miyazaki 10.87 9.82 8.54 7.89 4 Bandung A 10.63 9.38 8.26 7.63 5 Pudjon 10 9.60 8.76 7.77 7.42 6 Saikeiseishin 11.02 9.60 8.21 7.41 7 Lembang A 9.28 8.49 7.44 7.05 8 Pudjon 3-03 7.25 6.64 5.89 5.68 9 Pudjon,3-10 7.53 6.67 5.79 5.21 10 Pudjon 6-01 6.95 6.21 5.30 4.94 11 Pudjon 17 7.82 6.57 5.40 4.89 12 Pudjon 1 - 3.71 3.24 2.84 2.74
On the other hand, during the eight year period from February 1953 to August 1960 harvest trials were carried out at Lembang on a single variety, 'Pudjon 10. After 45 consecutive cuttings there was no consecutive decline in yield. The average green weight per cutting was 7.72 M.T., maximum 13.1 M.T. and minimum 4.3 MT. At the eighth year, the average yield was 86% of the over-all total average. Variation in yields was probably influenced by rainfall.
Later work carried out at Bogor on 12 selected ramie varieties is shown in Table 20. 53
TABLE 20
Green Weight Yields of 12 Ramie Varieties at Bogor (3 years)
Average M.T. Variety -Origin Green Plants/Ha./cutting
1 Florida Japan via Florida 11.60 2 Kimamoto Japan 11.05 3 Saikeiseishin 11.02 4 Miyazaki 10.87 5 Bandung A Bandung, W. Java 10 63 6 Pudjon 10 Malang, E. Java 9.60 7 Lembang A Lembang, W. Java 9.28 8 Pudjon 17 Malang, E. Java '7.82 9 Pudjon 9-01 it it 7.53 it it 10 Pudjon 3-03 7.25 11 Pudjon 6-01 it It 6.95 12 Pudjon 1I It in 3.71
It is pretty evident from the data indicated in Tables 19 and 20 that Japanase varieties are outstanding.
b. Physical Characteristics - On the basis of work carried out at Bandung Institute for Textile Research, the variety Pudjon 10 was considered the best of all varieties from the standpoint of physical characteristics as shown in Table 21.
TABLE 21
Physical Characteristics of Indonesian Grown Ramie Varieties
o Fineness : Strength Gum No. No. : Gram : Gram : Break :Percentage Varieties Metric: Denier : Fiber: Denier:,ElasticityLength : Released ------.- ,------o------i------
Pudjon 10 1350 6.7 39.6 5.9 2.2 53.5 28 n 17 1420 6.3 26.2 4.2 2.8 37.2 27.6 "t 9-01 1743 548 30.7 5.3 .2.5 47.3 19.6 Lembang A 1449 6.2 32.8 5.3 2.8 47.5 23.9 Bandung A 1300 6.9 32 4.6 1.9 41.5 24.4 Saikeiseishin 1541 5.8 30.7 5.3 2.5 47.3 19.6 Miyazaki 1520 5.9 30 5.1 2 45.5 30.5 Kumamoto 1310 6.9 36 5.2 1.*9 47 - 24.7 Florida 1290 6.9 31.5 4.6 2 40.5 21.8 0 0 0 0 0 8 0
Standard 1300 7 35-40 5-6 2-3 50 54
These results may be compared with Swiss findings in Table 17 and are quite similar in many respects. The variation.in strength and denier of the Indonesian samples is not especially significant. Even a greater degree of variation might occur within the same variety from crop to crop.
-c. Spacing Trials - Spacing trials carried out at both Bogor and Lembang during the period 1956-1958 indicate the best spacing at Lembang is 75 x 50 cm, or even 100 x 50 cm. since the soil is fertile. At Bogor the recommended spacing is 50 x 50 cm. due to low soil fertility and most likely heavier soil texture. Actual results are shown in Table 22. TABLE 22
Ramie Spacing Trials at Bogar and Lembang (M.Ta Green Plantd/Ha;/Outs)
BOGOR : : LEMBANG After After After After After - After Spacing (Cm.) 19 Cuts 25 Cibs 31 Cuts 22 Cuts 28 cuts : 35 Cuts 1956 1957 1958 .. 1956 1957 1958 ------a------
100 x 50 7.98 S.33 8.91 8.13 7.23 6.97 75 x 50 8.07 8.15 8.56 8.47 7.62 7.19 50 x 50 8.78 8.81 9.28 7.28 6.61 6.32
d. Fertilization Trials - Extensive fertilization trials carried out at Margahaju Experiment Station over a 6 year period beginning late 1952 included the following application rates per hectareg
N - 150 kg. 21% Ammonium sulphate after every cutting.
P - 100 kg. 45% double superphosphate after every two cuttings.
K - 100 kg.- 4% potassium sulphate after every two cuttings.
Ca - 10 M.T. hydrated lime, Ca(0H)2 per year Stable manure - 30 MT. per year 55
- I TABLE 23
Green Weight Ramie Yields Margahaju Station Fertilization Trials
M.T. Green Plants/Ha./Cut % Increase Fertilizer . (6 Yr. Average) - over Control
1. Control 2.19 2. Ca 2.24 2
3. K 2.55 16
4. P 2.95 5. P + K + Ca 3.25
6. N + P 3.89 78
7. N+P+Ca 3.97 81 8. Stable Manure 3.98 82
9. N +Ca 4.17 90
10. N + K 4.18 91 11. P + K 4.44 102
12. N 4.80 120
13. N + P + K 5.20 138
14. N t P + K + Ca 6.83 212
15. N + Kt Ca 6.98 219 16. N + P + K + Ca + Manure 9.56 337
The above results are more or less what might be expected. There is the usual meager response to calcium, phosphate and potassium when these elements are used alone, but good response to nitrogen and greater response to NPK. It is doubtful if an application of 10 M.T. of lime every year is necessary and an application of 30 M.T. of manure each year is practical. For this reason it is felt that if commercial plantings are made on soils having an initial high organic content with an ample calcium, chemical fertilizers alone may be sufficient plus return of decortication waste after erery harvest. The NPK application rate indicated above based on 6 annual 56
cuttings iould be equivalent of 126 kg. N, 135 kg. P2 05 and 141 kg. K2O per hectare. More than likely the previously recommended rate of 120-30-120 as for N-P2 0I O/ha./annum in several applications would be quite sufficient mineral soils. Forest peat soils are entirely another matter and'would require different fertilization, something on the order of 30-30-120 plus minor elements Cu, Mn and Zn, but trials would have to be carried out first to determine the best ratio. Now fertilization trials are now being carried out at Margahaju Station which are more realistic than those indicated in Table 23. These trials comprise the following replicated plots' Ammonium sulphate - 200, 400 and 600 kg. per ha.after every cut. Double superphosphate - 100 kg&/ha. after every 2 cuts. Potassium sulphate - 100 and 200 kg. per hectare after every out. Calcium - 10 M.T6 Ca(OH)2 per hectare every year. Stable manure 10 M.Ti per hectare evei'y year. Preliminary observation indicates little response to phosphorus ahd calcium, some to stable manure and potassium and much to nitrogen.
e. Station Testing Facilities - Both at Bogor abd Lembang, the entire results of all ramie trials have been based on green weight yields which is good up to a point, but hardly indicative of actual fiber yields. Unfortu nately the only equipment on hand at both places is the Toysen decorticator which is actually a crude ribboner and the Toysen brush, actually a dry combing device. These units are not practical either for experimental purposes or commercial production. First of all, the decortication unit , produces a crude fiber containing practically all the bark and much wood.- This material must then be dried 4 or 5 days which is highly impractical and then brushed to remove wood and bark. In the brushing operation a large percentage of the fiber is lost and the finished fiber is not only damaged, but still contains much bark. The stations experimenting with ramie should have a small decorticator which would turn out a uniform product and all trial results should be expressed not only in tons of green plants per hectare, but also in terms of kilos of decorticated fiber per hectare. For example, the percentage of fiber in the green plant not only varies with the variety, but also with the cut. One might obtain 10 M.T. of green plants per hectare from a first year cutting and the recoverable fiber would only be 1.5% or 150 kg. On the other hand, another plot two years old might only yield 6 M.T. of green plants per cut, but fiber recovery could be 3.5% or 210 kg. The green weight yield would be entirely misleading in both cases. A second recommendation would be installation of degumming and fiber testing equipment at one central location under the auspices of the Agri cultural Research Institute, Bogor. In brief, the degumming could be carried out in a laboratory with simple equipment. In order to thoroughly evaluate 57 the degummed fiber, a physical testing laboratory would be required, similar to the U.S.D.A. fiber testing laboratory, Everglades Experiment Station, Belle Glade, Florida. The facilities required would include an air conditioned room maintaining a constant temperature of 700F and 65% relative humidity. Testing equipment would include a Scott.Tester Model DH and Scott Tester IP-4, a flex testing machine and a wear testing machine, the latter two units developed by, the U.S. Bureau of Standards. This equipment would be used to determine staidard tests such as tensile strength, shear strength, elongation, flex and wear from crude yarns. Additional equipment would be a microscope, balances and minor items used for preparation of test samples.
3. Ramie Cultivation and Processing in Central Java nid Jogiakarta., -
The CentralJava ramie project financially supported by the Seventh IMilitary District Command Finance Section, and at one time under the administration o1 the Agricultural Extension Service began operation in May 1959 and is now under the jurisdiction of PPN Baru. The project proposes planting of 90 hedtares of ramie on rented land, however, by the end of 1960 only 30 hectares tere undet cultivation in 4 areas including:
Kebumen - 10 hectares Purworedjo - 10 " Tangulredo - 5 I Bulu - 5 The Agricultural Service has purchased the Japanese Toysen decorticator and brush units which were later duplicated in Jogjakarta (15 decorticators and 60 brushes). These units have been installed at various plantings as pilot plant operations usually in the ratio one decorticator for 5 brushes. The dapacity of the decorticator is 200 to 300 kilos per hour of green plants and 5 brushes produce from 7g to 9 kilos per hour of dry fiber or 50 to 63 kilos output per 7 hour day for 6 machines.
An inspection was made of the Tangulredo operation located 17 km. from Magelang. Plantings were made here on a dry land brown sandy loam of excellent quality. The annual rainfall is about 3250 mm. but there is a distinct 3 months' dry season from June through August. Initial ramie spacing was 100 x 25 cm., somewhat too close, and later plantings were spaced 100 x 40 cm. Growth at 55 days was over 2 meters in height and extremely good. The pilot plant for decortication consisted of one Toysen decorticator and 5 brushes. The operation here is quite different in that instead of drying ribbons before brushing, they are washed and brushed wet with intermittent washing between brushing and a final washing. It is claimed that dry brushing yields 2 to 3% fiber from the green plant and wet brushing 4% or more of a fiber containing 2% less gum. Unfortunately the output of the entire operation is very meager. 58
A visit was also made to the 10 hectares operation at Purworedjo. Plantings here are on a chocolate lateritic paddy soil. The pilot plant was not in operation, but equipment consisted of 2 decorticators plus two for standby and 10 brushes plus two for standby.
An inspection was also made of a small ramie cooperative at Pakem in the Special Province of Jogjakarta which was initiated in late 1956 to make cloth as a cottage industry. There are 5 hectares of ramie at Pakem and 4 nearby, a total of 9 in the province. The decortication equipment consisted of one Toysen decorticator and brush having a capacity of 10 kilos of dry fiber per day.
H.. Ramie Cultivation and Processing in North Sumatera
1. Martoba Estates Project
In 1957 approximately 60 hectares of ramie comprising several varieties were planted on the old Martoba Estate some 135 km, S.E. of Medan near Pematang under the supervision of the North Sumatera Agriculture Extension Service± The first crop was very good, yielding 12 M.T. af green plants per hectare, but subsequent crops were inferior and short since no fertilizer was used excepb some market refuse compost. The project was abandoned and most of the ramie area replanted to rubber. An inspection was made of the area and it was found that despite good rainfall (3000 to 4000 mm. annually), the soil type was poor. Actually the "A" horizon was badly eroded and this sandy loam containing much coarse quartz sand was too open and dry. It would not be considered suitable for ramie.;
2. Glugur-Rimbun Estates Project
Glugur-Rimbun Estates located approximately 40 km. South of Medan were formerly tobacco estates and comprise some 1170 hectares. Ramie was first planted here in 1957. In December 1959, a total of 22 hectares were planted by Agricultural Extension Service using mostly one variety of Japanese origin known locq11y as "Pantjur Batu" which is apparently Saikeiseishin.
An inspection was made of a 10 hectare planting at Glugur and attendant decortication facilities.
In general, the Glugur terrain is flat to gently rolling with an initial cover of "alang-alang", mimosa and Epatorium palletcens which required up to six plowings and four discings before planting. The rainfall in this area as shown in Table 1 is constant, ranging from 2900 to 3300 mm. annually, A report describing the soils of Glugur and Rimbun dated June 1958 prepared by the Agricultural Division of N.V. Verenigde Deli Maatschapiz cites the following: "tTopsoil .inboth areas 0-10-15 cm. is called "Zwarte Stofgrond" (black dusty soil) which classed as an Andosol of volcanic origin possessing high organic content and good internal drainage. The yellow subsoil 15 to 40 cm. is not nearby so fertile and low in organic matter. The horizon 40 cma plus is a yellowish grey soil with low fertility." 59
The initial 10 hectare ramie planting was spaced 60 x 60 cm. and planted flat. The initial growth was cut back after 90 days and discarded followed by 4 good crops cut at intervals of 55 to 60 days. Fertilization the first year in kilos per hectare was as follows: Ammonium Do ble Potassium Ramie Sulphate : Superphosphate : Sulphate Compost
At planting After Cutback (3 mos.) 100
After 1st Crop 100 50 8,000
After 2nd Crop 100 40
After 3rd Crop 80 50
After 4th Crop 100 40
Total 300 150 130 32,000
The above corresponds to 80-68-60 as N-P2 05-K2 0 plus 32 M.T. of ramie compost. Growth in December, 1960 at 55 days was variable, from 1.5 to over 2 meters in height. Some lodging was noted and a considerable .infestation of leaf rollers. The pilot plant was equipped with 5 Baproma ribboners, 10 Baproma ribbon cleaners which are not operated since they do not clean ramie properly and 12 Toysen brushes. In actual operation was one Baproma ,ribboner,: one wet brush and 4 dry brushes requiring 12 HP for the ribboner, 6 HP for the wet brush and 6 HP for the 4 dry brushes, total 24 HP, all diesel. The operation consists of hand harvesting ramie stalks partially defolia ted while standing. The stems are transported from field to pilot plant by jeep which hauls back ramie compost to the field. The fresh ramie stems are passed through the ribboner which supposedly will process 5 M.T. of stems per day. The crude ribbon butts are wet brushed to remove a considerable amount of wood after which they are soaked in water one day, squeezed, sun dried and finally dry brushed.
The total daily labor used qverages 35 men whose wage rate is Rp.25 for 7 hours. Average daily production of brushed fiber is 76 kilos or only 2.2 kg. of fiber per man per day using 6 machines. This decortication-brushing operation is highly inefficient and would never be commercially practical. The labor cost alone is equivalent to Rp.11.50 per kilb of fiber produced. 60
The grade percentages are 15%equivalent to RD-l, 60%RD-2 and 25% RD-3 with an average value of Rp.34 per kilogram. Mention was made of the new Kawahara decorticator used in Viet-Nam which with 8 man will produce up to 150 kg. of RD-1 fiber per day using 7-1 HP as a field operation. According to Mr. Sujono the cost of ramie planting in North Sumatera would be as follows: 1. Land preparation 6 plowings and 4 discings Rp. 3,000/ha. 2, Root di ging and cutting (28,000 at Rp.1500) " 56 3. 41 men (6 opening and 35 planting and closing It 1,025 " at Rp. 25/day) Total Rp. 4,081 "
3. P.T. Rami Siantor
This mill, located at Pematang some 135 lkn. southeast of Medan was financed by BIN (Bank Industri Negara) and commenced operation in October 1957. The equipment is all Japanese using the spun silk system for combed fiber and the cotton system for noils. Total mill spindles are 6,000 of which 4,400 are for combed fiber and 1,600 for short staple. At present the mill operates one 8 hour shift 40 hours per week employing 386 people (167 men and 290 women) with an average daily wage of Rp.15 for men and Rp.10 for women. Raw fiber used in mostly RD-2 grade from the Philippines which now costs Rp.42 per kilo, but some hand scraped ribbons from mainland China are used whenever available at a lower price. The mill has only processed 7 M.T. of locally produced ramie which they claim has a degumming loss of 35 to 40% as opposed to 30% for Philippine fiber and 33% for Chinese ribbons. The present single shift mill operation only processes 2,400 lbs. of raw fiber per day because of low quality fiber. If RD-1 grade could be used, capacity would be 3,200 lbs. (1450 kg.) per shift or 4.35 M.T. of raw fiber per day for 3 shifts. Actually the mill at present is only operating at ' 25% capacity. Below is listed a flow sheet showing mill production and losses with an estimate of full capacity consumption and production based on 3 shifts 300 working days per year. 61
Estimated Mill Consumption and Production - P.T. Rami Siantar
Raw Ramie Fiber
1000 kg. I Degumed Fiber (70%)
700 kg. -
Washed Fiber (15%loss)
595 kg.
T I
I
Dust (5%) Line Fiber (65% plus 5-j%oil) Noil (30%)
30 kg.. 387 kg. 178T kg.
Mill capacity is 4.35 M.T. of raw fiber per day operating 3 shifts or 1,305 M.T./year based on 300 working days. This is the equivalent of 870 to 965 hectares of ramie assuming an annual yield per hectare of 1,350 to 1,500 kilos of ramie fiber.
Daily mill production is 1,6832L kg. of line yarn or 505 M.T./Yr.
776- kg. of noil yarn plus t 30% rayon or 233 "
Total 2,460 kg. daily or 738 M.T./Yr.
Processing at P.T. Rami Siantar consists of kier degumming 800 lb. lcts of raw fiber at 10lbs./sq. inch for 3 hours using 7%caustic soda and 3% soap. The degummed fiber is washed and acidified with sulphuric acid (0.5 cc./liter), passed through a stamping machine, a water breaker where 3% oil emulsion is added to the doubled ribbon. It is claimed that 15% fiber is lost during the washing procedure .which is by far too much.
0 62
DriedD fiber is mechanically softened and 2% oil emulsion is added. The.fiber is then combed on a filling machine, circular dressing machine small filling machine and circular dresser II.- About 30% short fiber or noil is removed during the combing operations. The long fiber or combed top is rigidly inspected for multiple fibers over an illuninated ground glass screen and these inperfec tions are removed by hand. The inspected fiber receives two draftings and is spun on a high draft ring spinning frame into yarn ranging from 30 to 80 lea, average 40 to 60. The short fiber, mostly from the circular dresser is not stapled, but is blended with 30% rayon, flat carded and spun into average 25 metric count yarns. The mill not only produces single ply yarns, but 2 and 3 ply. All producbion is shipped to Java for weaving, mostly to the Bandung area. It is used princi pally for fish nets, canvas, five hose and some heavy shirtings.
7. FIBER PRODUCTION POSSIBILITIES IN SOUTH KALID4ANTAN
A. BMPT Land Development Dry Land Project
An inspection was made of new project areas 8.E. of Bandjarmasin including the centers of Plehari, Tadjaupetja and Djilatan which are being developed for dry land rice cultivation. To date some 2,500 hectares of land have been cleared, plowed and mostly planted to rice.
In general, the above areas comprising flat, undulating to hilly terrain were initially covered by "alang-along" grass (Imperata cylindrica)a These podzolized lateric soils are highly variable in texture ranging from fine sands to sandy loams, to clay looms, lightly colored red, brown and yellow in colors They are strongly leached, acid in reaction, low in organic matter and with little inherent fertility. They normally have a permeable topsoil ranging up to 25 cm. in depth and are easily plowed. Their productivity can be greatly improved by organic and chemical manuring.
At Tadjaupetja an inspection was made of 1 hectare of roselle planted August 20, 1960 which was 108 days of age. The planting procedure was 15 cm. width rows x 15 cm. in the row, 2 to 3 seed per hill or equivalent to 15 kg., of seed per hectare. Fertilizer used was equivalent to 400 kg. of urea per hectare or about three times normal nitrogen application for roselle. Plant growth was very poor, ranging from 20 to 60 cm. in height with marked leaf chlorosis. At Djilitan a second j hectare roselle planting was noted which was made on Sept. 28, 1960. The growth was only 10 to 20 cm. in height and oblorotic as were adjacent seedling -rubber plants. While the areas mentioned above might be suitable for rice with indicated rotational green manure crops, these soils are not considered suitable for roselle and ramie.
BEST AVAILABEE 63
B. BMPT P6lder Tanban Project
The above project is being developed by the Tidal Areas and Reclamation Agency of BMPT embracing an area of 54,900 hectares east of Bandjarmasin between the Barito and Murung rivers. The soil is a forest peat ranging in depth from 2 to 3 meters resting on clay or sand. The elevation is low and consequently the land is periodically flooded each year from January to April. Public Works is present ly dredging a 25 km. canal to link the two rivers which is over half completed. This canal when completed in late 1962 will be similar to one made some years-ago to the north where some 15 to 20,000 hectares of this soil is now under cultiva tion, principally rice and some rubber. An inspection trip was made to Tanban village by boat up the canal about 12 km. from the Barito river. There are some 5,000 to 6,000 people living along this canal at present, At Tanban the soil is a friable, dark brown structural forest peat 2 to 2.5 meters in depth, but considerably lighter in structure than Everglades grass peat soils. An analysis of the soil as shown in Table 8 indicates the possibility of utilizing this peat for certain fiber crops which will withstand flooding such as jute or kenaf. This soil might support ramie growth only with complete water control which at the moment would be too costly. True water control of peat soils requires a system of levees main drainage canals, lateral canals and field ditches all under the control of a central pumping unit which must be able to maintain a constant water table by pumping off during the rainy season and pumping on during the dry season. A mere canal opening the area is fine for access and some drainage, but would not provide the close control required for ramie. On the other hand, over drainage of these soils might accelerate the problem of shrinkage by oxidation. It is probably best that these soils receive a minimum of tillage and retain the high water table with periodic flooding. This would mean the principal use would be for rice culture, although fiber crop trials should be made with kenaf, jute and possibly roselle.
C. Ga
The Gambut peat area southeast of Bandjarmasin is typical of the older cultivated peat soils in this area where some 50,000 hectares are under cultivation. It is estimated by Mr. Mohamed Saleh, Inspector, Agricultural Extension Service, South Kalimantan that there are one million hectares of peat soils in South and Central Kalimantan.
The Gambut soils have produced crops continuously for over 30 years by small holders whose average holding is one hectare per family. Actually these peats are not cultivated like mineral soils which include plowing and discing. They are hand cleared and the surface is left undisturbed as much as possible. The main crop is rice which is not fertilized but produces an average of 2 tons of paddy per hectare each year. Some 1,500 hectares of rubber have been grown for many years on the soil. The peat also supports growth of o-ther crops especially pineapple, mango, bananas, -cassava, etc.. Initially the peat ranged from 2 to 3 meters in depth, but over the years despite little cultivation and a high water table, it subsuded to the present depth of only 2 to 5 cm. This indicates a subsidence rate of possibly 6 to 9 cm. per year which is 64 several times greater than grass peat soils which average 2.5 cm, annually with intensive cultivation.
8. SISAL AND ABACA PRODUCTIN IN NORTH SUMATERA
Indonesia has long been famous for the production of hard fibers, especial ly high quality sisal and at one time produced 20% of the world's sisal requirement. Prior to World War II, hard fiber production in Indonesia, principally sisal and cantala, was estimated at 95,500 M.T. annually from 38,500 hectares. After Japanese occupation the acreage dropped appreciably and today is primarily centered at several adjoining estates southeast of Medan as follows:
1960 Producing Hectares
Estate SLsl Abaca
Dolok Ilir 2,000 300 Laras 1,400 Bandar Betsy 500 350 Bahdjambi 800
Total 4,700 650 BPN Baru, N. Sumatera proposes partial restoration of the above estates, each to eventually have 3,500 hectares of sisal and 1,500 hectares of abaca.
Sisal plantings observed at Dolok Ilir are on a brown coarse sandy loam which did not appear to be especially fertile. Most of the acreage has poled and will require replanting. At one time this estate had 7,000 hectares of sisal. Normal sisal planting procedure at the above estate is 2 rows 3 feet apart with a 9 foot space between each two rows. Spacing in the row is 75 cm. apart. This is equivalent to 6,000 plants per hectare. Fertilization consists of liming with 3 M.T. of lime per hectare at planting and an application of 300 kg. per hectare of rock phosphate after second harvest between the rows for legume cover crops such as Centrosema or Peuraria. -
First crop sisal is cut 24 months after planting and afterwards each 8 months for 8 or 9 times, thus the life is 7 to 8 years. The yield is 75 M.T. of leaves per hectare per cutting containing 4f%fiber or 3.375 M..T* Based on 8 cuttings, the yield over the life cycle of the plant is 27 M.T. of fiber. This is an extremely high yield of fiber as compared with other major producing areas where the annual yield is only 1 to 1.2 M.T. per year. Sisal harvest consists of hand cutting the lower leaves and removing the thorny tip. Leaves are made into bundles of 20 to 50 leaves per bundle and loaded on narrow gauge railway care for delivery to the decortication plant. The average worker cuts, bundles and loads one metric ton of leaves per day 65
or roughly 2,000 leaves for which he is paid Rp0 30, but only Rp.10 in cash and the remainder in food. A bonus is paid if the worker cuts more than 2,000 leaves.
Abaca plantings at Dolok Ilir are spaced slightly under 3 meters part, diamond fashion or roughly 1000 plants per hectare which is somewhat greater density than Philippine plantings. The main varieties planted are Iholo (best), Iholo hybrid, Maguindanao and Tang Hitom.
Abaca is harvested 18 to 20 months after planting at Dolok Ilir and afterwards every 18 months or a total of 3 or 4 harvests in 7 years before replanting is necessary.. After each cutting, the abaca is irrigated with water from the decortication plant 5 times at 2 week intervals using 500 cubic meters per hectare or a total of 2,500 cubic meters. The abaca harvest entails hand harvesting of the entire growth, large and small. In the Philippines the crop is harvested each 3 to 4 months carefully selecting 1 to 3 oldest plants. Outback of immature plants is said to reduce yield and quality. At one time this harvest method was used in North Sumatera. As the plants are harvested at present, the larger or usable stems are topped, split lengthwise and outside leaf sheaths are removed making 3 grades as follows: Fair X - Outside streaky sheaths 1 to lv meters 22% Fair - Inside sheaths it U It 75% MB - " I 62.cm, to 10 meter 3% The average laborer will cut, strip, grade and'load 600 kilos of sheaths per day receiving the same wages as for sisal harvest.,
At one time there were three large decortication plants in this estates complex, a 13 machine mill at Dolok Ilir which ceased operation in 1957, and 10 machine mill at Bandar Betsy, The only remaining mill in operation is at Laras which processes material from all estates.
The Laras decortication plant has 21 decorticators but only 7 were operating on sisal and 1 or 2 on abaca as needed. The decorticators are all older model Krupp Corona (German) and Ikcelaior (Dutch) machines employing a rope feed. The sisal machines have a first drum 1.2 meters in diamete' and second drum 1.5 meter in diameter using 80 HP equally divided between both drums. Drum kaicc; and breatplatz in bronze. since sisal juice is highly corrosive to iron. Water is added at the rate of 360 liters per minute on the first drum and 480 liters per ninute on the second drum. Rope speed ls 25.5 meters per minute, Decofticator capacity for sisal is 8 M.T. of leaves per hour with 42% recovery or 360 kg. of dry fiber. Daily sisal output was 35 to 40 M.T. with 4 main grades being produced including:
BEST
ANVAILASLFE 66
Ax Length 92 cm. plus and clean - 50% Xo " n ni " spotty - 4a% Xeo f 11 It it It I - 6% Mto7 - 0.6-0.8%
Poorer grades Ag, Ago, By, Yo, Yoo, Zo, D, Dag, etc. - Approx. 2%. Abaca is decorticated with the Excelsior machine which has two drums of equal size (1.52 meters in diameter) equipped with stainless steel knives and breastplate requiring 100 HP equally divided between both drums. The same amount of water is used as for sisal during decortication. Decorticator capacity on abaca is 6 MT. of green plant material per hour with 3% rocovery or 180 kg. of fiber per hour.
The general decortication mill lay-out, identical for both fibers, consists of unloading harvested material from ears at ground level on link chains which in turn transport the leaves to the second floor where decortibators are located. Just prior to decortication the leaves are evenly spread on a moving spreader table. The decortioated fiber from the machines is tied into bundles, dropped to ground level through a chute, centrifuged, dried in 7 tray type driers each having a capacity of 380 kg. of dry fiber (5% moisture) per hour. The decortication waste is flumed to a picker to remove tow and the water is raised 6 meters by use of 3 - 10" x 8" centrifugal pamps into a ditch where it flows by gravity to a reservoir at Dolok 1ir. The decortication water is mixed with fresh water at a ratio of 9:1 thence gravLty fed to the fields for irrigation.
About 70%of the sisal production is exported and the remainder used domestically. Current prices FOB port of Belawan (Medan) and major purchasers are.
Grade Ax L107/1ong ton (2240 lbs.) to Europe and Russia
Grade Xo L104/ " " " " " Japan and Australia
Abaca is usualy used locally since the quality is not outstanding like Indonesian sisal. In general, the estates production of sisal and baoca in North Sunatera appears well managed. The need for replacing oil plantings is recognized. The decortication mill at Laras although operating at low capacity is producing excellent quality fiber, especially sisal. 67
9. SUIMARY
At the request of the Indonesian Ministry of Agriculture and USOM/Djakarta, the period November 22 - December 18, 1960 was spent in Indonesia for the purpose of evaluating long vegetable fiber production and its potential development, with special emphasis on roselle and ramie. During the above period a survey was made of roselle and ramie growing areas in 'Central and East Java and the Special Province of Jogjakarta, potential expansion areas of upland and forest peat soils in South Kalimantan and proposed areas for ramie cultivation in North Sumatera. An inspection was made of roselle sugar bag mills in Java and one ramie-mill in North Sumatera. Visits were also made to Bogor and Lembang for the purpose of inspecting ramie nursery trials. Discussions were held with officials of the Ministry of Agriculture, Agricultural Experiment Station, Agricultural Research Institute, Soils Research Institute, BMPT, PPN-Baru, Tani Mulja and USOM/Djakarta, all of whom supplied valuable information and assistance.
Indonesia has an apparent annual requirement of 20 million jute-type sacks. The two roselle bag mills in Java operated at 40 to 60% capacity in 1960 producing only 12% of the national need., If operated at full capacity these mills could only produce 28% of the domestic demand. The main problem confronting sack production in Indonesia is lack of raw material which at best is of poor quality. Farm yields of retted roselle fiber ate low and the return is poor in comparison with other crops. The main roselle producing areas are in the most densely populated portion of Java and compete with food crops. Roselle fiber production is limited to Central and East Java where 2,950 hectares were grown in 1960 with 40% being produced by small farmers and 60% by Government agencies. Exact production figures for 1960 are not known, but yields vary from 750 kg. of retted fiber per hectare by farmers to 2 M.T. or more by well managed estates plantings. There appears little likelihood that roselle will ever be produced in ample volume to meet domestic requirements in Java despite efforts by Government agencies to increase production on rented lands. There is some possibility of growing early maturing kenaf during the dry season in one area of Central Java using irrigation. The upland soil areas in South Kalimantan presently being developed for rice would hardly support roselle growth. The forest peat soils adjacent Bandjarmasin might offer possibilities for water tolerant crops such as jute, kenaf and roselle provided little tillage is employed, however, a major problem would be scarcity of labor. Probably the best area for roselle production would be North Sumatera as an estates operation. There appears to be ample land available since PPN-Baru, North Sumatera now administers some 250,000 hectares representing 92 estates, of which only 170,000 hectares are under cultivation. Labor appears in ample supply and estates operations could be mechanized if desired. 68
From at agronomy standpoint commercial produdtion of roselle to meet all local requirements at low cost should present no problem. Ramie which is indigenous to Indonesia, can be grown on selected soils producing high yields of fiber at relatively low cost. This superior fiber would never completely suplaht cotton or synthetics, but domestic production could out down substantially on fabric imports; The 8 year'plan of the Indonesian odveriment cofitemplates increased ramie production with the esta blishment of textile mills to provide 2% of the domestic clothing requirement by 1968.
Although a considerable amount of'excellent research has been carried out on ramie in West Java by the Agricultural Research Institute at Bogor and Lembang, the crop is yet to be produced commercially in Indonesia. At present there are 30 hectares grown ii Central Java, 9 hectares- in Jogjakarta and 22 hectares in North Sumatera with several attendant pilot decortication plants employing rather inefficient low capacity equipment. There is one relatively new ramie mill in North Sumatera operating one shift at 25% capacity due to lack of raw material which must be imported from the Philippines and mainland China This mill could produce up to 740 M.T. of ramie and ramie-rayon blend yarns annually if operated on a full three shift basis. The possibilities of expanded ramie production in Java are limited since the crop is a perennial requiring the best soils. The dry land soils of South Kalimantan do not possess sufficient fertility and the peat soils there would require costly water control.
Undoubtedly the best areas for commercial ramie production are on selected soils in North Sumatera, particularly the andosols found on Glugur and Rimbun Estates or their equivalent. Not only do.these fairly high organic content mineral soils produce excellent ramie growth, but are located in-an area of constant rainfall which would permit year roundharvesting.. This is in accord with present plans by PPN-Baru for expansion in this area. The cultivated forest peat soils in the southern portion of North Sumatera were not inspected, but soil analyses from Adjanu Estate would indicate the advisability of carrying out small ramie trials on this land under complete water control. The major problem confronting ramie expansion in Indonesia at present is lack of suitable decortication equipment which will produce good quality fiber at low cost. Research stations also need similar equipment in order to determine fiber yields. A fiber testing laboratory is badly needed to properly evaluate the physical characteristics of fiber produced from continuing varietal and fertilization trials. Despite deminished production of sisal and abaca in North Sumatera, the estates appear well managed. Rehabilitation and expansion of plantings is contemplated. Decortication mill operation and the quality of fiber produced is good. 10. RECOMMENDATIONS
Roselle
1. Initiate a series of roselle plantings in North Sumatera comprising at least 10 hectares on deveral estates to determine possibilities of latge scale expansion.
2. Introduce several early maturing, disease resistant kenaf varieties and several high fiber yielding jute varieties from Viet-Nam for trial.
3. Carry out kenaf trials in one or more selected areas between-Solb and Klaten in Central Java during the dry season June throuigh Septembe&r using a hand pump and well installation by USO/Djalkarta as previously mentioned.
4. Carry out small planting trials of jute, kenaf and roselle on peat soils at Tanban, South Kalimantan dur'ing the dry season July through September using chemical fertilizer including minor elements.
5. Endeavor to increase production of better quality retted roselle fiber to permit present bag factories to operate at full capacity.
6. Investigate the possibility of using some percentage of crude decorticated roselle fiber in coarse weft bagging yarn production.
7. If expanded estates production of roselle is contemplated, give consideration to mechanized harvesting and ribboning.
1. Obtain one Japanese Kawahara decorticator (wagon mounted) and carry out decortication trials at Glugur Estate to determine commercial possibili ties and production costs. If this processing method appears attractive proceed as follows: a. Secure sufficient decortication units for a 1,000 hectare ramie operation at Glugur-Rimbun Estates and carry out planting. This acreage should provide sufficient raw material to operate P.T. Rami Siantar three hill shifts. b. Provide two decortication units for Agricultural Research Institute use at Bogor and Lembang.
c. If Central Java ramie plantings at Kebumen, Purworedjo, Tangulredo and Bulu are to be continued, provide each with new decortication equipment. .70
2. Initiate a series of ramie variety plot trials at Glugur using five best types, namely'Pudjon 10, Florida, Miyazaki, Kumamoto and Saikeiseishin with simple chemical fertilizer applications and ramie decortication waste.
3. Make a small ramie planting on forest peat soil at Adjanu Estate, North Sumatera with complete water control including levees and dttches. Actual pumping requirements should be determined in advance to maintain a constant water table at all times using a low lift reversable turbine pump2 based bn minimum pumping capacity of 5 cm. rainfall removed per hectare per 24 hours or 380 liters per minute per hectare, Fertilization should approximate 'that used on Florida peat soils for ramie as previously described.
4. Obtain cost estimates for a physical fiber testing laboratory for the Agricultural Research Institute, Bogor including air conditioning and testing equipment. If an installation is contemplated, arrange to send two participants to the U.S.A. for fiber testing training at U.S.D.A. fiber laboratories Beltsville, Md. and Everglades Experiment Station, Belle Glade, Florida.
Respectfully Submitted,
(Signed)
James M. Dempsey Agronomy Advisor Fibers, TSOM/saigon - April 1961 ROSELLE IN VIET-NAM
Fig. 1. Row Opening and Planting Roselle
Fig. 2. Hand Planting Roselle ROSELLE IN VIET-NAM
Fig. 3. Planet Jr. Seed Drill
Fig. 4. Harvesting Rosalle ROSELLE IN VIET-NAM
Fig. 5. Hand Ribboning Roselle
Fig. 6. Cuban "Marti" Ribboning Rosele ROSELLE IN VIET-NAM *
Fig. 9. Threshing Roselle Seed
Fig. 10. Winnowing Rozclle Seed ROSELLE IN VIET-NAM I
Fig. 9. Threshing Rogelle Seed
Fig. 10. Winnowng Roselle Seed RAMIE IN VIET-NAM
fig. . Typical Ramle Fild in Central Highlands
Fig. 2 New Model Ramie Decorticator