The Future of Africa's Past

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The Future of Africa's

Past Proceedings of the 2004 TARA Rock Art Conference Nairobi Trust for African Rock Art

Janette Deacon, Editor About TARA

TARA, a Nairobi based non-governmental not-for- Since 1996 TARA has recorded rock art in over 16 profit organization, is committed to promoting the African countries; created an archive of over 20,000 awareness and preservation of Africa’s unique rock rock art photographs; produced a major illustrated art heritage. Its mission is to “create greater global book, African Rock Art, Paintings and Engravings awareness of the importance and endangered state on Stone, by David Coulson and Alec Campbell; of Africa’s rock art; survey sites; monitor status; be published articles in National Geographic Magazine, an information resource and archive; and promote Time Magazine, USA Today, London Times and and support rock art conservation measures”. other international publications; worked with the Government of Niger to conserve that country’s The Trust for African Rock Art (TARA) was rock art; helped to prevent destruction of 10,000 founded in 1996 by international photographer year old rock engravings by oil prospectors, hosted David Coulson with the support of palaeontologist an international rock art conference in Nairobi Mary Leakey. The goals of TARA are to create a (2004); staged East African rock art awareness permanent visual archive of Africa’s rock art before exhibitions in Nairobi, Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar; it is too late, share this priceless archive with the made videos; conducted lecture tours and generally world community, and, to the extent possible, promoted the conservation of African rock art preserve today’s most threatened rock art sites, round the world. however remote, across the African continent.

The Editor would like to thank the TARA Board of Trustees and the TARA staff for organising the November 2004 conference in Nairobi at which the papers in this volume were presented. It was made possible by a generous grant from the Ford Foundation to whom we are most grateful for their continuing interest and assistance. As this collection of papers shows, the conference was a milestone in African rock art studies and provided a valuable meeting-ground for specialists and interested members of the public from all corners of the continent. TARA’s Chief Operations Officer, Amolo Ng’weno, was the driving force behind the organising team and has also carried many of the post-conference initiatives through to completion. These included overseeing the production of the Proceedings and moving the exhibition that opened in Nairobi to Dar-es-Salaam, Kampala, Kisumu and other regional museums. She was ably assisted by Kaye Makuku-McIlwaine as the conference organizer and Bridget McGraw as the exhibition organizer. The conference preparation committee included Dr Mzalendo Kibunjia of the National Museums of Kenya, Dr Paul Lane of the British Institute in Eastern Africa, Judy Ogana of the Kuona Trust, Gladys Nyasuna-Wanga and Amolo Ng’weno of TARA, TARA Board directors Dr George Abungu, Alec Campbell and David Coulson; and TARA’s Kenyan trustees Rupert Watson and Rick Anderson. Other sponsors of the conference, for whose support TARA is extremely grateful, included the Giraffe Manor, the Australian Embassy in Nairobi and the Heritage Insurance Company Ltd.

TRUST FOR AFRICAN ROCK ART Kenya PO Box 24122 Nairobi 00502 Tel: +(254) 20 884467 Fax: +(254) 20 883674 E-mail: [email protected] USA 501 Delancey Street #607 San Francisco CA 94107

TARA is registered in the United States as a 501 (c)3 not-for-profit corporation TARA is a member of the International Federation of Rock Art Organizations Edited by Janette Deacon | Designed by Job Ballard

www.africanrockart.org Contents

The Future of Africa’s Past: African Rock Art in the 21st Century 4

An exceptional painted cave in the Ardeche (France): the Chauvet Cave 6

African Rock Art 8

Rock art and the evolution of human imagination 11

Rock art and the public 17

Challenges of rock art conservation in Africa 23

The meaning of rock art: ethnography, comparison, metaphor 30

Dating of rock art in Africa 34

State-of-the-art-technologies in heritage documentation: the giraffe 44 engravings of Oued Djerat

Rock art research, conservation and social transformation 52

For whom the bell tolls: rescue recording of petroglyphs and rock gongs 57 in the Merowe Dam Reservoir area of the Fourth Nile Cataract (Sudan)

Saharan rock art, a vanishing heritage: government and community cooperation in Niger 67

Rock art patrimony of Morocco: an endangered cultural property 75

Management strategies for African rock art 81

Rock-art research for the 21st century: bringing art, science and people together 88

Rock art, cultural tourism and the indigenous peoples of Southern Africa 98

Schematic rock art in Benishangul (Western Ethiopia): a preliminary report 107

Ancient rock art sites in Eritrea: distribution, classification and current status 112

New perspectives on rock art from Mt. Elgon, Trans-Nzoia and Kara-Pokor: 115 a preliminary report

Note on the transformation of a rock art panel at GVJM16 Lukenya Hill, Kenya 120

Tara conference excursion to Lukenya Hill 121

Community participation and rock art management in Zimbabwe 123

Analysing and comparing rock art sequences in the uKhahlamba-Drakensberg Park, 134 KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa The Future of Africa’s Past: African Rock Art in the 21st Century

International Conference

At the start of November, 2004 management and sustainable · Calls on the world community TARA hosted an international development of Africa’s rock to outlaw all trade in rock art conference on African rock art art heritage; immediately. here in Nairobi. The conference was officially opened Novem- · Recognises the need to use the Temporary Museum Exhibition ber 1st by Kenya’s Minister for latest digital technology for of African Rock Art National Heritage, Mr. Najib the benefit of ockr art preser- A temporary exhibition of Af- Balala and was attended by over vation; rican rock art opened at the 80 delegates from 20 different countries, including 17 African WHAT THE PARTICIPANTS SAID nations. In his speech the Minis- ”Africa’s greatest asset is its cultural heritage and the foundation stone ter pledged his strong support for of this is rock art. This was a terrific conference...” Prof. Wilmot James, the preservation of Kenya’s rock Human Sciences Research Council, South Africa. art heritage and underlined the Fig. 1: TARA Board Members uniqueness and vulnerability of “It was helpful, educative and interesting. I and my fellow students have and other conference learnt so much.” Habiba Chirchir, Anthropology student, University of these early cultural records. participants pose for Nairobi. a photo with Kenya’s Overall the conference was Minister for National judged an enormous success and “Very interesting and challenging... will in time to come be considered Heritage. Left to right: Alec participants have requested that a watershed event”. Dr. Aron Mazel, world authority on rock art dating, Campbell (TARA); Dr. Ben TARA enhance its role as an in- University of Newcastle, U.K. Smith, Director Rock Art Research Institute, South formation resource and database Africa; Dr. Paul Taçon, rock “I commend TARA for bringing us all together, and... was impressed by on African rock art projects and art research specialist, sites, thus validating TARA’s mis- the commitment shown by the Minister for National Heritage towards Australia; Tom Hill (TARA); sion. rock art preservation in Kenya.” Dr. Benjamin Smith, Director of the David Coulson (TARA); Mr. Rock Art Research Institute in South Africa. Najib Balala, Hon. Minister The conference concluded that for National Heritage, the African rock art fraternity: “I have enormously enjoyed the conference which was outstanding Kenya; Prof Wilmot James, Human Sciences Research · Acknowledges the significant in all ways. Not only was it brilliantly organised, it was academically challenging, with diverse views, and was truly international with so Council, South Africa; Prof. progress that has been made Jean Clottes, International many African nations attending.” Nigel, Winser, Royal Geographical by many communities in the Committee of Rock Art; Sidi past decade to safeguard Afri- Society, London. Mohamed-Ilies, President ca’s greatest and least known Anigourane, Niger; Robert art; “It was extremely useful... well organised and provided me with a lot of Burnet, Ford Foundation new information.” Dr. Esmond Bradley Martin, World Rhino Authority (East Africa); and Simon Gatheru, Principal Curator · Expresses concern about the and Geographer, Kenya. National Museum, Nairobi. future protection of the estimated 100,000 sites throughout Africa due to the increased vandalism and theft of Africa’s art;

· Recognises the importance of engaging with local communities in drawing up any development plans for local and national benefits;

· Calls on Governments of all African nations to assist in the long-term protection, Fig. 1

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Fig. 3

Fig. 2: Prof Wilmot James Nairobi museum on November The opening cocktail for the ex- Foundation has given about delivers the keynote address 1st 2004. Combining a recon- hibition was attended by a capac- $15,000 towards an interpretive at the conference. structed rock shelter, a photo gal- ity crowd of about 300 Ambas- center and restoration of van- Fig. 3: Huge banner in lery and multimedia exhibits, the sadors, CEOs, museum admin- dalism damage at the Kakapel Nairobi Museum stairwell exhibition has been hailed as one istrators, academics and other rock shelter in western Kenya. of the most creative and interest- interested people, with speeches Fig. 4: Dr Idle Farah, ing to be shown at the Nairobi by the Director of the National Director-General of the museum in recent years. Museums of Kenya, Dr Idle Fa- National Museums of rah, the General Manager of Kenya, officially opens the After its four month run at the Safaricom, Michael Joseph, and exhibition (David Coulson looking on). Nairobi Museum, the exhibition by David Coulson, Chairman was also shown in Dar es Salaam of TARA. At this event, it was Fig. 5: Guests in the rock art and Kampala in 2005. announced that the Safaricom picture gallery during the Opening of the exhibition

Fig. 6: Work under way Fig. 2 creating the reconstruction of the Kakapel rock shelter

Fig. 4

Fig. 6 Fig. 5

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 An exceptional painted cave in the Ardeche (France): the Chauvet Cave

Public Lecture – Jean Clottes1

Three cave explorers, Jean-Marie heads and bodies have been filled tographs which are then worked Chauvet, Eliette Brunel-Des- by stump drawing to give them upon on the computer with the champs and Christian Hillaire, more relief. appropriate software; then the discovered a painted cave in the printed photos are brought back Ardèche valley, in the South-East From a preliminary study, all the to the cave covered with a thin of France, in December 1994. paintings and engravings look transparent film which is used to The cave is extensive, about homogeneous, with a repetition realize a tracing directly in front 500 m long, with vast chambers of conventions and even the re- of the paintings and engravings. and passages. currence of tiny details such as The extensive work is meant to the peculiar way of depicting know more or less exactly what The paintings and engravings are the ears of the rhinos. However, has been represented on the scattered all over the cave, with they were not all done at the walls, the techniques used and congregations on several impor- same time: superimpositions oc- the locations. tant panels. Many remain to be cur and in particular some torch found: the animals recorded up marks were made on top of cal- A majority of animal traces on the to now number 427. cited paintings. From the stylistic grounds and walls (scratches) are conventions used, they seemed to due to the activities of cave bears The works of art so far registered be older than the famed Lascaux in the cave. Nearly 200 cave bear include: numerous geometric paintings. Radiocarbon datings skulls and thousands of bones lie signs, in particular panels of big of several painted animals have on the ground. From the work red dots and a few original signs; given dates between 30,300 and done so far we know that cave several red stencilled hands and 32,400 BP, which makes them bears hibernated in the cave for handprints; a composite crea- the oldest paintings ever dated in very long periods before people ture, half-bison and half-hu- the world. went into it and that some came man next to the lower body of a to the cave afterwards as a few woman; 427 animals painted in The scientific work in the cave, paintings have been damaged by red or black or engraved, includ- which started in 1998, has been their scratches. ing many rhinoceroses and lions, conducted by a multidisciplinary mammoths, horses, bison, bears, professional team. This is prob- On several occasions some cave indeterminate animals, reindeer, ably the first time that a major bear bones have been handled aurochs, ibex, in addition to sev- rock art site has been studied and used by the Paleolithic visi- eral megaceros deer, two musk- from the start - with the neces- tors : one cave bear skull was oxen, one red deer, one panther, sary funding (French Ministry deposited on a big stone in the one possible hyena, one owl. The of Culture) - by a team entirely middle of a huge chamber, two latter three are unique in Paleo- consisting of professionals. cave bear humerus were forcibly lithic art. stuck into the ground not far The work is carried on in three from the original entrance, sever- The animals in the cave are natu- main directions by specialists al bones were deposited in nooks ralistic and vivid, with well-de- who work closely together: - the of the walls. picted postures. Sophisticated environmental context, by geolo- unusual techniques have been gists, climatologists, palynolo- Forty thousand years ago or used: many animals are seen in gists, etc; - the archaeological more, cave bears frequently used perspective, as if three or more context, i.e. the study of the trac- the Chauvet Cave to hibernate were side by side; at times, part es and remains left by humans in it. Then, between 30,000 and of the walls and the outlines of and animals on the ground; - the 32,000 years ago (in radiocarbon some animals have been scraped art on the walls. years, which means that probably in order to enhance the paint- another 4,000 or 5,000 years ings; often the insides of the About the latter, we work in two should be added in order to have main ways, intensively and exten- real calendar years), some peo- sively. The intensive work is the ple – including a very great art- 1 Prof. Jean Clottes [email protected] INORA tracing of one panel after the oth- ist -went into the cave for their France er. This is done from digital pho- ceremonies and did most of the The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 paintings and engravings. In one visit ? In several visits spaced over many years ? We do not know.

Some more people visited

Fig. 1: One of the rhinos the cave between 25,000 and drawn in the Chauvet 27,000 BP, left torch marks and Cave (France). Notice how probably some drawings (many ? the artist has drawn the few ?). Cave bears came later into image in a neutral hollow the cave again. Then, the scree which doesn’t only frame in front of the entrance finally the animal but gives it blocked it entirely and nobody dimension and strength. Photo Jean Clottes. went in anymore until Decem- ber 1994 when spelunkers took it Fig. 2: Chauvet Cave into their heads to check whether (France). A pride of lions there could really be something hunting. Photo Jean to the draught that had been no- Fig. 1 Clottes. ticed behind a heap of stones…

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Fig. 2 African Rock Art

David Coulson1

Every continent apart from Ant- with the result that they are not future. Just touching a painted arctica has rock art but Africa implemented. Many of these surface can damage an image and has the greatest variety as well as laws also need updating. walking in boots over engravings some of the oldest art. As former can cause irreparable harm. South African President Nelson The art is fragile and endangered. Mandela has said, “Africa’s rock Its very age and exposure on rock The art represents some of the art is the common heritage of all faces open to sun, wind and rain earliest remaining expressions Africans but it is more than that. seriously affect its stability. Or- of humankind’s visual com- It is the common heritage of hu- ganised theft of engravings in munications and previously manity”. Morocco, defacement by target unrecognised artistic abilities. It shooting in Chad, graffiti almost has enormous value. To quote Rock art occurs in more than 30 everywhere the art occurs, and Kofi Annan again, ‘The (art) is a different African countries and misuse by religious fraternities cultural gift from our ancestors sites with over 100 images are have seriously endangered its that can bring divers populations fairly common. Several sites in Fig. 1 southern Africa have over 1,000 individual images and a few number many more. There may be more than 100,000 sites in the Sahara alone; thus, the total number of images in Africa could be run to many millions. Although most rock art in Af- rica is probably less than 10,000 years old, paintings of animals excavated in a Namibian shelter have been dated to 18,000 and 28,000 years ago. Cross-hatch designs engraved into two pieces of ochre found in a cave in South Africa have been dated to perhaps 77,000 years ago and, while they cannot be construed as “art”, suggest abstract thought and the ability to convey this visually.

Meanwhile, as U.N. Secretary- General Kofi Annan said earlier this year, “Africa’s rock art is severely threatened and its future uncertain”. Here, therefore, are some of the issues that now face rock art conservation in Africa. Although Africa is often poorly equipped to protect its rock art heritage, laws dating back to colonial times still exist in most African countries. The problem is that most African governments are usually fairly unaware of these

1 David Coulson [email protected] Chairman Trust for African Rock Art Kenya

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Fig. 2

Fig. 2 Fig. 1: San rock together, with pride and a com- a need for their more rigorous and study by future generations paintings high mon commitment to share and implementation is therefore jeopardised, and that on Namibia’s Brandberg. preserve it’. its potential worth to tourism For the art, time is running out. and local communities is fast Fig. 2: Rock paintings at Kakapel Shelter in Kenya. Today, the art still offers windows Lack of government and public diminishing. UNESCO is anx- onto vanished worlds and gives appreciation of the art’s value, ious to support countries in their Fig. 3: Fighting Cats, Libya. us glimpses of our early ances- expanding rural populations, efforts to preserve their art, but tors’ beliefs and visions of reality, new infrastructures and land-use the Organisation can do little and opportunities to ponder the projects, and rapidly increasing without national commitment roots of religious thought. The and often poorly-controlled tour- coming first. art is perhaps the oldest and ism are, and will, take their toll. most extensive record of human Urgent needs are: thought and as such is a priceless Unfortunately, with urgent (a) greater national commitment treasure. commitments in other fields– through increased funding education, health and poverty for heritage conservation, In the past, many archaeolo- alleviation–governments give her- (b) knowing where and what gists considered rock art studies itage conservation low priority. art exists in any country by to be unscientific and of little Governments must recognize that national systematic site re- purpose; thus, the art’s value to failure to increase their commit- cording, world heritage has only been rec- ment to the art’s future will be (c) implementing national edu- ognized during the last 50 years. fatal, and will lead to their herit- cation programmes, Archaeologists’ earlier failures age becoming depleted. (d) involving the interest and to bring the art’s importance to help of local communities, government and public attention There is urgent need for recogni- (e) planning for tourism has resulted frequently in lack of tion at all levels that this world expansion by preparing national interest, delayed updat- heritage is endangered, that con- management plans for sites ing of colonial heritage laws and servation of the art for enjoyment ‘opened’ to tourists, and

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 (f) getting management and survive for future generations. As conservation staff trained, in President Nelson Mandela wrote the office, in the laboratory, for TARA, “For our children’s and in the field. children to experience, study, and It is time for States to take ini- contribute further to the knowl- tiatives through greater regional edge of our distant past, Africa’s cooperation, by setting an Af- rock art must be preserved and rican standard of commitment protected”. It is for African States and conservation, and through and for Africans to ensure that regional training schemes and this happens. policing.

Much remains to be done, and to be done urgently, if rock art is to David Coulson

10 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Fig. 3 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 11 Rock art and the evolution of human imagination

Wilmot James1 – Keynote Speaker

L’art rupestre et l’évolution de Abstract l’imagination humaine The origins of rock art in Africa are Les discussions portant sur les origines discussed in the broad context of human de l’art rupestre en Afrique englobent le migrations and settlement patterns, concept de migration humaine, de modèles molecular biology and mitochondrial DNA de colonisation, de biologie moléculaire et and the neural correlates of consciousness. de l’ADN mitochondriale ainsi que les The challenge is to match the biological corrélations neurales de la conscience. Le and archaeological records and three défi est de faire correspondre les dossiers possible hypotheses are proposed: the ‘slow biologiques et archéologiques, et trois cultural learning hypothesis’; the ‘rotting hypothèses sont proposées : L’hypothèse wood hypothesis’ and the ‘spurting brain d’un ‘apprentissage culturel lent’, hypothesis’. l’hypothèse ‘du bois pourri’ et enfin l’hypothèse du ‘sursaut du cerveau ’.

I other population, to our knowl- conquered and absorbed by the edge, living here or elsewhere, at migrating Bantu-speaking people My late maternal uncle Nev- the time. from the Niger Congo and the ille Hartel had a seaside home Great Lakes area starting about close to an area on South Africa’s In a country like colonial and 2 000 years ago, crossing the southern coastline known as Still apartheid South Africa, where Limpopo River as recently as 200 Bay and, though a keen amateur ancestral populations were ha- AD, and then by the guns (as, historian and remarkable teacher bitually diminished for their occasionally, a weekend pastime who believed powerfully in the apparent racial inferiority and in genocide) by smallpox, Euro- one-ness or singularity of hu- cultural vulgarity and where the pean in origin, of the settlers who manity, a ‘genuine non-racialist’ racism and genocidal behav- came during the 17th century, re- as he called himself, he only had iour of individuals drawn from garding the Khoe and the San as but an inkling of the significance dominant populations were ex- little more than vermin speaking of what laid buried in the Mid- cused and justified on the basis a click language they could not dle Stone Age deposits of a cliff that they –our ancestors–were understand. that, in a spectacular southern incapable of ordinary human Cape setting, overlooks the In- achievement as a consequence As with Native Americans, the dian Ocean, about 20 km from a of their not being quite human, lack of adaptive immunity against place he had come to adore for its such a story becomes a power- viral or bacterial or parasitic dis- peace and to love for its angling ful point of validation that is, ease made them as vulnerable as potential. therefore, no trivial or ephem- they were against the technologi- eral a thing, which is partly why cal power of weapons of war. Though he was not a chauvinist Nelson Mandela, one of very few by any stretch of the imagina- modern leaders who understands The artistic work of these an- tion, indeed quite the opposite as the importance of human dignity cient of ancient ancestors, writes he loathed even the slightest hint in development, is the Patron of Jean Clottes in his book World of ethnic or nationalist pride, he the Blombos Cave Project at Still Rock Art, was a legacy of rock art would have been pleased to know Day. which, when first ‘faced with the that the fossils of Still Bay were undeniable aesthetic accomplish- of his ancestors dated by modern Neville Hartel’s ancestors - and ment of a true artist… caused luminescence methods to be at as it turns out Nelson Mandela’s early European researchers to of- least 77,000 years of age and that too - were those human beings ten assume that the rock art they they point to a mode of life equal whom today are collectively and had discovered was the work of to if not more advanced than any somewhat awkwardly and un- western travellers rather than the comfortably grouped as the Khoe indigenous peoples of Africa, 1 Dr Wilmot James [email protected] and the San, in what precise Australia, and the Americas who Chairperson Immigration Advisory Board measure we cannot of course be had actually created it’ (Clottes South Africa sure, populations who were first 2001:12).

12 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 That was then and there is little engravings are intentional im- Campbell in their book African question today that among the ages’ Henshilwood is quoted as Rock Art give a certain date of artefacts left near the Still Bay saying. ‘At Blombos there is evi- 12,000 years and speculative one area, by what must have been an- dence for fishing, manufacture of 29,000 years ago for the old- cestral Khoe and San people, are of very finely crafted bone tools, est rock art to be found in Africa two pieces of decorated ochre, sophisticated manufacture of bi- (Coulson & Campbell 2001).All a form of iron oxide. The cave facial bone tools, symbolic use of this work, ironically, produced where they were found is named ochre possibly for body decora- by a people who were considered after the blombos (flower-bush in tion and now the production of uncivilised and animal-like, in- Afrikaans), an odd linguistic con- engraved objects’. ferior, exterminated in the name struction, part of the vocabulary of colonial perversion, with their used to describe the indigenous It is, of course, one thing to date ‘haunting memory’ pervading flora known asfynbos (fine-bush), human migration and settle- the ‘desolate landscape’ of Africa, to be found only here, in all of its ment patterns based on modern as President Thabo Mbeki de- splendid variety and age. radiocarbon and luminescence scribed in a series of passages that methods. It is quite another to are special in their literary beauty Christopher Henshilwood of the infer or reconstruct the behav- and powerful in the political State University of Bergen, the ioural repertoire of the people validation of a past of soon to be archaeologist digging at this site, who lived a very long time ago. extinct people (Mbeki 1996). describes the red ochre as ‘meas- All such efforts, says Richard uring two and three inches long’, Lewontin, author of Human The more recent find in the same ‘first scraped and ground smooth Diversity, are speculative, deriva- Blombos cave of 41 tiny shells, to create flat surfaces’, and ‘then tions of the possible, interesting strung as beads, raise the question marked with cross hatches and certainly, likely perhaps, but in about the evolution of the hu- lines to create a consistent com- the end, speculative (Lewontin man imagination with even more plex geometric motif’ (Highfield 1995). Still, a date of 77,000 poignancy. Dated at 75,000 years Fig. 1: Engraved design 2004). What these markings years ago for a system of ‘tally old, they are likely 30,000 years on hasmatite from Blombos Cave, South mean is open to debate. One marks’, possibly ‘counting’ pre- older than any other reliably dat- Africa, dated to over interpretation, cautious in tone, dates the accounting systems for ed personal ornaments. 70,000 years ago. is that these are ‘tally marks’, early agriculture developed in the A daring interpretation would Fig. 1 cast the beads as ancient jewel- lery, orange and black in colour, decorative tokens of ‘prehistoric vanity that are the forerunners of hip-hop bangles and all the cultured glitter of Tiffany’s and Cartier’ writes Robert Lee Hotz of the Los Angeles Times (Hotz 2004:1).

vHe cites the view of the archaeologist Sally McBrearty of the University of Connecticut, who viewed the beads as screaming ‘making them the oldest form of fertile crescent of the middle east, out ‘symbolic behavior … the ex- recorded counting ever found’ as Jared Diamond points out in pression of identity, of selfhood, (Highfield 2004). his Guns, Germs & Steel: The of aesthetics’ (Hotz 2004:A15). Fates of Human Societies; and if it The other, behaviourally more is art, the marked ochre predates Further still, Hotz suggests that daring, takes the marked ochre by about 40,000 years the ex- once the beads have been scien- as finally demonstrating an un- traordinary rock art that remains tifically validated by specialists in precedented ancestral hominid all over Africa, from the Cape to the history of human origins, the modernity in tool-making, diet, the Libyan Sahara, and indeed interpretation of their being the weaponry, use of cave space and, as documented by Clottes in his oldest evidence of human abstract of course, art: ‘Archaeological book World Rock Art which as the thought and the symbolic rendi- evidence of abstract or depicted title suggests, surveys the entire tion of metaphor might indeed images indicates modern be- globe (Diamond 1999; Clottes become compelling. Controversy haviour. The Blombos Cave 2002).David Coulson and Alec over dating and interpretation is

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 13 Fig. 2 of course common in this fiercely competitive area of scholarship. On the one hand is the interpretation that ‘the beads are telling evidence that the mental machinery of abstract thought,

Fig. 3

ence to the realist renditions of Fig. 2: Sandawe woman, animals and human beings usu- Tanzania. ally depicted by the ancestors to the hunter-gatherer artists of Fig. 3: Engravings of Fig. 4 their day. A major rock-painting elephant, giraffes and site south of Mt. Elgon showed men, southern Lake creativity and complex behav- 1950s, where the oldest could how vulnerable rock art was to Turkana, Kenya. iour evolved first in Africa, not have been produced about 2,000 vandals, tourists and the politics in Europe as many scientists have years ago by the ancestors of peo- of populations trying to vie over Fig. 4: Lake Turkana, long believed’ (Hotz 2004:A15) ple today called the Sandawe. We control of access to something Kenya. Others are much more cautious. had a look at some newly reported that now is clearly recognised as Whichever the way it will go, it rock paintings and engravings in of great value and importance. raises the question of the evolu- the Lake Eyasi area which is near tion of human imagination. the huge Ngorongoro Crater, We went to the forbidding croco- which were then photographed dile infested but archeologically II by Coulson and Campbell to add rich Lake Turkana, to look at an to the archival and digital records engraving site three miles from In October 2002 I had the privi- of TARA, some of which appear the lake shore, and to visit the lege of being taken by David in their published works (Coul- remarkable Louise Leakey, a lone Coulson and Alec Campbell of son & Campbell 2001). young woman who continues the Trust for African Rock Art with path-breaking archaeologi- (TARA) to look at East Africa’s In the Serengeti we looked at cal work in the best tradition of major rock art sites and, in addi- the rock gongs and paintings of the Leakey family. tion, spent some time at the Lake the Masai. In Kenya we went Turkana and Olduvai Gorge ar- to the Mfangano Island in Lake On the way we spent time in the chaeological sites excavated by Victoria area, where paintings of timeless Olduvai Gorge, famed various, successive members, of geometric style and orientation, for its ancestral australopithecine the Leakey dynasty. We went associated with Bantu-speaking and other hominid fossils, and via Mount Kilimanjaro to cen- populations coming from the ended perhaps appropriately at a tral Tanzania’s painting sites first Niger Congo into East Africa place near a spring in the Chalbi recorded by the Leakeys in the and marking a striking differ- desert of northern Kenya, close

14 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 to the border of Ethiopia, where regardless of where they found There are direct methods for dat- camels appear to come from no- themselves, even in isolated pock- ing paintings and engravings, by where and out of nothing. For ets over thousands of years where biochemical analysis of pigments this is a watering hole in the there was no chance of, and tech- and other organic materials, and middle of nowhere in particular, nology for, communication, of indirect methods by the archaeo- desolate and hot, with an unusual style, form or artistic content. logical analysis of materials left light quality. Then there is the sad fact that this at the art sites. And then even is a wasting treasure, eroded by more indirect methods of associ- Our interest was to appreciate the forces of nature about which ating the styles of art with what and gain better insight into the we can do little, vandalised by is known about the periods in extraordinary range of African those who do not care for human which such styles may or may rock art in East Africa, for Af- artistic heritage about which we not have flourished. The Marvin rica is, as Jean Clottes puts it, can, however, this time, do some- Rowe Research Group claims to ‘the ultimate continent for rock thing. It is therefore a very good have the ‘only general technique art, with more than one hundred thing that TARA is creating a currently available for dating thousand known sites, and prob- digitised archive of African rock pictographs’ that range from ably twice that number’ (Clottes art, seeks to find strategies to pre- ‘scanning electron microscopy, 2002:12). The sites are bountiful, serve what we have, and persuade electron microprobe analysis, iso- and rich; southern Africa, and those governments and institu- tope mass spectrometry, plasma especially Namibia, the western tions that need persuading about chemical reactions and polymer- Cape and Drakensberg of South the importance of a workable and ise chain reactions (PCR) and Africa, Lesotho and Zimbabwe lasting conservation policy. And phylogenetic analysis of DNA.’ are full of these assets; northern then finally there is the tragic Africa and then especially the fact that this is a wasting treasure Still, Coulson concludes that Sahara stretching from north made by a disappearing people ‘unless techniques are available to south, east to west, has some lost to the greed of others, a tragic to enable us to extract human extraordinary work; and then end to tens of thousands of lives genetic material from paint that of course East Africa, the place whose sophistication is only now has been applied with the fingers where we were, also regarded as becoming clear. or a handprint, or that contains the cradle of modern humanity, human blood or other bodily the one and only spot with the There was, on our part, another fluid as an ingredient, we cannot most unbroken record of homi- interest, to see whether the mod- hope to link rock paintings to nid evolution. ern techniques of molecular genetically distinct populations. biology could have any bearing The possibility of identifying the Coulson and Campbell cite a on the dating of the rock art, artists who did rock engravings is figure of about 2 million known adding value to the already so- even more remote.’ paintings and engravings for the phisticated radiocarbon and African continent, and probably luminescence dating methods in Based on all available evidence at least twice that number of un- use. Dating methods developed and methods, Coulson and known, perished or disappeared over the last 50 or so years have Campbell put the ‘earliest in- works. Botswana alone has 400 vastly improved, write Coulson contestable date for African rock sites with 4,000 documented and Campbell, making for better art’ as ‘10,200 years’ old, for the works of quite powerful imagery. and more accurate assessments ‘deepest and oldest engraved Rock art, therefore, provides a of the age of the rock paintings stones excavated by Francis and rich layer of human history on and engravings first thought to be Anne Thackeray and Peter Beau- a continent where the written about 2,000 to 3,000 years old: mont in the Wonderwerk cave of word is very old in the north, but ‘radio-carbon dating has revealed South Africa’. young everywhere else. that the oldest known frescoes, in France’s Chauvet Cave, were The ‘earliest date obtained for Anybody that takes seriously Afri- painted about 32,000 years ago’ African rock art, between 19,000 can history must grasp and master and that the ‘earliest art still vis- and 27,000 years ago, relates to what it is rock art tells us about ible on Africa’s rocks is probably small plaquettes bearing paint- the human past. And still, this is about 12,000 years or a little ings of animals excavated by Eric not just about Africa and the sto- older’, but adding, importantly, Wendt in the Apollo 11 Cave in ry is not simply a continentally ‘that new finds of buried port- southern Namibia.’ In terms of parochial narrative. Its impor- able art and new dating methods time, between the certain and tance and relevance is universal may extend this period back by uncertain lies 16,800 or so years, and reflective of the aesthetic im- many, many millennia’ (Coulson or 672 generations if one genera- pulse shared by all human brings & Campbell 2001:74). tion is taken to be 25 years.

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 15 Fig. 5

qualities. Hand talent of course Then there is the question of presumes having free hands and a populations from which the art- limb structure that makes for fine ists or painters were drawn, and control. Visual acuity presumes whether the field of population having the eyes of a predator, genetics, and in particular its forward-facing with binocular vi- ability to decipher genetic inher- sion. Though we often think of itance patterns among human our eyes as wise seers, what they populations, can at the very least do is gather light, and it is the help locate the time and place brain that gives it all meaning, where populations existed and for here resides the neurologi- Fig. 6 for how long. Particularly useful cal apparatus for recognition, is the use of mitochondrial DNA memory, in short the cellular ba- tivity must be geared to receive Fig. 5: Apollo 11 Cave, to trace lineages along maternal sis for imagination and therefore visual information, give it mean- southern Namibia. lines of genetic inheritance and dreams. The state of the current ing and significance and commit Sarah Tischkoff for East Africa science of the human brain is it to memory. Fig. 6: Painting of a and Himla Soodyall for Southern best put in the recent book writ- predator on plaquette Africa have made great progress ten by Christof Koch titled The Our hands were ready-made for excavated in Apollo here, though the work of linking Quest for Consciousness where he art when we took our first steps 11 Cave and dated to populations to art more precisely talks about progress in efforts to as Homo sapiens, as were our eyes, between 19,000 and is in its infancy. Identifying the link imagination with the neural somewhere between 100,000- 27,000 years ago. authors remains, therefore, a for- correlates of consciousness (Koch 150,000 years ago. But about midable challenge. 2004). our brains, we are not quite sure. Fig. 7: Painting from Some say that evolution stopped xxxxxx, South Africa of III Understanding which many, as soon as we emerged, others wagons and colonials, many genes in the human like John Eccles in his book the probably about 200 years Presumably one needs three genome code the cellular con- Evolution of the Brain, talks about old. things in order to paint: hand tal- struction of the brain is, though, evolutionary refinements (Eccles ent, visual acuity and the ability to a huge mystery to be solved no 1989). And finally, there is Ri- dream. Exceptional artists I sup- doubt over a long time. But we chard Klein and Dawn Edgar in pose have an abundance of these do know that neurological ac- the Dawn of Human Culture who 16 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Fig. 7 develop the hypothesis of a radi- do it – lets call this the ‘slow cul- Diamond, J. 1999. Guns, Germs cal spurt in brain development tural learning hypothesis’; (ii) we and Steel: the fates of human about 60,000 years ago. had the apparatus, made art, but societies. New York: PUBLISHER. used materials like wood which Understanding brain size and is rarely fossilised – the ‘rotting Eccles, J.C. 1989. Evolution of neurology are one part of the wood hypothesis’ and (iii) we the Brain: Creation of the Self. answer, but of course the final had the hand and eye apparatus London: Routledge. answer comes with applying the but not the full neurological ap- molecular clock to the DNA se- paratus, which further evolved Highfield, R. 2004. Engraved quences in those regions of the and brought art-making alive ochres from Blombos Cave. genome responsible for the bio- by about 80,000 or so years ago Science Press release, http:// logical engineering of the brain – the ‘spurting brain hypothesis’. naples.cc.sunysb.edu/CAS/cape. and especially what is known as Which is the right one depends nsf/pages/press Accessed January area TE of the temporal lobe, but on both further archaeological 20. there are other areas of the brain and molecular and evolutionary to worry about too. biology research, and how inter- http://zinken.typepad.com/ esting it all is! palaeo/2003/10/blombos_cave_ The problem of course is the 77.html match between the biological and archaeological record. (I will not http://www.chem.tamu.edu/ say anything here about the pal- rgoup/research.html Accessed 22 aeontologists, who would have a References January 2004 great deal of difficulty with the Clottes, J. 2002. World Rock Art. 100,000-150,000 year date for Los Angeles: Getty Conservation Hotz, R.L. 2004. With ancient modern human origins). The Institute. jewelry, it’s the thought that archaeological record of modern counts. Los Angeles Times 16 human art springs to life about Coulson, D. 2003, Some thoughts April. 60,000 years ago, in Europe that on the authorship of African rock Koch, C. 2004. The Quest for is. The Blombos find pushes the art and its distribution. Paper Consciousness: A Neurobiological date back to about 77,000 years. presented at the Conference on Approach Princeton: Englewood, Who knows what else will pop up the Human Genome and Africa, Roberts. and push the date back even fur- Stellenbosch. ther! There is therefore, for now, Mbeki, T. 1996. Parliamentary one, or perhaps a combination Coulson, D. & Campbell, A. Address on the occasion of the of three, possibilities (i) we had 2001. African Rock Art: paintings adoption of the South African the biological apparatus for art- and engravings on stone. New York: Constitution. Cape Town. making at the outset but we took Abrams. a long time to figure out how to

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 17 Rock art and the public

Jean Clottes1

L’art rupestre et le public Abstract Il existe environ un demi million de Nearly half a million rock art sites exist sites d’art rupestre dans le monde, ce all over the world, constituting the largest qui constitue le plus grand ‘’musée” open air art “museum” ever known. d’art en plein air jamais connu. mais Until very recent times, rock art kept being malheureusement ces pétroglyphes et created and renewed. Now, petroglyphs pictographies d’une immense valeur and pictographs are an extremely valuable Fig. 6Fig. 6 patrimoniale sont menacés par la heritage under threat of destruction, not destruction naturelle mais également et only by nature alone but mostly from surtout par les activités humaines. En human activities. As rock art specialists tant que spécialistes d’art rupestre, nous we must provide information to the public devons fournir des informations au public and help protect the art itself, whatever the et protéger cet art, quelles que soient les environmental conditions which vary greatly conditions environnementales qui varient from one country to the next. grandement d’un pays à l’autre.

World distribution of rock art by the glaciers. Roughly during Asia is less well known and its Contrary to widespread public the same period, an art with quite rock art is mostly undated. On opinion, rock art can be found different themes flourished in the that vast continent there prob- all over the world and Europe is Alps. The great sites of Valcamon- ably are more than 50,000 sites, the continent with the least sites. ica in northern Italy and of Mont with possibly one fifth in China, For the past twenty or thirty Bego in south-east France, with but it is not yet possible to make years, a considerable increase and their tens of thousands (Bego) an evaluation, however approxi- improvement in rock art research and hundreds of thousands (Val- mate. One can distinguish five has led to a spate of new discov- camonica) of petroglyphs belong main areas with rock art : the eries. to this Alpine art. In Spain, the Middle East, Central Asia, India, art of the Levant consists mostly China and Indonesia. Europe is the continent where of paintings found in nearly one the art is the most famous be- thousand shelters from north to Paintings and petroglyphs are cause of ancient painted caves south, not far from the Mediter- present all over Oceania, with such as Lascaux, Chauvet and Al- ranean. It closely follows Ice Age important sites in Hawaii and tamira. Palaeolithic art, however, art and lasts until the beginning on Easter Island. The most im- is found at relatively few sites, of the Metal Ages. It is then re- portant country in the world for with a total of about 350 from placed by a more schematic kind rock art is no doubt Australia, the tip of the Iberian Peninsula of art, known all over the Iberian where there could be as many (caves in Andalucia) to the Urals Peninsula and around the Medi- as 100,000 painted or engraved in Russia (Kapovaya and Igna- terranean. More than one thou- sites. The Cape York peninsula, tievskaya). About half are deep sand sites with petroglyphs, also Arnhem Land, the Kimberleys, caves, the others being shelters post-Palaeolithic, are to be found and the Pilbarra are regions with or even open air sites (Foz Côa in the Fontainebleau Forest, close innumerable and often extremely in Portugal, Siega Verde, Domin- to Paris. spectacular rock art sites. Also, go Garcia and others in Spain). Australia is – so far - the place Four other major groups of Eu- Africa is probably the conti- with the longest uninterrupted ropean rock art sites date to the nent with most sites. The exact art tradition, from at least 30,000 Holocene and, all in all, might number is unknown but it likely years BP (and probably much number around 10,000 sites. exceeds two hundred thousand. earlier) until the present. The majority belong to recent In Scandinavia, thousands of periods. Roughly, one can distin- American rock art is not known petroglyphs were made by the guish two huge areas, that of the well enough, even if research has first Neolithic settlers and then Sahara and neighbouring regions greatly intensified from north to by their successors of the Bronze on the one hand, and that of south in the past fifteen years or and Iron Ages on rocks polished southern Africa on the other. In so. Tens of thousands of sites ex- central Africa rock art is certainly ist from Canada to the south of 1 Dr Jean Clottes [email protected] INORA to be found in a number of places Patagonia. They are very varied, France but it is significantly rarer. from the gigantic ghostly figures

18 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Fig. 6Fig. 6

Fig. 1

Fig. 1: Sebayene Shelter, the Serra da Capivara in Brazil The archaeological context is South Africa. (Clottes 2002). The (re)discovery often destroyed (in the Sahara, of the abundance and spectacular for instance) by irresponsible Fig. 2: Painting of interest of rock art all over the collectors who pick up the mythological figures, world has had, and is having, artefacts; and Utah, USA. three main effects: • finally, the public want more • it may have a positive effect and more information about in sensitizing decision-makers rock art and this places the about the protection of the art onus upon us, the rock art in cases of development and specialists, to provide it. attendant destruction. For example, the Foz Côa dam, in Providing information to the Portugal, was stopped in 1995 public in order to protect the art; Providing information to the Fig. 2 public can be done mainly by • it also has negative effects three different means, through of the Barrier Canyon Style in the because of direct and indirect the media at our disposal, by American South-West and rather vandalism. As more and more providing documentation on the similar ones in Baja California, people go to the sites, the sites themselves and also by dis- to the shamanic representations incidence of graffiti has in- playing substitutes, i.e. replicas of the Pecos River in Texas and creased dramatically. Amateur of the most vulnerable sites either Mexico and the many thousands photographers are sometimes in situ or in specialized museums of petroglyphs of the Coso Range tempted to enhance the art by and documentation centers. in California. In South America, wetting faded paintings or by they range from the profusion of outlining petroglyphs, thus The traditional media, books colourful geometric figures in the damaging them. Casts done and journals, are becoming more jungles of Peruaçu to the vivid by non-professionals may and more devoted to rock art. In scenes with minute humans in also cause irreparable harm. France, a special collection unique

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 19 of its kind, called ’Arts rupestres’, has so far published sixteen well- illustrated large format volumes on important painted caves (Las- caux, Cosquer, Niaux, Altamira, Rouffignac, Chauvet (2)), on the art of particular areas (the Basque country, the Sahara, California, the Yemen, the Drakensberg, the Messak in Libya, the American Great Plains), plus one on world rock art and another one on the interpretation of Palaeolithic art (Editions du Seuil, Paris). What makes this collection special is that it is aimed at the general public which means that the texts – while providing the best and most complete information available - are readable by all and that the illustrations are plentiful and of high quality.

Among the journals dealing with world rock art, and not only with the rock art of a particular area, however large (like La Pintura about American rock art), one (Rock Art Research) is regularly Fig. 3 published in Australia2 with extensive papers and accounts of National Park near Albuquerque ongoing research worldwide, or again at the Serra da Capivara The Grand Atelier, the centrepiece while the International Newsletter Fig. 3: documentation center in Brazil. of the Park, is visited using head- Head of “The Big on Rock Art appears three times sets that provide a commentary Giraffe”, A ï r Mountains, a year (each issue is 32 pages, all Excellent substitutes of vulner- in several languages – with even a Niger. items being both in French and 3 able rock art sites can and have special children’s soundtrack. The in English). been made. The replica of Las- atmosphere of a cave is suggested caux, called Lascaux II, that by the absence of lighting: the CDs, DVDs and websites on 4 opened to the public more than floors are signposted with myri- rock art are becoming more two decades ago, is visited by ads of small lights that enable the numerous every day, so that it is more than 200,000 persons a visitor to move around without impossible to keep up with them. year. In Spain, the replica of Al- difficulty. A large scale slide show This is a problem in itself, both tamira, set within a museum on gives a panoramic view of rock as concerns their access and the the Palaeolithic, is enjoying enor- art world-wide. The mound with evaluation of their worth and in- mous popular success. the footprints from the Réseau terest. Without any doubt they Clastres (20m long) is accurately will continue to develop and will The Pyrenean Park of Prehistoric restored and given added effect provide a huge mass of easily ac- Art at Tarascon-sur-Ariège, in the with cunningly staged lighting. cessible information in the near French Pyrenees, which opened The facsimile reconstruction of future. Information on the sites in 1995, is an original concept the Salon Noir of Niaux and the themselves is made available in of very high quality. The first aim areas surrounding it are the “star documentation centers and/or was to interest and please the lay- turn” in the Grand Atelier. Of explanatory panels next to the man and also to offer a quality course one should always visit works of art. Excellent examples product that would be accessi- Niaux, which has remained open can be found everywhere, on all ble to everyone while rigorously continents, whether in the Na- 2 keeping within the bounds of Rock Art Research, P.O. Box 216, Caulfield South, tional Park of Kakadu (Northern Vic. 3162 (Australia). 21 volumes published. our knowledge of the prehistoric 3 INORA, 11 rue du Fourcat, 09000 Foix (France). 41 Territory, Australia), at Alta in evidence. issues published (3 per year). northern Norway, at Petroglyph 4 See, for instance www. bradshawfoundation.com

20 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 to the public, but the replica of- specialists brought to the place destruction. fers a rare opportunity to be in would consolidate the carvings close proximity to the Magdale- previous to casting them. If the Fortunately, many cases are less nian paintings. The observer worst came to the worst and they complex and a variety of solu- can not only come very close to got vandalized later on, the repli- tions has been implemented them, which is not possible in cas made from the mould would whether for painted caves and the real cave, but can also dis- enable the the originals to be re- shelters in Europe, for wide areas cover the animals from Niaux as stored with perfect accuracy. In in the world where the art is to be the Magdalenians painted them. addition, the operation would found in numerous places, or for They have been faithfully recon- draw considerable attention to individual sites themselves. structed from photographs of the these works of art and facilitate originals under ultra-violet light, their protection. This is exactly The Palaeolithic painted caves with the result that many more what happened. Months before of France, Spain and Italy are details can be seen at the Park making the casts, the specialists fairly easy to deal with, even if than on the “real” drawings. were brought to the spot and ex- many errors were committed in perimented on similar but non- the course of the 20th century. Other projects are ongoing, like engraved rocks in the same envi- Nearly all the sites are closed the one about the Chauvet Cave ronment in order to choose the with stout railings or doors and in the Ardèche (south-east of right products and to make sure access is thus severely restricted. France), and a very ambitious that absolutely no damage would In several regions, rangers see to Museum/Documentation center be done to the engravings. The it that they remain protected and at Teverga, near Oviedo (Spain) operation was approved at gov- in special circumstances may take about Upper Paleolithic rock art ernment level and two Cabinet scientists for visits. About twenty in Europe. ministers came to visit us while it painted caves in France and as was in progress. After it was over, many in Spain are open to the Protecting the art itself the preservation of the originals public who can satisfy their curi- The environmental, geographical was better than it had ever been, osity and interest for the original and cultural conditions of rock as the loose pieces, cracks and art in its natural surroundings. art are so varied that there cannot fissures had been consolidated. After decades of limitless visits in be any fixed intagible rules that We left several wide patches un- the most famous caves (Altamira, would apply to all. It is easy to cast by protecting them, so that Lascaux) and the degradations make well-meaning pronounce- if analyses of the varnish, for ex- they entailed, those caves have ments. It is far less easy to find ample, were necessitated in the been closed to the public and the best type of solution for a future, they could still be car- strict regulations have been set for particular complex problem. ried out. One replica was given the ones which remained acces- to the town of Agadez and set up sible: basically, the microclimate For example, when, in 1997, we at the airport. Another is at the is monitored and the numbers of came upon the Dabous giraffes National Geographic Society in visitors reduced. Two main dan- in the Aïr (Niger), they were in- Washington D.C.5. After the op- gers must be avoided: first graffiti disputably in serious danger. The eration was over, two guards were and vandalism, but also changing Tuareg rebellion was just finished paid by TARA to watch over the the microclimate (temperature, and tourism was starting again. giraffes and guide people at the CO2, humidity, micro-draughts, The spectacular giraffes carved site. etc.) which could result in un- on the rocks were less than three foreseen consequences. So many hours away from Agadez, the Therefore, in this particular case, parameters are involved that the main town in the north of the we can say with hindsight after a main rule of thumb is to keep country and a few miles from the number of years that the project the conditions as they are, be- only tarred road in the north of was a success, both from the point cause we know that under those Niger. Already, some pieces of of view of preserving the site and circumstances the art has been those extraordinary carvings were also as regards the sensitization of preserved for many millennia. missing. The chances were they the public, of local populations Any changes – however well-in- were soon going to be severely and of decision-makers to the tentioned – could be detrimental degraded. Now, making casts is importance of protecting Niger to conservation. generally looked down upon, as rock art. This example shows that it affects the rock surface both with due precautions it may be When rock art sites are found in chemically and physically. In this possible to use unconventional their hundreds in a fairly exten- case, however, we felt that it was methods when necessity calls and sive area, it has sometimes been the best solution, provided strict that it is far better to do so than possible to protect the whole area precautions were taken. The to resign oneself to foreseeable rather than individual sites. Five

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 21 examples come to mind. The first visited are in danger of direct or white) using biodegradable paint. four are on the World Heritage indirect vandalism. When they They would thus become highly List of UNESCO not only be- cannot be physically protected as visible. That method may at first cause of the excellence of the art the painted caves are, or watched seem shocking because it changes but also because of the efficiency over by rangers or guards, one petroglyphs into pictographs and of its preservation. In north-east- must on the one hand appeal to because it runs counter to the sa- ern Brazil (state of Piaui), the the visitors’ better feelings and cred principle of never touching Serra da Capivara National Park their sense of responsibility and, the art. It has thus been much has more than 500 painted and/ on the other hand, take what- criticized and it has been aban- or engraved shelters, including ever measures may diminish the doned in various regions. This Pedra Furada. The whole park is risks of vandalism. Paths, or even has led to a new spate of degrada- fenced and access is restricted to symbolic protection like ropes tion, for example by people who entrances monitored by guards. between poles, are efficiently have trampled the art with heavy The environment (flora and fau- used all over the world to con- shoes, without seeing it, leav- na included) is as well preserved tain visitors, to prevent them ing striations all over it (Bardal, as the art itself. In Baja California from getting dangerously close Trondelag, Norway). (Mexico), the Sierra de San Fran- to the art and from trampling cisco spectacular sites can only a fragile archaeological surface. Visiting unprotected sites be visited with a special permit Information panels can explain The great majority of sites are from the INAH (Instituto Na- all that in a positive way with entirely unprotected and vulner- cional de Antropologia e Histo- much better results. Geoff Blun- able to the ever-increasing flood ria) and with official local guides dell at Les Eyzies Symposium, in of visitors. They cannot all be who accompany the tourists 2000, showed how this could be fenced in, provided with pan- down the deep canyons where done by emphasizing the value of els and paths or even watched most of the art is located and see the art (‘You would not touch a over. Under such circumstances, to it that regulations are applied Rembrandt, would you?’) rather furthering our aim to protect and no harm is done. In northern than by giving curt orders (‘Do rock art and its environment is Australia, Kakadu National Park not touch the art!’). Panels with fraught with difficulties. How extends over a very extensive part information on the art, its chro- can one prevent irresponsible of Arnhem Land and some of its nology, themes and meaning(s) tourists or ignorant local people sites (Ubirr, Nourlanghie Rock, are naturally welcome and ap- from making graffiti, enhancing Nanguluwur) are world famous. preciated. Sometimes, when the barely visible figures, trampling The main ones are monitored art is not immediately visible or petroglyphs, taking artefacts by rangers. Many other rock art understandable, tracings can be away and sometimes even steal- parks, open to the public, are exhibited to make the visitors ing engraved rocks in order to efficiently managed. One may better understand what is there sell them, most often after prying also quote Foz Côa in Portugal, before their eyes and respect it. them loose and damaging them with thousands of petroglyphs and their neighbours? strewn on rocks along both In Scandinavia, a particular banks of the river Côa, which are method has been used to prevent Relentless public education is watched over by guards and can vandalism. As the art is scattered one of the answers (see above), only be visited by appointment over thousands of sites and any- as well as bringing pressure upon with guides provided by the lo- body can have access to them, governments to provide adequate cal Documentation Center. The only a very small percentage are legislation for the protection of Mont Bego sites, in the extreme indicated, posted and provided the art. Special efforts, though, south-east of France, are part of with information panels. The should be made with tour opera- the National Park of Mercantour, weather in those northern lati- tors and guides, as well as with a natural reservation high up in tudes being overcast most of the local communities. The obvi- the mountains and only accessi- time, it is not often that the petro- ous argument about the cultural ble from June to September. glyphs stand out, can be seen by value of a heritage to be proud laymen and photographed. To of will be strongly reinforced by Whether inside a park with hun- avoid having them enhanced – pointing out that all destruction dreds of others or isolated, all generally by rubbing them with and degradation lessens the tour- rock art sites likely to be regularly a stone or with chalk – which is istic appeal of a resource upon very destructive to the surfaces, which they all depend. 5 National Geographic were one of the sponsors. it was decided a long time ago Fig. 4: Tuareg, nomad The operation was however mostly funded by the Bradshaw Foundation. The expedition was led that the petroglyphs in the most Serious cases of harm done to of Niger, beside large by David Coulson, of TARA, with the help of Alec visited places would be painted the rock art and/or its environ- engraved sandstone Campbell and Jean Clottes. Sidi Mohamed Iliès was in charge of the local logistics. in a bright color (red, yellow or ment should be reported with panel, A ï r Mountains.

22 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 23 Fig. 4 Fig. 5

all relevant details to the local or effective in a number of cases ei- quences of which must be faced Fig. 5: Dr Abdellah Salih regional rock art organizations, ther by preventing the repetition as best we can. We can make use demonstrating the results such as GIPRI for South Ameri- of harmful actions or by avoid- of it to improve the situation by of attempted theft, ca, TARA for Africa, ARARA for ing destruction of rock art sites furthering a better knowledge of Morocco. the United States, RASI for India, by development, quarries or road the art, of its importance and si- AURA for Australia, and also to building. Lamenting the degra- gnificance at all levels, with the international organizations, like dation of our rock art heritage is public, with the local people near the International Committee on certainly not enough: we can and the sites, with governments and Rock Art (CAR-ICOMOS), the we must act and we have some authorities, and also with interna- International Federation of Rock means to do so. tional organizations, for example Art Organizations (IFRAO), Conclusion by working to have more major the International Newsletter on We are confronted with a great rock art sites put on the World Rock Art (INORA), etc. They variety of local conditions for Heritage List of UNESCO in turn can help by advising the rock art in the world. Everywhe- (Clottes 1997). governments and/or the regional re, rock art researchers and en- authorities of the facts, stress the thusiasts are concerned with its References importance and value of the art continuing preservation both for Clottes, J. 1997. Rock Art. A and offer advice. If necessary its intrinsic value as a cultural universal cultural message. Paris: they can launch a letter and e- resource and for the possibility UNESCO. mail campaign to the people in of future studies. The increasing charge. interest it now arouses in the ge- Clottes, J. 2002. World Rock Art neral public is not likely to abate . Los Angeles: The Getty Conservation Institute. This, in the past, has proved to be soon. This a hard fact, the conse-

24 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Challenges of rock art conservation in Africa Alec Campbell1

Les défis de la conservation de ABSTRACT l’art rupestre en Afrique I look primarily at those challenges that Je m’intéresse davantage aux besoins the Trust for African Rock Art (TARA) has identifiés et aux défis lancés par TARA identified and tackled, rather than offer a (Trust for African Rock Art) plutôt broad view of what Africa is attempting or qu’m’arrêter à ce que l’Afrique essaie de failing to do. Apart from southern Africa faire ou n’arrive pas à faire. Mis à part and, to some extent, eastern Africa there l’Afrique du sud et dans une certaine is much that we still do not know about, mesure l’Afrique de l’est, nous ne savons whether countries have written rock art pas si les autres pays ont des politiques policies or how their governments may relatives à la conservation de l’art administer them. Although we believe that rupestre et comment elles sont appliquées. the importance of rock art as our heritage is intrinsic and should not depend only on national economic factors, we recognise that the real guarantee to the art’s long-term survival will be when local communities and national actors gain economic benefits through rock art tourism. For this reason, TARA’s plans see rock art conservation and tourism going hand-in-hand.

ments, mining and pollution, and increasing tourism threaten the art, itself already delicate with age. In our travels, David Coul- son and I have noted few on- the-ground protective measures taken, few interpretative notice boards or literature provided, very few custodians and a fair amount of damage. Licensed guides usually prove disappointing.

These are the problems David Coulson faced in the early 1990s when he discussed with Dr Mary Leakey the possibility of establishing a trust for the preservation of Africa’s rock art and subsequently decided to publicise this heritage in a well illustrated book, African Rock Art: Paintings and Engravings on Stone (Coulson & The background serve it. For the most part, the art Campbell 2001). The Trust was In 1950, only enthusiasts saw was thought to be ‘primitive’ and officially registered in 1996 and value in rock art; governments was largely disdained. the book published internation- of some 40 countries, many with The last few decades have seen ally in 2001. vast rock art heritages promul- governments taking more inter- gated laws protecting the art and est in their heritages, but rock The changing scene then did virtually nothing to con- art’s priorities remain low and For many thousands of people,

1 Alec Campbell proper management funds are the public conception of rock Board Member tight. Rock art conservation is a art has changed. More and more TARA Fax: 267 3161804 late starter and expanding popu- well-illustrated books, magazine Botswana lations, infrastructural develop- articles and rock art trivia are

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 25 having considerable effect. We are pleased that TARA is playing a role in this exciting process of change. It will, however, take many more years for its full impact to reach Africa’s remoter areas where much of the rock art is located and, almost certainly, where local site-management is most needed.

Nobody underestimates the challenges involved in implementing these changes yet, most importantly, the process has begun. Governments are starting to nominate sites for World Herit- age status; parks and reserves have been established over a few rock art areas; sites are being gazetted as monuments; a few custodians are being appointed; and, in some countries, local people act as informants to protect their art. This is a beginning; TARA believes better management could and should be developed in almost every country visited.

The first challenge The Trust for African Rock Art is a young organisation. The ten years spent establishing the Trust have been an exciting if not always an easy time. The greatest challenge has been met: demonstrating the Trust’s value to rock art conservation and thereby getting it established. I say this because major Foundations have expressed faith in the Trust by sponsoring its activities.

TARA’s aims TARA’s aims seek to ensure the art’s survival through surveys and recording of sites, creating a greater global awareness of the art’s importance and delicate state, keeping an eye on its wel- fare, providing an information centre and supporting rock art conservation. The Trust is not a research organisation; however, I touch on dating and discuss some research only because of their significance in establishing the art’s importance and world value, and Fig. 1: Distribution of thus emphasising national and rock art in Africa

26 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 international obligations to pro- possibility of interpreting rock Earth Mother, gods of the sky, tect it. art saying meanings ascribed to vegetation cults and so on (Le it can never be proven; others Quellec1993); Dating take more positive approaches Obtaining true dates for rock to penetrating the art’s mean- • believing some early Algerian art is important in establishing ing (Whitley 2001). TARA fully paintings reflect modern Fu- the art’s value. A considerable recognises the importance of un- lani myth (Hampate-Ba and percentage of the Elgin Marbles’ derstanding the art, but believes Dieterlen 1966); and value lies in their age, about 2500 that too few serious attempts to years; how much more valuable interpret ‘meaning’ have been • seeing a large Saharan painting are magnificent engravings, three made, particularly in areas north of mainly herded cattle as a or even four times as old as they of the equator. Our experiences serial depiction of the pastoral are? While not involving itself in suggest that local people still lifestyle that was used to edu- chronometric dating techniques, have a wealth of information, cate and initiate youths into a TARA strongly supports the ef- particularly for understanding cattle cult (Holl 2004). forts of those qualified to develop the younger art. I look at a few and use them, and encourages interpretations already proffered More recent Central and East relevant institutions to undertake and then record some of our own African paintings (and some en- more dating work in Africa be- experiences. gravings) have been described as cause of the urgent need for this Some North African interpreta- involved in rainmaking and fe- type of data. tions have included: cundity, as images used by secret societies, and images used dur- Understanding the art • recognising the art as ancient ing rites of passage ceremonies Some archaeologists reject the universal symbols of religion: (Smith 1997). Some researchers of Saharan art are being tempted by the work of southern Afri- can researchers to see aspects of altered states of consciousness depicted in the Saharan images (Muzzolini 2001).

Our own experiences suggest that, behind Islam, much remains of ancient beliefs and practices that could help elucidate at least the more recent art. We witnessed two Tuareg playing a rock gong and describing how the sounds emitted are still interpreted.

We learned that Tuareg women attain altered states of consciousness, become possessed by spirits and perform curing dances; that hills, boulders and water contain spirits; that evil spirits abound; and that an engraving in Niger brings serendipitous gifts when painted. Engravings and handprints in an Egyptian cave strongly suggest a rainmaking site. A Maasai explained how young men were strengthened at painted meat-feasting sites.

It is now so long since the earlier art was made, perhaps 5 000 years and more, that modern ethnographies and local knowledge

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 27 can offer little help with interpre- Professor Heinz Ruther under- Niger as the result of recording, tation. took the work at that site. Cur- mapping and studying the 830 rently, we intend to record by engravings at Dabous and visit- However, collective studies of laser-scanning two large and ing over 50 other sites in Aïr. We Africa’s traditional beliefs about crumbling engravings, perhaps 8 have lined up a French publisher animals and their cosmic status, 000 years old, in southern Libya. and are hopeful of soon finding cattle cults, initiation, rainmak- Using the results obtained, mod- an English language publisher. ing and fecundity may suggest els can be made of the engravings possible meanings behind the both as permanent records and Since its inception, TARA has earlier images. While we may for purposes of display. Although promoted African rock art to the never be certain why the art was both methods of reproduction, public through articles in Nation- made, we may begin to under- photogrammetry and modelling al Geographic, Time, Archaeology, stand what the images represent. from laser-scanned imagery are Natural History, People, Travel Af- TARA believes that more time expensive, we believe the high rica and other magazines aimed should be devoted to these stud- costs are well worth the results. at a wide audience. TARA has ies, particularly in northern and also published in scientific jour- East Africa. Raising greater global nals such as INORA and Sahara. awareness Surveys and recording TARA’s first major attempt to Given the broad public and spe- Many rock art sites are yet to be raise public awareness was the cialist readership involved, several ‘discovered’ and recorded. Dur- book in English covering the art million people must already have ing TARA’s recent surveys in the of the whole continent (Coulson been exposed to African rock art Sahara, for example, we have located, made notes on and photographed at least 25 unrecorded sites (Niger, Algeria and Maurita- nia) and learned of the existence of many others that, to our knowledge, have never been recorded. In Mauritania, we learned that sites exist just over the border in Senegal (Fig. 1). During the last nine years, TARA has surveyed sites in sixteen countries, logged GPS locations; taken more than 70 000 slides and made some 500 ink reproductions; built and equipped an archive and is currently digitising slides for the Andrew Mellon Foundation’s website, ArtSTOR. Our archive and database offer new possibili- Fig. 2 ties for research, education and appreciation of the art’s magnifi- & Campbell 2001). An enor- through these efforts. The reader- Fig. 2. The engraved cence. mous undertaking, this involved ship of National Geographic alone giraffes at Dabous, endless fundraising and travel to is estimated at 50 million. The Niger. The development of new record- sixteen African countries. Lav- impact of these publications also ing methods, photogrammetry ishly illustrated and aimed at has a more specific importance and laser scanning, extend con- the art-loving public, the book in bringing critical issues to the ventional photography and has is now the layperson’s standard attention of those who will de- prompted the Trust to branch work on the subject. Launched in fine the field and educate a larger tentatively into these fields. In New York, Nairobi, Cape Town, public. 2002 in a river bed in Algeria, Johannesburg and Gaborone and we successfully recorded by pho- promoted in two lecture tours, In 1999 and with the help of the togrammetry an upward-fac- the book has been translated into Bradshaw Foundation and of ing, eroded, 110 square-metre German and sold over 10/000 Jean Clottes, TARA arranged for engraving of huge giraffes first copies. We have prepared anoth- a life-size mould of the Dabous recorded by Henri Lhote (Lhote er book on the rock art of Da- Giraffes, a huge engraving in Ni- 1975, 1976). bous and the Aïr Mountains in ger (Fig. 2), first noted by us in

28 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 1997 during a survey expedition were expected to visit it during sustainable tourism. I return to sponsored by the National Geo- the four months it was open. this later. graphic Society. Two Ministers, In support of these exhibitions, the Prefet of Northern Niger, the we have produced a short video Education Sultan of Agadez and other dig- in English and Kiswahili. The In the long term, TARA believes nitaries attended the presentation video is in modular form and can the citizens and communities of of the cast to the Niger Govern- be replicated for other African Africa represent the real future ment and installation outside the countries. for rock art. Our programmes VIP lounge on Agadez Interna- aim at adults, students and tour- tional Airport. Meanwhile, other Networking/Co-operation ists. For Niger, where we found casts have been exhibited in Lon- Notwithstanding our efforts to no information available to the don, Washington and Cologne, create global awareness, TARA public and no protective meas- and one is permanently installed is extremely conscious that the ures taken, we have produced ba- in the National Geographic Soci- long-term success of rock art sic rock art brochures on the Da- ety’s Sculpture Garden in Wash- conservation must depend on bous site, the Aïr Mountains and ington DC. TARA is currently recognition by national govern- a more general pamphlet on the developing a broader range of ments and local communities of Sahara. We have also produced ways to reach the global public. the art’s value and management for local use a booklet on the rock For instance, we are developing a needs. Thus, we try to develop art of East Africa. In addition, we documentary film, to be shown ties with local institutions wher- have devised and printed a Code on international television in ever we work. TARA has dis- of Conduct for rock art safari op- 2006 and an international travel- cussed and approved in principle erators. Particularly important are today’s children in ensuring that future generations are able to value, enjoy and study the art. Currently, we are beginning to work with curriculum development and textbook designers investigating the possibility of including greater emphasis on rock art in East African schools’ curricula and their use of a travelling exhibition and video.

We believe that encouraging students’ interest in rock art will result in greater numbers studying the art at post-graduate level. TARA has sponsored a Tanza- nian student at the University of the Witwatersrand Rock Art Research Institute, South Africa, and hopes to work with institu- ling exhibition that will open in an ‘Agreement of Understanding’ tions to increase the opportuni- world capitals the following year. with the Government of Niger, is ties for African students to study affiliated with the National Mu- and research in rock art related We have initiated a TARA web- seums of Kenya, and is develop- fields. site, www.africanrockart.org, ing closer links with universities which we continuously up- and antiquities departments in Archive and grade. At a local level, TARA, Botswana, Niger, South Africa, Information Centre has mounted an African Rock and other countries. Although The Andrew Mellon Foundation Art exhibit in Zanzibar in 2002 institutions are important, has sponsored a climate-control- as part of the Zanzibar Film and TARA believes its work with lo- led digital archive and a database, Cultural Festival, seen by thou- cal communities is perhaps even now built and in operation at sands of people. A much larger more important. First, at Dabous TARA’s Headquarters in Karen, exhibition opened at the Nation- in Niger and now at Kakapel in Nairobi. Archive equipment pro- al Museum, Nairobi during the Kenya, TARA is working with vides for scanning, specialised TARA conference in November local communities to support the digital imaging and specialised 2004 and some 150 000 people development of responsible and large-format printing. Currently,

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 29 TARA’s photographic records, art site to be so listed. A TARA attention these thefts in an article some 60 000 slides, are being photograph of the engravings ap- in INORA. scanned and digitised and en- peared on the cover of the WMF tered into a database. A selection 2000 printed catalogue and in We saw that LASMO, an oil explo- of these will be made available all World Monument Fund pro- ration company, while prospecting to researchers and subscribers on motional material. In addition, on Libya’s Messak Plateau, scored the Andrew Mellon website, Art- WMF awarded TARA US$25 a huge grid of kilometre-squares STOR. While the archive makes 000 to prepare a conservation into one of the world’s richest possible the supply of more spe- and management plan for the rock art areas and, through fric- cific information on Africa’s rock site. TARA continues to support tion created by heavy machinery, art, TARA is establishing a rock the custodians and their local su- threatened damage to numerous art library and accumulating data pervisor. engravings some of which may be eventually to provide a source of over 8 000 years old. Recommen- general information to both re- Kakapel, Kenya dations made to the oil company searchers and the public. Kakapel, in the foothills of Mt were subsequently published in Elgon and easily accessible by INORA and discussion about the Protection road, is Kenya’s little-known need for pre-development impact Rock art tourism is expanding but foremost rock painting site. assessments was held with repre- and, whether we like it or not, Working with the National Mu- sentatives of Libya’s Government. numerous sites little visited to- seums of Kenya and the local Fresh graffiti found at Kakapel day will become major tourist community, TARA has arranged was brought to the attention of attractions in the future. Today’s purchase of the site and adjacent the National Museums of Kenya, preparations prepare for tomor- land and has seen the site gazetted thus aiding the process of gazett- row’s flood. TARA has been par- by law as a ‘monument’. TARA is ing the site as a ‘monument’ and ticularly involved with two main now working with the National purchasing the land TARA is sites, Dabous in Niger and Kaka- Museum and local community planning GIS/Mapping/Survey pelii in Kenya. to design a management plan, to eventually cover the whole con- remove graffiti and ensure proper tinent. Obviously, this will be a Dabous, Niger future protection. At the same huge and costly undertaking and Since the Tuareg Rebellion end- time, TARA is working with the be spread over a number of years. ed in 1995, tourism has greatly National Museums of Kenya and Hopefully, other institutions and increased in Northern Niger donors to develop and protect national governments will become with almost every tourist visit- those other sites in Kenya likely involved. ing one or more rock art sites. to be affected by tourism in the Recognising that the art was near future. Conclusion receiving no protection, TARA Financing rock art conservation is consulted the local community Monitoring expensive in Africa, a huge conti- and encouraged the formation TARA has noted and reported on nent with vast numbers of sites of- of a local NGO, Anigourane, to three incipient problems, theft of ten found in remote areas difficult help conserve and promote Ni- engravings in Morocco, prospect- of access and sometimes requiring ger’s rock art heritage.We noted ing for oil and potential mining long treks on foot or by camel. an urgent need to protect a par- in a rock art area in southern Lib- Think about finding the funds to ticular and truly magnificent ya, and graffiti scratched into the operate in a vast and empty land engraved site close to the main paintings at Kakapel. On a visit such as Northern Niger. road, the ‘Big Giraffes’ at Da- to Morocco, Dr Abdellah Salih bous. In 1997, TARA appointed showed us numerous engravings Our current and most important and commenced paying two broken by thieves when they tried challenge is combating the gen- custodians to protect the site. and failed to load these onto their eral lack of knowledge and under- With US Embassy help, TARA vehicles, and holes from which standing of the issues in countries improved and aligned the access the thieves had managed to re- that are usually poor and in which tracks, defined a parking area move engraved boulders. He said culture and heritage have taken a away from the site, dug a well, the stolen engravings are taken to backseat in the face of more press- erected an information board Europe where, he understands, ing economic health and social and printed brochures. collectors and even a museum issues. TARA also applied for and have bought them. Salih estimates However, this is possible and here saw the site listed in the World 30 per cent of engravings in one I quote the Southern African Rock Monument Fund 2000 Watchlist area have been stolen and a greater Art Project (SARAP), relatively of the World’s Hundred Most number broken during attempted cheap for what it achieved, that Endangered Sites, the first rock thefts. TARA brought to public brought rock art personnel from

30 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries together in a common aim: to nominate sites in their countries to World Heritage status. Not only did the project provide some training, but it also engendered a sense of pride in countries that have seen their sites listed. Acknowledgements Although we believe that the im- I thank David Coulson, portance of rock art as our heritage Chairman of TARA, and Amolo is intrinsic and should not depend Ng’weno, Chief Operations only on national economic factors, Officer, for their assistance in the compilation of this paper. we recognise that the real guarantee to the art’s long-term survival will be when local communities References and national actors gain economic Coulson, D. & Campbell, A. 2001. African rock art: paintings benefits through rock art tourism. and engravings on stone. New York: For this reason, TARA’s plans see Abrams. rock art conservation and tourism going hand-in-hand. Hampate, Ba & Dieterlen, G. 1966. Les fresques d’epoque Apart from raising the priority of bovidenne du Tassili n’Ajjer et les tourism at individual and national traditions des Peuls: hypothese levels, the most pressing problem d’interpretation. Journal de la is shortage of funds. We believe Societe des Africanistes 36(1):141- our campaigns are important in 157. raising the art’s profile in national Holl, Augustin F.C. 2004. agendas and budgets, but recog- Saharan Rock Art: Archaeology nise the severe limitations to the of Tassilian Iconography. Oxford: availability of public funding. We Altamira Press. see our major challenge as seeking and obtaining philanthropic Le Quellec, Jean-Loic 1993. funding, official development Symbolisme et art rupestre au assistance and private tourism Sahara. Paris: L’Harmattan. resources to develop and sustain rock art in the public interest in Lhote, Henri 1975 & 1976. Les Africa. gravures rupestres de l’Oued Djerat (Tassili-n-Ajjer). Mem. du C.R.A.P.E. 25: 426 and 830. Algiers.

Muzzolini, Alfred 2001. Saharan Africa. In:Whitley, D.S. (ed) Handbook of Rock Art Research:605-636. Oxford: Altamira Press.

Smith, Benjamin W. 1997. Zambia’s Ancient Rock Art: The Paintings of Kasama. Livingstone: The National Heritage Conservation Commission of Zambia.

Whitley, David S. 2001. Introduction. In: Whitley, D.S. (ed.) Handbook of Rock Art Research: 17-24. Oxford: Altamira Press.

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 31 The meaning of rock art: ethnography, comparison, metaphor

Megan Biesele1

La signification de l’art Abstract rupestre: l’ethnographie, la comparaison, les métaphores A comparative semiotic approach, in which oral tradition plays a central role, Une approche comparative sémiotique, is suggested for the investigation of the dans laquelle une tradition orale joue un meaning of rock art. Both rock art and rôle central, est proposée dans l’enquête folklore are regarded as parts of a system of sur la signification de l’art rupestre. L’art non-literate communication that share basic rupestre et le folklore sont considérés processes of signification and transmission. comme étant des parties d’un système Verbal and visual art, including folklore de communication primitive qui partagent and animate ritual, can be clarified by les processus basiques de signification et socially useful ideas, attitudes, values, and de transmission. L’art verbal et visuel, y shared agreements. They keep societies compris le folklore et le rituel animé, peut functioning in their environments and have être clarifié par des idées utiles socialement, the potential to illuminate rock art. Rather des attitudes, des valeurs et des accords than plead simply for conservation of partagés. Ils permettent aux sociétés de rock art, we should celebrate the positive fonctionner dans leurs environnements et dynamism that may be created with d’avoir le potentiel de mettre en lumière l’art appropriate modern heritage development. rupestre. Plutôt que d’implorer simplement pour la conservation de l’art rupestre, nous devrions célébrer le dynamisme positif qui peut être créé grâce à un développement adéquat du patrimoine moderne.

The interpretation of rock art is in his 2004 conference presentation for everyone who is asking as hotly debated as is that of oth- tion, to “give a human face” to about the meaning of rock art. er cultural symbolism-- perhaps the makers of ancient rock art. even more so. Its makers, after Or as I like to put it, detailed sci- I am not an archaeologist, but all, are mostly gone and their entific attention to archaeological a folklorist and ethnographer. descendants, until recently, have metaphors is a good way to hu- I work in documenting an en- been mostly voiceless in world manize the past. This approach dangered language and an oral dialogues. In many cases, those is of course semiotic: it depends literature, those of the Ju/’hoan descendants have also been left on the science of signs. My pa- San (Biesele 1993). I address clueless as to the meanings of the per outlines a semiotic, scientific the challenging subject of mean- rock art of their ancestors, except approach to the meaning of rock ing in rock art from the point where oral tradition has preserved art. I emphasize at the outset that of view known in anthropology metaphorical links. where resonant metaphors are in- and folklore studies as ‘the eth- volved, scientists are as prone to nography of speaking’ (or in this But where oral tradition has been subjectivism as anyone else, and case, of painting and engraving). interrupted, often by colonial must constantly fight it. In addition to my emphasis on forces, descendants of the paint- signs, languages, and texts, I like ers must fall back on the same I also emphasize that indigenous to situate the actions of painters tools as we use - tools like eth- descendants of the prehistoric art- socially and within history as far nography, comparative study, and ists are themselves not immune as possible, using ethnographic a scientific approach to symbolic from subjectivism. Symbolism sources and other cultural media information. This combination is inherently attractive to human for clues to the symbolism of an- is a way, as Wilmot James put it beings: it engages the ancient hu- cient rock art. man capacity for aesthetic appre- 1 Dr Megan Biesele [email protected] Coordinator, Kalahari Peoples Fund ciation. These observations point In all this I take a comparative USA up the central role of oral tradi- perspective, noting similarities

32 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 among many hunter-gatherer my paper continues. mentioned above, in linking oral and some pastoralist societies traditions of the /Xam to the of the world, past and present. Immensely important work has southern African paintings. I treat the bodies of rock art in been done, as many archaeolo- Emulating Bleek and Lloyd in areas with which I am familiar, gists know, linking the paintings small ways, I myself try to pro- such as southern Africa and west of South Africa, Botswana, Na- vide useful oral material from Ju/ Texas, as ‘literatures’ with inter- mibia, and Zimbabwe to oral tra- ’hoan San traditions in Namibia relating metaphors made increas- dition collected in the nineteenth and Botswana. I am currently ingly resonant with differential and early twentieth centuries by engaged in digitizing my own repetition. Bleek and Lloyd. Some of the collection of Ju/’hoan folklore authors of this work attended the texts and making it available in Both rock art and folklore can be first TARA conference in Nai- authoritative transcriptions and fruitfully seen as parts of a system robi in November, 2004: they translations for use by scholars of non-literate communication. included Geoff Blundell, Janette and by Ju/’hoan communities They share basic processes of sig- Deacon, Aron Mazel, John Park- for archives and curricula. I like nification and transmission. In ington, and Ben Smith. to think of this work as ‘working southern Africa we are fortunate myself out of a job’ as young San to have pockets of surviving oral In very recent years, the Bleek people take over the preparation tradition with direct relevance to and Lloyd Collection at the Uni- and interpretation of their own much of the rock art. versity of Cape Town has been authoritative texts. I regard my digitized and made available to work and that of the colleagues We even, now, have the begin- scholars, some of whom will be I’ve mentioned as a meaningful ning of a cultural renaissance in following the leads of Thomas but time-limited contribution to which young San (‘Bushman’) Dowson, Mathias Guenther, recent decades of African cultural people are taking an interest in Jeremy Hollman, David Lewis- documentation. It has been a the past traditions that may illu- Williams, Sigrid Schmidt, Anne kind of ‘holding action,’ a con- minate their rock art. I shall say Solomon, and Patricia Vinni- servation of records until now, more about this renaissance as combe, as well as the scholars when a new generation of San

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 33 descendants, some of them liter- these longest-tenured of human and Carolyn Boyd to establish in ate and finally finding access to societies. Too often, both folk- Texas a centre for the cross-cul- secondary and even tertiary edu- lore and rock art studies are seen tural comparison of rock art. cation, is interrogating its own as ‘stepchildren’ of anthropology traditions. and archaeology. They have been The centre is called SHUMLA, regarded as frosting on the cake both the name of the ranch on I am thinking of new indigenous of the serious business of under- which it is located and our acro- scholars such as Laetitia Peter- standing culture through kin- nym for Studying the Human Use son, from Upington, South Af- ship, economy, and social organi- of Materials, Land, and Art. The rica, working with the Bleek and sation. But this view is changing: centre, which emphasises public Lloyd Collection; John Parking- more importance is now given to education for all ages as well as ton’s trainees at Clanwilliam in understanding the knowledge re- research and scholarship, has ties the Cederberg; my own Ju/’hoan quired to make a cultural system to TARA in that David Coulson trainees Dahm Kim Dabe and work over time, and to how that and Alec Campbell have agreed Kaqece Kallie N!ani in Nyae knowledge is codified, stored, to join our advisory board, along Nyae, Namibia; and people in a and shared. Non-written expres- with Jean Clottes and other inter- growing number of other herit- sive forms, partly because they are national rock art specialists. age projects around southern dramatic and memorable, help to Africa. I am thinking of new do these three things in culture. SHUMLA and TARA both em- publications such as Voices of the I have come to see verbal and brace an ethnographic, non-sub- San (Le Roux & White 2004), visual art as parts of the ‘engine’ jective approach to the meaning just published by Kwela Books that keeps a culture functioning of rock art. Comparative hunter- and launched the month of this in a specific environment. gatherer studies play a major role writing (December, 2004) in the in this approach. For instance, Northern Cape, Western Cape The very longevity of the hunt- from these comparative studies, and in London. ing-gathering cultures of the what may be called a ‘foraging world makes it imperative that style’ characterising these socie- I am thinking, too, of new ecot- we look at how integrated the ties has emerged. I shall list some ourism and heritage conservation ‘frosting’ is with the ‘cake’. Since of its facets as they are reflected projects benefiting local people 1966 there has been a long se- in social arrangements and ex- in the region, such as the Brand- ries of conferences on hunter- pressive forms: berg, Twyfelfontein, and Spitz- gatherers (Man the Hunter, and koppe in Namibia. I am pointing CHAGS I –IX); the internation- • seasonal economic patterns these out hoping for success in al comparisons have been most are deeply etched other projects in southern Af- instructive. Of course we should rica where local scholars could not look at hunter-gatherers ex- • marriage and residential ar- be trained, and where local peo- clusively when thinking about rangements are salient ple could benefit from heritage the meaning of rock art: much of tourism, such as Liphofung in it, such as in North Africa, was • there is division of labour the Muela area of Lesotho and produced, and is still used, by and social domains by sex the Maluti-Drakensberg Trans- pastoralists. But understanding and age only frontier Conservation Area in and comparing the ethnography South Africa/Lesotho. I believe, and traditions of hunter-gather- • hunting is opposed symboli- with many of the speakers at the ers can be instructive for a por- cally not to gathering but to TARA conference, that the con- tion of the world’s rock art, and reproduction (e.g. first-kill servation of rock art (and oral the approach is potentially gen- rites vs. menarcheal rites) tradition) cannot in future be di- eralisable. vorced from tourism. • there is sympathetic identifi- The main comparative work in cation of hunters with prey, Most of my own work has cen- rock art that I have had a chance and/or of their wives with tered on hunter-gatherer ethnog- to be involved in has focused prey raphy and how it can illuminate, on southern Africa (my research • there are Lord of the Ani- and be illuminated by, both area) and my home area of Texas. mals figures, and propitia- folklore and rock art. I am most I work in these two areas with tion to them interested in how both of these archaeologists David Lewis-Wil- cultural media participate in the liams and Carolyn Boyd (2003), • food animals function as historical success of hunter-gath- respectively. Parallels between the helpers erer communication systems, approaches of these two research- • meat-sharing is socially and systems that have long supported ers are striking, and have led me symbolically elaborate

34 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 grist for the mill of understand- potent for understanding the art. • healing and altered states ing cultural media. Instead of fo- I shall list four that illuminated (transformation in general) cusing all my attention on texts, the folklore for me and, I believe, are valued and flexible ideas I took the opportunity to work as may begin to illuminate San rock an old-time ethnographer. In my art as well: • there is immense concentra- writing since, however, I present tion on sharing, reciprocity, information differently from old- • !aia, trance and social levelling. time ethnography: expressive culture is there from chapter one on, • n/om, spiritual energy Both folklore and rock art repre- and is not relegated to an obliga- sent, refract, and endlessly exam- tory last, or ‘frosting’ chapter. • n!au, powers of the ine these themes. I think of both spine linking control of prey, media as great ‘literary’ tradi- I also found it useful to take a weather, and childbirth tions that continually interrogate figure-and-ground approach to themselves. This process of inter- Ju/’hoan ‘folk concepts’, precisely • !uig!oq, magical escape rogation is how they continually because they were highly visible from carnivores. and creatively move forward. to me due to their difference from I have also been much interested my own culture. This approach in the dual symbolism of arrows In the course of my fieldwork was one of many attempts to in Ju/’hoan healing. Just as arrow with the Ju/’hoan San, I found minimize the danger of subjectiv- symbols in our own society may that to study how cultural experi- ity. Folk concepts are hinged on mean a variety of things known ence and symbolism mutually re- powerful metaphors that gather only by convention, arrows in inforce each other, I had to study strength with incremental repeti- Ju/’hoan society may signify both everything. Gathering, hunting, tion in different media. I found healing power and illness. To use the name of every species and Ju/’hoan problem-solving meta- this information to inform rock how to use it, social standards of phors that had no equivalents I art study, we need detailed ver- giving and receiving both physi- was aware of in Western culture bal access to the conventions of cally and verbally — all this was to be particularly widespread and Ju/’hoan healing ideology — i.e.

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 35 36 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 37 through ethnography and oral ideas and their expressions are tradition. in flux. Among factors affecting the meaning of rock art today Janette Deacon (1992:1) well must be counted issues of cul- expressed the necessity of under- tural identity among indigenous standing such conventions when people who may or may not be she wrote that “An arrow is an the descendants of the painters. artefact of the mind as much as Rapidly changing, too, is the it is an artefact of technology.” state of these peoples’ owner- The late Patricia Vinnicombe ship of rock art in both physical (1976: 304) similarly voiced the and political senses. Rather than duality between the ordinary and plead for simple conservation of the (always potentially changing) the threatened rock art of Africa ritual and symbolic weight of the and the world, the implication of activity of hunting, which is “not my paper is a celebration of the merely a technical act concerned positive dynamism that may be with obtaining food, but a ritual created with appropriate modern performance in which were em- heritage development. bodied certain symbolic and expressive elements…their significance is not immediately apparent to the outsider (and even the participants) can rarely express their understanding verbally.”

This last comment shows why both ethnography and textual analysis contain healthy doses of References sleuth-work, sometimes requiring years of listening to indirect Biesele, M. 1993. “Women Like statements and poring through Meat”: Folklore and Foraging texts for clues to the meaning- Ideology of the Kalahari. Ju/’hoan. ful conventions of culture. These Johannesburg and Bloomington: studies can be seen, in fact, as Witwatersrand University Press a kind of ‘forensic archaeology and Indiana University Press. of thought’, hopefully leading to genuine ‘Aha!’ experiences of Boyd, C.E. 2003. Rock art of cross-cultural understanding. the Lower Pecos. College Station: Texas A&M University Press.

I suggest that all such symbol- Deacon, J. 1992. Arrows as ism can and should be studied in Agents of Belief amongst the /Xam multiple media within a culture. Bushmen. Margaret Shaw Lecture Studied scientifically through No. 3. Cape Town: South symbolism, the great ideological African Museum. themes can be seen to spangle the folklore, animate ritual, and James, Wilmot 2004. Rock Art potentially illuminate rock art. and the Evolution of Human In answering questions about Imagination. Keynote Address, the meaning of rock art, a good Trust for African Rock Art Conference, “The Future of mode of operation is to clarify Africa’s Past,” Nairobi, Kenya, the penetration of both verbal 1-4 November. and visual art by ritually and socially useful ideas. In the long Le Roux, W. & White, A. (eds) run, it is social ideas, attitudes, 2004. Voices of the San. Cape values, and shared agreements Town: Kwela Books. that keep societies functioning in their environments. Vinnicombe, P. 1976. People of the Eland. Pietermaritzburg: Today, of course, as always, these Natal University Press.

38 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Dating of rock art in Africa

Aron Mazel1

La datation de l’art rupestre en Abstract Afrique This overview of the dating of rock art Cette vue d’ensemble de la datation de on the African continent considers the l’art rupestre sur le continent africain methodologies that have been used to prend en compte les méthodologies qui date African rock art and the current ont été utilisées pour dater cet art et la understanding of the rock art sequences compréhension actuelle des séquences and timeframes. It would appear that et des cadres temporels de l’art rupestre. while African rock art dates from at least Alors qu’il pourrait être daté d’au moins 70 000 years ago the majority of rock 70 000 ans, la plupart des oeuvres datent art dates back to the last 10 000 years, d’il y a 10 000 ans et peut-être même sur and perhaps even to the last 6000 years. les 6000 dernières années. En général, Overall, our knowledge of rock art dating notre connaissance de la datation de cet through the continent is patchy and some art à travers le continent est morcelée et is contested. Establishing a firm and certaines datations sont contestées. Etablir detailed chronological knowledge base for une base de connaissances chronologique rock art represents a key challenge facing détaillée et sérieuse représente un défi researchers working in Africa who desire essentiel pour les chercheurs travaillant en to meaningfully explore the specific socio- Afrique, qui désirent expressément explorer economic circumstances that informed its les circonstances socio-économiques production. There is an urgent need for spécifiques qui alimentent sa production. Il y increased research into the relative and a un besoin urgent pour une recherche plus absolute dating of Africa’s rock paintings intensive concernant la datation relative and engravings. et absolue des peintures et des gravures rupestres africaines.

Introduction to construct socio-economic substantial progress has been In Africa, as in other parts of the archaeological knowledge. This made in our understanding of world, the age of rock art has will need to be underpinned relative and absolute rock art been of interest to researchers by substantial advances in our chronologies since the 1970s and yet chronology has seldom understanding of relative and and these advances form the dominated research projects on absolute rock art chronologies. basis of the paper. Indeed, Africa the continent except in North The predicament of having two commands a special place in Africa where it has steered rich datasets which were difficult the history of rock art dating research for at least 70 years. to integrate was recognised by in that the first direct C14 date It is likely that the paucity of Inskeep (1971:102) several (500±140 BP2) was obtained chronological research largely decades ago: `We are in the on a black human figure finger- reflects our inability to directly embarrassing position of having painting from the Western Cape date the rock art and place it in a rich source of documents on a in South Africa (Van der Merwe secure historical trajectories. This phase of prehistory which often et al. 1987). has, in turn, inhibited research we can read (in part at least), into how the large corpus of rock but which we cannot arrange in This paper is an overview of the art produced by Africa’s hunter- groups, or in chronological order. dating of rock art on the African gatherers, agriculturalists and The situation is somewhat akin continent according to three pastoralists was embedded in the to that in the great ’cabinets’ of broad regions. I deal with North social, economic, and intellectual Europe before Thomsen proposed and Southern Africa first before fabric of these societies. Improving his Three Age System.’ considering Central Africa. The understanding of these factors conclusion considers some of the requires greater integration of While there is an urgent need challenges facing the dating of rock art data with excavated data for an increased commitment African rock art. to the dating of African rock

1 Aron Mazel art, it is nonetheless evident that North Africa International Centre for Cultural and Heritage Stud- North Africa is the only region ies, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, United Kingdom 2 All radiocarbon dates quoted in this paper are where dating has been central Email: [email protected] uncalibrated to rock art research for an

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 39 extended period and has been around patination, archaeological No painted stones have been the subject of considerable and climatic associations, and the recovered and ochre-stained ongoing disagreement. In 1974 portrayal of datable subjects. palettes are extremely rare, an Mori (1974:87) commented: exception being the recovery at ‘It is well known that there is In terms of superimposition- Toulkine Shelter (Morocco) of no consensus of opinion about ing, which according to Keyser an ochre-stained palette from a the absolute chronology of the (2001) represents the oldest and stratified archaeological deposit various phases of the rock-art of most commonly used technique (Glory 1955), which is probably the Sahara and North Africa.’ for sequencing rock art, a recent associated with the Neolithic These debates persist in the paper by Zboray (2003) has pro- period. Charcoal from Glory’s discussions of rock art dating, vided the first indication of the excavations produced a C14 which have been dominated by role that relative dating may play date of 2380±60 BP (Bayle Mori, Lhote and Muzzolini. This in North African rock art. Zbo- des Hermens et al. 1984), but section will briefly consider some ray (2003) identified at least five, thermoluminescence dating of of the methodologies that have and possibly up to eight layers, of three potsherds from this site

been used to date North African paintings in a small rock shelter has yielded dates between 4000- rock art before investigating the in the central Libyan Desert. Ac- 4400 BP (Ousmoi 1989) which, current understanding of the rock cording to him (2003:125), ‘The according to Sbihi Alaoui & art sequences and timeframes. bovids of layers 2-7 are sufficient- Searight (1997:91), resonate with ly similar in style to assume that Neolithic dates elsewhere on the The construction of North they belong to a development of Atlantic coast. The possibility African rock art chronologies has the same culture, within an in- exists, of course, that the ochre been hindered by: definite time frame.’ processed on the palette was not used for rock paintings. (1) the absence of painted and The earliest paintings are small engraved portable stones and human figures and giraffes and The use of patination for dating slabs in dated archaeological they clearly predate the ‘bovid- engravings represents the most contexts; ian’ phase which Zboray (2003) problematic and the most believes confirms the stratigraph- contested of the dating techniques (2) the paucity of excavated ic relationship that was long used in North Africa. Mori ochre-stained palettes; and thought to exist. This discovery (1974) submitted that patina is a significant development, pro- cannot be regarded as an infallible (3) until recently, the vides optimism that other similar guide to the relative chronology discovery of sufficient sites may be located and raises the of Saharan engravings because superimpositioning of the possibility that inferences drawn variations, often unrelated to art in a site to generate a from the sequencing of paintings age of engravings (such as the sequence. may, in time, be extended to the composition, situation, angle, Dating has tended to revolve study of the engravings. and the degree of porosity of the

40 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Fig. 1: A synthesis for the rock) would have influenced the One such study relates to Holl’s Goodman’s (1995:9) comment chronologies proposed by degree of patination experienced (2002) identification of multiple that the ‘paint contained some Lhote, Mori and Muzzolini by engravings. Yet, in the same classes of patination in the Dhar organic material from time of for North Africa (from Lutz paper, Mori (1974) uses patination Tichitt engravings - broadly deposition’ and their suggestion & Lutz 1995). to argue for a Palaeolithic age grouped into Dark Patina (DP) that the red might relate to for the earliest art. Additional and Light Patina (LP) - which he organic material derived from the problems associated with using believes date to 4000-2500 BP binder, and the black from either patination to date and sequence According to Holl (2002: 116) organic material in the binder or the engravings include water flow, the LP images might have been from charcoal. ponding dynamics, corrosion, used as ‘road maps’ in the Saharan presence/absence of organisms, landscape while the DP images The second AMS C14 dating surface roughness and proximity are associated with Late Stone Age project relates to a rock painting to the soil. It is for these reasons agropastoralists. Confirmation of from the Tradrart Acacus that schemes informed by the Holl’s divisions and dates will (southwest Libya). Using a degrees and colouring of patina require secure absolute dating of specimen supplied by Mori, even in restricted geographical the engravings. Sinobaldi et al. (1996) obtained a regions, and representing limited date of 6175±70 BP on what they time frames, must be treated with The last decade has witnessed believed to be a binding medium, caution. the emergence of AMS C14 but there is no mention of the rock art dating projects in Egypt type of painting that the date and Libya. The first of these was done on or its archaeological projects was undertaken by context. Hobbs & Goodman (1995) in the Northern Eastern Desert, The third, and most extensive, Egypt. Two AMS C14 dates were AMS C14 dating project was obtained: 4970±70 BP from a undertaken in the El-Hosh area red sample, taken from a painted (Upper Egypt) where Huyge dot surrounding a leopard, et al. (2001) targeted archaic and 4750±70 BP from a black looking engraved curvilinear sample, from a black line which designs (‘fish traps’) from three forms part of an enclosure. No sites. Four dates were obtained chemical analyses were done of on plant fibre trapped in patina: the dated samples and therefore 6690 ± 270 BP; 3740 ± 300 it is not known exactly what BP; 2450± 320 BP; and 2280± was dated other than Hobbs & 320 BP. According to Huyge et

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 41 al. (2001) the dates probably that there is general agreement before 12 000 years ago, while represent minimum ages and it is regarding the dating of the (later) Muzzolini has it starting some likely (‘but, admittedly, nothing Camel and Horse periods, while 6000 year later. Resolving these more than that’ (Huyge et al. disagreements revolve around substantial differences in dating 2001:72)) that the ‘fish traps’ the (earlier) Cattle and Bubalus/ will require new methodologies date back to between 13/12 Roundhead periods. While both and new lines of reasoning. No 000 and 7000 BP and therefore Lhote and Muzzolini consider doubt the successful application represent the oldest rock art the bovid period to have begun of AMS C14 dating will be in the Nile Valley. Whitley & around 6000 years ago, Mori central to this. Simon (2002a, b) have expressed has it originating around 8000 doubt about the reliability of C14 years ago. According to Smith The emergence of C14 direct patina dating and questioned the (2004:44) ‘no one disputes that by dating of rock art represents a efficacy of the El-Hosh dates. c.7500 BP, domestic stock existed major breakthrough even though In particular, they point to the in the Sahara’ and therefore it is some of the dates have not been irregularities in the atmospheric feasible that the cattle paintings published in adequate detail production of C14 isotopes and may date back to around 8000 and some of the dates have been their differential absorption in years ago. Differences of opinion contested. The implications of the biosphere. They also argue also characterise the dating of the these dates for the chronology that the organics within the rock end of the Cattle phase. Lhote of North African rock art are varnish might be ‘heterogeneous and Mori place it between 3000 unclear as they have yet to be in nature, age and therefore and 4000 years ago and Muzzolini linked with the periods that have origin’ and yield spurious dates. about 1000 years later. However, been identified. the greatest variation in the ages Watchman (2002) and Huyge of the different periods relate to Southern Africa (2002) disagree with Whitley the beginning and end of the Rock art dating in Southern & Simon (2002 a, b) but it is (engraved) Bubalus and (painted) Africa differs in several respects

beyond the scope of this paper to Roundhead periods, where vastly from that of North Africa: no elaborate on this debate, suffice different chronologies have been unifying thematic chronologies to say that the final word has yet presented by Lhote, Mori and extending back thousands of years to be heard. Muzzolini (Fig. 1). have been identified; the dating of rock art has generally not guided The overarching chronologies The most extreme example of research, with the exception proposed by Lhote, Mori and these differences relates to the of the geomorphological age Muzzolini for North Africa have beginning of the Bubalus period. estimates of rock engravings in been summarised by Lutz & Lutz Mori believes that this period the Northern Cape (Butzer et al. (1995; Fig. 1). This Figure shows originated during the Palaeolithic, 1979) and subsequent work on

42 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 in style and subject matter have provided the primary source of information about the age of Southern African rock art. The last decade has, however, witnessed a number of proactive initiatives to date the art, including:

(1) the relative dating through careful study of superimposed images in the eastern Free State (Loubser 1997), the Western Cape (Anderson 1996, Mguni 1997), the uKhahlamba- Drakensberg (King 1998; Russell 1997, 2000; Swart 2004), and the Eastern Cape (Pearce 2002);

Fig. 2: A synthesis of the the archaeological associations and engraved slabs and cobbles (2) the direct dating AMS C14 relationship between of the engravings (e.g. Beaumont (some of which is portable art dating of paintings in the paintings and excavation & Vogel 1989; Morris 1988), and associated with burials) have uKhahlamba-Drakensberg in the Western Cape (from and the AMS C14 dating been reported only from Southern (Mazel & Watchman 1997, Yates et al. 1994). projects in the Western Cape and Africa. No obvious explanation 2003); and uKhahlamba-Drakensberg (Van exists for this, although it is der Merwe et al. 1987; Mazel unlikely that it is primarily due (3) the cation-ratio dating of & Watchman 1997, 2003); and to the greater number of rock engravings in the Northern the fact that portable painted shelter excavations in southern Cape (Whitley & Annegarn and engraved rocks and slabs Africa. 1994). and ochre-stained palettes have been recovered from excavated Until recently the recovery of The relative dating of rock paintings dated deposits. Considering the painted and engraved slabs using superimpositioning has continent as a whole, it would and cobbles from stratified relied on the Harris Matrix, appear that excavated painted excavations, along with variations a methodological tool which

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 43 Site Date Description Reference

Blombos Cave >70 000 Engraved ochre Henshilwood et al. 2002

Apollo 11 Cave 25 - 27000 Painted stones Wendt 1976

Cave of Bees 10 500 Painted spall Walker 1995

Wonderwerk Cave 10 200 Engraved stone Thackeray 1983

Pomongwe Cave 9520 Painted spall Walker 1995

Bambata Cave 9000 Engraved stone Walker 1995

Matjes River Shelter 7750 - 5400 Painted stone Rudner 1971

Boomplaas Cave 6400 Painted stone Deacon et al. 1976

Wonderwerk Cave 5200-4000 Engraved stone Thackeray 1983

Pomongwe Cave 5000 -4000 Painted spalls Walker 1995

Springbokoog 1 4630 Engraved stone Morris 1988

Klasies River Cave 5 3900 Painted slab Binneman & Hall 1993

Steenbokfontein Cave 3600 Painted slabs Jerardino & Swanepoel 1999

Amis 10 2750 Painted slab Breuning 1989

Springbokoog 13 2710, 2520 Engraved cobbles Morris 1988

Klasies River Cave 5 2285 Painted stone Singer & Wymer 1969

was originally developed to Drakensberg rock paintings engravings calculated therefrom) Table 1: List of the painted understand complex excavation which has led to the proposed should be considered preliminary” and engraved stones that stratigraphies. In its application to chronological link between (Whitley & Annegarn 1994:193, have been recovered from rock art, each image is considered imagery at Ngwagwane 8 and see Morris 2002, for further Southern Africa predating 2000 years ago. A selection to be a visible unit of stratification the C14 dates. Discussion of the comments). of the known painted and and, as Russell (1997:22) noted, veracity of Swart’s connections engraved stones from the the Harris Matrix is ‘built up from are beyond the scope the paper, As mentioned in the Introduction, last 5000 years has been observations of superimpositions but the process of linking these the first AMS C14 date on a rock presented. of the painted images without relative and absolute rock art data painting was obtained on a black any reference to the subject or represents a significant advance human figure finger-painted on style of the paintings.’ The Harris in Southern African rock art top of an eland in the Western Matrix sequences have mostly research. Cape (500±140 BP, Van der been developed using single sites, Merwe et al. 1987). No further but Pearce (2002) studied the In terms of the direct dating C14 work has been undertaken position of eland and human of engravings, Whitley & in this area, but the AMS C14 figures in three rock shelters in Annegarn’s (1994) cation-ratio dating of rock paintings has been the Eastern Cape. Swart (2004) dating of engravings in the pursued in the uKhahlamba- sequenced paintings from a site in Northern Cape has yielded dates Drakensberg and the eastern each of the northern and southern of 5700 BP (range: modern to Biggarsberg (KwaZulu-Natal) uKhahlamba-Drakensberg 8400 years) 7500 BP (range: by Mazel & Watchman (1997, and included Russell’s (1997, 2100 to 10 000 years) and 7000 2003). This project has yielded a 2000) results from Main Caves (range1200 to 9400 years). direct date of 330±90 BP on an North in the central reaches in However, they believe that the eland painting from Esikolweni her regional synthesis, which is “age-assignments based on [the Shelter and eight dates on carbon the first of its kind in Southern cation-leaching curve] should be in the salt-rich crusts that underlie Africa. Of particular interest, is considered maximum-limiting and overlie the paintings. Swart’s (2004; see also Mazel & ages...[and that]…because only Watchman 2003) correlation two calibration points were used The carbon in four crusts of her results with the available in this study, the cation-leaching overlying the paintings at Main C14 dates for uKhahlamba- curve (and the numerical ages on Caves North and Highmoor 1

44 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 2002) and the painted stones from Apollo 11 around 25 000 years ago (Wendt 1976). Of some concern, however, are the large gaps in the sequence, particularly the 15 000 gap between the Apollo 11 painted rocks and the painted and engraved slabs that cluster around 10 000 years ago. This gap may represent a sampling problem reflecting the paucity of rock shelter deposits that have been dated back to that time or alternatively it could be that little or no art was done during that period. The increased number of painted and engraved stones and slabs during the Holocene, and especially during the last 5000 years, suggest an increase in artistic expression by hunter- gatherers. As mentioned before, no unifying chronological- thematic patterning is evident in the Southern African imagery as is reflected in the rock art of North Africa.

The painted spalls from Cave of Bees, Pomongwe and Bambata in the Matobos (Zimbabwe) originate from the walls of the rock shelters and therefore represent the earliest known dates to 2300-2900 years ago abandoned the uKhahlamba- parietal art in Southern Africa (maximum age), while the carbon Drakensberg between 1600 and indeed in Africa as a whole. in a crust underlying a painting and 600 years ago. Additional According to Walker (1995:140) at White Elephant Shelter dating of the art should allow the figures on the small spalls are dates back to 1930 years ago for more nuanced connections to usually indistinct except for one (minimum age). The time lapse be made between these datasets piece from Pomongwe which between formation of the crusts and stimulate further insights has a ‘probable human limb.’ and the painting is not known, regarding rock art and socio- Younger in date (minimum - but it is likely to be hundreds economic development, as has 3600 BP), but with considerably rather than thousands of years. been developed in the Western clearer (human) images are the This suggests that parietal art in Cape using relative dating of the painted slabs in Steenbokfontein the area predates 2000 years and rock art (Fig. 2, from Yates et al. Cave in the Western Cape may date back to at least between 1994). (Jerardino & Swanepoel 1999). 2500 to 3000 years ago because According to them (1999:545- the C14 dates do not derive from To look at the dating in Southern 6), the presence of white paint the oldest identified paint layers. Africa as a whole, Table 1 provides indicates that it is unlikely that a selected list of the painted the images were painted long The dating of the uKhahlamba- and engraved stones (predating before the slabs collapsed because Drakensberg paintings enables 2000 years ago) that have been white paint ‘is well known to be us to begin making connections recovered from rock shelter and fugitive within the greater corpus between the paintings and open-air excavations, indicating of Western Cape rock art and information derived from dating the great antiquity of Southern elsewhere.’ Finally, unique in excavated deposits; for example, African rock art, with engraved Africa is a painted slab recovered both datasets support the ochre at Blombos predating 70 from excavated deposits dated conclusion that hunter-gatherers 000 years (Henshilwood et al. back to 2750 BP at Amis 10 in

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 45 Namibia which fits back onto the the engravings were made done by Twa hunter-gatherers wall (Breunig 1989:35). with metal tools and there are generally before AD 1000, but While the rock art for the period two styles of execution which ‘some red paintings can survive before 2000 BP was made predate 1400 BP as there was no 5000 years if well protected and exclusively by hunter-gatherers agriculturist occupation in the the possibility exists that heavily the rock art in the following area containing the engravings weathered engravings may be period art was produced by between 1400 BP and 700 BP. greater that 10 000 years old’ hunter-gatherers, pastoralists and He has related the engravings (Smith 1997:21) although no agriculturalists. The art produced to two phases: Okanda (2300- additional support is offered for by the hunter-gatherers shows 1850 BP, Style A engravings with these dates. both continuity in subject matter linked punctuation pecking) and and the incorporation of new Otoumbi (1900-1400 BP, Style B Conclusion subjects, such as domestic animals engravings with linked pecking). The engraved pieces of ochre and colonial imagery, which from Blombos (>70 000 BP) and allow for approximate dates to In terms of the region as a whole, the painted stones from Apollo be given to the art. Based on relative chronologies have been 11 (ca. 25 000) indicate that subject matter and archaeological suggested for Tanzania (Masao rock art has a great antiquity associations the agriculturist 1979) and Zambia (Phillipson on the African continent, but it paintings and engravings would 1976; Smith 1997). According would appear that the majority appear to postdate AD 1000 to Masao (1979) the rock art of of rock art dates back to the last (see Maggs 1995; Prins & Hall central Tanzania may be grouped 10 000 years, and perhaps even 1994). Paintings and engravings into four phases, none of which to the last 6000 years. Overall, done by pastoralists belong in contain fine-line naturalistic however, our knowledge of rock the last 2000 years, and Smith images. Masao (1979:269) art dating through the continent & Ouzman (2004:512) have believes that the rock art is patchy and some is contested, commented that ‘At least some represents the ‘artistic expressions especially in North Africa. This Khoekhoen rock art in northern of different Late Stone Age/Iron state is reflected in Rowe’s (2001) and South Africa is more than Age cultures’ and concludes that statistics of rock art radiocarbon 1000 years old.’ (1979:272) ‘dating the rock art dates worldwide, which shows of central Tanzania by association that of the ca. 100 direct dates less Central Africa with datable archaeological than ten were from Africa. This is Central Africa has the weakest deposits, has not proved entirely inadequate when considering that relative and absolute rock art successful. The ochre pencils the first direct date was obtained chronologies of the three broad that have been referred to and from the Western Cape. regions covered in this paper, the rubbing stones tinted with which reflects the comparative pigment would suggest that the One of the problems associated lack of rock art studies when rock art of central Tanzania is at with weak relative and absolute compared to other regions. least 3000 years old, but some rock art dating is that it Encouragingly, AMS C14 dates may be as late as 200 years old.’ downplays the variety in rock art have begun to be reported from In eastern Zambia Phillipson expression and historical meaning Angola. Three dates have been (1976) has also recognised in favour of generalised social reported from one painting (a four stylistic phases, but unlike and economic understandings. pre-treated sample dated to 2340 the situation in Tanzania, To deepen our knowledge of the ±50 BP, untreated samples dated the earliest phase comprises specific socio-economic contexts to 1880±100 BP and 900±60 naturalistic representations, in which rock art was produced BP (Rowe 2001)) and Guitierrez which he (1976:186) believes we need to integrate knowledge (1996) reports a date of 1980±100 to be the ‘work of stone-tool- from rock art with excavated BP. Unfortunately there is scant using peoples’… [but]… with cultural and subsistence remains contextual information associated no knowledge of when the rock through linking chronologically with these dates and nothing art tradition began.’ The other informed patterns extrapolated further can be said about them. paint layers are associated with from rock art with interpretations agriculturalists and date back to drawn from excavated material. An interesting study has been the last ca. 2000 years. In a similar Clearly, there is an urgent need undertaken on the chronology of vein, Smith (1997) has recognized for increased research into the Iron Age engravings in Gabon, four traditions in Zambian rock relative and absolute dating where Oslisly (1996) has linked art with two later white painted of Africa’s rock paintings and engravings to agriculturist traditions done by agriculturists engravings. However, when material culture and settlement. during the last 1500 years and developing projects we must be According to Oslisly (1996), the earlier red painted traditions mindful of the caveat issued by

46 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Clottes et al. (1992) that ‘Direct Holl, A.F.C. 2002. Time, space, dating must always be performed Breunig, P. 1989. Archaeological and image making: rock art from to check archaeological investigations into the settlement the Dhar Tichitt (Mauritania). hypotheses and address particular history of the Brandberg. In: African Archaeological Review problems. Aimless dating would Pager, H. The rock paintings of 19:75-118. only provide unrelated data that the Upper Brandberg. Part I: Amis would have to wait until they Gorge: 17-48. Köln: Heinrich- Huyge, D. 2002. Perfect could be corroborated by other Barth Institute. archaeological sense. methods.’ International Newsletter on Rock Butzer, K.W., Fock, G.J., Scott, Art (INORA) 34:11-12. Acknowledgements L. & Stuckenrath, R. 1979. Dating and context of rock Huyge, D., Watchman, A., De My thanks are due to: David engravings in Southern Africa. Dapper, M. & Marchi, E. 2001. Coulson and the TARA Board Science 203:1201‑1214. Dating Egypt’s oldest ‘art’: AMS for inviting me to present a 14C age determinations of rock paper at the TARA ‘Rock Art: Clottes, J., Courtin, J. & varnishes covering petroglyphs the future of Africa’s past’ Valladas, H. 1992. A well dated at El Hosh (Upper Egypt). conference (Kenya, November Palaeolithic Cave: The Cosquer Antiquity 75:68-72. 2004) and for sponsoring my Cave at Marseilles. Rock Art trip; Janette Deacon and Ann Research 9:122-129. Inskeep, R.R. 1971. The future Macdonald for editorial input; of rock art studies in Southern and colleagues who very kindly Deacon, H.J., Deacon, J. & Africa. South African Journal of sent me papers and information Brooker, M. 1976. Four painted Science Special Publication 2:101- about the dating of rock art in stone from Boomplaas Cave, 104. Africa. Oudtshoorn Dis-trict. South African Archaeological Bulletin Jerardino, A. & Swanepoel, 31:141-145. N. 1999. Painted slabs from References Steenbokfontein Cave: the oldest Alaoui, F-Z.S. & Searight, S. Glory, A. 1955. Une nouvelle known parietal art in Southern 1997. Rock art in Morocco. industrie préhistorique. Les Africa. Current Anthropology Proceedings of the Prehistoric trièdres toulkiniens. Actes 40:542-548. Society 63: 87-101. du Congrès Pan-Africain de Préhistoire, Algiers 1952: 429-434. Keyser, J.D. 2001. Relative Anderson, G. 1996. The social dating methods. In: Whitley, and gender identity of hunter- Gutierrez, M. 1996. L’art pariétal D. (ed.) Handbook of Rock Art gatherers in the southwestern de l’Angola. Essai de chronolgie Research: 116-138. New York: Cape. Unpublished MPhil et d’interprétation. In: Pwiti, Altamira. dissertation: University of Cape G. & Soper, R. (eds) Aspects Town. of African Archaeology: Papers King, A.G. 1998. from the 10th Congress of the Pan Superimpositioning and the art Bayles des Hermes, R. de, African Association for Prehistory of Fallen Rock, Junction Shelter, Léon-Leurquin, J., Patou, M. & and Related Studies: 371-390. Didima Gorge, KwaZulu-Natal. Souville, G. 1984. La Grotte de Harare: University of Zimbabwe Unpublished BSc (Hons) project. Toulkine (Haut Atlas Marocain) Publishers. University of the Witwatersrand. et le Toulkinian. L’Anthropologie (Paris) 88:413-439. Henshilwood, C.S., d’Errico, F. Loubser, J.H.N. 1997. The use & Yates, R. 2002. Emergence of Harris diagrams in recording, Beaumont, P.B. & Vogel, of modern human behaviour: conserving, and interpreting rock J.C. 1989. Patterns in the age Middle Stone Age engravings paintings. International Newsletter and context of rock art in the from South Africa. Science on Rock Art (INORA) 18:14-21. northern Cape. South African 295:1278-1280. Archaeological Bulletin 44:73-81. Lutz, R. & Lutz, G. 1995. The Hobbs, J.J. & Goodman, S.M. secret of the desert: the rock art Binneman, J. & Hall, S. 1993. 1995. Leopard-hunting scenes of Messak Sattafet and Messak The context of four painted in dated rock paintings from Mellet, Libya. Innsbruck: Golf stones from the south-eastern the Northern Eastern Desert of Verlag. and Eastern Cape. Southern Egypt. Sahara 7:7-16. African Field Archaeology 2:89- Maggs, T.M.O’C. 1995. 95.

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 47 Neglected rock art: the rock 10th Congress of the Pan African stones from a coastal cave in engravings of agriculturist Association for Prehistory and South Africa. Nature 224:508- communities in South Africa. Related Studies: 361-370. Harare: 510. South African Archaeological University of Zimbabwe Publishers. Bulletin 50:132-142. Sinibaldi, M., Marchese, S., & Ousmoi, M. 1989. Desiderio, C. 1996. Radiocarbon Masao, F. T. 1979. The Later Application de la datation par dates for prehistoric rock Stone Age and the rock paintings thermoluminescence au Néolithic paintings at Tadrart Acacus, of Central Tanzania. Wiesbaden: Marocain. Unpublished doctoral Libya. In: Aumassip, G., Clark, Franz Steiner Verlag GMBH. thesis: Université Blaise Pascal, J.D., & Mori, F. (eds) The Clermond-Ferrand. Prehistory of Africa. Colloquium Mazel, A.D. & Watchman, A.L. XXIX: 75-83. International 1997. Accelerator radiocarbon Pearce, D. 2002. Changing men, Union of Prehistoric and dating of Natal Drakensberg changing eland: sequences in the Protohistoric Sciences. paintings: results and implications. rock paintings of Maclear District, Antiquity 71:445-449. Eastern Cape, South Africa. Smith, A. 2004. A prehistory American Indian Rock Art 28:129- of modern Saharan pastoralists. Mazel, A.D. & Watchman, A.L. 138. Sahara 15:43-58. 2003. The dating of rock paintings in the Natal Drakensberg and Phillipson, D. W. 1976. The Smith, B.W. 1997. Zambia’s the Biggarsberg, KwaZulu-Natal, Prehistory of Eastern Zambia. Ancient Rock Art: the paintings South Africa. Southern African Nairobi: British Institute in East of Kasama. Livingstone: Humanities 15:59-73. Africa. National Heritage Conservation Commission of Zambia. Mguni, S. 1997. The evaluation Prins, F.E. & Hall, S. 1994. of the superimpositioning Expressions of fertility in the Smith, B. W. & Ouzman, S. sequence of painted images rock art of Bantu-speaking 2004. Taking stock: identifying to infer relative chronology: agriculturists. African Khoekhoen herder rock art Diepkloof Kraal Shelter as a case Archaeological Review 12:171-203. in Southern Africa. Current study. Unpublished BA (Hons) Anthropology 45:499-526. dissertation: University of Cape Rowe, M.W. 2001. Dating by Town. AMS Radiocarbon analysis. In: Swart, J. 2004. Rock art Whitley, D. (ed.) Handbook of sequences in uKhahlamba- Mori, F. 1974. The earliest Rock Art Research. New York: Drakensberg Park, South Africa. Saharan rock-engravings. Antiquity Altamira. Southern African Humanities 48:87-92. 16:13-35. Rudner, J. 1971. Painted burial Morris, D. 1988. Engraved stones from the Cape. South Thackeray, A. I. 1983. Dating the in place and time: a review of African Journal of Science Special rock art of southern Africa. South variability in the rock art of the Publication 2:54-61. African Archaeological Society Northern Cape and Karoo. South Goodwin Series 4:21-26. African Archaeological Bulletin Russell, T. 1997. Sequencing 43:109‑121. rock paintings: the application Van der Merwe, N.J., Sealy, J. & of the Harris matrix to rock art Yates, R. 1987. First accelerator Morris, D. 2002. Driekopseiland at Main Caves North, Giant’s carbon-14 date for pigment from and ‘the rain’s magic power’: Castle Game Reserve, KwaZulu- a rock painting. South African history and landscape in a new Natal. Unpublished BSc (Hons) Journal of Science 83:56-57. interpretation of a Northern Cape dissertation: University of Cape rock engraving site. Unpublished Town. Walker, N.J. 1995. Late MA thesis: University of the Pleistocene and Holocene hunter- Western Cape. Russell, T. 2000. The application gatherers of the Matopos: an of the Harris matrix to San archaeological study of change Oslisly, R. 1996. The rock art of rock art at Main Caves North, and continuity in Zimbabwe. Gabon: techniques, themes and KwaZulu-Natal. South African Uppsala: Societas Archaeologica estimation of its age by cultural Archaeological Bulletin 55:60–70. Uppsaliensis. association. In: Pwiti, G. & Soper, R. (eds) Aspects of African Singer, R. & Wymer, J. 1969. Watchman, A. 2002. A reply to Archaeology: Papers from the Radiocarbon date for two painted Whitley and Simon. International

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The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 49 State-of-the-art-technologies in heritage documentation: the giraffe engravings of Oued Djerat Heinz Rüther1

L’état de l’art- les technologies Abstract dans la documentation du patrimoine: Les gravures des The paper discusses documentation girafes de l’Oued Djerat methods for the recording of rock art sites and uses the example of a site in Oued Les développements en Photogrammétrie, Djerat in the Tassili N’Ajjer Mountain Range laser scanning et d’algorithmes de in southern Algeria to demonstrate the use visualisation ainsi que certains programme of photogrammetry as a documentation tool. informatiques ont rendu possible Laser scanning is briefly discussed as an l’enregistrement spatial et digital et la alternative to photogrammetric recording. documentation de sites d’héritage, qu’ils soient architecturaux, rupestres ou des paysages culturels. Cet article décrit l’application de photogrammétrie de proximité pour enregistrer un site d’art rupestre situé dans les montagnes du Tassili N’Ajer au Sud de l’Algérie. Des exemples de cette technologie de laser scanning seront apportés.

Introduction Qualitative versus Traditionally, archaeological and Quantitative Documen- heritage sites have been recorded tation and documented by means of Drawings, descriptions and photographic images, written tracing are qualitative meth- descriptions, drawings, diagrams ods relying to a large extent on and, in the case of rock art, trac- personal interpretation, while ings. photography is restricted to two- dimensional representations, Later, photogrammetric docu- largely ignoring the third dimen- mentation was added to create sion. All these approaches have 3D representations in which not a significant subjective compo- only the paintings or engravings nent and are generally metrically are recorded, but also the shape inaccurate. Although this type of the underlying rock surface. of recording is essential, the au- Laser scanning has now emerged thor believes that it should not depending on the required accu- as the newest addition to the be the only way to document racy and the physical extent of a range of documentation tools rock art and that a quantitative specific site, and will have to be and recording methods. These approach should be added as a decided from case to case. In the tools can be used in a variety of recording method. In quantita- author’s opinion as a Geomati- combinations and at various de- tive recording, data capture and cian, the value of quantitative grees of sophistication, resolution representation should be recording, as defined above, with and accuracy. its objectivity and accuracy, lies in • objective and non-interpreta- its permanent record for present This paper will attempt to provide tive; and future researchers, while the a brief overview of the possible ap- • metrically correct; and qualitative approach informs and proaches to rock art documentation • true in colour and surface tex- feeds ongoing discussion and from a perspective of geometric ac- ture. generates understanding. curacy and reliability. Colour can be included here as a quantitative criterion as it can be Choice of Quantitative measured in the field and repre- Documentation Model 1 Prof. Heinz Ruther [email protected] University of Cape Town sented by digital numbers. Metric A representation of a three- South Africa correctness is a relative criterion, dimensional surface on a

50 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Fig.1.1 Fig.1.2 Fig.1.3

Fig.1.4 Fig.1.5

Fig.1.1 - 1.5: Possible approaches to the documentation of rock art on an undulating rock surface

two-dimensional plane without tance between points A and B Rubber sheeting (Fig 1.3) distortions is impossible, unless cannot be derived from measure- ‘Rubber sheeting’ is a process the surface is perfectly flat and, in ments between their respective adopted from satellite remote the case of photographic record- images A’ and B’, as the radial sensing, in which the digital pho- ing, the camera axis is at right displacement of the two points tographic image/s is/are stretched angles to the surface. varies with changing height dif- and modified to fit a number of ferences and camera positions. points, the coordinates of which Just as it is impossible to flatten Of the possible ways of recording are known in x, y and z , typi- out the skin of an orange with- a rock surface, the single photo is cally in a local coordinate system. out breaking or distorting it, it least accurate in respect of metric The coordinates of these control is impossible to represent an un- correctness. points can be established by con- dulating rock surface on a sheet ventional survey methods prior of paper or as a two-dimensional Unmodified multiple photo- to or after the photography. model on a computer screen with- graphs (Fig. 1.2) out distortions. For the recording As distortions of a single pho- Rubber sheeting, often incor- and presentation of the Giraffe tograph increase with distance rectly referred to as ‘rectification’ rock engraving panel, reported in from the image centre and with or more appropriately as geo-ref- this paper, a minimum distortion the angle of the imaged surface, erencing, removes some of the model was required in the inter- it is often advantageous to take a distortion caused by the central ests of optimal documentation. number of separate images, espe- perspective projection of a pho- In principle the following quan- cially in cases where the surface tograph. It does, however, not titative options are available. displays significant changes of fully correct the effects of the elevation or depth. projection and is especially inad- Unmodified single photograph equate for undulating surfaces, as (Fig 1.1) Although an improvement on the they occur typically on rock sur- A photograph or digital image single photo approach, this tech- faces and in shelters. Distortion is a central projection with the nique has the disadvantage that removal improves with an in- perspective centre in the objec- each image has its own scale and creased number of control points tive lens of the camera. Any it is impossible to create an edge and mathematical rubber sheet- depth variation in the surface of matched mosaic. Even if identi- ing models with larger numbers the recorded object will result in cal scales for all images could be of parameters. It must be noted a radial displacement of imaged generated, the orange peel effect though, that high order polyno- points, and in turn in a distor- would still make it impossible mials, offered in many software tion of distances between points. to generate a fully matched 2D applications for this process, For example, in Fig. 1.1 the dis- mosaic. can reflect over-optimistic error

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 51 budgets and lead to significant tances onto a single plane. In nal) suffer different degrees of new distortions in areas between mapping of the earth’s surface, foreshortening. One can change control points. this plane is typically the hori- the orientation of the reference zontal plane at sea level, making plane, but it is obviously not Ortho images (Fig 1. 4) it possible to measure horizontal possible to find a single orienta- Ortho image generation is a distances. For rock art documen- tion rectangular to all facets. A mathematical process used by tation a single reference plane is compromise can be achieved by photogrammetrists to change less, if at all, desirable. This be- projecting different surface facets the central perspective projection comes obvious when considering onto planes of different orienta- to an orthogonal projection, i.e. the extreme case of a multi-fac- tion, but again the orange peel the projection used in mapping eted surface with facets of this phenomenon will make it im- of the earth’s surface. While this surface parallel to the direction possible to create a single plane approach provides distortion-free of photography. In an orthogonal mosaic out of the separate sur- maps on which measurements projection such surfaces would faces. can be taken, its use in rock art appear as single lines, facets with documentation is limited, as it orientations in between the two An important technical aspect projects all points and thus dis- extremes (parallel and orthogo- of the ortho photo generation is

52 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 the need for a three-dimensional characteristics to, for example, coordinates of densely spaced surface model as well as the orien- emphasise body parts of a por- points distributed over the sur- tation parameters of the control trayed animal. face. Such a point cover, known points, both of which are derived as a point cloud, can be generat- from control points using well For the Tassili Giraffe panel the ed by photogrammetric methods, established photogrammetric al- 3D model generated by photo- laser scanning or with a reflector- gorithms. grammetry was chosen as the most less electronic theodolite. suitable method. The following Three-dimensional surface describes the 3D modeling proc- Photogrammetric model (Fig. 1.5) ess, both photogrammetrically modeling The last and best approach is and by laser scanning, in greater In the photogrammetric ap- the generation of a three-di- detail proach, stereo or, preferably, mensional surface model with multiple digital images of the the photographic images draped Generation of surface rock surface are taken. One of over the surface. The surface models - photogramme- these images is then automatical- model consists of a point cloud try versus laser scanning ly searched for interest points, i.e. of surface points with known The creation of a distortion-free points where the image changes x,y,z positions. Such points can digital 3D representation of a appearance, and in a subsequent

be derived through analytical or rock art site comprises, in princi- step, corresponding (conjugate) digital photogrammetry or by ple, two steps: points are found on the other im- laser scanning. The point density ages of the same surface section. depends on the required accuracy • creation of a 3D computer This process is known as image for the final model and the com- model of the rock surface matching (Baltsavias 1991). Once plexity of the modeled surface. containing the painting or a point position has been located The need for a surface model, or engraving. This model has no on more than one image, its 3D point cloud, is not unique to this photographic or other texture position can be determined by approach, as mentioned above it and merely describes the sur- means of standard photogram- is also required for the generation face shape; and metric algorithms. This process of ortho photos. What differs is • ‘draping’ digital images of the relies on the use of mechanically the availability of depth which is surface over the 3D model. stable calibrated cameras and the not part of the ortho image and This is a non-trivial process availability of specialised photo- which makes it possible to view which can be achieved by grammetric software. the surface from any desired di- a variety of algorithms and The efficiency of the photo- rection, thus giving the user the methods from photogramme- grammetric approach depends opportunity to choose the best try or computer vision. to a large extent on surface view point for each facet. It appearance, with a perfectly ho- also provides information about Modeling the surface is typically mogeneous surface providing no the artist’s use of rock surface achieved by determining the 3D points at all and best results being

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 53 achieved for surfaces with a high from sub-millimetre to centime- patterns, independent of the ap- level of variation in appearance. tre depending on factors such as pearance or texture of the surface. image geometry, distance from It must be noted though, that For example, when recording the the surface, quality of camera different surface texture and col- Laetoli footprints (Ruther 1998), and resolution and quality of the our can lead to inaccuracies and point clouds of up to twenty- images. outliers. Accuracy varies between thousand surface points for each a few microns to a few mm or footprint were generated pho- Laser Scanning cm, increasing with distance. togrammetrically over areas of Laser scanners determine 3D 20 by 10 cm, while the homog- point positions by measuring dis- The principal advantages of la- enous surface of a white wall of tances, as well as horizontal and ser scanning over close-range a Cape Dutch building provided vertical angles, to surface points photogrammetry emerging from only a few hundred points over in a grid pattern. In the time- previous work of the documen- an area of 10 m2. Point clouds of-flight method a laser pulse is tation of the Great Mosque and derived in this way are irregular, transmitted from the scanner Geresa at Kilwa (Ruther 2003) in emphasizing differences in sur- to the surface, reflected back to Tanzania are: face appearance as opposed to the scanner and the distance is the regular grid patterns of laser derived from the time elapsed • laser scanning provides direct scanners. between transmission and recep- and immediate access to the tion of the reflected signal. scan data making it possible The irregular photogrammetric to visually inspect the point pattern has the advantage over An alternative method uses phase cloud in situ and identify pos- grids of providing point infor- shift measurements for the deter- sible problem areas in the data mation along engraved lines mination of distances. In both sets in the field; or outlines of areas of different methods a surface covering point colour, which becomes relevant cloud is produced by scanning • the point cloud is obtained when extracting these features the surface by means of two os- without any additional for subsequent analysis. An al- cillating or rotating mirrors, one processing. Post-processing is ternative to image matching is moving vertically and one hori- similar to that for photogram- Fig. 2: View of Oued Djerat the determination of individual zontally, or by a combination of metry; and with the approximate position of the Giraffe site points by manual on-screen a horizontal instrument-rotation • only one set-up is required indicated by a white box. measurement. and a vertical mirror-rotation. for each surface. This saves There is no vantage point significantly on planning and on any of the surrounding The accuracy of photogram- Laser scan-derived point clouds execution time and is especial- rock faces close enough to metrically derived points varies cover the surface in regular ly advantageous for complex view the engraved lines

54 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 55 Fig. 3: The final 3D model of the giraffe panel in Ouet Djerat. The model covers an area of 15 by 15 m and is represented by about 5000 by 5000 pixels of 3 by 3millimeters each. The coloured lines, indicating the giraffes, the lion and the rider were drawn manually by on-screen digitizing of the engraved lines. The image is displayed here at a resolution of about 500 b 500 pixels ( or 1 % of its original size).

Fig. 4: A rotated image of the same panel, showing the 3D nature of the model

Fig. 5

Fig. 5: Line drawings of giraffes in GIS format with separate layers for each of the giraffes Fig. 6: Individual giraffe on a separate GIS layer

56 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 interior rooms. laser scanning becomes similar Recent developments in laser and at distances approaching scanning equipment allow for Close-range photogrammetry 100 m laser scanning provides a combination of scans with on the other hand appeared slightly higher accuracy; imagery captured by a built-in superior to laser scanning in camera. the following aspects: • cameras are significantly lighter, easier to transport and It is also possible to use an exter- • close range photogrammetry mechanically more robust nal camera and relate the digital provides texture related and, if than laser scanners; image to the scan by appropri- required, user selected points. ate mathematical procedures, Vector data, edges, corners • photogrammetrically ac- thus making it possible to drape and decorative detail can be quired photography provides the image over the surface. A identified and extracted more permanent records, allowing number of software applications, readily from images than is originally unplanned measure- either provided with the scanner possible for a point cloud. ments of detail at a later stage, or developed separately, allow for When using a laser scanner, while high-resolution scans this approach. this can be partly overcome by of detail can obviously not be high-resolution sub-scans of done without having the in- The final decision whether to use relevant detail; strument on site; and a laser scanner or photogrammetry depends on a variety of factors • photogrammetric point po- • for highly textured surfaces, such as availability of equipment, sition accuracy is typically point clouds can be generated software and expertise, accuracy higher for targeted natural at higher densities than laser requirements, site conditions and points at short distances (5 m scans. In laser scanning this location of site. In the author’s to 15 m), unless special high can however be overcome by opinion, at present the hybrid accuracy lasers are employed. multiple scans with slightly photogrammetry- laser scanning At larger distances the accu- changed orientation. approach would appear to be the racy of photogrammetry and best solution.

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 57 58 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 bottom of the Oued Djerat (Fig. Once the point cloud has been The Oued Djerat 2) there is no vantage point from produced by photogrammetry Giraffe Site which the thin engraved lines can or laser scanning, a surface TIN The site, a near horizontal, be seen as a total image, while an (Triangulated Irregular Network) slightly undulating rock surface observer standing immediately is calculated. A TIN algorithm of about 11 m by 8 m in extent, next to or on the site can only connects neighbouring surface contains a group of engraved view the giraffes at a very oblique points to form triangles covering giraffes and a lion. The outlines angle making it impossible to the entire surface. of eight of the giraffes are either gain an impression of the giraffes complete or nearly complete, as complete figures. It was one of Depending on the complexity, while for others only fragments the objectives of the documen- the number of triangles of a TIN of outlines remain. One of the tation to create a distortion free can vary between a few hundred giraffes carries a small rider, prob- image of the site as a whole, al- and a few million. ably a later, but not necessarily lowing a total bird’s eye view of recent, graffiti addition. The larg- the engravings. In the next step, corresponding est of the giraffes measures some image parts (practically micro or- 8 m from the hoof of the rear leg This is reminiscent of the Nasca- tho image) are allocated to each to the furthest point on its head. Palpa lines in Peru, which were of the triangles, thus creating a The engraved lines are between a documented photogrammetri- 3D computer model with a re- few tenths of a mm and 2 mm cally using aerial photography alistic photo texture. The model deep and vary in width from 2 to (Gruen 2000). can be converted to VRML for- about 8 mm. mat and readily inspected with a The overall objectives of the doc- VRML viewer. As the rock panel is located at the umentation were to:

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 59 • provide a permanent digital As it was impossible to find a The camera was calibrated on record of the site; position from where the panel site, an approach deemed neces- could be captured with a single sary to determine any changes of • generate a metrically correct photograph, it was necessary the camera parameters due to the image allowing for accurate to use a 3 m high ladder, espe- transport of the equipment over measurements; and cially constructed for the project, rough terrain. The images were from which photographs could taken over periods of 2 to 3 hours • produce a single overall image be taken. The camera used was a in the early morning and late of the engravings Nikon D100 digital camera with afternoon under optimal light a CCD imaging array of 3008 by conditions. Although this mini- 2000 pixels over a chip area of mized variations in brightness, Fieldwork 23.7 by 15.6 mm.The rock panel some differences in appear- The field campaign was led by was covered by moving the lad- ance were unavoidable. As the David Coulson, Trust for Afri- der in a grid pattern to 49 (7 by engraved lines were not deep, dif- can Rock Art (TARA, Nairobi) 7) positions. On each ladder set ferent shadows did not cause any accompanied by Alec Campbell, up, four images were taken, one significant difficulties. In order Victoria Waldock, ten Tuareg vertical and three oblique, with to provide scale and orientation, guides and the author. The field the camera pointed left right and sixteen control point positions, team entered Algeria in Taman- ahead of the ladder. distributed over the site, were de- rasset, from where a three-day termined using a theodolite. drive by 4x4 vehicles, past dra- This was necessary to cover each matic scenery and spectacular of the 49 sub-areas of the site Data Processing rock art sites, brought the group with more than one image. It In a first step, the images were to Djanet. In Djanet, equipment must be noted here that digital adjusted for differences in and luggage were transferred to photogrammetry makes use of brightness using standard image camel saddles and the expedition multiple images, as opposed to processing routines to produce a continued on camel back into traditional analogue or analytical uniform appearance for the final the Oued Djerat and to the Gi- photogrammetry where stereo mosaicing into a single image. raffe site. pairs are employed.

60 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Next, the camera (image) posi- jective of the documentation tions and orientations, as well as project, which was making the the xyz coordinates of some 600 giraffe engravings visible in their surface points were determined entirety, was not satisfied. It using an algorithm known in was therefore decided to screen- photogrammetry as ‘bundle ad- digitize the engraved lines under justment’. This low resolution large magnification and represent point cloud was derived by meas- them as coloured lines. uring identical points on each of the sets of the four images of the This was achieved by employing same surface area. This method Geographic Information System was chosen in favour of generat- (GIS) software in which each ing a high density point cloud by giraffe as well as a lion and the image matching algorithms, as rider were digitised on a separate described above. layer (coverage). GIS software capability makes it possible to The low resolution option was display the coverages in any com- acceptable because of the relative bination, such as all engravings flatness of the rock surface. It had together with the image (Fig 3), the advantage over the high den- all engravings without the image sity image matching approach of as a back drop (Fig.5) or any of resulting in considerably smaller, the giraffes on its own (Fig.6). and thus more manageable, datasets. This is especially relevant Conclusion Acknowledgements for subsequent visualisations on a The paper suggested that met- The author thanks the Trust for computer screen. rically accurate, quantitative African Rock Art for the opportunity documentation should be adopt- to document the Giraffe site and In the next processing step, the ed in addition to the conventional especially TARA’s Director, David Coulson, whose assistance during points were connected to form a recording methods for the docu- the project preparation and the TIN surface model and finally the mentation of rock art sites. fieldwork was invaluable. The 49 vertical images were segment- support of Alec Campbell and ed and draped over the surface The photogrammetric approach, Victoria Waldock throughout facets of the TIN. The final result as employed for the Tassili gi- the expedition is also gratefully of this processing sequence was a raffes, is generally suitable for the acknowledged. single three-dimensional surface quantitative documentation of model of the rock panel covered rock art sites. It provides a per- References Baltsavias, E.P. 1991. Multiphoto with segmented vertical images. manent, accurate and objective Geometrically Constraint Matching. The final image (Fig. 3) draped three dimensional record as well Mitteilungen 49, Institut fuer over the surface was formed by as a means to visually present the Geodesie und Photogrammetry, approximately 5000 by 5000 pix- data on a computer screen for in- Eidgenoessische Technische els covering 3 by 3 mm of rock spection. Hochschule, Zuerich. surface each. When shown from above, the appearance of the Laser scanning offers an al- Gruen, A. 2000. Signals in the Sand: 3D recording and visualisation of model is identical to that of an ternative to photogrammetry, the Nasca geoplyphs. International ortho photo (Fig.3), when rotat- provided a high-resolution cam- Archives for Photogrammetry and ed (Fig. 4) the three-dimensional era is integrated into the scanner, Remote Sensing , CD, Proceedings of nature of the model is visible. and the equipment is robust and the XIXth ISPRS Congress. Amsterdam. easily portable. In the case of en- Ruther, H. 1998. Photogrammetric Extraction of Giraffe gravings it is essential that the recording of the Laetoli Trackway. Images scanner is precise enough to de- Laetoli Project Report 1996-1998 Part VII: 68-103. Los Angeles: Getty When inspecting the final sur- tect the engraved lines. Conservation Institute. face model it became obvious that, because of the thinness of Ruther, H. 2003. 3D Modeling of the engraved lines, it would be Heritage Sites in Africa. A case study impossible to see the lines while in the World Heritage Site of Kilwa viewing the full rock surface on a Kisiwani. International Archives for computer screen. Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Science 34 (5/C15):175-180. This meant that the original ob-

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 61 Rock art research, conservation and social transformation

John Parkington1

La recherche, la conservation et Abstract la transformation sociale This paper argues that in the field of rock Cet article démontre que dans le art, research, conservation and job creation domaine de l’art rupestre, la recherche, la are inextricably linked in a web of potential conservation et la création d’emplois sont that has advantages both to archaeology liés de façon inextricable et génèrent un and society in general. I make the case by potentiel et des avantages tant au niveau describing field research into the rock art of archéologique qu’au niveau social. J’appuie the northern Cederberg and a job creation ma thèse en décrivant le cas dans le nord project, the Clanwilliam Living Landscape de Cederberg et le projet de création Project, in the same area. Conservation is d’emplois dans le périmètre, le Clanwilliam an important objective of research and a Living Landscape Project. La conservation potential outcome of social transformation, est un objectif important de la recherche et providing the glue that attaches the two un résultat possible de la transformation together. sociale, fournissant le moyen de consolider les deux aspects.

Southern African rock art notions of motive, but were not Fig. 1: Location of rock research has been transformed in anchored in sound scholarship. art and archaeological sites recorded by the the past 30 years largely through University of Cape Town in the recognition by David My point here is that we, as rock the Western Cape, and the Lewis-Williams and Patricia art researchers, can tell stories position of the study area Vinnicombe of the crucial of great significance about the in relation to the African significance of the Wilhelm rock art, stories that form an continent. Bleek and Lucy Lloyd archive invaluable resource for cultural housed in the University of Cape tourism projects. I illustrate this Town library. A second archive with reference to some well- exists in the form of more recent known images from the northern San Kalahari ethnographies. Cederberg. First, it is important Bluntly, staring hard at details to note that some 25 years of on the rock face is a necessary systematic field survey, built on but not sufficient activity for many earlier years of work by ethnographies of the San, the the researcher to understand the pioneering non-professionals, likely painters, can generate imagery. has resulted in a massive archive an almost endless stream of of knowledge and familiarity interesting and credible stories. The combination of detailed with the images from caves and It also illustrates clearly the recording and reference to rock shelters of the Western Cape mix of literal and metaphorical the historic and ethnographic (Fig. 1). This archive contains significance incorporated by literature on how San people see several thousand site records, tens painters into their compositions. (and saw) the world and their of thousands of photographic I first describe the imagery in place in it has made it possible images, site locational details broad terms, then deal with the for archaeologists to generate and search records. Journal stories that emerge from a closer narratives about the paintings articles and books have appeared, scrutiny. The fight element is and engravings that are both supported by the generalisations created by painting around a interesting and credible. Earlier, this archive makes possible. small recess in the rock surface and some more recent, versions (Fig. 2) to give the impression of the meaning of the art might The excellently preserved ‘Veg of a small cave from which a have been entertaining, certainly en Vlug’ or fight and flight scene group of humans peer, one of responded to contemporary from Sevilla in the Pakhuis region them shooting arrows. A second is a good example of a painting group of humans, arranged 1 Prof. John Parkington, [email protected] Department of Archaeology, that with careful scrutiny as a procession and depicted University of Cape Town and appropriate reference to apparently moving along a pair of

62 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 red lines, face the cave occupants line leads to another small figure generated by the structure of the and also shoot arrows. From with upraised arms. This bald, composition. Fig. 2: Rock painting known as ‘Veg en Vlug’ (Fight and the ‘cave’ several people, most but reasonably literal description Flight) where a small recess of them male, flee along more gives no hint of the intriguing Visible among the figures in the rock surface has been pairs of red parallel lines. One and enigmatic details that approaching the ‘cave’ are a used as a ‘cave’. human figure, clearly lying prone impart a deeper, but still obscure series of white linear shapes is connected by these same lines meaning to this apparently that arguably represent arrows Fig. 3: Double red lines join to a strange seated figure holding unified composition. of some kind (Fig. 5). They are people in the Veg en Vlug the end of the lines, neither of Take the double red lines for more or less horizontal white panel. them directly connected with the example. They cannot, as lines, nocked at the right hand Fig. 4: Veg en Vlug group cave itself. From the neck of the might appear at first glance, be end and all placed so as to touch approaching the ‘cave’. strange seated figure a single red footprints or a path, because they the grotesque figures with their connect the feet of those in the left hand end. Near the nock procession to the bow of one of end all have a small red painted the cave occupants (Fig. 3) and detail. emerge from the bowstring to enter the mouth (or face) of the We have found more of these tiny bow and arrow-wielding figure. red details near the figure with The strange figure reeling in the upraised arms and suspect that lines from the feet of the prone, there were originally white lines perhaps dead, figure cannot be carrying them too. It is noticeable manipulating footprints or a that all of these white ‘arrows’ path in any literal way. It is likely strike grotesque figures and none that the double, parallel red lines of them appear to have been are painted to illustrate some despatched from recognisable connectedness between people bows. By contrast there are two that is intangible but central to persuasive red arrows depicted in the meaning of the composition. mid-air and plausibly shot from Fig. 2 The attachments to feet, hands, the two clearly depicted red bows equipment and mouth probably being used. Again the painter indicate the nature of the has organised these details to connection but are not explicit make a contrast between arrows enough to provide a definitive that more or less reinforces the narrative. difference between ‘normal’ and ‘grotesque’ figures. Close inspection of the human figures reveals that some of It should be obvious from them (all those in the cave, all these descriptions that even the those fleeing and the prone informed perceptions of rock figure) are ‘normal’ in the sense art researchers fail to reveal the that they resemble many other meaning of the details or the finely executed human figures intentions of the painter(s). in the local painted record. The We can make some, admittedly group approaching the cave and limited, progress by incorporating the seated figure reeling in the the comments of Bleek and Fig. 3 double red lines are, however, Lloyd informants, as well as far from normal and have an those reported by later Kalahari Fig. 4 assortment of horns, tusks and ethnographers, though these other odd physiological features were made in contexts far from (Fig. 4). Many, but not all, of the rock face. The double parallel these features are produced by lines, for example, recall the use of superimposing white painted the term (translated by Bleek and details over the red bodies. The Lloyd as) ‘strings’ in the archive. painter has gone to some trouble //Kabbo, for example, used the to distinguish the attacked from string metaphor to express the the attackers by adding grotesque connections of his thoughts, elements to almost all of the latter his thinking strings, and to the figures. The effect of this is to give attachment he felt to the land he some content to the opposition lived in and used regularly. The

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 63 /Xam used this kind of metaphor the rock paintings are a national initiative, 20 members of the local to invoke connectedness and to asset, not the private domain of community have been employed refer to intangible connections archaeologists, nor the owners. as trainee craftspeople, guides between people and land. They If fencing, legislation and the and caterers. Training (Fig. 7) has also spoke about the power of secrecy of researchers will not do included instruction in computer ritual specialists to influence the the job, what will? Surely the only skills, heritage, crafts, life skills, behaviour or impact the well- effective long-term fence around first aid, entrepreneurship, book- being of others at a distance. our rock paintings is education, keeping, guiding, expression Kalahari informants also referred the committed attention of and customer care, catering and to ‘shimmering white arrows of the public. To this end we have nature conservation. misfortune’ that can harm people established the Clanwilliam when shot at them by malevolent Living Landscape Project. This programme is administered antagonists. Both archives through the Krakadouw Trust, refer to the habit of malevolent Living Landscape is a community established with funds from the ritual specialists of transforming based heritage and education Department of Environmental into other forms and harming project aimed at returning the Affairs and Tourism, and run innocent rivals. archaeological archive to the from the property adjacent to Clanwilliam area as material for the UCT Field School in Park Despite the attractiveness of curriculum development and Street (Fig. 8). The garages of this these stories and the beauty of the job creation. With funding from property have been converted into paintings, we regularly encounter the University of Cape Town, a workshop and craft outlet that

Fig. 5 Fig. 6 terrible acts of vandalism (Fig. 6). the Canadian International serve as the focal point for craft Fig. 5: White ‘arrows’ in the Ironically, and tragically, some of Development Agency, Anglo sales, catering and guided tours of Veg and Vlug painting. these graffiti have probably been American Chairman’s Fund, the local rock paintings. Two written Fig. 6: Vandalism at a daubed by descendants of the National Research Foundation, texts, The Mantis, the Eland and rock painting site in the painters themselves. Nonetheless, the National Lottery Distribution the Hunter and Cederberg Rock Clanwilliam area. the question is how to defend the Fund, and the South African Paintings, as well as a Mantis CD thousands of painted caves and Ministries of Arts and Culture have been produced to enrich the rock shelters from the actions of and Environmental Affairs and rock painting tours offered by graffitists. Tourism, we have established our guides. a set of teaching curricula for We obviously cannot fence local and visiting school groups, The project realised its first income every one, nor will our excellent and a job creation programme in the form of sales of books, legislation effectively protect designed to generate sustainable tours and crafts during the August sites that are scattered across the small businesses built around the and September 2002 spring landscape, impossible to police local archaeological record. flower season and by early 2005 and dramatically vulnerable to generated about R15 000 (about the malicious of intent. Nor, as Professor Njabulo Ndebele, Vice US$2500) monthly turnover. in the past, can archaeologists Chancellor of the University of and landowners hope to protect Cape Town, is the Patron of the Underlying this initiative is sites by not revealing their Clanwilliam Living Landscape the intention to celebrate the locations to the public. Clearly Project. In the job creation achievements of pre-colonial

64 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 people, to recognise the survival a twinning relationship between of pre-colonial landscape names, the municipality of Cederberg to involve communities actively and the French Dordogne town in heritage planning, and to of Les Eyzies de Tayac, which make use of local knowledge and prides itself as the ‘World Capital local cosmologies, such as those of Prehistory’. The mayor of Les in the Bleek and Lloyd archive, Eyzies visited Clanwilliam in in place of colonially imposed November 2002 and 2004. versions. This attempt to reclaim the past has been recognised and The intention is to build archae- endorsed by a wide spectrum of ology and heritage as a strong the local community in the form pillar of the regional Cederberg economy, as it is in the Dordogne and many other parts of Europe. Building on a strong reserve of community support, the next phase of the Living Landscape Project is to develop a Heritage Park at the southern edge of the Clanwilliam municipal area .

Fig. 7

Fig. 9

This involves the rehabilitation of the town rubbish dump, the reclaiming of the wetland area that has been impacted by waste disposal, the eradication of alien vegetation along the Jan Dissels Fig. 8 River and the development of archaeological sites along the river Fig. 7: Trainees at the Acknowledgements of enthusiastic participation in banks. This area is close to the Clanwilliam Living We gratefully acknowledge the Landscape Project. events organized by Jazzart and town of Clanwilliam and con- support of: the Department the Magnet Theatre through the tains a rich complex of geologi- of Environmental Affairs and Fig. 8: The Krakadouw Trust Living Landscape Project such cal, botanical, archaeological and Tourism, the Department of property in Clanwilliam. as the annual Spring Lantern historical localities set in a mag- Arts and Culture, the National Parade in which hundreds of nificent Cederberg landscape. Es- Fig. 9: Participants in the Lottery Distribution Board, local children participate (Fig. 9). tablishing and maintaining this Spring Lantern Parade the University of Cape Town, The CLLP has also received the Living Landscape Heritage Park at the Living Landscape the Canadian International Project. 2002-3 Entrepreneurship Award will generate sustainable jobs for Development Agency, the Anglo- from the Clanwilliam Chamber many Clanwilliam residents and American Chairman’s Fund and of Commerce for developing new extend the tourist potential of at UCT, Heinz Ruther, Pippa business for the town. As part of the region. Skotnes and Mark Fleishman. the initiative, we have proposed

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 65 For whom the bell tolls: rescue recording of petroglyphs and rock gongs in the Merowe Dam Reservoir area of the Fourth Nile Cata- ract (Sudan)

Cornelia Kleinitz1

Pour qui sonne le glas: mission Abstract de sauvetage des pétroglyphes et des roches qui résonnent A major challenge for rock art research (rock gongs) du lac de retenue and heritage management is to counteract de la quatrième cataracte du Nil the effects of economic and infrastructure (Soudan) development that destroy substantial numbers of rock paintings and engravings. Un défi important pour la recherche et la Threatened rock art must be recorded gestion du patrimoine est de contrecarrer adequately but although the rock art and the les effets du développement économique et landscape setting of sites is receiving some des infrastructures qui détruisent un nombre attention, the focus tends to be on its visual substantiel de peintures et de gravures characteristics only. Non-visual aspects of rupestres. L’art menacé doit être répertorié rock art, such as sound or touch, may also efficacement et bien que certains sites have played an important role, however. fassent l’objet d’attentions articulières, le The intriguing rock art landscape on Ishashi centre d’intérêt tend à se limiter à ses Island in the area of the Fourth Nile Cataract caractéristiques visuelles. Cependant, in Sudan that will be flooded by the Merowe les aspects non visuels de l’art rupestre, Dam extension in 2008, is presented as tels que le son ou le toucher, peuvent an example of how research and public également avoir jouer un rôle important. appreciation can be enhanced with sound L’exemple de ce paysage intriguant sur l’île and film. A freely accessible multi-media Ishashi dans le périmètre de la quatrième online archive is being developed to ensure cataracte au Soudan, qui sera noyé par the survival and accessibility of rock art and l’extension du barrage Merowe en 2007, est related non-visual aspects such as rock présenté comme un exemple de la façon gongs and performance, at least in a virtual dont l’appréciation publique et scientifique sense. peut être renforcée grâce au son et au film. Un site multimédia accessible gratuitement se met en place pour garantir la survie et l’accessibilité de l’art rupestre et les aspects non visuels tels que les roches qui résonnent (rock gongs) et les célébrations, au moins dans un sens virtuel.

Introduction funding restrictions, how can The Fourth Nile Cataract region Infrastructure and economic rock art be recorded adequately in northern Sudan, which will development will pose a major under rescue conditions, which be flooded to a large extent after challenge for rock art research often only allow one site visit? the completion of the Merowe and heritage management on Indeed, which aspects of the Dam in 2008, serves as a current the African continent in the 21st rock art resource are recorded? example of some of the challenges century. Large-scale building While increasingly gathering faced by rock art research (Fig. projects, such as the construction information on the landscape 1). The Fourth Cataract region of oil pipelines and dams, may setting of rock art sites and panels, is characterised by extensive rock destroy substantial numbers of documentation methodologies outcrops on both banks of the pictographs and petroglyphs. have tended to focus on recording Nile and on its numerous river Rock art rescue recording will visual characteristics of rock art islands, many of which contain thus play a significant role in only. Non-visual aspects of rock often extensive petroglyph sites. providing information about the art, such as sound or touch, are Large numbers of zoomorphs, symbolic universes of past African often not considered although most commonly cattle and camel peoples. Faced with time and/or they may have played important forms, birds and giraffes, some roles both when making and anthropomorphs, boats, as well 1 Cornelia Kleinitz [email protected] using rock art (e.g. Ouzman as various geometric motifs, such National Museum of Ethnology Netherlands 2001). as crosses, were recorded during

66 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 recent rescue campaigns. Diffuse of a large part of the Nile valley (Ahmed 2004). The hydroelectric non-figurative zones of percussion between the First and Second power generated by the dam is marks and/or cup marks which Cataracts, submerging an ancient hoped to double the Republic of were also encountered, however, cultural landscape containing the Sudan’s energy output and were often not documented; not only numerous temples and to allow development of many these marks were only recently tombs, but also thousands of rock sectors of the national economy. recognised to be visual traces of art panels, thought to date from sound making (Kleinitz 2004) the Predynastic to the Medieval In contrast to the Aswan High (Fig. 2). Rocks from which a periods (Červiček 1974, 1982). Dam campaigns, the effect metallic bell-like sound emanates Various international missions of the Merowe Dam on the when struck, so-called ‘rock documented petroglyphs cultural landscape of the Fourth gongs’, have since been recorded (Almagro Basch and Almagro Cataract and its people has at numerous rock art sites in the Gorbea 1968; Hellström & hitherto received only limited Fourth Cataract region, thus Langballe 1970; Verner 1973; international attention. In demonstrating a strong non- Curto et al. 1987; Otto & addition to the human impact visual aspect (Kleinitz and Olsson Buschendorf-Otto 1993; Váhala of the dam project - about 48 2005). Rock gongs have been & Červiček 1999) and, more 000 local farmers of the Manassir reported from various parts of rarely, pictographs (Bietak & tribe are to be moved to several the African continent, especially Engelmayer 1963) in the region. re-settlement areas, often great during the 1950s and 1960s (see Most of the rock art is now distances from their former Fagg 1997 for a gazetteer). Yet, submerged in Lake Nasser, and homes - a largely unexplored interest appears to have faded thus lost for further study. archaeological landscape is since these early reports, with the being threatened. While some result that evidence for sound At the beginning of the 21st impact assessments were carried making is still infrequently century another - and probably out in the area in the late 1980s recognised and recorded today. not the last - dam is being (e.g. Leclant 1993; Montluçon The current recording campaigns constructed on the Nubian Nile. 1994), large-scale surveys and of the Fourth Nile Cataract The Merowe Dam in Upper excavations with international are providing an opportunity Nubia is located in the Fourth participation have only been to define and study acoustic Nile Cataract region upstream undertaken since the late 1990s, phenomena in rock art and to from the ancient monuments and especially since 2003, Fig. 1: Location of the proposed Merowe Dam and reservoir in the Sudanese Nile valley (after Ahmed 2004, fig. 194).

Fig. 2: White percussion zones on a rock gong complex overlooking the Dar el-Arab region (site 3-Q-123).

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

investigate their interplay with of Gebel Barkal, Sanam and as part of the Merowe Dam visual aspects of Nilotic rock art Nuri, and the modern towns of Archaeological Salvage Project landscapes. Kareima and Merowe (see Fig. (MDASP) (e.g. Paner 2003a 1). After completion of the dam and b; Welsby 2003; Ahmed Drowned rock art in project a lake approximately 2004; Fuller 2004; Wolf 2004). the Nile valley: the 170 km long, up to 4 km wide Although the current rescue Aswan and Merowe and with a maximum water level efforts are of a smaller scale than Dam projects of between 290 and 300 m above those of the UNESCO Nubian The building of the Aswan High sea level is expected to inundate Campaign of the First Cataract Dam in Lower Nubia in the the fertile Nile valley between region in the early 1960s, it 1960s resulted in the flooding the Fourth and Fifth Cataracts is hoped that the momentum The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 67 created by the Merowe Dam seven boulders with often with graphic recordings of sites, project will result in a similarly multiple zones of percussion panels and motifs, of view sheds detailed archaeological map of marks, were recorded (Kleinitz and environments, are time-and the Fourth Nile Cataract region. 2004) (Fig. 3). The Ishashi island labour-intensive, however. rock art survey demonstrated Rock art in the the potential of detailed studies The conflict between using fast but Merowe Dam reservoir of confined rock art landscapes superficial, or more accurate but area in the Fourth Cataract, time-intensive recording methods Already the first impact documenting all human-made is central to rescue recording assessments pointed to the marks on natural rock surfaces efforts, and a compromise needs presence of a rich body of within a defined area, for gaining to be found between breadth and petroglyphs in the Fourth Nile a better understanding of visual depth of recording. In the case Cataract region (e.g. Leclant and non-visual aspects of making of the Fourth Cataract surveys, 1993; Montluçon 1994). Since and using Nubian rock art over a general overview of the rock then surveys in the respective time. The recording methodology art of the survey areas was at the national and international was developed in response to main objective, with some case concessions have encountered past rescue projects in the Nile studies focusing on a selection numerous rock art sites in the valley undertaken during the of sub-regions, such as insular area (e.g. Mohammed & Hussein construction of the Aswan High landscapes, wadi systems, etc. 1999; Paner 2003a and b; Welsby Dam, while also taking into These were documented in great 2003; Kleinitz 2004; Wolf account recent developments in detail, with pedestrian surveys 2004). As most documentation rock art research. undertaken to identify all rock is carried out as part of larger art sites in a given area (Kleinitz archaeological surveys, rock Rock art rescue 2004; Kleinitz & Olsson 2005). art sites are usually mapped in recording in the Fourth Detailed written and photographic relation to other archaeological Nile Cataract information on sites, panels and sites and to landscape features, Rock art rescue recording poses motifs were recorded, including providing valuable data for specific challenges, as often the documentation of other landscape studies. However, due large areas with numerous archaeological remains at rock art to the sheer number of rock rock art localities are surveyed localities. Sites, panels and motifs art sites, such maps are often under extreme time pressure, were photographed in relation incomplete, giving an inaccurate and re-visiting and re-recording to each other. As photographic impression of the distribution rock art sites to answer new recording frequently cannot of sites and motifs. Also, research questions is frequently adequately represent documentation tends to focus on impossible. While no recording superimpositions on panels or larger, especially interesting and/ effort can be exhaustive, rescue deeply patinated petroglyphs, or easily recognisable sites and documentation should ideally some panels were traced on plastic motif types. Studies dedicated provide as broad a data base as sheets, others drawn to scale (Fig. specifically to rock art are rare, and possible. Such data sets are shaped 4). Digital video recording was little in-depth research on Fourth by current research interests. The employed in documenting the Cataract rock art has hitherto Lower Nubian rock art rescue relation of sites and panels to been undertaken (Kleinitz 2004; campaigns of the 1960s, for each other, as well as view sheds Kleinitz & Olsson 2005). example, published data sets from sites and panels. It was also primarily restricted to selections used to record the sounds that In early 2004 an intensive of individual or small groups of emanated from rock gongs when survey of Ishashi, a river island motifs, often removed from their struck. The development of in the concession of the Sudan panel contexts. Information on digital technology, such as high Archaeological Research Society the landscape setting of the sites resolution digital photography (SARS), was undertaken, with and panels, or on the spatial or digital video, offers new the intention of creating a full relationship of panels or motifs opportunities for recording and rock art record of this insular to each other was minimal, making large data sets accessible. landscape. At 33 sites more permitting motif-based studies Photographs no longer need to than 350 boulders with rock only. Recent theoretical concerns be confined to single panel or art were identified, with panels about the landscape contexts of motif shots. Location contexts primarily containing cattle rock art, or non-visual aspects of can be easily and cheaply filmed motifs. Additionally, 25 slabs making and using pictographs or photographed. Virtual archives or boulders with between one or petroglyphs, require a much and online presentations, which and eight zones of percussion broader context-based approach. are being developed for the marks, and 17 groups of up to Extensive descriptions and Fourth Nile Cataract rock art

68 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Fig. 3: Rock gong with multiple percussion zones and a small percussion stone on its surface (site 3-J-048 on Ishashi Island).

Fig. 4: Tracing of a group of giraffes in situ at site 3- Fig. 3 Fig. 4 O-031 on Ishashi Island. corpus, are able to store large surfaces with small rocks and sounds when struck with a hard collections of digital data. These resulted in white percussion object. They have been defined can be made accessible cheaply marks. This intrusive method by Fagg (1997:2) as “naturally and freely for research, for both could not have been implemented situated and naturally tuned the local communities and if the preservation of the integrity rocks, boulders, exfoliations, interested public within and of the rock gongs had been of stalactites and stalagmites which beyond the African continent. paramount importance. Valuable resonate when struck and information on the tonal range show evidence of human use as While time pressure is one of of these instruments and their idiophones…They seem to be of the negative aspects of rescue use would have been lost. Rescue any shape or size; some may have recording, it must be stressed contexts may thus repeatedly pose been repositioned slightly and that rescue documentation also the dilemma of having to choose very occasionally stone wedges offers opportunities to study between gaining important have been added … Several rock art landscapes that would information on a vanishing different notes can usually be not normally arise. A large area resource, or adhering to rock art obtained from a single boulder - in the case of the Fourth Nile recording ethics propagating non- ... and resulting from percussion Cataract region an area that intrusive recording methods. an abraded area may show on had not before attracted much the edge of a rock; alternatively interest - is surveyed within a Auditory aspects of hollows or ‘cupmarks’ are relatively short period of time. rock art landscapes formed”. While rock gongs have Detailed data sets on topography “The visual primacy of rock art been encountered in different and on archaeological sites in a imagery can sometimes blind the types of rock, they are frequent given landscape usually become researchers to equally important in granite (Fagg 1997:5). available; these are of utmost but less obvious, non-visual aspects According to Fagg (1997:6) it is a value for the construction of rock art.” combination of “physical texture of past symbolic landscapes. Ouzman 2001:237 of the rock, together with its Rescue recording also offers the shape, size and position” which option of using more intrusive Within its rich collection of determines if a rock resonates or recording methods than is thousands of petroglyphs, the not, and its tonal range. usually recommended in rock rock art landscape of the Fourth art research. For example, after Nile Cataract region contains a Phenomena included in Fagg’s their initial documentation, strong acoustic component in the above definition are elsewhere digital video recording of rock form of numerous rock gongs and referred to as ‘sounding stones’, gong phenomena in the Fourth rock gong complexes. Rock gongs ‘ringing rocks’, ‘bell rocks’, Cataract region involved the are percussion idiophones, self- ‘lithophones’, ‘rock chimes’ and beating of the marked rock sounding instruments producing others. The term ‘rock gong’ is

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 69 now well established, although world, they have been reported art, and their role in the mba the use of the term ‘gong’ for most frequently from the African pre-marriage ritual, among the describing unworked resonant continent, where they were used Marghi people of Nigeria. slabs or boulders has been recently as signalling devices (Fagg Rock gongs and criticised (e.g. Montagu 1965). 1956; Davidson 1959; Conant petroglyphs and 1960), in a variety of ritual in the Fourth Nile In order to distinguish between contexts, such as fertility rituals Cataract region the various rock gong phenomena, (Fagg 1956; Morton-Williams The existence of rock gongs in they can be described according 1957), rain making (Lanning the Sudanese Nile valley was to the number of slabs or 1958), circumcision and other reported at the Sixth (Fagg 1997) boulders apparently forming one initiation rites (Fagg 1956; and the Third Cataracts (Edwards percussion instrument. Single Conant 1960; Vaughan 1962), & Osman 2000; Jalal & Bell slabs or boulders are termed as well as for entertainment. 2000). Rock gong phenomena ‘rock gong’, while ‘rock gong are now being recognised in complexes’ comprise two or more In some instances rock gongs have great numbers among the granite slabs or boulders. been found in close proximity hills and outcrops of the Fourth to additive or subtractive rock Cataract region, where they The slabs or boulders themselves art, such as in Nigeria (Fagg are most commonly found in can be distinguished according 1956, Morton-Williams 1957; close proximity to petroglyphs, to the number and types of Vaughan 1962), Tanzania (Soper offering an opportunity to study percussion zones present, more or 1968) or Uganda (Lanning 1958; the relationship between visual less dense and deep zones of peck Jackson et al. 1965), and in these and non-visual aspects of rock art marks resulting from striking the instances their use may have making and use (Kleinitz 2004). resonant rock surfaces (Kleinitz been closely related to that of On Ishashi island cattle motifs 2004). the pictographs or petroglyphs. are often found in the vicinity Vaughan (1962), for example, of or even on resonant slabs or While rock gongs have been discussed the interrelationship boulders, pointing to a close found in many parts of the between rock gongs and rock conceptual relationship between

70 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 sound making and cattle forms. river island Umm Deras in the older cattle imagery underlying Where cattle petroglyphs were SARS concession (Kleinitz & younger camel and cross motifs placed on resonant rock surfaces Olsson 2005) and on the large in the vicinity of or on rock their creation would have been island Us in the concession of the gongs (Fig. 7). While some rock accompanied by bell-like sounds. Humboldt University Nubian gongs, usually those located In some cases non-figurative Expedition (HUNE). In these some distance from modern percussion zones overlie cattle regions rock gongs are usually settlements, are well patinated, motifs, post-dating them (Fig. found in close proximity to camel dating their use back in time, 5), while in other cases they are and cross motifs, indicating that others were used relatively roughly contemporary, judging they may have been used during recently, judging from the lack from similarities in patination. the Christian Medieval period (c. of percussion zone patination. The date of cattle petroglyphs and 6th-15th centuries AD). Crosses Locally, when referring to rock related rock gong phenomena is as are even found on the surfaces of gongs, the term nugara (drum) is yet unresolved, as the chronology some rock gongs (Fig. 6). used, giving some indication as to of Upper Nubian rock art still the recent use of these percussion requires in-depth research. While The function(s) of these instruments. According to local cattle motifs in Nilotic rock art instruments remain(s) elusive. informants, today rock gongs are have been dated to the Third In some cases they may have used for children’s entertainment and Second millennia BC (e.g. played a role in Christian faith. only. Červiček 1974, 1982; Allard- In neighbouring Ethiopia, for Huard 2000), it seems that they example, resonating rocks are still Percussionists and persist well into the Medieval used today as church bells (Fagg audiences in the period in the Fourth Nile 1997:8). Detailed investigations Fourth Nile Cataract Cataract corpus. into these instruments and their Rock gongs are found in a variety location during the current rescue of locales: in the vicinity of the Intra-regional differences in campaigns will hopefully provide fertile belt along the banks of motifs and the association of information on audiences and the Nile as well as in the wadi petroglyphs and rock gongs possible use contexts. systems and in the relatively were revealed by surveys in late hostile environment of extensive 2004 and early 2005 in the Dar The origin of rock gong traditions zones of rubble and boulders. el-Arab and et-Tereif regions may date far back in time and it Varying in their landscape on the left (eastern) bank of is possible that older traditions situation, they also differ in the Nile, as well as on the large were adapted. This is indicated by their size, conspicuousness,

Fig. 5 Fig. 6

Fig. 5: Percussion zones overlying older cattle motifs and an anthropomorph (site 3-O-030, Ishashi Island).

Fig. 6: Rock gong complex with a wheel-cross and two Latin crosses on the main slab (site 3-O- 076, et-Tereif region).

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 71 accessibility and intensity of how these instruments were Cataract region. While use. This diversity indicates that played in the past. Rock gongs metallic bell-like sounds activities at the various rock gong and rock gong complexes are similar to xylophones sites may have differed in type, in known to have been used as emanate from some, others motivation and in the audiences ensemble instruments played produce hollow thud-like they were directed at. In the by several individuals. Conant sounds. In most cases Fourth Nile Cataract region rock (1960), for example, reports more than one percussion gong phenomena range from five rock gongs played by two zone is present. Percussion small and inconspicuous boulders drummers each at Lir, Nigeria. zones within individual with only a few percussion marks To evaluate the possible number percussion foci usually to large and prominent groups of of individuals involved in show a range of tones slabs or boulders with multiple playing a rock gong or rock gong indicating that proper percussion zones (Fig. 8). complexes in the Fourth Cataract melodies may have been Fig. 9: Percussion stone region, ‘percussion foci’ were played, contrasting with modern from Ishashi Island. Rock gongs and rock gong defined. demonstrations by locals. In some complexes with heavily worn cases slabs or boulders were re- percussion zones are all found These are groups of percussion positioned, possibly to artificially in locations offering space for zones on one or several slabs tune these idiophones. larger gatherings of people in and/or boulders that can be The partial removal of the their immediate vicinity. Reports reached from one position, and percussion edges was observed from other parts of the African thus could have been played by a in numerous cases and may have

Fig. 7 Fig. 8

continent give an impression single person at any time without served a similar purpose. While Fig. 7: Camel images of the performance aspects of re-positioning. Several percussion some rock gongs show signs of use overlying cattle rock gong use. Fagg (1956:35) foci could have been used by as only once or in very few instances, petroglyphs on a rock reported initiation songs that were many individuals at the same others seem to have been played gong surface at site 3-O- accompanied by rock gongs in time or one after the other by a over long periods of time, judging 055 in the et-Tereif region.

Nigeria: “…the rock gongs appear single person. from the formation of deep Fig. 8: Rock gong to be used rather like drums, cup marks (see Fig. 8). Signs of complex consisting of as a rhythmic accompaniment Digital video recording of intensive use were found on rock two large slabs and a for singing…”. Lanning (1959) experimental rock gong play took gongs with greatly varying tonal smaller slab with multiple described dancing accompanied note, for example, of percussion ranges, indicating that at least in percussion zones and by rock gong music in Uganda. foci, of possible combinations of some instances the sound quality numerous deep cup marks Spontaneous demonstrations of tones, of likely body positions was not decisive in the choice and (site Us-101, Us Island). rock gongs in the Fourth Nile while playing, and of the number popularity of rock gongs. Cataract region by local people of individuals possibly present at involved both singing and any time at individual rock gongs Little is known about the tools dancing accompanied by rock and rock gong complexes. used to strike rock gongs. gongs using a few notes. Hammer or percussion stones, Tonal ranges and small rocks or pebbles with The percussion zone positioning percussion tools percussion marks along their on the rock gongs contains A wide range of tones is produced edges, are sometimes mentioned important information about by rock gongs in the Fourth in the literature. They have been

72 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 observed in the vicinity of rock visual phenomenon, the often gongs in various parts of the inconspicuous and usually non- Prof. Claudia Näser (HUNE) African continent, for example, figurative percussion zones are for their invaluable support. in Nigeria (Fagg 1997; Vaughan easily overlooked in rock art Prof. Baldur Gabriel (AGE), Dr. 1962), Tanzania (Soper 1968) research. In addition to more or David Wengrow (UCL), and and Uganda (Lanning 1959; less extensive percussion zones, especially Camilla Olsson (Rock Jackson et al. 1965). In the some of which contain cup marks, Art Museum Stjoerdal, Norway) Fourth Cataract region, especially visible traces of sound making also are thanked for assisting with on Ishashi island and in the Dar include percussion stones, which rock art recording in the SARS el-Arab region, pebbles and small are usually found in the vicinity concession, while Julie Eklund rocks with percussion marks were of rock gongs. Investigations of (UCL) commented on this frequently encountered in close these idiophones, their location in paper. Their input was greatly proximity to rock gongs (Kleinitz the landscape, their accessibility appreciated; all shortcomings of 2004). for percussionists and possible this paper remain the author’s audiences, their proximity to responsibility. Since 2005 the Experimental studies showed petroglyphs or pictographs and Max Planck Institute for the that the percussion marks could to other archaeological sites, and History of Science, Berlin, has indeed have resulted from the location and depth of the kindly funded a post-doctoral beating rock surfaces. The small percussion zones, all inform about fellowship on Nubian rock art. size of the percussion marks on non-visual and performance the round-edged stones speaks aspects of making and using References against their use in creating the Nilotic rock art, allowing more Ahmed, S.M. 2004. The Merowe relatively crudely and deeply complete reconstructions of past Dam Archaeological Salvage pecked figurative petroglyphs. symbolic landscapes. Rock art Project. In: Welsby, D.A. & Judging from comparative data rescue recording methodologies Anderson, J.R. (eds) Sudan- gathered during experimental thus need to take into account Ancient Treasures. An Exhibition rock gong play, most of the both visual and non-visual of Recent Discoveries from the documented percussion stones aspects of rock art landscapes. The Sudan National Museum: 308- were only used for a few minutes irretrievable loss of the intriguing 314. London: The British of play and then discarded. Only rock art landscape of the Fourth Museum Press. a few of the stones show extensive Nile Cataract for research and percussion marks and appear to public appreciation will hopefully Allard-Huard, L. 2000. Nil- have served for longer play or be countered by the development Sahara: dialogues rupestres. Vol 2: may have been re-used (Fig. 9). of a freely accessible multi-media L’Homme Innovateur. Divajeu : online archive, thus ensuring Allard-Huard. Conclusions the survival and accessibility of Almagro Basch, M. & Almagro Rock art is among the most this body of rock art at least in a Gorbea, M. 1968. Estudios de durable signs of human symbolic virtual sense. Arte Rupestre Nubio, Vol. 1: behaviour in the landscape. It is, Yacimentos situados en la orilla however, increasingly threatened Acknowledgements oriental del Nilo, entre Nag by a variety of human-caused Fieldwork in the Fourth Nile Kolorodna y Kars Ibrim (Nubia factors, among them a growing Cataract region was funded by Egipcia). Madrid: Ministerio de number of dam projects. In the the Institute of Archaeology, Asuntos Exteriores. region of the projected Merowe University College London Dam reservoir above the Fourth (2004 UCL/SARS season), Bietak, M. & Engelmayer, R. Nile Cataract numerous rescue the Sudan Archaeological 1963. Eine Frühdynastische missions are undertaking Research Society (2004/2005 Abri-Siedlung mit Felsbildern aus archaeological surveys, including SARS seasons), the Humboldt Sayala-Nubien. Wien: Herman the recording of thousands of University Nubian Expedition Böhlaus Nachf. petroglyphs. While few in-depth (2005 HUNE season) and Červiček, P. 1974. Felsbilder des studies of rock art are scheduled the Max Planck Institute for Nord-Etbai, Oberägyptens und in this region due to time pressure the History of Science, Berlin Unternubiens. Wiesbaden: Franz and limitations in funding, (2004/2005 SARS and 2005 Steiner Verlag. some investigations have shown HUNE seasons). I would that this rock art landscape has like to thank the respective Červiček, P. 1982. Notes on the a strong acoustic component field directors Dr. Dorian chronology of Nubian rock art in the form of rock gongs and Fuller (UCL), Dr. Pawel Wolf from the end of the Bronze Age rock gong complexes. As rock (Anglo-German Expedition), onwards. In: Nubian Studies. art is considered primarily a Dr. Derek Welsby (SARS) and Proceedings of the Symposium

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 73 Otto, K.-H. & Buschendorf- for Nubian Studies Selwyn Mahas: evidence from language Otto, G. 1993. Felsbilder aus dem College, Cambridge 1978: 57-63. and place-names. Sudan & Nubia Sudanesischen Nubien. Vols. 1 and Warminster: Aris & Phillips. 4: 71-78. 2. Berlin: Akademie Verlag. Conant, F.P. 1960. Rocks that Kleinitz, C. 2004. Rock art and Ouzman, S. 2001. Seeing is ring: their ritual setting in ‘rock gongs’ in the Fourth Nile deceiving: rock art and the non- Northern Nigeria. Transactions of Cataract Region: the Ishashi visual. World Archaeology 33: the New York Academy of Sciences Island rock art survey. Sudan & 237-256. 23 (3): 155-162. Nubia 8: 11-16.

Paner, H. 2003a. Archaeological Curto, S., Maragioglio, V. & Kleinitz, C. & Olsson, C. survey on the right bank of the Rinaldi, C. 1987. Korosko-Kasr 2005. Christian period rock art Nile between Kareima and Abu Ibrim: Incisioni Rupestri Nubiane. landscapes in the Fourth Nile Hamed: a brief overview. Sudan Milano: Istituto Editoriale Cataract region: the Dar el-Arab & Nubia 7: 15-20. Cisalpino-Goliardica. and et-Tereif rock art surveys. Sudan & Nubia 9: (in press). Paner, H. 2003b. Kerma Culture, Davidson, B. 1959. Rock gongs rock art, dome graves and and rock slides. Man 59: 85. Lanning, E.C. 1958. A ringing rock associated with rain other discoveries in the Fourth Nile Cataract region. Gdansk Edwards, D.N. & Osman, A. making, Uganda. South African Archaeological Museum African 2000. The archaeology of Arduan Archaeological Bulletin 13: 83-84. Reports 2: 163-183. Island – the Mahas Survey 2000. Sudan & Nubia 4: 58-69. Lanning, E.C. 1959. Rock gongs and rock slides. Man 59: 84-85. Soper, R. 1968. Rock gongs and rock chutes in Mwanza region, Fagg, B.E.B. 1956. The rock Tanzania. Azania 3: 175-179. gong complex to-day and in Leclant, J. 1993. Recherches prehistoric times. Journal of the dans le secteur de la IVème Váhala, F. & Cervicek, P. 1999. Historical Society of Nigeria 1 (3): Cataracte du Nil (Soudan). Katalog der Felsbilder aus der 1-3. In : Calegari, G. (ed.): L’Arte e l’Ambiente del Sahara Preistorico : Tschechoslowakischen Konzession in Nubien. Praha: Karolinum. Fagg, M.C. 1997. Rock Music. Dati e Interpretazioni: 317-318. Oxford: Pitt Rivers Museum Memorie della Società Italiana Vaughan, J.H. 1962. Rock Occasional Paper on Technology di Scienze Naturali e del Museo paintings and rock gongs among No. 14. Civico di Storia Naturale di Milano 26/2. Milan. the Marghi of Nigeria. Man 62: 49-52. Fuller, D.Q. 2004. The Central Verner, M. 1973. Some Nubian Amri to Kirbekan Survey. A Mohammed, A.R.A. & Hussein, Petroglyphs on Czechoslovak preliminary report on excavations K. 1999. Two seasons in the Concessions. Praha: Universita and survey 2003-04. Sudan & Fourth Cataract Region. Karlova. Nubia 8: 4-10. preliminary results. Sudan & Nubia 3: 60-70. Welsby, D.A. 2003. Survey above Hellström, P. & Langballe, H. the Fourth Nile Cataract. London: 1970. The Rock Drawings. The Montagu, J. 1965. What is a Sudan Archaeological Research Scandinavian Joint Expedition gong? Man 65: 5. Society. to Sudanese Nubia. Vol. 1. Stockholm: Läromedelsförlagen/ Montluçon, J. 1994. Survey de Wolf, P. 2004. The SARS Anglo- Svenska Bokförlaget. la Région de la IVe Cataracte du Nil. In: Berger, C. Clerc, G. German Expedition at the Fourth Cataract of the Nile: the 2003/04 Jackson, G., Gartlan, J.S. & & Grimal, N. (eds) Hommages season. Sudan & Nubia 8: 17-26. Posnansky, M. 1965. Rock gongs à Jean Leclant, Vol. 2: Nubie, and associated rock paintings Soudan, Éthiopie: 309-313. Cairo: on Lolui Island, Lake Victoria, Institut Francais d‘Archéologie Uganda: a preliminary note. Man Orientale. 65: 38-40. Morton-Williams, P. 1957. A Jalal Hashim, M. & Bell, H. cave painting, rock gong and 2000. Reconstructing the history rock slide in Yorubaland. Man of settlement patterns in the 57: 170-171.

74 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Saharan rock art, a vanishing heritage: government and community cooperation in Niger

Sidi Mohamed Illiès1 and Annette Lanjouw2

L’art rupestre saharien, un Abstract patrimoine qui disparaît: la coopération communautaire et gouvernemental au Niger L’art rupestre du Sahara peut être comparé The rock art of the Sahara can be à une bibliothèque ancienne, archivant compared to an ancient library, recording les pensées et les sentiments des gens the thoughts and feelings of people who qui ont vécu et traversé le désert sur un have lived and passed through the desert millénaire. Les légendes des Touaregs, over millennia. The legends of the Tuareg, appelées Anigourane dans le langage called Anigourane in the Temacheq Temacheq, disent Anou nin anou zagrenne, language, state Anou nin anou Zagrenne, assawadinne sardoque itranne, ce qui Assawadinne sardoque itranne, which veut dire « mon puits est très profond et means “My well is very deep and my ma vue peut voir à travers les étoiles ». La vision reads across the stars”. The long longue histoire des premiers peuples du history of early Saharan people has, in Sahara, à bien des égards, a résisté aux many respects, withstood many of the plus modernes influences de l’extérieur. more modern influences from outside. The L’art rupestre et les écritures Tifinagh qui rock art, and Tifinagh writings that often accompagnent souvent cet art, reflètent la accompany that art, represent much of perception de ces peuples anciens envers how these ancient people perceived the le monde, leur habitat et les créatures qui world, their habitat and the creatures that le peuplaient ainsi que les influences des inhabited it as well as the influences of other autres peuples et des autres cultures. Les peoples and cultures. The threats of various menaces variées auxquelles est exposé kinds to which the rock art is exposed are l’art rupestre, sont analysées dans cet analysed in this paper and threat abatement article et des stratégies pour minimiser les strategies are suggested. Economic menaces y sont suggérées. Des incitations incentives for conserving rock art need to be économiques pour la conservation de l’art developed to integrate socio-economic and rupestre ont besoin d’être développées rock art conservation objectives. en intégrant aussi des objectifs socio- économiques.

Sites where the rocks have been of the art are often very different scratched, engraved or painted from those of other observers. by the people who dwelled in Over the years, many scientists the desert riddle the Sahara. In and rock-art enthusiasts from the northern Niger, the Aïr Moun- West have come to the Sahara tains and Ténéré desert border to document the rock art sites. with Algeria, Libya and Chad. They are perceived by the Tuareg as having an interest primarily in The Tuareg inhabitants of this re- interpreting the art to contribute gion know many of the rock art to their understanding of African sites and still understand much history and culture. For many of the writing that accompanies Tuareg, however, the art is a part the art. It isn’t clear who the peo- of their lives and their culture ple are in much of the older art and expresses much of their way and many of them could have of seeing the world. For the older pre-dated the Tuareg who are generation, the art is considered

1 Sidi Mohamed Illies [email protected] now the majority population sacred and has been protected Anigourane (Rock Art Association), Niger in northern Niger. The Tuareg, from damage and carefully pre-

2 Dr. Annette Lanjouw [email protected] however, claim that the art is their served over many generations International Gorilla Conservation Programme, Kenya ancestry and their interpretations and thousands of years. Recent

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 75 76 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 changes and pressures, often from outside, however, have led to a breakdown in this respect for the ancient art. The consequence has been vandalism and some of the art has been broken for sale in a growing commercial market. The Tuareg of the Aïr and Ténéré The Tuareg are nomadic people, living a primarily pastoral lifestyle. In northern Niger, the population of about 380 000 people is distributed over an area of about 670 000 km23. Popula- tion growth has been rapid over the past few years, doubling since the 1977 population census. This population is clustered around the principal mining areas of Tchiro- zérine and Arlit (three quarters of the population are found in these two areas), where uranium and other minerals are mined for commercial purposes. Urbanisa- tion in the area is approximately 6% per year, and almost 24% of the population lives in urban areas. The people in the region are principally pastoralists, despite the fact that only 3% of the area can be exploited in this manner. Their pastoral lifestyle is practised through both a nomadic lifestyle and transhumance.

The population of the Agadez region of northern Niger is primarily Tuareg, with some other groups (Arap, Peul, Haussa, etc). In a Livelihood Security Survey conducted in Agadez (CARE International, January 2000), it was estimated that in the De- partment of Agadez, 63.5% of the population are classified as extremely vulnerable, 24.9% as vulnerable and only 11.6% as less vulnerable. Most of the extremely vulnerable families are found in the Irhazer and Aïr zones. Much of the rock art surveyed in recent years by David Coulson and Alec Campbell, is in these two zones.

Most children do not have access to schools. The proportion of illiterate males is 58.4%, and

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 77 females 85%. Much of the reason (micro-credit facilities) can best be protected with the for this extremely poor literacy participation and for the benefit rate is distance to schools, rather • Lack of provisioning struc- of local communities. than presence of schools. The dis- tures tance, given poor infrastructure, Key conservation targets are is too great to permit access for • Difficulties in dispersal of identified, which in this case are children in rural areas. products (especially artisanal specific rock art sites threatened and food products) by human or non-human activity. The department has 28 health The threats to those conservation centres, but coverage in rural • Need to utilise funds for other targets are then analysed, with areas is estimated at only 24%. needs linked to primary sur- both direct and underlying caus- Problems linked to access to vival es identified. The strategies to be health care have been attributed implemented are strategies that to poor quality of health care, • Lack of information on prices can abate those threats and there- difficulty of access (distance) or and opportunities (especially by reduce their impact on the cost. Most people can get to a tourism) rock art sites4. Threat abatement health centre, but cannot afford is one of the different approaches the care available there. Cultural • Lack of access due to infra- applied by wildlife conservation problems are also relevant, due to structure (roads) and resulting programmes throughout the lack of understanding and aware- competition between pro- world, to enable wild lands and ness. For the pastoral people of ducers all trying to sell their wildlife communities and spe- Niger, animal husbandry is the products at the same time on cies to thrive and to minimize principal livelihood strategy. the same market the negative impact of human Farming is extremely limited and behaviour on the world’s re- other forms of income are rare In essence, the primary problem maining wilderness. Applying and unreliable. An analysis of facing the poor rural communi- the threat abatement logic to the subsistence livelihoods and gov- ties in the Sahara is that they have preservation of vulnerable rock ernance in the region shows that no alternatives to their harsh, no- art sites enables key actions to the principal factors limiting de- madic and pastoral lifestyles, and be developed that can address velopment in this region can be there are few alternative means to direct and underlying causes of listed as: supplement their incomes. Infra- threat. In most cases, the under- structure and development in the lying causes of the threat are lack • Absence of organised and op- region is very limited and people of understanding, poverty and erational infrastructure exist in a cycle of poverty that it is poor governance and community almost impossible to break. participation. It is for this reason • Absence of professions able to that the emphasis of all conserva- launch activities, and inexperi- Threat abatement and tion action must be focused on ence in management conservation involving local people, includ- The field of environmental ing leaders, local government • Lack of investment capital conservation has developed ap- and both nomadic and sedentary proaches which can be effectively populations. 3 CARE International, January 2000. Evaluation de la Sécurité des Conditions de Vie dans le Départe- adapted and applied to help in ment d’Agadez understanding how rock art sites Tables 1 – 4 describe the threats

78 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 there are many site specific fac- The development of economic tors which must also be taken incentives for conserving rock into consideration when develop- art is one of the most obvious ing specific strategies. The threats strategies integrating socio-eco- analysis does, however, illustrate nomic and rock art conservation the logic to be applied, and out- objectives. Tourism is one of the lines the approach to be applied most effective means of achiev- in developing conservation strating these objectives, given the egies for preserving rock art and increasing numbers of tourists rock art sites. travelling to and through the Sa- hara and the growing interest in Threats Analysis for ‘adventure tourism’. Few alterna- African Rock Art tive income-generating industries All Threat Abatement strategies exist in this very poor and harsh require Survey & Mapping to region. Yet the limited capacity identify key sites for protection to effectively manage tourism at or conservation interventions. local level and the threats posed analysis and threat abatement by uncontrolled tourism lead it logic, and make a very pre- The integration of rock to also figure as one of the high- liminary start at identifying art conservation and 4 AWF Threat Abatement and Heartland Conserva- appropriate conservation action. socio-economic objec- tion Planning; www.awf.org WWF Ecoregion Not all the threats are listed and tives planning; www.wwf.org

Table 1: Threats from humans: Local communities

Proximate Threat & Rationale Category of Stress Source of Threat Threat abatement preliminary ranking Threat strategy

Scraping of paint at Traditional medicine for Human: Local Destruction of Traditional Healers and Raise awareness at rock art sites local people for sacred communities actual art work Providers for Traditional local level powers healers/Medicine men Protect key sites

Deliberate Wanton vandalism or Destruction of Local people living in Protect key sites destruction: creative enjoyment artwork proximity of rock art Continued isolation Graffiti / defacement (incl. pornographic sites from people 1st ranking defacement)

Unknowing Construction of shelter, Destruction of Farmers / pastoralists Raise awareness of destruction cooking place, cattle artwork / nomads / hunter- local people herding, etc gatherers living in rock Protect key sites; art sites

Collection of Value of rock art for sale Removal of art Local people in contact International artefacts for sale as curios to collectors and destruction with urban centres or awareness 2nd ranking and tourists of art work tourist / market routes International policy and controls in trade Survey, mapping Protect key sites

Religious vandalism Destruction of art Destruction Religious leaders and Survey, mapping as a pagan threat to local people living near Raise awareness at established religions (e.g. sites who carry out local level Islam) instructions

Deliberate Jealousies (e.g. Mt Elgon) Destruction Local people living near Protect key sites destruction for and wilful sabotage of rock art sites who do Raise awareness at sabotage resources valuable to not participate in any local level others perceived benefits Table 2: Threats from humans: Government and Corporate

Proximate Threat & Rationale Category of Stress Source of Threat Threat abatement strategy preliminary ranking Threat

Destruction of rock Concessions for Human: Destruction Mining companies Raise awareness at inter- & art sites for mineral exploitation of Government and of sites, with exploiting sites, national level (corporate HQ) exploitation oil, granite, other Corporate rock art as an leading to vibrations, Inter- & national advocacy and minerals uninten-tional blasting and direct Codes of Conduct cost destruction of sites Media / Publications (inter- & national) Survey & Mapping

Destruction of sites Hydro-electric Covering Governments Survey & Mapping for infrastructure dam construction, up by water, and companies National advocacy and Codes of development road and destroyed developing roads, Conduct infrastructure from heavy dams, etc. Media and publications for development machinery, National awareness tarmac, etc; opening up of isolated areas to human habitation

Collection of Valuable resource Destruction Government Survey and mapping specimens for for sale or of sites and authorities who are National legislation and museums, collections prestigious gifts/ removal of key not concerned about enforcement on trade or trade assets works in situ preservation of National advocacy and Codes of 2nd ranking the national heritage Conduct International policy and controls in trade Media/ Publications

80 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Table 3: Threats from humans: International community

Proximate Threat & Rationale Category of Stress Source of Threat Threat abatement strategy preliminary ranking Threat

Illegal making of Scientific value, Human: Inter- Scratching, water Scientific or amateur Protection of key sites archaeological moulds publishing national and rubbing, community wanting Survey & mapping and other reproductions pressure and (including contact with to record sites for own Inter- & National level lack of respect scientific abrasive surfaces, career development codes of conduct of history and community, etc value tourists, etc)

Wilful graffiti Vandalism Destruction of Tourists/visitors not Continued isolation artwork understanding or Guardians/protection respecting value and Tourism Codes of Conduct/ history of rock art sites regulations Continued isolation

Illegal collection of Value of Removal of Collectors (eg. Tourists Guardians/ protection souvenirs rock art for artwork and or scientists) valuing Legislation and 2nd ranking collectors and destruction of art the sites and wanting enforcement in trade tourists work ownership of pieces. Awareness & Codes of In part exacerbated by Conduct Media and Information.

Organised trade in Value of rock Removal and Perceived or real Survey and mapping artefacts art for sale destruction of art financial value of rock National legislation and 2nd ranking as curios to work art : e.g. sale in France, enforcement on trade collectors Belgium, Spain, etc. In National advocacy and worldwide part exacerbated by tourism Codes of Conduct; Media and information International policy and controls in trade; Media/ Publications

Unknowing destruction People valuing Water, light, Lack of knowledge Survey & Mapping key sites by visitors to rock art rock art but not abrasion (walking and understanding of Protection sites knowing about over carvings), etc, fragility and unwitting Awareness & Codes of vulnerability destroying art damage Conduct and how to preserve

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 81 Table 4: Threats from natural elements

Proximate Threat & Rationale Category of Stress Source of Threat Threat abatement preliminary ranking Threat strategy

Growth of lichen/moss Natural Plant Destruction and Natural plant growth and lack of Survey & mapping to obliteration maintenance ID key sites Protection & maintenance of key sites

Cattle rubbing against Natural Animal Abrasion, rubbing, Presence of pastoralists/ nomads Survey & mapping to rock art/ trampling trampling near sites; opening up of remote ID key sites areas for people (expansion of Protect & maintain key human population) sites Raise awareness of local people

Chemical leaching from Natural Physical Chemical Proximity or influence of human Prevention of contact pollutants destruction of industrialisation/ acid rain, etc. with chemicals paint or rock Shelter

Mineral/chemical Destruction of Salts, minerals and other chemicals Drip control leaching from soil paint or rock in soil slowly deface the art work Prevent contact 3rd ranking

Water erosion Drip, flow, etc. Changes in water flow or slow Deviation of water erosion from water over time courses

Sand/wind erosion Blasting of the art Weather Shelters/ protection work from wind/ sand

Sand covering up rock Sand movement, Movement of the dunes over time, Removal?? art sites especially in desert covering (and uncovering) sites

tourism in wildlife sites, yet it has been shown to work, when managed and controlled carefully.

The Sahara is an open air museum in archaeology, palae- ontology and rock art, protected by a clement climate. Many areas are accessible to all-terrain vehicles. There is a great variety and wealth of rock art throughout this region. Sites have been preserved for thousands of years by the local people due to their isolation from frequented tourist routes and are now being discovered by the tourists. Awakened interest in rock art is forming a demand. Although this demand is one of the most significant threats to rock art today, it equally presents a unique opportunity to use the est threats to fragile rock art sites. ronment in which the sites are conservation of rock art, through There is an enormous risk that located if it is not carefully con- tourism development, as a tool tourism will lead to degradation trolled and managed. This is very for both education and economic of sites but also the fragile envi- similar to the situation with eco- development of this region.

82 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Tourism is the fastest growing and Africare) and focusing key the Syndicat du Tourisme and industry world-wide and will development activities in areas the Association ANIGOURANE inevitably lead people to ex- where small amounts of tour- for the conservation, protection plore the remotest corners of the ism revenue can be generated, and promotion of Niger’s rock world. It is inevitable that tour- the benefits of tourism can flow art. By raising awareness, TARA ism in the Sahara will grow over directly into the poor rural com- and its partners have raised fund- time. Unless it is managed by munities. Tourism revenue can ing and awareness for rock art local people and contributes to form the basis for resolving some conservation activities in the Aïr their livelihood, it will never be of the key constraints to improv- and Ténéré region of the Sahara. sustainable, nor will the sites be ing income generating activities. protected by local people. Man- It is essential to ensure that the aging tourism is an unavoidable For example, tourism revenue political sensitivities of the peo- priority for rock art conservation (together with some initial in- ple in the region, as well as their that will need to be controlled to puts) can finance the running historical relationships and po- ensure that it contributes in some costs of some of the rural devel- tential competition, are taken measure to people’s livelihoods. opment activities that have been into consideration in develop- In 1991, the United Nations identified as critical by developing projects to link conservation, Education, Scientific and Cul- ment agencies. tourism and development. The tural Organisation (UNESCO) success of rock art conservation created a World Heritage Site Maintenance of wells, payment of in Africa depends on the integra- for Humanity for the Natural some of the costs of a dispensary tion of scientific knowledge and Reserve of Aïr and Ténéré, due or school, provision of materials interest with the local under- in large part to its exceptional for an irrigation and household standing in the interpretation of rock art sites. The sites, however, garden project, or making small rock art. It depends on effectively are not effectively protected and sums of micro-credit available are bringing together the socio-eco- in some cases, vandalism and all options that can be explored. nomic and cultural context of degradation are already evident. the region into conservation ap- Effective preservation of these At present, revenues from tour- proaches and ensuring that local sites is urgent and essential. ism in the region are primarily communities lead and benefit Knowing about these sites carries channelled to foreign companies, from conservation activities. with it the shared and global re- and few of the benefits remain in sponsibility of conserving them. the country. Some local operators are involved in the tourism As described above, Niger is an sector, but they are dependent extremely poor country. The De- on the foreign companies and partment of Agadez (northern vulnerable infrastructure in the Niger), covering almost half of country. Overland tourists (the the country, is the poorest region, bulk of the market) do not pay with few alternative livelihood any levies or fees to visit the re- opportunities. It represents the gion. Very little income flows extreme limit of ecological zones back into the local economy. inhabitable by man. Population density is low and most people By organising and assisting the have limited ability to access local associations, such as the their basic survival needs. Edu- Syndicat du Tourisme based cation, healthcare and economic in Agadez, and the Association opportunities are limited. ANIGOURANE, to organise themselves and establish mecha- By forming a mechanism for nisms for attracting and sharing References collaboration and coordination revenue, and by developing mod- Coulson, D. & Campbell, A. between the different stakehold- el projects that can be copied and 2001. African Rock Art; paintings ers in the tourism industry, and adapted to other sites, the style and engravings on stone. New York: developing a few key pilot sites, and role of tourism can change Harry N. Abrams. tourism in the region can im- dramatically. prove considerably, thus having immediate impact on the econo- The Trust for African Rock Art 5 ANIGOURANE is a local association for the conservation and promotion of Niger’s rock art heritage. my. In addition, by ensuring that (TARA)6 started working in Ni- linkages are made with rural de- ger in 1996 and has worked with 6 TARA was registered in 2000 as a non profit foundation in the USA and in Kenya as a charitable velopment programmes (CARE Tuareg in the region to support trust. P.O. Box 24122, Nairobi 00502, Kenya.

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 83 Rock art patrimony of Morocco: an endangered cultural property

Abdellah Salih1

L’héritage rupestre du Maroc: Abstract Un bien culturel en danger Au cours des travaux d’inventaire que nous During the inventory work that we have avons mené dans les aires de l’art rupestres undertaken at Moroccan rock art sites, we marocaines, nous avons constaté la have noticed the systematic disappearance disparition systématique des blocs gravés. of engraved blocks. These rock art sites Ces aires rupestres sont soumises à des are subjected to permanent danger such dangers permanents, comme le vol et le as theft and vandalism, in addition to the vandalisme, ainsi qu’aux effets dégradants degrading effects of atmospheric and des agents naturels atmosphériques et erosive natural agents. Protective measures érosifs. Des mesures de protection ont été have been taken, but they are unfortunately prises. Mais, malheureusement elles restent insufficient. This is due, mainly, to the extent insuffisantes. Ceci est dû principalement of the sites, to their topographic location in à la grande extension des sites, à leur several geographic and bioclimatic zones situation topographique dans plusieurs that is difficult to control, and also to their zones géographiques et bioclimatiques proximity to regions in the process of rapid difficiles à contrôler, ainsi qu’à leur proximité urbanisation. des régions en voie d’urbanisation rapide.

Introduction day by day as people, through art sites, with the exception of Morocco is one of the most direct or indirect actions, extend the Oukaimeden area, offer any important rock art regions in their range of activities. These infrastructure to receive visitors Africa, and even in the world. activities are brought about and and ensure management of the It falls within three major geo- developed by the wave of inter- growing interest in tourism. graphic and bioclimatic zones, est shown in adventure tourism. namely the mountain ranges of The physical beauty of the places Visits to the Atlas sites allowed the Atlas and the Rif, the Saharan where rock art is located, and the us to understand the problems of steppe margins or Pre-Sahara, fact that there is no charge for their degradation and to observe and the Sahara. The immensity visiting them, largely contributes two types of factors affecting the and extent of the region that is to the growing tourist rush to- rock art: natural and entropic. spread over several latitudinal wards these regions. 1. Natural deterioration results zones must have had an impact from the situation of rock enon the human communities who Factors leading to gravings in open areas at high produced the rock art, both en- degradation of the altitude where they are per- graved and painted. Atlas sites manently exposed to natural The high Atlas Mountains, where elements, amongst which are The themes, styles and tech- three large rock art sites are situ- sudden changes of tempera- niques used for their production ated at more than 2500 m above ture, rain, water runoff, wind, are varied, and the works of art sea level, receive thousands of frost, thaw, cold and heat, are found mostly at open air sites tourists each year. as well as other atmospheric that are in effect unknown mu- factors which alter the rock seums of which, unfortunately, Mountain tourism at cultural and surfaces and consequently the the broader public is unaware. natural sites in these high places engravings. is on the increase. Although this Some of these sites have been the new activity has provided ra- 2. There are several elements of object of study and publication tional financial income adequate entropic degradation or in- but the majority are neither total- enough to meet the basic needs advertent vandalism (Clottes ly inventoried, nor documented, of the population, it has had a 1995-6) at Atlas rock art sites: studied or classified. The deterio- negative impact on the social ration which the Moroccan rock structure of the population and • Urbanisation in fact con- art sites undergo is intensifying also on the preservation of the cerns only the rock art sites engraved surfaces and their natu- in the vicinity of the winter 1 Dr. Abdellah Salih [email protected] Chairman ral setting. sports station in the Oukai- Institute of Regional Culture Moreover, none of the Atlas rock meden where, in the course Morocco

84 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 major rock art sites in addition to pre- and proto-historical archaeological sites. Natural degradation factors are mostly limited to aeolian erosion and to the nocturnal and diurnal temperature differences.

On the other hand, the most fatal factors are of an entropic nature. Indeed, since the 1970s this zone has witnessed an unprecedented number of visits by tourists. This phenomenon has been accentu- of building many chalets, idate the Azibs or enclosures ated as desert tourism amateurs, a significant number of situated throughout the area. who were used to going to the Al- engravings have been de- This leads them to use the gerian and Libyan deserts, flocked stroyed. Other sites are not engraved slabs as building to Morocco because of the UN accessible to either the public stones. Moreover, this sum- embargo on Libya and security or scholars, yet their natural mer transhumance brings related problems in Algeria. The context has been irrevers- hundreds of sheep, goats and singularity of these sites lies in ibly changed. The rocks of cattle that stand and move the fact that the movable archae- the Oukaimeden have been about everyday near the ological objects appear at ground removed by chalet building engraved surfaces and thus level because of aeolian erosion companies that use them at contribute to their degrada- which moves dunes and exposes the same site or transport tion. large surfaces strewn with upper them to Marrakech or even and lower grindstones, polished to Casablanca where they are • During the development of axes, arrowheads, Atérian points, intended for the interior ar- mountain tourism, we have etc., as well as rock engravings. chitecture of villas or houses. noticed that three rock en- The growing demand that has graving sites are much visited arisen as a result of the tourist • The agro-pastoralists of the and undergo damage which rush and the interest shown by valleys of the Ourika, Zat does not necessarily stem the amateurs and collectors in and Riraïa, use the engraving from the bad intentions of these kinds of objects has incited areas for pasture at summer tourists. For example, they dealers and bazaar traders spe- time, and have begun, for walk with mountaineering cialising in fossils in the region to economic reasons, to consol- boots; and they outline the order them from the nomads. engraving with chalk, paint, stone or sharp objects in Once the demand became impor- order to enhance them and tant and the profit possibilities to obtain better visibility for increased, national and interna- photography. tional networks formed and the engravings and other cultural • Theft and andalismv have objects with ethnographic value occurred in several places, became more expensive and in mainly at the rock art site of demand. The consequences of Yagour because it is located this illicit traffic on a large-scale at a high latitude, 2700m, have been catastrophic for the is difficult to access and has cultural heritage of the region, no guard. It was difficult for and particularly for rock art. us to control these activities or to watch over those who In addition to the illicit traffic and frequently visited the site. the trade in engravings, a large majority of the sites have been Degradation factors at emptied and devastated, often Pre-Saharan and Saha- unconsciously, by truck drivers ran rock art sites and contractors in the region. The Pre-Sahara and the Sa- The most exposed rock art sites hara contain several hundred are those situated near inhabited

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 85 Fig. 1: Vandalism and theft: Tazarine, pre-Sahara. Marks created in the course of cutting up an engraved block.

Fig. 2: Vandalism and theft: Tazarine, pre-Sahara. This engraved block was lightened and modified into a rectangular shape for transportation.

Fig. 3: Vandalism and theft: Tazarine, pre-Sahara. Remnants of an engraved block, after a failed attempt to cut out the engravings.

Fig. 4: Vandalism and theft: Tazarine, pre-Sahara. Fragments of engravings abandoned by the thieves.

Fig. 5: Vandalism and theft: Tazarine, pre-Sahara. Marks created by a failed attempt at retrieving an engraving.

86 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 areas. Population increases and ess of settling the nomads who to buy. I played the game and to the expansion of small villages have converted to agriculture. my great surprise they presented into urban centres have exposed This necessitates the building of me with goods consisting mainly rock art sites and the funeral houses, mostly of stone, as well as of engraved movable slabs.An- monuments that surround them enclosures for their gardens and other kind of vandalism is the to danger through their conver- for their animals. Unfortunately, work of clandestine amateurs sion into quarries. The engraved these people, out of ignorance, and sometimes, unfortunately, of slabs that form the tumuli (bur- don’t distinguish ordinary stones authorized research groups who ial mounds) have been used as from the engraved ones. Else- don’t respect the terms of signed building material. where, rock art sites that are far contracts. This concerns taking from urban centres are also not moulds of engravings with prod- Two main factors have largely secure from vandals because the ucts that turn out to be harmful contributed to the systematic de- distance makes it impossible to to the supporting rock. implement any kind of control or monitoring. Protective Measures and Conservation Legal Furthermore, the fact that some measures: Moroccan sites stretch over several kilo- legislation metres has encouraged thieves Morocco, like most countries of in their nasty job. They have no the world, took legislative meas- problem in cutting through en- ures to protect its cultural heritage. graved slabs or engraved surfaces These legal measures are found using a power saw, pick or crow- mainly in the following three texts bar. The movable and lighter that prohibit destruction, distor- engraved slabs are often the first tion or dislocation of art objects that pay the price of this deliber- without written permission from ate vandalism. When the demand the competent authorities: is great, the damage is serious. Ac- • The ahirD (Royal Decree) of tually, it is mainly the sites with February 13th 1914, relates to engravings on immovable slabs the preservation of historical of bedrock that suffer real haem- monuments, art and antiquity orrhage. The thief destroys many inscriptions and objects of the individual engravings before suc- Cherifian Empire, and the ceeding in cutting out one image protection of the places sur- (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5). rounding them;

The investigations we have led • The ahirD (Royal Decree) among nomads in Dra Valley of July 21st 1945 relates to helped us to discover well-struc- the preservation of historical tured networks whose customers monuments, art and antiquity are essentially foreigners. These inscriptions and objects and to networks work with nationals, the protection of ancient cities including nomads and bazaar and regional architecture; traders, to systematically exploit archaeological sites. • The ahirD (Royal Decree) of struction of rock engraving sites. December 25th 1980 deals The first has a natural aspect; it In July 2004, an engraved slab with the promulgation of the is linked to floods that occurred was confiscated at the office of law 22-80 currently in force in the pre-Saharan zones in the a Spanish resident who was the that relates to the preservation 1990s and led to the destruc- manager of a tourist agency in of historical monuments, of tion of several earthen houses. Warzazate. An investigation is art and antiquity inscriptions Since stones are used for rebuild- in progress to trace the network. and objects, and its applica- ing these houses, it is easier and Another case, one I person- tion decree n° 2-80-25, dated less expensive for village inhab- ally witnessed in June 2004, October 22nd 1981. itants to get them directly from took place during a prospecting the sandstone ridges contain- mission in the Sahara on the Law, 22-80, allows for a number ing engravings located in areas outskirts of the Anti-Atlas. The of measures designed to pro- neighbouring on the villages. The settled nomads took me for a ba- tect the cultural heritage. For second is related to the proc- zaar merchant looking for objects example, articles 42-44 strictly

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 87 prohibit vandalism and trade in movable cultural property.

They stipulate that it is prohib- ited to “destroy, distort or export all objects and movable antiquity that represents for Morocco a historical, archaeological or anthropological interest or that are interesting to past science and human sciences in general” (Mammar 1997; Touri 1998).

Unfortunately, juridical and administrative difficulties do not facilitate the application of this law. Proposals for revision are being studied (Hatim 1998). Process of Preventive Action In preparation for establishing a pro-active preservation system, we have first collected information on the current state of affairs and have used it to set up an inventory. With the exception of a file of listed sites by Simoneau, not a single archive has been developed on the ground. Indeed, most of the established documentation on rock art in Morocco is the private property of foreign amateurs who showed an interest in the country.

This situation drove us to form a team of researchers and curators to plan a way forward, starting from 1994. Field projects have been established to inventory rock art heritage sites, taking into account their natural and cultural context.

Visits to the sites during fieldwork missions allowed us to understand the problems faced when addressing the rapid degradation of Atlas pre-Saharan and Saharan rock art sites, and to develop a series of protection measures adapted for individual situations (Salih 1994, 1998).

The most important operations we have undertaken to preserve rock art sites and sustain the fight against this blight are the following:

88 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 • An awareness campaign has thetic importance of the rock been launched among local art heritage. authorities, mainly focused on governors and presidents • The international commu- of provincial authorities on nity has been involved in whom rock art sites depend the preservation of Moroc- administratively. can rock art areas, including major institutions and special- • The Royal Gendarmes have ized organisations known all been mobilized to assist. over the world for their work in promoting awareness and • Awareness has been fostered conservation, in particular the among local populations and Trust for African Rock Art regional associations about (TARA). the interest of this heritage for their cultural identity, and also Despite the great will of the the economic contribution people and institutions in- that these sites might generate volved, these measures are of a once their value is enhanced. limited scope. The geographic In comparison with elected of- and topographic situation ficials, the associative network of sites within the mountain was more cooperative, and and desert zones, and also the References more aware of the value of rock wide spatial distribution of Clottes, J. 1995-96. La art and of the necessity of safe- rock art over many kilometres, conservation de l’Art guarding it. In addition, thanks has made all attempts at per- préhistorique en France. In to the work of the Regional As- manent control a vain hope. XI Bajo Aragon Prehistoria sociation for the Development This has in turn made the task (Revue). Primer seminario de of Dra Valley, of which I am a easier for illicit traders, vandals arte rupestre, 29-52. CASPE- member, and to other local as- and thieves who carry out their Zaragoza (Espagne). sociations, we have been able dirty job without fear of being to locate one of the two slabs arrested or prosecuted. Hatim, H. 1998. Protection du that recently disappeared from patrimoine culturel au Maroc. the site of Foum Chenna. It is Conclusion ICOM-Maroc (International the same slab mentioned above The soil and stones of Morocco Council of Museums) 4:3- 4. that was found with the Span- shelter millennia of historical iard in Warzazate. memory. In order to be able to Mammar, M. 1997. La législation marocaine (loi 22-80) et les mesures tell this history, it is crucial to de prévention contre le trafic illicite • A security system has been in- mobilize energy and other means des biens culturels. ICOM-Maroc stalled by recruiting guards and to stop the rapidly increasing 3 :5-8. assigning them to the threat- phenomenon of destruction and ened sites. To avoid problems damage observed at rock art sites. Salih, A. 1994. Le Parc National caused by illegal tourist guides, Thousands of engravings were du Patrimoine Rupestre, in : every guard has been equipped destroyed before we started to be Pour une approche concertée de développement local et de protection with a uniform and a badge in- interested in this component of de l’environnement : cas des zones de dicating his name, his function our cultural heritage. The extent montagne, Colloque, 2, 3, et 4 février, and the logo of the Ministry of of the task awaiting us is indeed Rabat. Unpublished. Culture. huge. Salih, A. 1998. Les aires • Information panels have been rupestres du Maroc: mise en valeur et stratégie de installed at the entrance to protection. In: International some major sites, especially in Rock Art Congress (IRAC’98), Vila the Middle Dra in the province Real, Portugal. Unpublished. of Tata. Touri, El M. 1998. La lutte • Expositions and conferences contre le trafic illicite du have been organised at schools patrimoine culturel dans les systèmes juridiques national for the benefit of students and et international. ICOM-Maroc teachers, to make them more 4 :6-8. aware of the scientific and aes-

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 89 Management strategies for African rock art

Janette Deacon1

Les stratégies de gestion pour ABSTRACT l’art rupestre africain Ideally, management plans for rock art D’une manière idéal, le processus de dé- sites should be developed by heritage veloppement d’un plan de gestion de l’art specialists in consultation with local rupestre devrait impliqué les communautés communities and land owners. After locales et les propriétaires de la terre et assessing the significance of the place, tenir compte des protections légales et de issues that affect the rock art should be la gestion durable pour identifier les problé- identified and appropriate legal protections matiques et mettre au point puis en place considered. Strategies are then proposed les stratégies. Les stratégies de gestion and implemented to address the issues. utilisées en ce moment pour répondre aux Management strategies currently used to problématiques de conservation de l’art address conservation issues at rock art sites rupestre peuvent être regroupée en trois in Africa can be grouped into three broad catégories principales. Elles ont été misest categories. These categories are designed au point pour contrôler l’accès, l’érosion to control either access, natural weathering naturelle ou le comportement des visiteurs or on-site visitor behaviour and knowledge. et dispenser une connaissance. Celles qui The most successful are those that maintain ont connues le plus de succès sont celles the significance of the place by addressing qui préservent le sens de l’endroit en com- all three. As each site is different, there is binant les trois. Du fait que chaque site est no easy solution. Issues must be carefully différent, il n’y a pas de solution simple. Les assessed so that the strategies suit the problématiques doivent être identifiées avec individual situation and are flexible enough soin de manière à ce que les stratégies to adapt to inevitable change. s’adaptent aux cas individuelles et soient suffisamment flexibles pour s’adapter aux inévitables changements. A brief history of rock to by new generations of artists. control export of antiquities, and art management strate- There was no collective strategy by the late 1930s all the coun- gies in Southern Africa required to conserve the art be- tries in the region had instituted This paper draws on the strategies yond upholding respect for it some form of blanket protection used for rock art site manage- and the beliefs that created it. that required a permit to destroy, ment that have been discussed During the scramble for Africa damage, alter, remove or export over the past 8 years at meetings between the late 1600s and early rock art. By the time of inde- of the Southern African Rock Art 1900s, the art in some areas was pendence in the latter half of the Project (SARAP) (Deacon 2004). regarded by colonial immigrants century, several countries had It does not pretend to know as the work of pagans and was identified rock art sites for decla- all the answers, but highlights targeted by foreign visitors who ration as national monuments. lessons learned in the African deliberately damaged the images context that need to be taken that offended them or wrote their Along with increasing public into account if rock art sites are names over the art to assert their awareness and interest, a small to be conserved with integrity for own identity. number of rock art sites have future generations. been developed specifically for In the late 19th and early 20th cen- tourism. These include places For hundreds and even thou- tury, rock art came to be regarded on private property, in national sands of years the descendants as a curiosity worth collecting. and provincial parks, and on of the people who made rock Movable rock engravings, par- communal land. They are tra- paintings and engravings in Af- ticularly from South Africa, ditionally managed by park rica drew power and inspiration Namibia, Morocco and Algeria, managers trained as natural sci- from them. Some of the rock were shipped to museums and entists and are often ignored in art became naturally weathered, universities in Europe and within park management plans, or re- and some was altered or added the Southern African region. ceive only cursory attention.

1 Dr Janette Deacon [email protected] Legislation was introduced from The gradual insistence by the Board Member as early as 1911 in South Africa World Heritage Committee that TARA South Africa and neighbouring countries to all World Heritage sites must

90 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 have management plans has the 1900s probably saw more which the strategy has failed and made a significant difference in removals and in situ damage to the art has been damaged through some countries. However it has rock art by people than at any neglect or deliberate vandalism. been of help to rock art sites only other time in history, yet convic- when the rock art is specifically tions for transgressing the law There are no official figures for mentioned as one of the values of were few and far between. damage, but in general it seems the site. to me that as long as rock art A Classification of Rock sites remain on land where ac- The first African site with rock Art Management Strate- cess is restricted, land use does art to be placed on the World gies not change and ownership is not Heritage list was Tassili n’Ajjer For the past decade, management disputed, little deliberate damage in Algeria, followed by Tadrarrt plans for Southern Africa rock is done. Once the land changes Acacus in Libya in 1985. art sites have followed a process hands or there is conflict within that is guided by principles in- the community and the power Since 1999, four rock art sites troduced in courses sponsored by relations shift, the art becomes a in Southern Africa have been the Getty Conservation Institute potential target for those who do inscribed on the World Herit- and set out in publications by not understand its significance age list and two more have been Sharon Sullivan, former Direc- and/or choose to denigrate it or nominated. Their nomination tor of Australian Heritage, and manipulate the significance to has raised the profile of rock art in others (Pearson & Sullivan 1995; their own advantage. the sub-continent and has made Loubser 2001). a positive contribution towards In the following review of case the development of rock art site For the purposes of a broad over- studies, I address only sites where management plans, although view, the most commonly used strategies have been formally im-

implementation has often lagged management strategies for rock plemented by a governmental or behind. art sites in Africa could be di- commercial management author- vided into three major categories ity. Of course this eliminates at In summary, the main issues that focus primarily on control- least 90% of the rock art sites in that management strategies have ling: Africa because they are on com- tried to address over the past cen- • access to the site; munal or private land. These sites tury were the protection of rock • natural weathering; and/or are managed incidentally rather paintings and engravings from • visitor behaviour and knowl- than by formal planning and rely natural and human agencies, and edge mainly on controlling access and the promotion of public aware- not encouraging visitors. In both ness, including tourism. The vast majority of strategies fall pre- and post-colonial times, this into the first category, with fewer type of informal and incidental Training of conservators, re- in the second and third. The suc- management that involves no searchers and site managers has cess of each of these strategies has interventions and no expecta- been less enthusiastically pro- unfortunately to be measured tions of financial reward, does moted. Despite legal protections, against the proportion of sites at not seem to have done as much

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 91 damage as officialdom, new im- offered; to quarrying, but much damage migrants and tourists. It has been had already been done. Within particularly successful where lo- • installing gates or fences to the last 10-15 years, refugees cal chiefs, headmen, community block off no-go areas; and from the Democratic Republic leaders or private land owners of Congo, who were desperate who respect the rock art, main- • installing ‘psychological’ bar- to earn a living, disregarded the tain sufficient control over their riers or boardwalks to prevent beliefs of the local community community and visitors to pre- visitors coming too close to and chopped down the trees for vent or limit access to the sites. painted or engraved surfaces. charcoal and cut up the stone – including entire painted rock Strategies for control- These strategies are most com- shelters – for sale as building ling access monly compromised when land material. The residual memory The strategies that have been im- ownership or land use is disput- of the sacredness of the area has plemented to control access to ed. At Kasama in Zambia, for added to the problems because rock art sites include: example, there are hundreds of Christian groups have appropri- rock art sites that were protected ated certain rock art areas and • making agreements with land within a sacred forest for rain- have painted biblical texts there. owners, chiefs and headmen making and initiation for many There are many other examples who respect the rock art and generations. The first disaster of individual land owners bull- maintain sufficient control occurred when foreign work- dozing rock engravings or even over their community and ers were brought in to build the rock paintings away to extend visitors to limit access; Tanzam railway line and quarried agricultural land, of road builders away entire hills for stone. David quarrying away painted shelters • declaring sites as national or Phillipson managed to call a halt for road works, and commercial

provincial monuments and implementing rules, guidelines or management plans regarding access;

• allowing access only in the company of officially appointed guides;

• appointing custodians from neighbouring communities;

• identifying a few ‘sacrifice’ sites that are easily accessible and directing roads and paths away from the majority of sites where no facilities are

92 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 forestry operations improving stalled, they have usually been of rock art threatened by natural access to rock art through their stolen or vandalised and within weathering processes. A permit own network of roads and fire 10 years are no longer effective. is usually required and the work breaks. They are perhaps justified only should be done by a professional when more than 1000 visitors conservator. The absence until In South Africa, the Histori- a year are expected and they are very recently of trained rock art cal Monuments Commission, combined with regular monitor- conservators in Africa has se- and its successor after 1969, the ing or a guide or custodian. verely hampered all aspects of National Monuments Coun- rock art protection. There are cil, implemented a variation on It is essential, however, that guides few training opportunities, little the access strategy from the late and custodians are trained. In Le- or no research has been done, no 1950s. sotho, for example, children and funding has been allocated for adults from the neighbouring the work, and the long time lapse Alarmed at the increase in graf- community accompanied visitors between intervention and visible fiti and vandalism at sites close to to rock paintings and not only al- results has made assessment of public roads and amenities, and lowed tourists to put water onto strategies difficult. unwilling or unable to bear the paintings to bring out the col- The category includes the follow- cost of paying custodians, they ours, but also did so themselves. ing strategies: began a policy of not publicising Traditional management has also protected rock art sites and refus- been detrimental in cases such as • installation of drip lines; ing to give directions to tourism the southern Drakensberg where organisations. In effect, this the paint is believed to have spe- • coating of paintings with seal- placed decision-making about cial properties and is scraped off ants; access to sites in the hands of in- by sangomas for medicinal pur-

dividual property owners. While poses. At Modderpoort in the • graffitiemoval; r in the short-term it may have eastern Free State province in limited the numbers of visitors South Africa, for example, peo- • removal of paintings and en- to sites, in the long term it led to ple write their names in charcoal gravings from their original yet another generation of people over and next to rock paintings setting; and who were ignorant of the value at a rock art site that has acquired and meaning of the rock art. new significance because of its • regular monitoring to remove proximity to a Christian shrine vegetation or insect activity It is difficult to judge which is and former mission station. By that is a threat to the rock art. worse. Certainly the protected writing their names on the rocks sites that were marked on national it is believed that their prayers Following the lead of Australian maps and that have no custodian will be answered. conservators in the 1970s, drip have incurred heavy damage from lines were installed at several sites graffiti artists who were ignorant Strategies against in South Africa and neighbour- of the significance of the art. natural weathering ing countries (Loubser & Van In general, physical interventions and graffiti Aardt 1979; Rudner 1989). such as fences and boardwalks This category involves inter- spoil the integrity of a rock art vention that it is believed will To my knowledge, there has been site. Where they have been in- improve the chances of survival no publication of the results, but

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 93 judging from comments made successful because the paintings The strategies commonly used by visitors, some drip lines have in the museum are noticeably include: been partially successful in reduc- better preserved than those left at ing the amount of water running the original site. The original site • visitors’ books; over rock paintings but others and the remaining paintings, on • notice boards at or near rock are said to have made no visible the other hand, have been irrepa- art sites; difference. All experiments with rably damaged by this action. In • guide books, brochures and sealants or coatings, on the other other cases – for example a col- leaflets; hand, have failed. Linseed oil ap- lection of rock engravings placed plied to paintings in Pomongwe in the Johannesburg Zoo – the • information centres; Cave in the Matobo Hills, Zim- polluted air of the city has dam- babwe, is gradually flaking off aged them beyond repair. • trained guides; after nearly half a century. • videos and films; and The strategy most commonly rec- The original paintings are faintly ommended in management plans • portable audio equipment. visible underneath the oil coat- for national and provincial parks The general lack of public aware- ing, but all detail has vanished. is monitoring sites to control ness and interest in rock art in Silicone coating applied to paint- vegetation and insects. Trees and many Southern African countries ings in the Kruger National Park shrubs should be pruned if they has meant that few sites have been in South Africa during a series of brush against painted surfaces, developed specifically to generate experiments conducted by the or if they present a potential haz- income from this resource. ard in the case of a bush fire. The Council for Scientific and Indus- roots of wild fig trees often fol- Public rock art sites that encour- trial Research in the 1970s, has low cracks in the walls of rock age visitors tend to be in parks or darkened the rock so dramatical- shelters and can cause blocks to reserves that offer several other ly that paintings alongside that detach. Wasps build nests and were not coated are more visible. termites leave trails across painted rock surfaces and their termitaria The removal of charcoal graffiti, sometimes cover painted surfaces mainly at sites in the Western if they are built next to shelter Cape Province in South Africa, walls. Strategies in such cases has been partially successful in involve botanists and entomolo- that the majority of the 35 sites gists who can advise on the best that were cleaned during the ways to control the plants and 1990s have not attracted new insects. graffiti (Deacon 1995). However certain sites have been repeat- Some rock shelters have been edly targeted again. In each case, badly damaged by domestic the section of the community livestock brushing against the responsible for the graffiti – in painted walls when the sites have one case the local teenagers who been used as kraals. In such cases, camp in the area, and in another fencing is the only option. a group of Rastafarians – has re- turned because they regard the Strategies to control site as ‘theirs’. visitor behaviour and knowledge attractions as well. When visitors Painted panels have been cut Apart from the access strategies have to pay an entrance fee to out of rock shelters to ‘save’ the mentioned above, the purpose the park and then another fee to art from natural weathering and of controlling visitor behaviour visit a rock art site, such as in the from what people perceived to be is not just to protect the rock art Matobo National Park in Zim- inevitable damage by visitors and and its surroundings. It is equally babwe, and the Kruger National neighbouring communities. They important to give the visitor a Park and the Ukhahlamba Drak- have also been removed before positive and enjoyable experience ensberg Park in South Africa, dams have been built in order (Mazel 1982; Loubser 2001). It however, only a small percentage to save them from drowning. In is therefore vital that information of people entering the park will some cases – such as the Linton and knowledge about the site is pay the extra. panel in the Iziko South African presented in an interesting way to Museum in Cape Town – the encourage the visitor to conserve Such places need a strategy to removal strategy has been very the art and appreciate its value. encourage visitors to believe that

94 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 they will have a meaningful and ism be sustainable?’ nor can we and assessed before the aims and enriching experience. Interest can predict with any certainty wheth- objectives of management can be be generated by word of mouth er a rock art site on its own can formulated and strategies pro- and by attractive advertising, generate sufficient income to pay posed and implemented. but is sustained only if the prod- staff and maintain a modest in- uct is good. Excellent facilities frastructure. What makes a site significant are offered at the Kamberg rock and therefore attractive for visi- art centre in the Ukhahlamba For example, the rock art in- tors is not simply its rock art, Drakensberg Park and at Wilde- formation centre at Didima in but its setting in relation to the beestkuil in the Northern Cape the Ukhahlamba Drakensberg landscape and other sites, and province in South Africa where World Heritage Site opened in its significance to the people the guided experience is carefully 2003 and was attracting about who live nearby or who use it. constructed in the form of a met- 800 visitors a month in the peak Those people are part of the site aphorical pilgrimage (Blundell season and 400-600 a month at and cannot be separated from it. 1996). There are also visitor cen- other times. Income was not suf- They will call the shots whether tres at Tsodilo in Botswana and ficient to maintain staff salaries they are formally invited to do so Matobo Hills in Zimbabwe, but and water and electricity bills, but or not. as yet none are fully self-support- when the entrance fee was raised, ing. Reserves that offer a visit to the visitor numbers dropped and Know what it is a rock art site as part of a package the income remained largely un- you are managing of attractions fare better because changed (Ndukuyakhe Ndlovu, Identify and record all the rock income from overnight facilities pers. comm.) art at a site before opening it to and restaurants helps to cover the the public. Good and reliable costs and the risk is spread. In my own experience in South information on changes in the Because rock art has not built up Africa, the most successful and condition of rock art and the sustainable rock art tourism surrounding landscape, and the sites have been those on private possible causes of these changes, property where there is minimal is essential for conservation man- intervention at the site, capital agement planning. The first step outlay is focused on off-site facil- is a condition report that estab- ities, the guides or custodians live lishes a baseline against which nearby, there is a visitors’ book or changes can be measured. Regu- system of recording the names of lar monitoring should up-date visitors, and information is pro- the condition report at least an- vided in take-away form to help nually. the visitor understand how the Every step of the management site fits into the broader picture planning process must be fol- of rock art in the region. lowed Developing and implementing A full answer to questions a rock art site management plan about sustainability can only be is a bit like bringing up a child. obtained through purposeful re- There are certain milestones that search on visitor behaviour and must be met if it is to mature. the effect of knowledge in con- a reputation as a major tourist trolling behaviour patterns (for One of the most important stages attraction, we have few success- example, Gale & Jacobs 1986, in this process is the identification ful models to work from and are 1987). Some of the following of all stakeholders, and mean- still very much in an experimen- anecdotal lessons might be help- ingful engagement with them. tal stage. In a survey of Southern ful in designing such a research This should be done at an early African rock art databases con- project. stage in tandem with thorough ducted in the mid-1990s (Deacon research into the significance of 1997:31), 15 rock art sites open Lessons we have learned the site. to the public in the region from The Site calls the Shots Tanzania southwards to South There is no ‘One size fits all’ so- The identification and in- Africa, attracted a total of only lution to the management of volvement particularly of local 22 230 visitors a year. rock art sites, either in Africa or stakeholders, is mentioned but elsewhere, and there is no ‘quick not stressed in earlier publica- We therefore cannot yet answer fix’. Each site is different and its tions (e.g. Pearson & Sullivan the question ‘Can rock art tour- characteristics must be identified 1994), but experience in Aus-

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 95 tralia and Southern Africa has Business plans for rock art South Africa. Conservation and shown how fundamental it is to tourism sites should not be Management of Archaeological Sites the assessment of significance thumb-sucked, but must be 1:75-85. and formulation of strategies to based on careful and relevant retain this significance. The case research. The scale of operations Deacon, J. 1997. A regional of Domboshava in Zimbabwe is will depend on the number of management strategy for rock art an excellent example (see Taruv- visitors expected. For example, in southern Africa. Conservation inga, this volume). money spent on a state-of-the-art and Management of Archaeological information center that requires Sites 2:29-32. You cannot manage without a electricity 24 hours a day, run- manager ning water and maintenance staff Deacon, J. 2004. Southern It seems to me that the prolifera- might be better spent on training African rock art in the new tion of regulations that require guides and producing guide- millennium. In: Bertilsson, U. & management plans, conservation books if visitor numbers are likely McDermott, L. (eds) The Future management plans and site man- to be low initially. The facilities of Rock Art – a World Review: agement plans often benefits only can always be added later if they 120-131. Stockholm: National the consultants who produce the are indeed needed. Heritage Board of Sweden. plans. The system works best if a manager with appropriate Visitor numbers at existing tour- Gale, F. & Jacobs, J. 1986. rock art or heritage conserva- ist attractions in the vicinity Identifying high-risk visitors at tion experience is appointed first must be carefully analysed be- Aboriginal art sites in Australia. and is given the task of develop- fore the potential income from a Rock Art Research 3(1):3-19. ing the management plan and rock art site is estimated. Tour implementing it. It is equally operators who arrange package Gale, F. & Jacobs, J. 1987. short-sighted to develop a man- tours provide the most reliable Tourists and the national estate. agement plan without budgeting source of visitors, but they need Canberra: Australian Government for the salary of a manager. facilities such as clean toilets, bus Publishing Service. access and other visitor experi- Rock art lasts longer than ences in the vicinity to make it Loubser, J. 2001. Management people or interventions worth their while to come to a planning for conservation. In: Interventions intrude on the au- rock art site. Whitley, D. (ed.) Handbook of thenticity and integrity of rock rock art research: 80-115. Walnut art sites and almost all the mate- We can learn from each other’s Creek, CA: Altamira. rials used (wood, metal, synthetic mistakes products) will not last as long as Conferences such as the one Loubser P.J. & Van Aardt, J.H.P. ochre-based paint or engraved organised by TARA provide a 1979. Preservation of rock art: surfaces. Fences, boardwalks and useful forum for the exchange installation of a drip system at the other interventions should there- of ideas and experiences. Pub- Beersheba Shelter, Griqualand fore be as low-key as possible, lication of the results spreads East District. South African they must be removable and fire- the word even wider. All those Archaeological Bulletin 34:54-56. proof, and they must not detract working towards sustaining the from the visitor’s experience of significance of rock art in Africa Mazel, A.D. 1982. Principles for rock art in its original setting. are therefore encouraged to share conserving the archaeological both good and bad strategies for resources of the Natal Money cannot buy protection rock art conservation so that we Drakensberg. South African Expensive interventions do not can minimise repetition of the Archaeological Bulletin 37:7-15. necessarily provide the most ef- same mistakes. fective protection. Stone gathered References Pearson, M. & Sullivan, S. 1995. from the surrounding hillside Blundell, G. 1996. The politics Looking after heritage places. might provide a more effective of public rock art: a comparative The basics of Heritage Planning floor covering to reduce dust in critique of rock art sites open to for managers, landowners and a rock shelter than a boardwalk. the public in South Africa and the administrators. Melbourne: A tarred road and large parking USA. Unpublished MA thesis: Melbourne University Press. lot near a rock art site will attract University of the Witwatersrand. unwanted visitors unless access is Rudner, I. 1989. The Conservation controlled. Deacon, J. 1995. Promotion of Rock Art in South Africa. Cape of a neglected heritage at Stone Town: National Monuments Tourism does not Age sites in the Western Cape, Council. guarantee sustainable income

96 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Rock-art research for the 21st century: bringing art, science and people together Paul S.C. Taçon1

La recherche pour le 21ème Abstract siècle: mettre en contact l’art, la science et les gens The major issues and concerns raised during the TARA conference are summarised Les problèmes principaux soulevés pendant to illustrate the commonalities faced in rock la conférence de TARA sont résumés afin art research and the strategies that are be- d’illustrer les attentes de cette profession ing implemented to study, record, analyse, et les stratégies qui sont en train d’être conserve, protect and provide access to this mises en place pour étudier, répertorier, an- huge and widespread heritage resource. alyser, conserver, protéger et fournir un ac- The ideas that rock art records, the impor- cès à cette ressource patrimoniale énorme tance of both archaeological excavations et étendue. Les sujets de discussion qui and story telling, and the problems associ- reviennent lors de chaque manifestation ated with opening sites for tourism were the englobent à la fois l’importance des fouilles focus in many presentations. Key themes archéologiques et celle des conteurs, et les that should be taken forward include dating problèmes associés à l’ouverture des sites of the art; surveying and detailed documen- aux touristes. Les thèmes clefs qui doivent tation; the relationship between different être développés comprennent la datation de forms of art and their location both within l’art, une étude et une documentation détail- sites and within the landscape; the crucial lées, la relation entre les différentes formes importance of working with indigenous peo- de l’art et leur emplacement à la fois dans ple whose ancestors created the art; sensi- les sites et dans le paysage, l’importance ble planning for conservation and tourism; cruciale de travailler avec la population and the need to bring rock art into the politi- indigène dont les ancêtres ont créé ces œu- cal arena to raise the international profile vres, une planification judicieuse concernant and encourage co-operation and the sharing la conservation et le tourisme, le besoin de of information and expertise. Examples from porter cet art dans l’arène politique afin de a range of African and Australian localities faire connaître son potentiel international et are used to illustrate that these rock art is- encourager la coopération et le partage de sues are common for both continents and l’information et de l’expertise. Des exemples that by working together we can better ad- provenant d’un nombre de localités afric- vance both knowledge and practice. aines et australiennes sont utilisés pour dé- montrer que les problèmes sont communs sur ces deux continents et qu’en travaillant ensemble, nous pouvons avancer efficacement vers la connaissance et la pratique.

Introduction Jean Clottes. Australia has more some of the reasons why rock art In this paper the intention is to sites than any other country, with is important. summarize some of the main at least 100,000 (Flood 1997) points raised by 2004 Nairobi and perhaps as many as 125,000 First of all, the world rock-art TARA International Conference sites. Each year anywhere from record consists of the bulk of sur- participants, both in the papers dozens to hundreds of previously viving visual art/imagery made they presented (this volume) and unknown sites are ‘rediscovered’ by modern humans in prehis- in the many discussions that took for the modern world across both toric times. Many millions of place. As well, both African and Africa and Australia. This creates images are scattered across rocky Australian perspectives are woven all sorts of research and manage- landscapes as diverse as deserts, together in order to illustrate the ment problems, the most basic of mountain tops, tropical rainfor- common nature of the issues we which is how do we adequately est, arctic tundra, open grassland, all face in rock-art research to- study, record, analyse, conserve, acacia, eucalypt and coniferous day. Africa has more sites than protect and provide access to forest and even modern city- any other continent, with at least such an enormous heritage re- scapes such as sandstone-rich 200,000 – 250,000 individual source? Indeed this was the crux Sydney. rock-art localities according to of the Nairobi meeting, the key umbrella question in all of our Rock shelters, caves, cliff faces, 1 Dr Paul Taçon, [email protected] minds. But before attempting boulders, rock platforms and School of Arts, Griffith University, to answer such a daunting ques- small, portable rocks were paint- Queensland, Australia tion it is important to remember ed, engraved, stenciled, drawn

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 97 upon and otherwise marked amount of information while with both individual and group rock-art is information rich (e.g. expressions of experience and Chaloupka 1993; Lewis-Wil- identity. Working in various liams 1981; Vinnicombe 1976). parts of Australia I have found On the other hand, excavations that in most regions the aver- and related studies can give us age number of motifs per site is lots of secure dates and stratified 8-15, commonly about 10. Al- sequences we have confidence though there are some very large in while reliable dates are rare sites with hundreds of marks and for rock-art. Additionally, rock- images there are also many more art research is ideally suited for small ones, sometimes with just broad landscape studies while a single hand stencil, human fig- excavations give other details of ure, depiction of some animal or place and space. Thus the chal- some other design. This means, lenge is to build better bridges that if we use an average of 10, between the two bodies of evi- there may be as many as 3.75 dence of past human presence million surviving rock-art mo- – the archaeology in the ground tifs in Africa and Australia alone, with that on walls and ceilings. perhaps even more. Prof. Wilmot James, in his opening address, Rock-art is also important be- suggested there are about two cause it is intimately related to million known paintings just in stories, story telling and narrative, Africa, and about twice that eias John Parkington’s and Megan ther unknown or perished. Biesele’s separate papers emphasize. Elaborate story telling is one But rock-art is not just important of the key things that differenti- because of its frequency and per- ates humans from other species. sistence. Rock-art gives us insight It helps convey important infor- into what a given group of people mation and experience, it has a were thinking about, the species sense of history and it expresses of animals and plants important and reaffirms relationships and for economic and symbolic rea- identity. Story telling no doubt sons, various forms of individual gave early humans much greater experience, glimpses of shared chances of survival and may be history, how people represented one of the things that helped the supernatural, the nature of archaic modern humans leave Fig. 1: This depiction of a creature with a kangaroo-like aesthetics and many other as- Africa to colonize such faraway head and human-like body was recently found with over pects of how people conceived places as Australia. But language, two-hundred other drawings and stencils in a remote, and perceived their worlds. Con- song, oral history and stories rugged and wild part of Wollemi National Park, near tact with other groups of people, conveyed by word of mouth do Sydney, Australia. Composite figures such as this are warfare, ritual, environmental not preserve in the archaeologi- more common in the rock-art of northern Australia and change and new technologies are cal record. Rock-art images do southern Africa but occur worldwide. They continue today in a vast array of media, especially film and digital video all illustrated in explicit detail in and whenever anyone has con- productions, highlighting their cross-cultural and universal the rock art of Africa and Aus- sulted with traditional groups of significance (© Paul S.C. Taçon/Australian Museum). tralia, as well as many other parts Indigenous peoples in Africa and of the world. These are pictures Australia the result has been that periods of the European coloni- that in the first instance should people have said the art on the zation of both continents. be treated as that, pictures (Chip- walls is all about stories. Images pindale 2001; and see Coulson were sometimes made while tell- Europeans have been fascinated & Campbell 2001 for breath- ing stories but more often they with rock art for thousands of taking illustrations). Indeed, it were later used to teach, to illus- years and the production of is through rock-art that we can trate experience and to remind rock-art over 30,000 years ago flesh out the skeletal structure one of past events, whether these might well reflect the social net- of the past provided from other be changes brought about in the work advantages they had that forms of investigation, such as ancient eras of the Australian and helped them out-compete the archaeological excavation. This is African Dreamtimes (e.g. Taçon Neanderthal. In recent times, because excavations and studies & Ouzman 2004; Walker 1997) European interest rose with of stone tools give us only a small or those associated with recent the 1879 discovery of painted

98 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 African, Australian and North nomic (Bednarik 1994) and American rock-art viewed their cultural reasons for this. How- rock-art heritage, wherever possi- ever, rare Pleistocene art has been ble maintaining to the present its found and reliably dated in both significance and importance for continents and these key puzzle their people. Today rock-art re- pieces will increasingly be relied mains a key part of the culture of on to flesh out the more ancient some contemporary indigenous past. The danger is that they easily peoples, but the general public can be misinterpreted or over-in- across the world is also fascinated terpreted. Without ethnographic with new discoveries and insights. information or analogy we must The major news outlets trip over rely on formal methods to give us each other to get exclusives or insight into ancient rock-art and new detail about rock art and these need to be used carefully tourist industries have sprung up and consistently (see Taçon & across the globe to take people to Chippindale 1998). sites. In some cases, this provides badly needed funds for research The widespread reliable and ac- and conservation but too much curate dating of rock-art is one of interest also threatens sites with the biggest challenges in Africa both inadvertent and deliberate in the 21st Century, as well as in destruction. other parts of the world. Dating This is now a major concern and is always expensive and many a key issue debated at archaeol- techniques need specialists who ogy and rock-art conferences also may be expensive. annually. It also featured at the 2004 TARA Nairobi meeting, Some techniques, such as AMS with much formal and infor- radio-carbon, are fairly well mal discussion returning to this known and can be very reliable, central question: how do we while others such as OSL (e.g. best promote interest and at- Roberts et al. 1997) are experi- tract funding to study, interpret mental. The key issues are having and preserve the world’s rock-art something associated with the art while at the same time doing it event that one can reliably date, justice in terms of display and ensuring both accuracy and reli- interpretation and ensuring some ability and the ways in which we sites are not doomed to a death use and interpret the number (or of over-visitation and vandalism? ‘date’) we obtain. Fig. 2: Two rhinos painted bison at Altamira, Spain by a To address this and other issues like engravings at Tsodilo young girl, Maria Sanz de Sau- raised above it is worthwhile Repeatability is crucial but usual- Hills, Botswana, appear tuola, while her father excavated to head for a crack in the reviewing some of the major ly there are not enough funds for rock surface and obviously nearby. Since then rock-art has themes of the conference. multiple samples from the same were deliberately placed (© excited European imagination at panel, let alone the same im- Paul S.C. Taçon/Australian a growing pace. One of the early Rewriting or fleshing age. Another concern is that we Museum). consequences was investigations out the past 20,000 strictly minimize damage to im- of rock-art in other parts of the years? ages and surfaces when we take world, especially Africa, Australia Charting change over time and samples for dating. In most cases and North America, with many the we will not be able to precisely early ‘discoveries’ and descrip- challenges of rock-art dating date rock-art, ending up with tions dating to the late 1800s for Rock art research will likely not minimum and/or maximum each continent. However, this dramatically rewrite the past ages instead. However, dating is ‘foreign’ rock-art was initially 20,000 years in either Africa or crucial for comparing rock-art treated more as a curiosity until Australia but it certainly will sequences (see Joané Swart’s pa- much later, with rock-art studies greatly flesh out many key pe- per). One of the best examples of outside Europe not really gain- riods as most surviving rock-art the widespread accurate and reli- ing serious widespread scientific is less than 10,000 years of age, able dating of a form of rock-art attention and acceptance until with the bulk of it is less than in Australia occurred with images the late 1900s. This is in contrast 6,000 years old in both Africa, made of beeswax, a substance to the ways in which the Indig- as Aron Mazel pointed out, and particularly suitable for AMS ra- enous peoples associated with Australia. There are both tapho- diocarbon and one very closely

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 99 associated with rock-art produc- duce sequence in highly stratified livingharbour.net/partners/wol- Fig. 3: Engraved rhinos tion events (Nelson 2000; Taçon rock-art sites (e.g. Chippindale lemi.htm ). Even in well surveyed at Thaba Sione, South et al. 2004). & Taçon 1993). It is important and highly populated areas new Africa. One is infilled to store and make use of the sites can sometimes be found as like most paintings while the other is Documenting sites in records generated in the best was recently the case for me in in outline form as is detail and continuing surveys possible environment, one suit- Mosman, one of Sydney’s exclu- common with other In order to flesh out the past one able for long-term preservation. sive inner suburbs. engravings and some of the most important things Examples include the TARA Tsodilo Hills paintings rock-art researchers can do is to archive facilities, Nairobi, and Relationships between different (© Paul S.C. Taçon/ document sites in detail. There the University of Witwatersrand forms of art and different loca- Australian Museum). are always time and funding con- Rock Art Research Institute, Jo- tions straints but we should strive to at hannesburg. Australia is still in In both Africa and Australia, as least fully document key sites im- need of a comprehensive facility well as elsewhere, a fresh perspec- portant because of size, location, but many individual researchers tive on the past can be obtained ethnographic significance, types and some institutions (e.g. na- by better understand the re- of depictions, threat of destruc- tional park organisations) have lationship between paintings, tion and so forth. We should idiosyncratic but fairly good stor- drawings, engravings, stencils and use conventional photography age conditions. other forms of rock-art (e.g. in (colour slides still produce the Eritrea as Zelalem Teka’s paper il- best results, as David Coulson’s, Of course, in order to more fully lustrates). In some cases different Jean Clottes and, daresay, my understand particular rock-art techniques, such as paintings/ own presentations attested), dig- sites, areas or regions comprehen- drawings versus engravings, were ital still and video photography, sive rock-art survey has to take used for different purposes or scientific and artistic drawings, place. As well, there are many had varying meaning (e.g. see photogrammetry, non- or mini- areas we still know little about McDonald 2000 for a good Aus- mally destructive forms of tracing as is evidenced by the very recent tralian example). In others they and any other minimally ob- results of survey by TARA team were interchangeable. Indeed, at trusive method at our disposal. members in Mauratania and some locations paintings were Extensive note-taking, especially Niger (Alec Campbell’s paper), even made like engravings (see in regard to image placement, in Kenya (Emmanuel Ndiema’s Campbell et al. 1994 and com- should accompany the other paper) and by a team of archaeolo- pare Figures 2 and 3). records and all data should be gists, bushwalkers and Aboriginal linked via site numbers, dates community members in Wollemi Of course, the nature of the rock and other codes. National Park, New South Wales, surface sometimes dictated the Australia. Hundreds of previ- type of technique employed (e.g. Harris matrices may be com- ously unknown sites are coming open sites were usually covered bined with on-site inspections to light, some with fantastic im- with petroglyphs) but at some and drawings to accurately de- agery (see Figure 1, http://www. locations marks made with differ-

100 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 ent techniques occur side-by-side figurative images from southeast pecially the Indigenous peoples or over one another (Figure 4). Australia (Taçon et al. 2003) whose heritages we study. Not Were they made by the same and early bark paintings from only is this an ethical require- people or different ones? Do they northern Australia (e.g. Tacon & ment of many archaeological vastly differ in age or content? Davies 2004) can be particularly and rock-art associations, such Does placement within a shel- informative. as TARA, the Australian Rock ter differ from one technique to Art Research Association, the another? Are some techniques, Exploration of relationships be- International Federation of Rock such as stencils and prints, more tween individual rock-art sites Art Organisations (IFRAO), individual expressions of identity and the larger landscapes they are the Australian Archaeological while others, such as paintings a part of is also very fashionable at Association and the World Ar- and engravings, are more indica- the moment but as with all rock- chaeological Congress, but also it tive of group concerns? These are art research we should be very can be particularly fruitful. Local just some of the questions that cautious about not imposing our people can guide one to sites, pro- can be explored. However, as own conceptions and perceptions vide paid labour, food and other Nancy Stone pointed out, most onto images, sites and landscapes resources but, most importantly, methods of recording lack the (see Smith & Blundell 2004). those connected to sites with means of relating glyphs to each And as Cornelia Kleintz illustrat- recent images can contribute to other. ed at the TARA Conference, it is their greater understanding as very important to wherever pos- Alec Campbell, David Coulson, Furthermore, the relationship of sible investigate the relationship Pascall Taruvinga and others have rock-art to portable art should between sites, rock markings, long argued for Africa. Cornelia also be investigated, whether it sound and performance (see also Kleintz’s conference examples are be prehistoric pieces such as is Ouzman 1996, 1998 and Figure particularly outstanding in this found in Europe and South Af- 5). regard. In Australia, Aboriginal rica or the ethnographic material and Torres Strait Islander people culture of related peoples. For in- Many varied forms of multivariate are routinely involved in rock-art stance, carved San walking sticks statistical and other types of for- research programs, from initial with figurative images in South mal analysis should be employed consultation and negotiation Africa, wooden objects with wherever possible in order to ex- through fieldwork and analysis plore new relationships between to the joint publication of re- and within art forms, landscapes sults. One of the consequences and so forth. New techniques is that many new research op- should also be developed but portunities develop rather than whenever analyzing rock-art data doors being closed. Sometimes, it is crucial to spend time care- however, local people continue fully formulating and framing rock-art traditions in unexpected the sorts of questions ones wants ways, generating much debate as to ask of the data. Cross-cultural to what is a traditional rock-art comparisons can be illuminat- activity (see Ward 1992 and Fig- ing, especially when looking at ure 6). Even more disturbingly, near universal features, such as in both Australia and in Africa the depiction and interpretation local artists have worked with of animal-headed human-like be- the film industry to produce new ings and other composites (Taçon rock-art sites or to enhance old & Chippindale 2001; Figure 1), ones (e.g. Quiggly Downunder in but these should be approached Australia and an episode of the cautiously and one should avoid Young Indiana Jones in Kenya; over-extending particular theo- see Ambrose and Muia in this ries of explanation. volume for the latter). But what Fig. 4: Hundreds of images and other marks cover the do you do when none of the con- lengthy shelter of Yuwunggayai in Deaf Adder Gorge, Working in partnership temporary communities identify Northern Territory, Australia. Importantly, the painted art with Indigenous peo- with rock-art in their area? This is covers much earlier cupule engravings. Furthermore, the ples the challenge Mzalendo Kibunjia cupules were deliberately positioned up to where there Finally, in order to flesh out the addressed in his TARA paper, is a slight change in the slope of the wall surface while the paintings continue over and above to make full use of recent past in terms of rock-art or with sustainable tourism for the the surface. At other sites in both northern Australia and more generally, wherever possible, benefit of local communities and southern Africa the same phenomenon can be observed we should work in partnership residents part of a possible solu- (Taçon & Ouzman 2004) (Paul S.C. Taçon). with local communities and es- tion package. However, Janette

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 101 Deacon pointed out that it is dif- Heritage parks, on site museums have proved successful in keeping ficult for rock-art tourism to be and a vast array of interpretive people away from decorated rock sustainable. services, both obtrusive and sub- surfaces in both continents while tle, are now offered. Rock-art at the same time giving visitors Increased awareness: exhibitions such as TARA’s at the an intimate experience. conservation versus National Museum of Kenya in tourism late 2004 also allow an alterna- Specially designed walkways, Many papers and discussions at tive form of access and education. boardwalks (fire retardant if pos- the TARA Conference empha- A range of digital experiences has sible), steps, low fences and so sized the need for increasing recently been developed or is be- forth are combined with signs, awareness of the importance of ing trialed. For instance, there visitor books or boards (where rock-art, especially sites or areas has been a very recent explo- people can leave their own marks under threat. The basic premise is sion in rock-art websites but also and comments behind), Indig- that when both local people and digital libraries are being built, enous guides, pamphlets, on-site outsiders realize what’s there and films and shorter DVDs are be- lectures and other things to keep why it is significant funding can ing produced and a range of 3D people a reasonable distance be generated for new research, digital reproductions are being from the art. Another more gen- conservation and protection experimented with as Heinz Ru- eral solution includes developing measures. However, this comes ther and others informed us. In education programs for schools, at a cost with increased threats of the not too distant future it may creating employment opportuni- vandalism, especially graffiti and be possible to have a futuristic ties and more generally involving the physical removal of rock-art life size 3D rock-art experience, both local people and others in motifs (e.g. Abdellah Salih’s and with what was once science fic- the preservation, interpretation Sidi Mohammed Llies and An- tion recreating both the present and management of sites. Janette nette Lanjouw’s paper’s). As well, and various past states of rock-art Deacon’s and Pascall Taruvinga’s Fig. 5: Sven Ouzman tourist pressure can open up pris- sites. papers profile many innovative demonstrating how the tine sites to public view, with the examples, some at relatively low rock gong at Keurfontein, resulting changes to local environ- When actual site visitation is cost. South Africa was used. ments hastening their inadvertent encouraged it is important to Sound was a very destruction. Modern maps, GPS protect places without destroy- Besides getting local people, important part of many rock-art sites but until equipment and the exchange of ing them in the process. Previous tourists, developers and others recently researchers paid information about the exact loca- experiments with fences, cages to better respect rock-art sites, little attention to this tion of sites is of great concern. and other hard barriers have many TARA Conference par- component (Paul S.C. In Africa and Australia there is a been disastrous in both Africa ticipants emphasized the need Taçon/Australian Museum) prohibition on the publication and Australia, failing to fully to get important people to sites. [34.tif]. of grid references, GPS readings protect rock-art and alienating and other details of unprotected visitors in the process. In some sites but there is no way to police cases their unsightliness has even the exchange of such information encouraged vandalism. They also between members of the general have cut off sites from larger public who have found rock-art landscapes they are intimately locations. Often the reason they a part of, destroyed the aesthet- found sites is because they were ics of places and in some cases not given enough access to increased deterioration by chang- comparable places. Thus the ing microclimates. As Ben Smith common dilemma is how to give said in his paper, most barriers do people some of the access they not work. The recent removal and desire without harming the sites. careful redevelopment of caged Should some sites be sacrificed sites in places such as Namibia to the public in order to better shows how some places can be protect the rest by keeping their significantly improved without whereabouts unknown? increasing the threat of vandalism or inadvertent damage. In recent years there has been much attention paid to virtual When sites have physical barriers access with the reproduction of removed or new areas are opened entire sites, such as Lascaux, in up for visitation there is always Europe and significant panels in the problem of unsupervised Africa, Australia and elsewhere. visits. Soft and symbolic barriers

102 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Fig. 6: Engraved, painted, stencilled, drawn and even beeswax rock-art continues in various parts of Australia and Africa on a sporadic basis. Most often it is made by young descendents of earlier generations of rock- artists or other local people associated with land. But is it true ‘rock-art’? This BMW from Tshiungani, near the Limpopo River, is South Africa’s best dated engraving with the artist incising ‘1997’ nearby (© Paul S.C. Taçon/Australian Museum) These include government of- ing knowledge between African their counterparts in places such ficials, village elders, UNESCO countries and Australia. Sharing as Australia (for an example see representatives, development and knowledge with those working Taçon & Ouzman 2004). planning officials, philanthro- in other disciplines, including pists, the heads of universities chemists, physicists, geochronol- But before any of this can hap- and schools and senior manage- ogists, art historians and so forth pen we need to create a better ment of industries that might is important in order to develop atmosphere of respect for cultur- impact on sites or might contrib- new techniques of analysis or al differences, varying experience ute to their protection with cash preservation, new theories and and each other. We need to re- or in-kind services. practical solutions to particular spect local conditions, concerns problems. and solutions. We need to work Conclusion: rock art closely with academic, local and world cooperation Besides a general willingness to Indigenous communities and There are many things one can share information across the rock realize they will all have differ- conclude from this brief discus- art world, we should strive to ing agendas. In effect, rock-art sion and overview of the TARA open many more channels of dia- researchers of the 21st Century Conference and the varied papers logue. Meetings and conferences need to be ambassadors and dip- of this volume. Most importantly, are important but more generally lomats opening up channels of however, is the essential need to keeping in touch is essential. Of dialogue and inter-cultural ex- share knowledge between those course, email makes this afford- change. In order to best protect involved in the study, conserva- able, fast and easy but we need to and interpret the world’s rock-art tion and management of rock-art also look at other ways of keep- heritage we need to better respect sites. This is especially true across ing people connected. Certainly, each other. Among other things, Africa where many people have joint publications such as this vol- this means dispensing with some long worked in relative isola- ume are good for both bonding of the political, personal and ego- tion. As well, unique African and sharing knowledge. Other tistic agendas that have obscured solutions can be developed that forms of joint venture could also rock-art and related studies of might be more practical and vi- be developed, including staff the past. Our rock-art resource able while at the same time less exchanges between institutions, is far too precious to squander. costly than those offered by First the creation of opportunities We owe it to the people who left World countries such as those of for people working in different this wonderful world of imagery, Europe or North America (e.g. areas to participate on research, history and meaning behind that see Alec Campbell’s concluding management and conservation we do everything feasible to pass section). Similar problems of oriented rock-art projects out- their and our shared heritage on scale and distance, the involve- side their usual precincts and the to future generations. This means ment of Indigenous peoples, the development of truly collabora- working hard to get things right, vast number of sites and a dra- tive studies, between different including our relationships with matic increase in tourist pressure countries or regions of Africa and each other. might be better attacked by shar- between African institutions and

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 103 Acknowledgments Land rock art. In J. Steinbring, A. P.S.C. Taçon (eds) The archaeology of First I would like to thank David Watchman, P. Faulstich and P.S.C. rock-art: 1-10. Cambridge: Cambridge Coulson, Alec Campbell and Taçon (eds) Time and space: dating University Press. other members of TARA for and spatial considerations in rock inviting me to give the wrap- art research: 32-56. Occasional Taçon, P.S.C. & Chippindale, C. 2001. up address at the First TARA AURA Publication No. 8. Melbourne: Transformation and depictions of the International Conference. I Archaeological Publications. First People: animal-headed beings also would like to thank TARA, of Arnhem Land, N.T., Australia. In K. the Ford Foundation and the Coulson, D. & Campbell, A. 2001. Helskog (ed.), Theoretical perspectives Australian High Commission African rock art: paintings and in rock art research. Oslo: Instituttet for for paying my expenses and engravings on stone. New York: sammenlignende kulturforskning. the Australian Museum for Abrams. supporting my research Taçon, P. & Davies, S. Transitional for fourteen years, leading Flood, J. 1997. Rock-art of the transitions: ‘Port Essington’ bark- to my participation at the Dreamtime. Sydney: Angus and paintings and the European discovery conference. I am indebted to Robertson. of Aboriginal aesthetics. Australian Griffith University, Queensland Aboriginal Studies 2004/2:72-86. for allowing me to continue Lewis-Williams, J.D. 1981. Believing my research in a new art and and seeing: symbolic meaning in Taçon, P., South, B. & S.B. Hooper. 2003. science environment. I also southern San rock paintings. London: Depicting cross-cultural interaction: thank the many Australian Academic Press. figurative designs in wood, earth Aboriginal elders who have and stone from south-east Australia. taught me so much about McDonald, J. 2000. Media and Archaeology in Oceania 38:89-101. the rock art, landscape and social context: influences on traditional cultures of many stylistic communication networks Tacon, P., Nelson, E., Chippindale, C. & parts of Australia. Finally, in prehistoric Sydney. Australian Chaloupka, G. 2004. The beeswax rock I am grateful to the many Archaeology 51:54-63. art of the Northern Territory: direct generations of inspired dating results and a ‘book of record’. Australian and African artists Nelson, D.E. 2000. The beeswax art Rock Art Research 21(2):155-160. who have built up and passed of northern Australia (CD ROM). on such an incredible legacy Burnaby: Simon Fraser University. Taçon, P.S.C. & S. Ouzman. 2004. of imagery and heritage. May Worlds within stone: the inner and their visions continue to thrive Ouzman, S. 1996. An engraved outer rock-art landscapes of northern and may their knowledge touchstone from the Free State. The Australian and southern African. In C. continue to be imparted to Digging Stick 13:1-3. Chippindale and G. Nash (eds.), The people of the present and figured landscapes of rock-art: looking future. Ouzman, S. 1998. Toward a at pictures in place: 39-68. Cambridge: mindscape of landscape: rock- Cambridge University Press. art as an expression of world References understanding. In C. Chippindale and Vinnicombe, P. 1976. People Bednarik, R.G. 1994. A taphonomy of P.S.C. Taçon eds., The archaeology of the eland: rock paintings of palaeoart. Antiquity 68:68-74. of rock-art, pp. 1-10. Cambridge: the Drakensberg Bushmen as a Cambridge University Press. refection of their life and thought. Campbell, A., Denbow, J. & Wilmsen, Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal E. 1994. Paintings like engravings: Roberts, R., Walsh, G., Murray, A., Press. rock art at Tsodilo. In T.A. Dowson and Olley, J., Jones, R., Morwood, M., D. Lewis-Williams (eds.) Contested Tuniz, C., Lawson, E., Macphail, M., Walker, N. 1997. 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104 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Rock art, cultural tourism and the indigenous peoples of Southern Africa

Robert K. Hitchcock1

L’art rupestre, le tourisme ABSTRACT culturel et les populations indigènes de l’Afrique du sud Art is a very visible and important symbol of the San (Basarwa Bushmen) and other L’art est un symbole important et très visible indigenous peoples in southern Africa. pour les San (les bushmen Basarwa) et pour Artistic expression represented a set of les peuples indigènes du sud de l’Afrique. skills that many San and other indigenous L’expression artistique est représentée par peoples possessed and which they could un ensemble de talents que beaucoup de build upon. Art provided a connection San ou autres peuples indigènes possédai- between young and old, between males ent et grâce auxquels ils ont pu s’exprimer. and females, and between those living on L’art permettait des liaisons entre les jeunes farms, cattle posts, and towns and those et les vieux, entre les hommes et les femmes remaining in the bush. The sale of art, et entre ceux qui vivent à la ferme et à la including goods such as decorated (etched) ville et ceux qui demeurent dans le bush. La ostrich eggshells, paintings, and carved vente de l’art, y compris les biens tels que wooden items such as plaques, is a means les œufs d’autruche décorés, les peintures, of generating much-needed income for et les objets en bois sculptés, est un moyen San individuals and households as well as de générer un revenu vital pour les San mais a means of expressing a set of identities également un moyen d’exprimer une série about which many San are quite proud. d’identités dont les San sont assez fiers. This paper presents case studies from Cet article cite les dossiers du Botswana et Botswana and Lesotho to demonstrate ways du Lesotho, deux exemples où le tourisme in which cultural tourism and ecotourism culturel et l’écotourisme représentent des represent important sources of income for sources importantes de revenus pour les local, national, and regional economies in économies locales, nationales et régionales Southern Africa today. du sud de l’Afrique d’aujourd’hui.

The sale of art, including goods case of the Kuru artists of D’Kar as a component. Some of this such as decorated (etched) os- in western Botswana, as will be tourism is ecotourism, defined by trich eggshells, paintings, and described in this paper. the IUCN (International Union carved wooden items such as for the Conservation of Nature) plaques, is a means of generating Rock art also features in cultur- as ‘environmentally responsible much-needed income for San in- ally-oriented tourism in southern travel and visitation to relatively dividuals and households as well Africa. Tourists visit rock art undisturbed natural areas in or- as a means of expressing a set of sites in places as diverse as the der to enjoy and appreciate nature identities about which many San Matobo Hills of Zimbabwe, the and any accompanying cultural are quite proud. Art is consid- Brandberg in Namibia, and the features, both past and present ered highly valuable by the San. Drakensberg-Maluti Mountains that promotes conservation, has In many ways, it is a central focus region of South Africa and Le- low visitor impacts, and provides of San existence. sotho. Some tourists have been for beneficially active involve- known to travel to western Bot- ment of local populations.’ There Crucial aspects of San lifestyles swana in order to visit with some is also cultural tourism, tourism are recorded in art, especially of the artists living there whose aimed at allowing visitors to ex- the art on the rocks of southern paintings resemble rock art. Rock perience on-going societies and Africa. The rock art of Angola, art representations are popular in their cultural traditions, practices Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, safari lodges and hotels and in and heritage. Mozambique, South Africa, Swa- tourism brochures. ziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe In Botswana, there has been de- has served as a stimulus for San In recent years, since the 1980s bate over time as to whether or who today wish to adopt some of in Zimbabwe and the 1990s in not it is appropriate for tourists to the motifs for contemporary pur- Botswana, Namibia and South ‘see Bushmen’ or to go to ‘model poses, as seen, for example, in the Africa, San and other peoples villages’ because such activities are have been able to benefit from seen by some as exploitative and community-based natural re- demeaning (Hitchcock 1997, 1 Prof. Robert Hitchcock [email protected] source management projects 2004). Some San say, on the oth- University of Nebraska USA (CBNRMPs) that have tourism er hand, that they want to have

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 105 106 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 107 the opportunity to interact with Laurens van der Post, who vis- art of their own, includ- tourists, not only because they ited Tsodilo in the 1950s and ing San from other areas hope to profit economically from who wrote about the hills and in southern Africa. the experience but also because the people who lived there in his they have something to learn book Lost World of the Kalahari, Over the past several from the guests in their com- published in 1958. The rock art decades, the Tsodilo Hills munities. A problem for the San sites in the hills have long held have witnessed efforts by and other indigenous peoples is a fascination for people from development workers to that in spite of the rhetoric about southern Africa and from other assist local people. These public participation and the ben- places. The German geologist include workers from the efits of tourism that are supposed Siegfried Passarge visited Tsodilo Government of Botswana to accrue to local populations, at the end of the 19th century (see such as the Remote Area Devel- sometimes ecotourism and cul- Wilmsen 1997). opment Program of the North tural tourism serve to dispossess West District Council and the poor local people and have only In the latter part of the 1970s, National Museum and Art Gal- limited social and economic ben- the National Museum and Art lery and from non-governmental efits – and some significant risks Gallery of Botswana began an organizations such as the Trust – for them. The purpose of this extensive rock art and archaeo- for Okavango Cultural and De- paper is to examine cases where logical site recording effort velopment Initiatives (TOCaDI). issues have been raised concern- (Campbell, Hitchcock, and Bry- Their goals have been to enhance ing rock art, cultural tourism, an 1980; Campbell and Coulson the capacity of the communi- and the roles and responsibilities 1988; Campbell, Denbow and ties to manage the natural and of indigenous peoples in dealing Wilmsen 1994). cultural resources in the Tsodilo with rock art and cultural tour- Hills National Monument and to ism. Tsodilo has the largest concen- expand income and employment tration of rock art sites in the opportunities. The Tsodilo Hills country. The paintings and of Botswana engravings in the Tsodilo Hills Today, between 8 000 – 10 000 A good example of a locality include a variety of different people a year visit the Tsodilo where issues have arisen about kinds of images. Some of the Hills, and the number is expected the relationships among local paintings are geometric or sche- to increase thanks to the World people, rock art, and tourism is matic in nature, while others are Heritage Site status it received in the Tsodilo Hills of north west- realistic paintings of animals, 2001 and the improvements to ern Botswana. Now a World both wild and domestic. The the roads to the hills. As Camp- Heritage Site, the Tsodilo Hills paintings and engravings (petro- bell (personal communication, originally came to broad public glyphs) in the Tsodilo Hills have 2005) has pointed out, discus- attention through the work of served to stimulate visitors to do sions about what should be done

108 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 to help the people in the Hills and what kinds of conservation and development programs that might be implemented there were not hurried; rather, they lasted for years. The discussions organized by National Museum and Art Gallery personnel, the North West District Council and various consultants and development workers involved extensive local participation in which a variety of ideas and approaches were considered.

An important objective of both the Mbukushu and the Ju/ ’hoansi San residents of the Hills was to maintain a diversified set of economic activities including serving as tourist guides,

manufacturing and selling craft of crafts produced by Ju/’hoansi products, keeping livestock and in north western Botswana and doing a limited amount of agri- north eastern Namibia. Tourists culture, and engaging in foraging thus provide funds to local peo- primarily as a means of buffering ple both directly and indirectly, their subsistence. The govern- and the residents of the Hills have ment of Botswana does provide been able to get value added for a certain amount of food to local the products that they produce. people including those defined as destitutes, that is, ones whose In 1995, a small community of incomes are below a certain min- Ju/’hoansi who had lived in the imum level, and people engaging hills for generations were moved in labour-based relief and de- to a new settlement locality sev- velopment projects such as road eral kilometers to the south of clearing. the hills. When I visited the Hills on August 12-13, 1999, Individuals from the Ju/’hoansi the Ju/’hoansi were having dif- San and Mbukushu communi- ficulties because the well near ties have taken part in tourist their village was no longer yield- guiding activities, and they have ing water. The consequence was also worked as assistants in some that the Ju/’hoansi were having of the archaeological activities to walk several kilometers in or- that have taken place in the Hills der to get water from a borehole (Campbell and Robbins 1988, next to the new museum site ad- 1990). The amounts of money jacent to the Female Hill. While made by individuals vary tre- there were complaints about the mendously; some of them receive borehole not being fixed, Gov- upwards of P100-P200 per day ernment officials said that they for their work, while others make would attend to it even though only between P15-P20 per craft it was designated as a community item sold, many of them being water point. ostrich eggshell bead bracelets and necklaces. Local products are Cash payments were made to used in the manufacture of craft people as compensation for the items. loss of their homes and assets in 1995. The amounts paid were, Table 1 presents data on the kinds according to some Ju/’hoansi,

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 109 Table 1. Natural Resources Used for Craft Production by Ju/’hoansi San in the Northwestern Kalahari Desert Region, Botswana and Namibia

SCIENTIFIC JU/’HOAN (!KUNG) PART PRODUCTS NAME NAME UTILIZED MADE

Acacia tortilis /aqri root quivers

Boscia albitrunca zaqn stem animal/human figurines, spoons

Burkea africana !ku stem drums, thumb piano bases

Colophospermum mophane stem bracelets, rings, walking mopane sticks, animals

Combretum apiculatum //aqean stem etched plaques

Combretum imberbe /’o stem figurines, spoons

Commiphora mokomoto or seroka depend- stem animals, figurines, drums spp. ing on species

Gardenia resiniflua morala stem spoons, bowls

Grewia flava n/ang branch bows, digging sticks

Kirkia acuminata modumela stem figurines, candle holders, toy chairs

Lonchocarpus nelsii //’haoh stem figurines, spoons

Phragmites australis //’ang/’o branch arrows

Pterocarpus angolensis n/hang stem drums, thumb piano bases, plaques

Ricinodendron rautanenii g//kaa stem (trunk) stools

Sansevieria scabrifolia g!oma leaves snares, mats, bow strings

Sclerocarya caffra kaqe, marula stem (trunk) bowls, pestles, plaques

Terminalia sericea za’o stem etched plaques

Note: Data obtained from Marshall (1976:144-152, 414-415); Yellen (1977:137-143); Lee (1979:119-157); Dickens (1994:341-349); and fieldwork by R. Hitchcock and M. Biesele

110 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 relatively generous, around, drawings of what they felt to be but given budget constraints in P17,500 per household. There their cultural heritage – the paint- the North West District Coun- was extensive discussion about ings and engravings of Tsodilo. cil and the small population size, the possibility of relocation and it is unlikely that additional in- its implications over a number A crucial point of discussion in frastructure will be provided, at of years prior to the move of Tsodilo was rock art conserva- least in the foreseeable future. the Ju/’hoan village in 1995. It tion. Local people in Tsodilo There is hope on the horizon, was agreed that residents should were aware that the rock art there however, with the possibility of retain the right to use natural was a major reason for tourists a much-expanded non-govern- resources in the protected area. coming to visit the Hills. There ment organization development They could not, however, keep appears to have been a change effort spearheaded by the Trust their livestock inside the fenced over time in attitudes about rock for Okavango Cultural and De- portion of the protected zone. A art conservation, with at least velopment Initiatives beginning borehole was provided at the new some of the residents of the hills in 2005. The critical question fac- Ju/’hoan village site some 5 km exhibiting greater awareness of ing the Ju/’hoansi and Mbukushu south of the hills. The population the importance of the paintings of Tsodilo is to what degree they of Tsodilo rose from 81 in 1980, and engravings. One person said will have a say over the kinds of 110 in 1991, 140 in 1999, and in 1999 that he understood the conservation and development 172 in 2003 (Botswana govern- reason for the relocation of the projects carried out at Tsodilo. ment census data; see also Bollig village and the construction of et al 2000). a fence between the village and The D’Kar Artists’ the Hills because, as he put it, Program in Western The Ju/’hoansi, like the neighbors, ‘It kept the cattle from destroy- Botswana the Mbukushu, are benefiting ing the rock paintings.” He It was a visit to the Tsodilo Hills from tourism and development said he had seen cattle rubbing in December, 1989 that stimu- in the Hills. One concern that against the rock in places where lated the Nharo San of the village they Ju/’hoansi expressed was there were paintings and he was of D’Kar in Ghanzi District to whether their location away from concerned that this action could undertake artistic activities. The the hills reduced their chances of potentially have negative impacts Nharo San of D’’Kar were able to interacting with tourists. Some on the rock art. He went on to see art of high quality, and they tourists who have visited Tsodilo say, “We must preserve the rock shared their observations with said that they made a special point art because the art brings tour- people at home in their village. of visiting the Ju/’hoan village for ists, and tourists bring money.’ It was partly this activity that purposes of obtaining crafts and helped lead to the founding of getting some photographs of One of the goals of the people of the Kuru Arts Project of Kuru people going about their daily Tsodilo is to establish a Tsodilo Development Trust (now part activities. Sometimes the Community Development Trust of the Kuru Family of Organi- Ju/’hoansi requested in order to enhance local-level zations), which was established recompense for the development, to enable them in Ghanzi District in 1986. photographs that to gain access to outside funds What became known as the Kuru were taken. At and technical assistance, and Arts Project began in 1990. Ac- one point, to explore questions relating to tivities of the project included one Ju/’hoan heritage rights and intellectual training of San artists in various man asked property rights. Some San want media such as oil and water- the question to use the funds generated from colour painting, lithography, whether or rock art related tourism to invest etching, and print making. The not he and in social and physical infrastruc- paintings and other products other people ture such as the establishment of of the artists were exhibited at in Tsodilo could new water points and the con- museums and art galleries as far request payments struction of community centers. afield as Gaborone, Windhoek, from tourists when Namibia, Johannesburg and Dur- they took A clinic was built at Tsodilo by ban, South Africa, Harare and photo- the Botswana Government and Bulawayo, Zimbabwe, London, graphs various district health and devel- United Kingdom, Amsterdam, or did opment personnel visit the Hills the Netherlands, Tromso, Nor- on a regular basis. The Ju/’hoansi way, and Albuquerque, New and Mbukushu would like to Mexico, USA. There have been have a school built in the Hills positive reactions to the Kuru and have more job opportunities, artists’ work, and the demand

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 111 for San art has increased significantly.

Some of the San artists have gained a world wide reputation; the painting of one artist (Cg’ose Ntcox’o) was even chosen in an international competition to decorate the tail of a British Air- ways jet liner. In 2000, there were 14 artists in the Kuru Arts Project, 5 of whom were women and 9 of whom were men. The ages of the artists ranged from early 20s to 75, with the average age being around 35. The women were Coe’xae Qgam (Dada), Coex’ae Bob (Coexae), Ncg’abe Taase (Nxabe), Cg’oise Ntcox’o (Cgoise), and X’aga. The men were Thamae Setshogo, Thamae Kaashe, Sobe Sobe, Qaetcao Mo- ses (also known as Olebogeng and who signs his work Qaeqhao), Xgaoc’o X’are (Qhaqhoo), Xgaiga Qhomatca (Xaiga Qom), Gamnxoa (Gamnqoa), Q’oex’oa, and Qgam. The last four of these artists were new to the project in 2000. The coordination of the Kuru Art Project and training was done in 1999-2000 for Kuru Development Trust by Maudi Brown, a fine artist in her own right. There were also two San art project assistants. A new artists’ workshop was completed in 1999, allowing the artists sufficient space to do their work, with rain and other symbolic km north of Ghanzi Township, house their equipment, and shapes, the artists paint a fairly another part of Kuru Develop- store their products. The D’Kar sizable number of animals. Inter- ment Trust’s project activities, Farm, where the artists work, is estingly, they often like to paint where they can see hartebeest, a freehold farm that is owned by small animals, birds, and insects, steenbok, duiker, and wildebeest. the Dutch Reformed Church of like scorpions, praying mantises, There were 24 people working at Botswana and has been in church dung beetles, spiders, and tor- Dqae Qare, where they not only hands since 1989. toises, and the like. They also engage in dances but also help paint larger animals, including in maintaining the farm and its The artists of the Kuru Art kudu, eland, giraffe, elephant, facilities. Dqae Qare personnel Project are not the only artists in rhinoceros, some of which they take tourists out from the fine D’kar. They do, however, reflect may never have seen (rhino and old Afrikaaner farm house at a cross-section of the people in- elephant, for example). Some of the game farm to see wildlife (by volved in producing art of high these animals exist in the D’Kar truck and on foot), and to show quality. The San artists build area, including antelopes, hyenas, tourists things like game tracks on their own symbols in their leopards, and ostrich, while oth- and how to locate wild edible art, and they draw on images ers, such as rock rabbits (hyraxes) and medicinal plants. The funds and symbols of other indigenous are found only in rocky places far generated by Dqae Qare are ei- groups, including Australian Ab- from D’Kar. ther re-invested in the program origines and American Indians. The Kuru artists sometimes travel or are provided to the D’Kar Besides humans, plants, clouds to the Dqae Qare Game Farm, 11 Trust. Some Nharo San from

112 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 D’Kar asked the question about individual artist herself or him- and to make plans for future ac- whether or not the funds gen- self may not become wealthy in tivities. erated by Dqae Qare should be a material sense, she or he does provided to people in the form of manage to incur some obliga- The Business Department of household benefits for the people tions on the part of other people Kuru Development Trust provid- of D’Kar. who they can then call upon in ed feedback to the Arts Project on time of need. sales. Having data on the sales Some if not most of the Kuru art- of specific artists and the prices ists generate substantial incomes, The Kuru artists have been able paid for their work was very use- especially as compared to people to generate income not just from ful because it provided project in other Ghanzi District com- the direct sale of their products personnel and artists themselves munities. In the case of Cg’oise but also from the licensing of the with insights on patterns and Ntcox’o, who did the art work materials they produce. In line trends, which in turn could be that was selected for use on the with the efforts of indigenous used to facilitate planning and British Airways jet liner, the pay- peoples worldwide to protect financial management. ment was around US $15,000. their intellectual property rights The provision of that amount (IPR), the San of western Bot- The commission that Kuru took of money to an individual had swana have sought to ensure that from the artists’ returns at the a number of impacts. Basically, they get economic returns for the time of the Kuru Development Cg’oise bought some livestock, use of their images and symbols. Trust project evaluation was 40%. gave some away to relatives and Kuru has assisted the San artists The artists have an additional 5% friends, and saved some for her- in getting copyrights for their of the balance in a private savings self. work. When Professor Mathias account with Kuru, which is part Guenther of Wilfrid Laurier of the savings and loan program. But the money was not easy to University in Waterloo, Ontario, Out of this commission, Kuru hang on to, a constant issue for Canada, published a book on pays some of the costs of the people in egalitarian societies like San religion, he paid a commis- project, such as materials, exhibi- the Nharo San. sion for the right to reproduce tion and marketing costs, studio a painting of a giraffe dance by space, tuition, salaries for project While some of the artists have Thamae Kaashe on the book’s staff, and project overheads. In- been able to set aside some of cover. Kuru has done an admi- ternally, the Arts Project had set their funds, many of them have rable job of helping not only to up a system whereby the artists felt it necessary to purchase protect the intellectual prop- had 17% of the returns devoted goods or food, which they then erty rights of its members, but to purchase of materials, 5% of make available to their relatives it has also facilitated the process the returns went into the savings and friends. In a sense, the art- whereby individuals and groups program, and the balance went ists can be seen as central nodes can gain additional benefits from to the artist. in a wide-ranging network of their work. reciprocal exchange. While the Kuru has held a number of work- The Kuru Arts Project has un- shops on money management dertaken a variety of activities, and pricing policies which were ranging from training of artists useful in helping build the capac- from other communities (e.g. ity of the artists and helped make ones from the village of /Xai/ them more comfortable with the Xai in western Ngamiland) to ways in which they could deal helping the artists with the pric- with their returns. ing and sale of their products. As was the case with some of A hand-printed artists’ book, the other people at D’Kar, the Quaqua, was produced by the artists sometimes found it dif- Artists’ Press of Johannesburg ficult to understand the ways in in collaboration with the Kuru which pricing and marketing was Art Project. The book is bound done. The Kuru arts coordinator in goatskin which was tanned worked closely with the artists in by D’Kar leather workers using the setting of the prices, and peo- special roots that were prepared ple were highly appreciative of carefully. her efforts. Meetings were held on Fridays to discuss issues with This book is printed in both which the artists were concerned English and Nharo, the pre-

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 113 dominant language of the northern Ghanzi District. The collaboration between the Kuru artists, Kuru Development Trust personnel, and the lin- guists working at D’Kar, Cobi and Hessel Visser (Summer In- stitute of Linguistics), has been invaluable. Some of the art work has been displayed in the small cultural museum at the Kuru Development Center at D’Kar along with exhibits on rock art, crafts, tools and other items used by San, and discussions of San lifestyles.

The impacts of the Arts Project on Kuru and on the San generally cannot be overestimated. Returns on investment by Kuru in the project have been substantial, especially given the fact that the art has come to symbolize Kuru as an organization and the San as a people who value their environment and their social relations greatly and who are highly sophisticated both aesthetically and spiritually. Kuru art is seen on post cards, stationery, and T-shirts. The fine calendars produced by Kuru Development Trust that display the work of Kuru artists are purchased by people from all over the world. Clearly, the art produced by the Kuru artists is far more than a as rock walls and small kraals for as a Nature Reserve and has been means of generating income for livestock can be seen. developed by the Lesotho High- a small number of people. It is land Development Authority an important part of the lives The site is important historically through a private company that of the San, and it serves to con- to the Basotho because Moshoe- built the museum and trail sys- nect them to each other, to their shoe I, the king of Lesotho, took tem. Management of the site is ancestors, and to all other organ- refuge there along with some of done in association with a Com- isms and spiritual forces, past his people during the time of the munity Conservation Forum and present. mfecane (‘the time of troubles’) in (CCF) made up of local people. the early 19th century. The rock Some members of the commu- A Cultural Center As- art in the shelter is attributed to nity forum work at the museum sociated with Rock Art San peoples who had lived in the and sell crafts in the shop there. in Lesotho area in the 19th century. In Ses- Data on the numbers of visitors In Lesotho, there is a 4.5 ha cul- otho, the term used for San is to the site over time show an tural site known as Liphofung, Moroa. There were reportedly increase, from 4,907 in 2001 to which is a rock shelter contain- some San who were still engaged 8,693 in 2002 and 16,979 as of ing rock art and archaeological in painting in the vicinity of October, 2003. A sizable pro- remains. Located in the ‘Muela some of the mission stations in portion of the visitors to the site area, Liphofung now has a small Lesotho in historic times (How are school children. cultural museum and a trail 1962:8, 15). down into the shelter where the People in the community con- paintings and other features such Today, Liphofung is designated servation forum have discussed 114 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 ways in which they can improve the existence of rock art. In all rights over blocks of land (Hitch- the exhibits at the museum and three places, there are museums cock 2003, 2005; Hitchcock and provide more information to that have exhibits of rock art and Vinding 2004). In some cases visitors. One point made in the that provide information on the they have cited the presence of discussions is that people in the lifestyles of indigenous peoples in ‘sacred sites,’ including graves of Liphofung community conser- the area. their ancestors and places con- vation forum could take part taining rock art. San in Namibia in demonstration visits to the Discussions with San in Tsodilo have claimed that they should Tsodilo Hills and to the Kuru and D’Kar reveal that there is have rights over sites such as Family of Organizations devel- significant interest in rock art Twyfelfontein and Spitzkoppe. opment center at D’Kar so that and its origins. In Tsodilo, some Tyua San in the Tsholotsho they can see the museums in the Ju/’hoansi informants claimed District in Matabeleland North two locations. that the paintings were done by Province in Zimbabwe have said God and not by them; there were that it was their ancestors who They also want to talk to local also claims that the paintings did some of the paintings in the people in Tsodilo and D’Kar were done by them but that their Matobos and that they therefore about the kinds of approaches hands were guided by God. It is should be able to get some of the that might be employed in rock interesting to note that over time funds from the gate receipts from art conservation, arts and crafts (from 1976 and 1978 to 1999) the national park to use for de- production, distribution, and there appears to have been an velopment. sale, and local level develop- increase in the degree to which ment. the Ju/’hoansi of Tsodilo claim One of the issues that has arisen both the red and white paint- in the discussion about the rela- Conclusions ings as their own. When asked tionships among rock art, cultural In southern Africa today, cultural why this was the case, one man tourism, and indigenous peoples tourism and ecotourism repre- replied that he felt that the art is whether or not the indigenous sent important sources of income was indeed theirs, and he went peoples should have a ‘prior for local, national, and regional on to say that if they claimed the claim’ or customary rights to the economies. Local people are art themselves, it would provide sites where the rock art is found. seeking to benefit both directly them with a more substantial There are other groups besides and indirectly from the tourism right to the land on which the art the San living in or near rock art and the tremendous interest in was found. localities, as seen, for example, San art. What is interesting about with the Mbukushu in Tsodilo, all three of these cases is that local In a number of places in south- the Bakgalagadi in the area of residents, some of whom are San, ern Africa, indigenous peoples Mamuno, a set of rock engrav- have been able to benefit from and others have sought to claim ings in western Ghanzi District,

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 115 the Damara at Twyfelfontein, go a long way toward ensuring tourism among Kalahari and the Ndebele, Kalanga, and that rock art sites and portable Bushmen. In: Chambers, E. (ed.) Banyubi in the Matopos area of art benefit both the visitors and Tourism and Culture: An Applied Zimbabwe. the hosts. Perspective: 93-128. Albany: State University of New York Press. Some of these groups have themselves put forth claims to the Hitchcock, R. K. 2003. ‘We Are rock art. In the case of Twyfel- the Owners of the Land’: The fontein, trained Damara guides San struggle for the Kalahari and Iits resources. Unpublished take visitors to the engravings, paper presented at the 102nd and more recently, a private com- annual meetings of the American pany established a safari lodge at Anthropological Association, Twyfeltontein without much in References Bollig, M., Hitchcock, R. K., Chicago, Illinois, November 19, the way of discussion with local Nduku, C. & Reynders, J. 2000. 2003. people in the area. Working out At the Crossroads: The Future agreements among the indig- of a Development Initiative. Hitchcock, R.K. 2004. Tourism, enous and other peoples in rock Evaluation of KDT (Kuru development, dependency and art areas is very important, as is Development Trust) Ghanzi and advocacy among the San of Southern Africa. Unpublished coming to agreements between Ngamiland Districts of Botswana. th local people, private companies, Harare, Zimbabwe: Hivos. paper presented at the 64 annual meetings of the Society for and local, district, and national Campbell, A. & Coulson, D. Applied Anthropology, Dallas, government authorities. 1988. Cultural confrontation at Tsodilo. Optima 36:12‑19. Texas. Local people can and have in a Campbell, A.C., Denbow, J. & Hitchcock, R. K. 2005. number of cases served as guides Wilmsen. E. 1994. Paintings like Ecotourism and common to the rock art. Discussions with engravings: rock art at Tsodilo. property management among the tourists who have gone to see the In: Dowson, T.A. & Lewis- San of Northwestern Botswana. art with the local guides reveals Unpublished paper presented Williams, J.D. (eds) Contested th that some of the guides know Images: Diversity in Southern at the 65 annual meetings relatively little about the origins, African Rock Art Research: of the Society for Applied history, or significance of the rock 131-158. Johannesburg: Anthropology, Santa Fe, New Mexico, April 6-10, 2005. art. As one tourist in Twyfelfon- Witwatersrand University Press. tein suggested in the 1990s, this Campbell, A.C., Hitchcock, R. Hitchcock, R. K. & Vinding, D. argues for more training of local 2004. Indigenous Peoples’ Rights guides by knowledgeable indi- & Bryan, M. 1980. Rock art at Tsodilo, Botswana. South African in Southern Africa. Copenhagen: viduals or organizations. There is Journal of Science 76(10):476- International Work Group for a role for San organizations such 478. Indigenous Affairs. as the Working Group of Indig- enous Minorities in Southern Campbell, A. C. & Robbins, How, M. W. 1962. The Mountain Africa (WIMSA), the South Afri- L.H. 1988. The Depression Bushmen of Basutoland. Pretoria: can San Institute (SASI), and the Rock Shelter Site, Tsodilo Hills. J.L. Van Schaik. various Kuru Family of Organi- Botswana Notes and Records Van der Post, L. 1958. The Lost zations units (e.g. the Trust for 20:1‑3. World of the Kalahari. London: Okavango Cultural and Develop- Campbell, A. C. & Robbins, Chatto and Windus. ment Initiatives) in working with Wilmsen, Edwin N. (ed.) 1997. local communities on capacity L.H. 1990. Prehistory of Mongongo nut exploitation in The Kalahari Ethnographies building, conflict management, the Western Kalahari Desert, (1896-1898) of Siegfried Passarge: and training on cultural and Botswana. Botswana Notes and Nineteenth Century Khoisan- and natural resource management. Records 22:37‑42. Bantu-Speaking Peoples. Köln, Governments, both local and Germany: Rudiger Koppe Verlag. national, also play crucial roles Guenther, Mathias G. 1999. in the conservation and manage- Tricksters and Trancers: ment of rock art and tourism. As Bushman Religion and Society. some San have argued, in order Bloomington: Indiana University to ensure better conservation Press. and equitable development, a participatory approach to de- Hitchcock, Robert K. 1997. Cultural, economic, and cision-making, planning, and environmental impacts of management of rock art sites will

116 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Schematic rock art in Benishangul (Western Ethiopia): a preliminary report

Víctor M. Fernández and Alfonso Fraguas1

L’art rupestre schématique au ABSTRACT Benishangul (Ethiopie de l’ouest) : Un rapport préliminaire The results of excavations in 2001-2003 at two rock shelters with red schematic paint- Les résultats des fouilles effectuées durant ings, Bel Bembesh and Bela Sharafu in 2001-2003 sur deux abris rocheux possédant Benishangul, Western Ethiopia, are sum- des peintures rouges schématiques (Bel marised briefly. Evidence from the pottery Bembesh et Bela Sharafu au Benishangul, sequence, radiocarbon dates and historical en Ethiopie de l’ouest) sont résumés briève- data suggests that the rock paintings prob- ment. Des preuves provenant des poteries, ably date to the 16th or 17th century AD and la datation au radiocarbone et les données may be related to the arrival from Sudan of historiques suggèrent que les peintures rup- the Berta people. Local informants and re- estres datent probablement entre le 16ème et searchers have offered a variety of explana- le 17ème siècle après Jésus christ et peuvent tions for the paintings. Some suggest they avoir une relation avec l’arrivée du peuple might have been connected to rain-making Berta provenant du Soudan. Les informa- rituals while others do not. Rock art never- teurs locaux et les chercheurs ont proposé un theless enhances the value of the sites to éventail d’explications au sujet de ces pein- modern people even when they were not tures. Certaines suggéraient une connexion responsible for its production. hypothétique avec les rituels des faiseurs de pluie alors que d’autres, pas du tout. Cepend- ant, l’art rupestre renforce la valeur de ces sites aux yeux du peuple d’aujourd’hui même s’il n’est pas l’auteur de ces œuvres.

During an archaeological re- village of Obora. It is locally poorly preserved, although one search survey by the Universidad known as Bela Sharafu, the first sherd was found decorated with Complutense de Madrid in Be- word means rock and the sec- a wide groove. A charcoal sample nishangul (Western Ethiopia) ond one is related to the Arabic from this level, 75 cm deep, was which took place in 2001-2003, word Sharif, (“illustrious”, radiocarbon dated at the Uppsala two rock shelters with red sche- “descendant of the Prophet”), University laboratory using the matic paintings were discovered according to local informants AMS method, to 275 + 30 BP near the village of Menge, the (UTM 0691117/1143426). (Ua-21633), calibrated at 1520- administrative centre of Menge 1670 AD. Another test-pit made woreda, situated approximate- A small test-pit excavated un- under the paintings outside the ly 50 km north of Assosa, the der the Bel Bembesh paintings outcrop produced some lithic capital of the Benishangul-Gu- produced no significant finds, waste with an end-scraper and muz regional State (Fig. 1). The just a few undiagnostic flakes a handful of undecorated pot- shelter with more paintings, Bel and blades in white quartz and tery sherds, of the same fabric Bembesh (“red rock” in the lo- some small Berta pottery sherds. and surface appearance as those cal Berta language), is widely At Bela Sharafu the paintings in the inner shelter. All this evi- known by the local population were made on the western rock dence suggests that the drawings and its location was reported to of a bigger granite outcrop with were probably completed during us by Menge elders contacted several other rocks. In a nar- the 16th or 17th centuries AD. through the woreda mayor, Os- row shelter under two of these The pottery found at Bela man Muhammad Musa (UTM that lean against each other, a Sharafu shelters belongs to the 0692267/1143188; the place test-excavation discovered an ar- same general type that has been is marked “Bel megoha” in the chaeological level with pottery also recorded during the survey 1:50.000 map) (Fig. 2). The sherds and lithic tools. The lith- at other rock shelters excavated other shelter, with fewer draw- ics included several rough side on the Ethiopian escarpment ings, was discovered in the survey scrapers, denticulates and some near Assosa (Ts’alenger) and and is located one km west of end scrapers, all in white quartz Bambasi (Kunda Damo) (here- the previous one, near the small as is usual in the area. Pottery after called Bambasi pottery and was mostly undecorated and period).One bone sample from 1 Victor M. Fernandez [email protected]

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 117 the lower level of Kunda Damo 870-950 BP at Lopoy and associ- group (as it was observed in Sirba was radiocarbon dated to 1985 ated with eastern Nilotic speakers Abay, a Gumuz enclave south of + 40 BP (Ua-24132). Bambasi (Lynch & Robbins 1979). the Blue Nile) seems to confirm ware is characterized by min- the historical and linguistic evi- eral temper, well burnished and The Benishangul sequence, in dence for the greater antiquity of dark slipped outer surfaces and which comb-impressed pottery the Gumuz and other Nilo-Saha- decoration types that include im- appears to be replaced through ran groups (Komo, Mao) in the pression, incision and grooving. time by pottery decorated with region. Comb impression appears to be grooves, together with other typical of the initial phases of the patterns, seems to be similar in The geometric motifs represented Bambasi period, thus connecting many respects to that observed in both at Bel Bembesh (Fig. 3) and with the previous stage in which the region of Eastern Equatoria Bela Sharafu (Fig. 4) show very pottery is decorated only with in Southeast Sudan (Robertshaw little variation. The most abun- the comb rocker impression tech- 1987:183-4). Though the archae- dant is the quadrilateral drawing, nique (including Dotted Wavy ological evidence is scarce, our filled with a grid pattern (25 Line type) that most probably impression after the survey is that cases), only with vertical lines (9) originated in the neighbouring the Bambasi style faded away at or empty (5). Single vertical and Neolithic Sudan. According to the time or shortly after the rock curved lines also occur, as well as four radiocarbon dates from the art sites were painted. Historical one circle at Bel Bembesh and Bel K’urk’umu rockshelter in data both from the Funj king- two possible ’solar’ symbols, one Assosa, the rocker-impression dom of Sinnar in Sudan and the at each site. The paintings extend period lasted from 5000/4500 Christian kingdom of Abyssinia over a surface of 440 (h) x 260 BP to 2000/1000 BP. Incision suggest a date in the 17th century (v) cm in Bel Bembesh, and 230

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

and grooving decoration seems AD for the arrival from Su- x 200 cm at Bela Sharafu. They Fig. 1: Map of the typical of the later phases of the dan of the Berta people (Triulzi begin at about 145 cm above Benishangul region in Bambasi period (Upper Kunda 1981:21-5). the ground in Bel Bembesh, and Western Ethiopia. Damo, Bela Sharafu), their gen- about 80 cm above the current eral patterns being similar to Berta pottery types very similar top soil at Bela Sharafu. Fig. 2: Bel Bembesh rock shelter (Menge, decorated wares known at Tiya to those currently used today Benishangul). The red and other sites in Central Ethio- in Benishangul were found on The quadrilateral grid motif (Fig. schematic paintings pia, dated to 750 BP (Joussaume the surface – yet never in an ar- 5) strongly recalls a kind of facial are visible on the 1995, figs 101, 311-2) and, to chaeological level - at many rock scarification which is very abun- vertical granite rock. a lesser extent, to some wares shelters and abandoned villages dant among some ethnic groups The pottery incense of Southern Sudan dated to the during the survey. Current Berta in the region. Interestingly burner hanging from later part of the first millennium pots have close historical paral- enough, the pattern seems to be the tree is used in the Islamic rituals at the AD (Robertshaw & Siiriäinen lels in Sudan, for example during far more abundant amongst the site. 1985: figs. 19, 32). The grooved the Funj period (1504-1821) Gumuz than in the Berta, and it decoration of Kunda Damo and (Crawford & Addison 1951). was also observed in several Nilo- Bela Sharafu is also reminiscent The survival of some of the mo- tic Mebaan people, refugees from of that found on the Turkwell tifs found in the Bambasi ware, the neighbouring areas of Sudan tradition of the Turkana region namely finger impressions, in in the Kubrhamsa-Sherqole camp of north-western Kenya, dated to the pottery of the Gumuz ethnic north of Assosa (Fig. 6). Correla- 118 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 tion of some rock art signs and time of Creation. A similar idea people in the Sudanese Upper tribal marks was suggested long has been recorded in other rock Blue Nile area, the “Dar Funj” ago by J.D. Clark referring to en- art sites of Eastern Africa (Way- (Hamaj, Uduk, Burun, etc.), graved parallel lines, double “T” land 1938:252; Shorter 1967:49; used to worship sacred rainstones and Arabic letters adopted by Bower 1973:138). Bel Bembesh (Triulzi 1981:28-30), and in some groups in Somalia; “tecti- was used in the recent past as a Benishangul there are still some form” signs similar to the grids in Muslim hermitage and is con- rituals associated with a rounded our sites were interpreted as game sequently seen today as a sacred stone (“the rock of Shangul”, boards (Clark 1954:pl. 28). place, where ritual gatherings, Belā Shangul), allegedly brought often involving sacrificing and from Sudan by the first Berta set- Generally speaking, the schemat- eating a cow or a sheep, are at- tlers (we were not allowed to visit ic patterns in the Benishangul tended during Islamic feasts the sacred place in 2001). Menge sites are similar to those found such as Ramadan, and also when informants, however, rejected in many East African sites from droughts affect the region. The the idea of a religious use of Bel Uganda to Zambia (Coulson & foundations of a small mosque Bembesh before the arrival of Is- Campbell 2001:142-3), but not (14 x 7 m), facing east as do the lam in the area a few centuries to those known in the rest of Ethiopia and other countries of the Horn. In the latter region the schematic signs are abundant but most often they are associated with schematic animals or

Fig. 3

Fig. 6

Fig. 3: Red paintings from Bel Bembesh; humans; rock art assemblages scale 50 cm. consisting only of geometric symbols seem to be unusual (e.g. Fig. 4: Red paintings Joussaume 1981; Calegari 1999). from Bela Sharafu; Many schematic red paintings in scale 50 cm. Eastern Africa are associated with Fig. 4 rain-making ceremonies, known ethnographically or ethnohistori- paintings on the shelter walls, are ago. A member of our research cally, e.g. in Zambia (Phillipson still visible as crude alignments of team, Alfredo González-Ruibal, 1972:320), Tanzania (Culwick stones on the ground. We could interviewed a medicine-man 1931:35-6) or Uganda (Sassoon not confirm previous informa- (ηeri) from the nearby village of 1971:5). tion by Culture Bureau officials Keshaf, 5 km to the east of the in Assosa about the practice of rock paintings. He knew how to The local elders from the nearby pre-Islamic Berta rituals at the do rain-making ceremonies using Menge village (Mubarak Ashafi site, some of which were record- calabashes and tree branches, and and Al Fadul Babiker) informed ed in the 1970s by A. Triulzi as he had heard about rain rituals in us that the Bel Bembesh paint- being still alive in far-off areas of caves performed by other ηeris, ings were made by God in the Benishangul. The Berta, as other but was unaware of those held at

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 119 Bel Bembesh. di Scienze Naturali e del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di The local informants also denied Milano, 29(1). any connection between rock paintings, tribal marks and fa- Chaplin, J. H. 1974. The cial scarification. For them the prehistoric rock art of the Lake drawings are mainly a primitive, Victoria Region. Azania 9:1-50. pre-Arabic form of Koranic writing from the time of Creation. Clark, J.D. 1954. The prehistoric They also referred to some mira- cultures of the Horn of Africa. cles and signs associated with Cambridge: Cambridge University the red rock, particularly intense Press. lights that are seen at night on some especial occasions, e.g. Coulson, D. & Campbell, A. 2001. Fig. 5 during Ramadan, and are in- African Rock Art. Paintings and terpreted as good omens for the Fig. 5: Red grid from Bela Engravings on Stone. New york: whole community. The connec- Sharafu (height 35 cm). Harry N. Abrams. tion of rock art with supernatural powers and miraculous events has Fig. 6: Mebaan woman Crawford, O.G.S. & Addison, F. from Sudan (Sherqole been also recorded in Mfangano 1951. Abu Geili and Saqadi & Dar camp, Benishangul). island on Lake Victoria by J.H. el Mek. The Wellcome Excavations in Chaplin (1974:19). The adoption the Sudan, vol. III, Oxford: Oxford of prehistoric symbols by historic University Press. monotheist religion is known in other parts of Africa, for instance Culwick, A.T. 1931. Ritual use of in Eritrea where the sculpted rock paintings at Bahi, Tanganyka bas-relief of Ba’atti Màriam is in- Territory. Man 31:33-36. terpreted as the Holy Virgin and the saints (Calegari 1999:38-40). Joussaume, R. 1981. L’art rupestre Here, as in other parts of Africa, de l’Éthiopie. In: Roubet, C., “rock art enhances the value of the Upper Nile Basin. Journal of Hugot, H.-J. & Souville, G. (eds.) African History 28:177-189. the site to modern people and Préhistoire africaine. Mélanges offerts thus plays a part in their socio- au doyen Lionel Balout : 159-175. cultural lives, even though they Robertshaw, P. & Siiriäinen, A. Paris : Editions A.D.P.F. do not appear to have been re- 1985. Excavations in the Lakes sponsible for its production” Province, Southern Sudan. Azania Joussaume, R. 1995. Tiya. 20:89-151. (Odak 1992:69). L’Éthiopie des mégalithes. Du biface à l’art rupestre. Ed. Chauvinoise. Sassoon, H. 1971. Nyero rock paintings. The Department of Lynch, B.M. & Robbins, L.H. Antiquities, Ministry of Culture 1979. Cushitic and Nilotic and Community Development of Prehistory: New Archaeological Uganda. Evidence from North-West Kenya. Journal of African History Shorter, A. E. M. 1967. Rock 20(3):319-328. Paintings in Ukimbu. Tanzania Notes and Records, 67:49-55. Odak, O. 1992. Ethnographic context of rock art sites in East Triulzi, A. 1981. Salt, Gold References Africa. In: Morwood, M.J. & and Legitimacy. Prelude to the Bower, J. R. F. 1973. Early Hobbs, D.R. (eds.) Rock Art and history of a no-man’s land. Belā pottery and other finds from Kissi Ethnography: 67-70. Melbourne: Shangul, Wallagā, Ethiopia (ca. District, Western Kenya. Azania Occasional AURA Publications, 5. 1800-1898). Naples: Istituto 8:131-140. Universitario Orientale. Phillipson, D. W. 1972. Zambian Calegari, G. 1999. L’arte rupestre rock paintings. World Archaeology Wayland, E. J. 1938. Note on dell’Eritrea. Repertorio raggionato 3:313-327. a Prehistoric “Inscription” in ed esegesi iconografica. Milan: Ankole and Uganda. Uganda Memorie della Società Italiana Robertshaw, P. 1987. Prehistory in Journal 5:252-253.

120 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Ancient rock art sites in Eritrea: distribution, classification and current status

Zelalem H.Teka1

L’art rupestre antique en Eryth- ABSTRACT rée: Distribution, classification et la situation actuelle Rock art sites are found throughout Eritrea with a major concentration of paintings On trouve des sites d’art rupestre à travers and engravings in the vicinity of Addi Keyih l’Erythrée, avec une concentration principale in the south that was recorded in 2001. de peintures et de gravures dans le voisi- Other clusters are found in the west around nage d’Addi Keyih dans le sud (répertorié Haicota and the valley of the Barka River, en 2001). De petits sites se situent dans and in the north around Karora and Rora. l’ouest autour d’Haicota et la vallée de la riv- Furthermore, three major engraving sites ière Barka, puis au nord autour de Karora et have been documented in the central part Rora. De plus, trois grands sites regroupant of the country. Although the rock art varies des gravures ont été répertoriés dans la widely in scale, composition, and technique, partie centrale du pays. Bien que l’art rup- a single formal, stylistic classification estre varie radicalement selon l’échelle, la has been developed to organize the rock composition et la technique, une seule clas- art into culturally meaningful categories. sification formelle et stylistique est utilisée The two style categories are (a) Realistic afin d’organiser l’art rupestre en catégories paintings and engravings; and (b) Abstract culturelles concrètes. Les deux catégories and geometric paintings and engravings. de style sont (a) : Les peintures et les gra- Although natural and human-induced vures réalistes, (b) : Les peintures et gra- factors are contributing to the deterioration vures abstraites et géométriques. Alors que of the rock art in Eritrea, the importance les facteurs naturels et humains contribuent of including local communities in the à la détérioration de cet art en Erythrée, management process has been largely l’importance d’inclure les communautés ignored and a management strategy is locales dans le processus de gestion a été urgently needed. largement ignorée et une stratégie de gestion doit être urgemment élaborée.

Distribution of ancient ley of the Barka River. In the humans carrying sticks; V- rock art sites in Eritrea northern section of the country shouldered human figures with Although the sizes and distri- some rock art sites have also been a strong emphasis on genital butions are not the same, an- documented from areas such as motifs; T-bodied humans; and cient rock art sites in Eritrea are Karora and Rora. Compared to numerous geometric designs. All found throughout the country. paintings, the central part of the these depictions are either paint- Large concentrations of paint- country is well known for large ed or engraved on rock surfaces. ings and engravings are found numbers of engravings. A few It is not clear whether the paint- in the Southern Region of the kilometers away from the town ed and engraved depictions share country particularly in the vicin- of Thio in the eastern lowlands, a similarity of style and whether ity of the town of Addi Keyih. some engravings have also been or not they were produced at the This is an area well known for documented. same time. Many of the painted its dense archaeological remains and engraved panels in a given from the later prehistoric, proto- Classification of area are found within a radius of historic and historic periods. In rock art types in Eritrea 3 to 4 kilometers. Therefore, it the year 2001 a team of surveyors In Eritrea, rock art styles in gen- is very likely that they were pro- documented and recorded large eral constitute both representa- duced by a single cultural entity numbers of paintings and a few tional and nonrepresentational around the same time. engravings from this particular elements. In addition, the rock area. Researchers have also docu- art panels vary widely in scale, In classifying the rock art types mented rock art sites from some composition, and technique. The I have employed a single formal, areas in the western lowlands motifs include animals, humans, stylistic classification to organize specifically from the area around simple grooves and paintings of the rock art into culturally mean- the town of Haicota and the val- straight lines, zigzags, grids, and ingful categories. This approach lines with diagonal branches. is akin to the ones used by North 1 Zelalem Teka [email protected] Asmara University There are also non-geometric American and British archae- Eritrea scattered groups of lines; some ologists such as Layton (1991a),

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 121 Schaafsma (1980), Shapiro cliff faces with black or dark- dividual designs that combine Fig. 1: Realistic painting (1953), and Sundstrom (1990). brown patinas through which arches, circles, and straight and from Sullum Ba’atti carvings are made. In addition, wavy lines painted or engraved Realistic paintings and the engraved designs are pro- in outline that are highly sym- engravings duced either by carefully peck- metrical. Each depiction (either In Eritrea, this style is character- ing away the rock surface or by individual or in groups) is gen- ized by the images of animals, first incising an outline and then erally distributed evenly across humans, and ancient weapons. pecking out the interior space the panel. In addition, individual Both animals and humans are through indirect percussion or a designs or clusters of designs are depicted singly or in groups. combination of indirect and di- generally centered on a panel and Pastoral scenes constitute the rect percussion techniques. Iden- enclosed by the natural bounda- principal theme. Most depictions tifiable animals include humped ries of the rock exposures. show anatomical details, such as and humpless bovids, ovicaprids humps and horns. Furthermore, (goats and sheep), and camels. On some panels there is a vacant panels range in size and complex- space between and around fig- ity from small ones with 10 or Abstract and geometric ures. Though there seem to be 12 figures to large panels with paintings and engrav- no intentional superimpositions, dozens of figures composing a ings some sites depict more than one scene. The Realistic Paintings In Eritrea, there are two forms of colour. Moreover, these repre- and Engravings seem to be the nonrepresentational painted and sentations show a preference for product of two slightly different engraved rock art styles: Geomet- smooth and open exposures of techniques. ric and Abstract Paintings and rocks, usually in major canyons Engravings. Neither of them has or along rivers. Compared to the With respect to the paintings, the anything in common with the Realistic Paintings and Engrav- figures were either directly paint- Realistic Painting and Engraving ings, the Geometric Paintings ed onto the rock or stamped after style, except the medium. and Engravings are more variable outlining the figure on other ma- and yet quite homogeneous. A terial (such as wood). These show The Geometric Painting and few depictions can be considered a preference for large, smooth Engraving style incorporates in- as intermediate between Geo-

122 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Fig. 2

Fig. 3

Fig. 2: Geometric and metric and Abstract Paintings cal settings, ranging from large ing, and heritage management abstract painting and Engravings. open cliffs to low horizontal rock has come to play a part in Eritrea, from Helum Bareto I outcrops and small rock shelters. it has tended to ignore the im- The Abstract Painting and En- However, these show a higher portance of incorporating local Fig. 3: Abstract graving style consists of mean- frequency on hill slopes and cliffs communities in the management painting from Helum dering lines, crosses, asterisk-like that are extremely difficult to process. The National Museum Bareto II figures, spirals, straight lines, reach. and the Department of Anthro- wavy lines, and curved lines. Oc- pology and Archaeology of the casionally, there are rows of dots, Threats and Challenges University of Asmara are not ad- but no representational motifs. for Conservation and equately funded to preserve these At some sites the images are con- Management irreplaceable heritage resources. nected by one or more horizontal Like other archaeological re- There is an immediate need to lines and generally with a hori- sources within the country, the devise a management strategy to zontal orientation. Compared rock art sites in Eritrea have been prevent damage and destruction to other painting and engraving and continue to be destroyed by of these sites. styles, this style shows a high de- nature (due to fading and other gree of variation in size and the forms of weathering) and humans overall appearance of individual (deposition of soot and grime). References elements. Most panels show no In some areas the current inhab- Layton, R. 1991a. The Anthropology sense of symmetry. In addition, itants emblazon their names over of Art, 2nd ed. Cambridge: designs extend around the cor- the ancient rock art. Some art is Cambridge University Press. ners or run entirely off the natu- in such an advanced state of dete- rally exposed rock enclosures. rioration that it is not possible to Schaafsma, P. 1980. Indian Rock Furthermore, individual designs obtain clear photographs show- Art of the Southwest. Albuquerque: are not always centered with- ing the rock art. This constitutes University of New Mexico Press. in the natural space and most a real challenge for the researcher panels contain relatively little and recorder. Their preservation Shapiro, M. 1953. Style. In: A.L. unfilled space. Like Geometric will not be possible unless peo- Kroeber, ed. Anthropology Today: Paintings and Engravings, there ple are made to understand the 278-303. Chicago: University of are no deliberate superimposi- cultural significance of this art Chicago Press. tions, though the application of and its value to local communi- more than one color (particularly ties. After independence, Eritrea Sundstrom, L. 1990. Rock Art red and black) is quite obvious. failed to capitalize on the value of the Southern Black Hills. New Interestingly, these depictions of its past for nation building. York: Garland Publishing, Inc. are found in variable geographi- Although this situation is chang-

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 123 New perspectives on rock art from Mt. Elgon, Trans-Nzoia and Kara-Pokot: a preliminary report

Emmanuel K. Ndiema

Les nouvelles perspectives de ABSTRACT l’art rupestre concernant le Mont Elgon, Trans-Nzoia et Kara- Several 20th century researchers have Pokot: un rapport préliminaire published descriptions of rock paintings in the Mt Elgon region of Kenya. The most Plusieurs chercheurs du 20ème siècle ont recent survey, undertaken in June 2003, publié leurs travaux sur les descriptions des revealed a number of new sites, most of peintures rupestres trouvées dans la région which include paintings of cattle. At Kiboyi du Mont Elgon au Kenya. La plus récente the cattle are depicted with altered horn étude, commencée en June 2002, a réper- profiles, a cultural feature still practised torié de nombreux nouveaux sites qui, pour by the Karamojong in north-east Uganda. la plupart, embrassent des peintures de bes- Two pottery traditions were noted in the tiaux. Sur le site de Kiboyi, le bétail est peint rock shelters examined, but there was no avec des cornes modifiées, une caractéris- evidence of iron technology. tique culturelle toujours pratiquée par les Ka- ramojongs dans le nord est de l’ Ouganda. Lors de l’examen des abris rocheux, deux traditions de poterie ont pu être dénombrées mais aucune trace d’une quelconque utilisation du fer.

Introduction archaeological programmes had used to examine the dark interior A survey of rock art sites took been undertaken in the specific of caves. Datable materials were place between 4 and 14 June environment that prevails in the collected and brought back for 2003 in the districts of Mt Elgon, research area, a pragmatic survey analysis. Trans-Nzoia and Kara- Pokot strategy was adopted focusing with the following objectives: on rock shelters, caves and cliffs. Sites around Mt Elgon The knowledge of the local It is common knowledge that Mt • to prospect for new rock art inhabitants was also put to use. Elgon is riddled with caves, many sites; and Headlamps and flashlights were of which have sheltered humans • to record new sites.

Because of the large size of the region, the survey focused on sub- regions on the north-west flank of Mt Elgon, and around Koitobos, Kacheliba and Kong’alai.

Notwithstanding the extent of the area, and the limitations of time and funds, the expedition revealed previously unknown rock art and other significant archaeological sites. Methodology In order to achieve the aforementioned objectives, and bearing in mind that few previous

1 Emmanuel Ndiema [email protected] Rutgers University USA

124 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 in the past (Weatherby & Wilson shamba system has resulted in such as Wright (1961) and Odak 1962). In an effort to find Mrs surface run-off down the face of (1977) have referred to as Mrs Tweedie’s cave discovered in the the cliff that is destroying the art Tweedie’s cave. The cliff extends 1960s (Cole 1963) within the in the process. From a cursory for about 50 m in length and larger Kimothon forest reserve, examination of the site, the is about 10 m high. Though a new site with rock art was following factors emerged. Being badly damaged by surface run- revealed at Chemarich cave after the only site in the locality with off down the cliff, traces of rock a long and winding prospecting paintings of animals, it must art done with red paint cannot trip in the contiguous area. have been important to the early be mistaken for anything else. Here, in a cliff of about 50 m in inhabitants. There is evidence of Though difficult to zero down to length, were paintings of what fire as seen from the abundant the actual representations, there looked like a headless humpless charcoal and ash scattered on the are depictions of what must be bull inscribed at the entrance. floor. It was also established that domestic cattle. The remaining The ones higher up done in red present day inhabitants light fires mosaic of art cannot be identified when guarding their crops from due the destruction caused by wild animals. water, the whole scenario speaking of the need to preserve the site In the cave adjacent to the shelter, before it is completely destroyed. there was abundant evidence The adjacent cave extending for of fire that has unfortunately 34.5 m gives evidence of early blackened the walls to the extent occupation. A section revealed that no art is visible. The early abundant evidence of pastoralist occupation of Chemarich cave by occupation. There are huge what I believe to be a pastoralist deposits of dung. A bamboo group is in evidence everywhere and wood enclosure measuring as seen from the deposits of about 8 m in diameter is sub- dung, pieces of sewn leather and divided and a smaller structure broken gourds that litter the floor. measuring about 3.5 m in The floor level is recognizable diameter is smeared with dung on examination of the cultural and still stands intact. Weatherby deposits whose stratigraphic & Wilson (1962) report this arrangement has been damaged tradition of enclosures in caves at the entrance due to the amount in Eastern Uganda. The deposits of water flowing in. Other on the surface are fairly deep cultural materials on the floor measuring about 40 cm. Since demonstrate that the cave, which the enclosure is protected from is about 20 m long, had early the surface run-off that has found occupants. Among the artefacts its way onto the rock art, it is a recovered were bone pounders, promising site for excavation that weathered wood and fist–sized could shed light on the identity perforated stones whose use and of its early inhabitants. significance is not documented in the archaeological and ethno- Ten meters north of the enclosure archaeological literature of the is a pile of lithic artefacts made of region. Weatherby (1965), obsidian, basalt and chalcedony. Wilson (1972) and Odak (1977) There was also a red substance have described similar stones. that appeared to be like red However, what they are and the ochre or haematite. Examination Fig. 1: Headless hump- are apparently domestic cattle. purpose they served still remain of the floor revealed that the less cattle at Chemarich There are also other naturalistic a mystery. Surface collections cultural materials are not deep cave, Mt Elgon paintings analogous to those yielded a number of undecorated but a number of potsherds found at a site at Kiboy, reported to potsherds. were recovered with the the National Museums of Kenya twisted cord roulette technique (NMK), and the British Institute Kiptogot Cave predominating. These potsherds in Eastern Africa (BIEA), and This cave is located at account for 90 per cent of the recorded by the Trust for African 010.07’.37.7’’ N and 034.45’ surface collections with the rest Rock Art (TARA). It is, however, .15.4’’ E. Based on my own being represented by sherds sad to note that the clearing of observations Kiptogot cave with plaited or grooved line vegetation brought about by the seems to be what other scholars decorations.

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 125 Other caves that were surveyed, not far from other rock shelters concentric circles. The diameter though no rock art was discovered, which bore no art. Sabaa, which of these circles varies from 11.5 were Kashareber, Suam, has rock art, measures about 5 to 25 cm. Tobo and Kologey. However, m long and 5 m high, and has Kapsetaa (010.03’.50.8’’N and depictions of badly faded cattle The intervals between the 034.48.01.1’’E) at the foot of superimposed on concentric successive circles are maintained Kaitobos cliff deserves a brief circles done in red. At the at about 2 cm. Three metres mention. Pottery recovered from northern end were depictions from the main painting are this cave exhibited the same of cattle, the profile and style of depictions of what looks like a twisted-cord roulette technique. which is difficult to determine, female human figure holding Local inhabitants talked of the as the paintings are badly faded. a child. Although faded, they cave occupants being buried alive The base of the shelter was seem to have maintained the inside the cave when the roof apparently occupied as evidenced same tradition of red paint on a caved in. by the surface occurrence of background of yellow/white. microlithic artefacts made of Human skulls and animal bones obsidian, quartz and chalcedony. The concentric circle with a recovered from the quarrying ac- A finely retouched obsidian central dot motif identifies with tivities going on at the site further blade measuring 35 mm was those in eastern Uganda at a site support this view. There is also a also recovered. Pottery decorated known as Lokapeleth (Wilson unique variety of tobacco (Nico- with the roulette technique pers comm.). It is sad to report

Fig. 2 Fig. 3

tiana tabacum) growing at the with twisted cord similar to that the paintings are threatened Fig. 2: Cattle paint- site despite the fact that no culti- that reported at Mt Elgon was by flaking and exfoliation of the ings superimposed on vation takes place at the locality recovered. main rock. Baboons that now concentric circles at present. nest at the site further worsen the Koding situation. The pottery recovered Fig. 3: Concentric circles Having completed the survey at Further east, about 15 km from at the site exhibits the roulette and a central dot Mt Elgon, the team now focused the Kacheliba police lines, stands technique mentioned earlier. on the Kara-Pokot area of Kache- Koding Hill that is basically an Fifty metres north-west of the liba and Kong’olai. Here the ter- outcrop of granite and gneiss main painting is a concentration rain is dotted with outcrops of with a south-east orientation. of microliths in what would be granite, sandstone and gneiss. A On a cliff were concentric circles termed as a ”factory site” in some number of sites were revealed. done in red on a background quarters. of white/yellow paint. The art Sites around is concentrated over a 3 sq m The predominant raw materials Kara-Pokot section. Adjacent to the main are quartz, chalcedony and Sabaa painting is a small extension that obsidian. There is a burial mound This is a boulder at (010.30’.08.6 bites into the main rock to a 300 m north of the shelter. A N and 035.00’.37.5’ E’) though depth of about 2 m that also has perfunctory examination of the

126 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 site convinced me that excavation Uganda as reported by Wilson to climb the rugged terrain to might yield important results, as (1972:65, fig. 2). Koding and show me some of the sites. David the deposits at the shelter appear Kiptogot cave in particular re- Braun deserves special mention to be in situ. quire further investigation. for encouragement and technical support. I am also indebted to Simatwa The information obtained from the British Institute in Eastern This granite outcrop contains this survey is consistent with that Africa, the Trust for African images that might have been from other caves and rock shel- Rock Art and the Treasures of rock paintings but are now badly ters that do not show much vari- Africa Museum for logistical and faded. Surface collection yield- ation over time. No evidence of financial support. ed pottery with a riveted rim, iron technology or Neolithic set- decorated with incised lines. It tlement was noted so one can hy- References is worth noting that a rim with pothesise that the area is unlikely Chaplin, J.H. 1974. The pre- roulette technique was found to have figured prominently in historic rock art of the Lake next to the site. the early stages of the introduc- Victoria region. Azania 9:1-43. tion of food producing econo- What looks like a burial mound mies. It is also doubtful whether Cole, S. 1963. The Prehistory of is located 60 m away. It is also im- the archaeological record of this East Africa (Revised edition). portant to note that 45 m north area can provide a basis for a de- London: Weidenfeld and of the cliff is a half-built “tumulus tailed critique of this hypothesis. Nicholson. like” walled structure whose use Odak, O. 1977. Some pic- is difficult to tie in with the rock Nevertheless, the sites I have dis- tographs in the western shelter. There is a need therefore cussed offer numerous induce- highlands of Kenya in relation for a systematic study in this area ments for intensive investigation, to other sites in the country. with a view to shedding light on such as the prospect of shedding University of Nairobi: Unpub- the feature. light on the Sirikwa phenom- lished discussion paper. enon, and the possibility of doc- Discussion umenting changes in settlement Weatherby, J.M. 1965. Bored One of the most striking results patterns in response to popula- stones found in caves on Mt of this investigation was that al- tion influxes. Elgon in north-east Uganda. though we did not find a very South African Archaeological complex record of rock art and The data collected here will have Bulletin 20:85-88. ceramic traditions, the pottery broader implications beyond set- recovered falls into two distinct ting up a base for the study of Weatherby, J.M. & Wilson, J.G. groups. In one the twisted rou- rock art sites in the area. For one, 1962. Note on Sebei caves. lette decoration predominates, it will provide information on Uganda Journal 26(2):214. and in the other the incised line the spatial distribution and land technique predominates. use and subsistence context of Wilson, J.G. 1970. Preliminary rock art sites. observations on the Oropom The former appears to be indis- people of Karamoja, their tinguishable from modern luyia This survey has therefore shown ethnic status, culture and pos- pottery. In terms of rock art, that the north rift corridor is tulated relation to the peoples two patterns also emerge, one rich in rock art and other related of the Late Stone Age. Uganda in which livestock predominates archaeological sites, some of Journal 34 (2) and the other in which concen- which still await discovery and tric circles are most common. study. Wilson, J.G.1972.The use of stone hammers in the altera- Thorough exploration of these tion of horn profile and the sites, including excavation, is postulated origin of this and strongly recommended to fur- other customs in ancient ther our knowledge about the Egypt. Uganda Journal 36: geographical extent and cultural 57-67 identity of the inhabitants. The paintings at Kiboyi are of par- Wright, J. 1961. A painted rock ticular interest to us in that cattle Acknowledgements shelter on Mt Elgon. Proceed- depicted with altered horn pro- I am grateful to John Wilson ings of the Prehistoric Society files is a cultural feature that is of Treasures of Africa Museum 28:28-34. still being perpetuated by present who had the energy and the time day Karamojong in north-east

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 127 Recent Alterations to Rock Art Panel At Lukenya Hill, Kenya

Stanley H. Ambrose1

Informations sur la transforma- ABSTRACT tion d’un panneau rupestre n° GVJM16 Lukenya Hill, au Kenya A large rock panel in a granite shelter on private land at Lukenya Hill, site GvJm16, Archivages effectués sur une période de protected by the laws of Kenya, is well known plus de 20 ans du site GvJm16, Lukenya to East African prehistorians for its diverse and Hill, Kenya. De fausses peintures produites well-preserved paintings. Images recorded entre 1988 et 1995 ont été identifiées. in the 1970s include a very faded red herd of small bovids, and well-preserved barred circles, resembling geometric motifs at sites in the Lake Victoria region, and relatively fresh white and red lines, dots and smears, attributed to the Masai. Then, between the late 1980s and early 1990s, several new images appeared, including a white dotted giraffe, and a white human image resembling streaky-style figures from central Tanzania, a herd of yellow hartebeest, death poses and a yellow feline. The original red circles observed before 1995 were nearly obliterated by a wash of white paint. The human and two of the hartebeest are portrayed in poses resembling images from southern African San rock art sites of individuals in trance positions and two Kudu drinking from pools are also inspired by southern African paintings. At the same time the recent artist must also have been familiar with Tanzanian (Kondoa) rock art imagery which clearly inspired other images! If these images had not been recognized as modern forgeries they could have been used as evidence for a dramatic revision of the prehistory and geographical distribution of Khoisan-speaking peoples and their belief system. The origin of these “forgeries” is in fact known to TARA, the Trust for African Rock Art in Nairobi. During the stated period (1989?) a U.S. film company was in Kenya making a TV series (“Young Indiana Jones”) and hired a well-known local artist to paint some rock art images at Lukenya when they wanted to shoot part of the film. According to the local artist no-one appeared to know that this was an authentic/original rock art site and certainly no-one told the artist it was a site. TARA has reason to believe that at least one researcher has been “fooled” by these “forgeries”.

Introduction of ancient metamorphic rock that (Gramly 1975a; Gramly 1975b; Prehistoric Kenyan rock art is rises above the Athi-Kapiti Plains Merrick 1975). Many shelters poorly documented in compari- a few km south of the Athi River, contain well-preserved white, red son with that of other regions of about 30 km southeast of Nai- and black geometric and curved Africa. Inadequate documenta- robi. Lukenya is unusual for the line motifs attributed to Masai tion reflects the relative scarcity relative diversity and richness of warriors, who used the shelters as of ancient paintings throughout its prehistoric and proto-historic meat-feasting sites. this region. Lukenya Hill is an paintings. It contains numerous isolated elongated inselberg ridge rock shelters that contain archae- Faded red and white paintings of

1 Dr. Stanley Ambrose [email protected] ological evidence of Stone Age antelope, an elephant and geo- University of Illinois, USA and recent human occupations metric motifs such as spirals and

128 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 painted sites at Lukenya Hill as part of the University of Massa- chusetts at Boston archaeological expedition in 1977-1978, and recorded over 50 painted sites. The results of this survey remain unpublished, but Swan’s systematic field notes with sketches of the major sites are stored in the Archaeology Division of the National Museums of Kenya in Nairobi.

Site GvJm16 contains the largest rock art panel at Lukenya Hill. Figure 1 shows an overview of the site taken in 1977. A large slab detached from the roof forms the present floor of the main shelter and this slab forms the low roof of a lower shelter. Harry Merrick (1975) conducted archaeological excavations in the upper and Fig. 1: View at one of barred circles may date to the painting of the Kondoa region of lower shelters. The upper shelter the mazes Lukenya Rock Later Stone Age (LSA). central Tanzania (Leakey 1983). contains LSA deposits dating as shelter. Photo by David This paper describes the original old as 27000 BP. The lower shel- Coulson/TARA. The largest and best-preserved and new paintings, and the dam- ter contains Middle Stone Age rock art panel forms the rear wall age to the early paintings by the (MSA) deposits likely to be older Fig. 2: Whole main panel of the rock shelter numbered new ones. than 50000 BP, and Neolithic- of the rear wall of GvJm16 GvJm16 in the Standard African era archaeological deposits dating rock shelter (1977). A Site Enumeration System (Nel- Rock Art Research younger than 3000 BP. series of very faint red son 1971, ref. fig. 1 page 134). at Lukenya Hill circles and ovals may The indigenous paintings at R. Michael Gramly (1975a) The rear wall of the upper shelter appear below and right GvJm16 documented by tracings documented several painted contains a diverse range of paint- of the main group of red in the 1970s have been partly rock shelters in his dissertation ings. Life size tracings of the art circles. Photo by Stanley overlain by more recent paint- research on the Later Stone Age of the entire panel were made in Ambrose. ings that appeared after 1988 and Neolithic of Lukenya Hill. 1970 by J. Ochieng, C, Jones, A. and before 1995, some of which James and Debba Swan conduct- Jones, H. Curtain and K. Forde. resemble the indigenous ancient ed a comprehensive survey of the They are stored in the Archae-

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 129 ology Division of the National close-ups of the left and right water-borne minerals. Several Fig. 3: Left side of the Museum in Nairobi. These trac- halves, respectively. The motifs curved red lines lie to the right of main panel of GvJm16 ings, along with photographs of of the left side (Fig. 3) are pre- this stained area. rock shelter (1977), show- this panel taken between 1975 dominantly white curved lines ing red, white and black and 1977, provide a baseline for and circles resembling Masai The motifs of the right side of paintings attributable to identifying the new paintings on cattle brands. A small circle and the main panel (Fig. 4) include the Masai. Photo by David this panel that were first recog- an elongated black semi-oval, a row of four red circles, with Coulson/TARA. nized during a visit to this site in which may be part of a Masai a fifth beneath them. The fifth 1995. shield design, are painted with circle may be part of another Fig. 4: Middle of the main black pigment. A large area of row of circles that have almost panel of GvJm16 rock Fig. 2 shows the entire main red paint underlies a part of the faded completely. They are most shelter (1977), showing panel, and Figs 3 and 4 show panel naturally stained white by clearly seen in Fig. 2. Three of red circles and rows and clusters of red dots. Photo 130 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 by Stanley Ambrose. Fig. 5: White dotted the five aforementioned circles the upper right of Fig. 6, and a pears to be stalking them from giraffe, and white streaky- have a bisecting vertical line. “streaky style” (Leakey 1983) hu- the curved underhang of the style human figure, bent Two circles contain several nearly man figure bent over at the waist lower right corner of the panel. over at the waist (1995). horizontal lines. The faded cir- in a pose resembling a trance This pose is similar to that cle on the right end of the top position (Lewis-Williams 1986) Importance of the site of the figures from central row encloses an indistinct set of occurs to the right of the giraffe. GvJm16 and nearby sites at Luke- Tanzania, and those from three or four circles resembling The human figure differs slightly nya Hill are important for rock art Southern Africa that are a cloverleaf type of motif. These from those in the Kondoa region research because this is one of the interpreted as healers circles are best known from sites of Tanzania because it is wear- only localities in the Kenya high- entering a trance state. in the Lake Victoria basin (Odak ing a belt at the waist. Otherwise lands east of the Lake Victoria These images, and the ex- 1977). Clusters of dozens of red both figures closely resemble Basin that contains recognizably tensive white overlay that dots occur to the left, right and those of Kondoa. Other new ad- ancient prehistoric images. They now obscures the red above the five circles. This panel ditions on the far lower right side have not been subjected to rig- circles, were not present also contains small very faded red of the main panel include at least orous comparative analysis with before 1988 (see Figs 2 images of several antelope (Fig. four yellow kongoni (hartebeest), the imagery from other regions, and 4). Photo by David 5). one of which has white outlined but this may no longer be pos- Coulson/TARA. legs, and black zigzag barred lines sible because the paintings that Photographs of the section of the across its face (Fig. 7). appeared after 1988 seem to have Fig. 6: Faded yellow an- panel with the red circles taken obscured these rare and some- telope painted for a film in 1995 show several remarkable Two are kneeling with their faces times enigmatic images. by a local artist around changes and additions. The red bent toward circles with short 1989. Photo by David circles are almost completely ob- barred lines around the circle Is it possible to restore the origi- Coulson/TARA. scured by a white wash, and only perimeters. A yellow feline with nal paintings, or will attempts at two remain visible (Fig. 6). A white outlines, possibly a female restoration lead to further losses giraffe painted in white outline, lion (Fig. 8), lies below and right of the original paintings? Perhaps filled with white dots, occupies of the group of kongoni, and ap- the Hippocratic oath should ap-

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 131 Fig. 7: Three scratched Gramly, R.M. 1975a. Pastoralists human figures recently and Hunters: Recent Prehistory added to the original in Southern Kenya and Northern panel. Photo by David Tanzania. Unpublished PhD Coulson/TARA. dissertation: Harvard University.

Gramly, R.M. 1975b. Meat- feasting sites and cattle brands: patterns of rock shelter utilization in East Africa. Azania 10:107- 121.

Ehret, C. 1974. Ethiopians and East Africans. The problem of contacts. Nairobi: East African Publishing House.

Leakey, M.D. 1983. Africa’s Vanishing Art: The Rock Paintings of Tanzania. London: Hamish Hamilton.

Lewis-Williams, J.D. 1986. ‘Beyond Style and Portrait: a ply to this rock face: do no harm the Kondoa region of Tanzania comparison of Tanzanian and especially since the post-1988 and the San of southern Africa Southern African rock art. In: paintings are now so faded that (Lewis-Williams 1986). If docu- Vossen, R. & Keuthmann, K. most are difficult to see. Until a mentation of the images present (eds) Contemporary Studies in proper assessment, followed by a before 1988 did not exist, then Khoisan 2. Quellen zur Khoisan- careful and rigorous program of it is likely that this site would Forschung 52:5-139. testing of cleaning methods can have been erroneously touted as be conducted, the bogus images evidence for the northward ex- Masao, F.T. 1979. The Later that obscured the indigenous tension of Khoisan-speakers and Stone Age and Rock Paintings ones should remain undisturbed. their system of imagery of sym- of Central Tanzania. Wiesbaden: bolic metaphors of shamanistic Studien zur Kulturkunde 48. Although the original paintings practices. at GvJm16 remain undated, it is Merrick, H.V. 1975. Change in likely that some have consider- Acknowledgements Later Pleistocene Lithic Industries able antiquity. The red antelope I sincerely thank the Honorable in Eastern Africa. Unpublished at this site, and a large spiral and Kasanga Jack Mulwa and Mrs PhD dissertation: University of an elephant (?) at site GvJm6, lo- Martha Mulwa for permission California, Berkeley. cated nearby, suggest connections to visit and study the painted with the imagery of the Kondoa sites, and for their hospitality Nelson, C.M. 1971. A standard region of Tanzania (Leakey 1983; to the many archaeologists that site enumeration system Masao 1979). The paintings from have conducted research on their for the continent of Africa. the Kondoa region of Tanzania property at Lukenya Hill. Commission on Nomenclature clearly share strong structural and and Terminology, Panafrican symbolic similarities with those Congress of Prehistory and of southern Africa. However, the Quaternary Studies, Bulletin No. authentic images at GvJm16 and 4:6-12. other parts of Kenya do not share References these similarities. The images Ambrose, S.H. 1982. Archaeology Odak, O. 1977. Kakapeli that appeared at GvJm16 after and linguistics in East Africa. In: and other recently discovered 1988 seem to have been painted Ehret, C. & Posnansky, M. (eds) rock paintings in the western by someone who is familiar with The Archaeological and Linguistic highlands of Kenya. Azania the styles and possibly the sym- Reconstruction of African 12:187-192. bolism of the images painted by History: 104-157. Berkeley: Khoisan-speaking hunter-gath- University of California Press. erers such as the Sandawe of

132 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Tara conference excursion to Lukenya Hill

Alec Campbell and Janette Deacon1

Excursion à Lukenya Hill dans le ABSTRACT cadre de la conférence de TARA The addition of fake paintings at site Le rajout de fausses peintures sur le site GvJm16, Lukenya Hill, Kenya, during the GvJm16, Lukenya Hill, Kenya, pendant making of a movie suggests that guidelines le tournage d’un film démontrent que des for best practice when dealing with interven- lignes de conduite doivent être clairement tions of this kind would be appropriate for définies et respectées pour éviter ce genre rock art conservation in Africa. de dégradation et contribuer à la conservation de l’art rupestre en Afrique.

During the TARA conference Iron Age peoples at both open This type of vandalism – what in November 2004, a field trip sites and in rock shelters (Bower could perhaps be termed was arranged to rock art sites at et al. 1977:140-141; Gramly ‘realistic fakes’ – raised a number Lukenya Hill about 40 km from 1976; Miller 1977). The rock of eyebrows. It was not clear Nairobi. We were accompanied art includes a few examples of whether a valid permit had been by Dr Stanley Ambrose who hunter-gatherer paintings, but issued for the rock wall to be undertook archaeological dates primarily to the Iron Age painted, nor whether, if there excavations there in the 1980s, with schematic finger paintings had, any conditions were attached and by Mulu Muia and other probably related to Masai regarding subsequent removal of staff members of the National meat feasting (Gramly 1975; the paintings. It would certainly Museums of Kenya who are Coulson & Campbell 2001). be difficult to remove the fake responsible for the conservation There is some isolated damage to paint without leaving negative and management of this and painted surfaces by scratches and shadows on the rock face, and many other rock art sites in charcoal. the result might be as intrusive Kenya. as the fakes. Because some of the From a rock art conservation fake paint seems to overlie earlier, A BBC television team point of view, one of the most genuine paintings, removal interviewed them both and interesting sites was GvJm16 would also impact on some of the the clip was broadcast world- (see note by Ambrose and Muia originals. One of the images was wide. The visit gave conference below). This large shelter includes scratched into the rock surface participants an opportunity to a number of paintings that are before being painted. see first-hand the range of rock very similar in style and content painting styles commonly found to those found in the Kondoa The discussions that ensued could in Kenya, as well as sites that have region of Tanzania, yet are form the basis for guidelines been excavated over the years and surprising in the sense that there for best practice when dealing that record the presence of both are no other similar paintings with interventions of this kind Stone Age and Iron Age peoples. in Kenya, nor indeed north of in Kenya and other African It also provoked some interesting Kondoa. They are in fact recent countries. There are arguments discussion about rock art fakes, painted in the shelter by an for and against allowing conservation and interpretation. artist who was hired to do them modern copies to be made in by the makers of a television series rock shelters. San (Bushman) The excavations at several sites (see Ambrose & Muia below). descendants in KwaZulu Natal on Lukenya Hill record Middle They look so genuine, now that in South Africa have requested and Later Stone Age occupation they have faded, that they were permission to paint images over the past 100 000 years or recorded without comment by a in rock shelters without older more, as well as the presence of team of students from the USA paintings and have been allowed in the 1990s. There is no known to do so. Copies have also been 1 Alec Campbell, Board Member, TARA Fax: 267 3161804, Botswana record of what type of paint was done without permits in the used. Eastern Cape and Free State in Dr Janette Deacon [email protected] Board Member, TARA, South Africa South Africa, but as they were in

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 133 shelters without other paintings • rock art may be added only to and tourism, there must be they unfortunately fall outside sites without existing paintings a public notice that draws the range of activities requiring a or engravings, or the fakes attention to the fact that these permit in terms of the National must be added electronically are not originals. Heritage Resources Act. or on transparent surfaces that will not affect the original The following guidelines that rock surface; take the basic tenets of the Burra Charter accepted by ICOMOS • regardless of any existing References and the World Heritage legislation, permits should be Bower, J.R.F., Nelson, C.M., Waibel, A.F. Committee into account, could mandatory; & Wandibba, S. 1977. The University form the basis for best practice: of Massachusetts’ Later Stone Age/ • permits must be issued with Pastoral ‘Neolithic’ comparative study • there must be a careful conditions that oblige the in Central Kenya: an overview. Azania assessment of every site by applicant to remove the fake 12:119-147.

a professional archaeologist paintings immediately after Coulson, D. & Campbell, A. 2001. or rock art expert before filming with heavy penalties African rock art. New York: Abrams. permission is given for fakes to for non-compliance; be applied; • the site must be inspected Gramly, R.M. 1975. Meat feasting sites before the filmmakers leave and cattle brands. Azania 10:107-121. • fakes must be removable, must to ensure that the conditions not impact on the original have been met; Gramly, R.M. 1976. Upper Pleistocene archaeological occurrences at site fabric or materials, must GvJm/22, Lukenya Hill, Kenya. Man use materials that are easily • if permission is given for fake (n.s.) 11:468-474. recognizable as ‘modern’, paintings to be applied and and must be recorded in left at a site, for example if Miller, S.F. 1979. Lukenya Hill: GvJm46 detail before and after the there is a good reason for excavation report. Nyame Akuma intervention; creating a copy of an original 14:31-34.v for purposes of education

134 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Community participation and rock art management in Zimbabwe

Pascall Taruvinga1

La participation communautaire Abstract et la gestion de l’art rupestre au Zimbabwe Zimbabwe is one of the Southern African states endowed with rich and diverse rock Le Zimbabwe est un des pays d’Afrique paintings dating between 12 000 and Austral riche d’une multitude de peintures 2 000 years ago. However management rupestres datant de 12,000 à 2000 avant of these rock art sites has posed several nos jours. Cependant, la gestion de ces challenges, and in other instances has sites rupestres à posé plusieurs défis et led to disastrous experiences such as the dans certains cas à amener à des expéri- vandalism at Domboshava cave. This paper ences désastreuses telles que le vandalisme discusses how National Museums and qui prit place au monument national de Monuments of Zimbabwe has deliberately Domboshava. Cet article s’interroge sur la moved towards community participation manière dont les Musées et Monuments Na- in rock art management to avert some tionaux du Zimbabwe ont deliberement pris of the human induced problems. This is l’initiative de confier la gestion de l’art rupes- beyond the scope of the current National tre aux communauté locales pour prévenir Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe certains des risques posé par l’Homme. Act: 25/11. Among the strategies being Parmi les stratégies employées, la recon- employed are recognizing values placed on naissance de la valeur accordées par les sites by local communities, the adopt-a-site communautés locales aux sites, l’adoption programme, employing local people as site d’un programme pour le site, l’emploi de lo- custodians, promoting sustainable tourism caux en tant que gardiens, la promotion de projects, tapping of traditional (indigenous) projets de tourisme durable, le captage du conservation knowledge, developing savoir local (indigène) et la création d’un dia- integrated management plans and creating logue avec l’autorité traditionnelle. Cette ap- dialogue with traditional leadership. This proche, malgré les problèmes qu’elle pose, participatory approach, though with its à resituer l’héritage culturel biaisé où les own problems, has managed to deal with propriétaires étaient laissés pour compte et the biased colonial heritage management considérés comme de simples observateurs. approach in which the owners of the sites Cet article considère les communautés lo- were sidelined, and always considered as cales comme partie intégrante, et en tant observers. Thus the future of rock art lies in que gestionnaires du patrimoine indigène transforming the identities of the community de l’héritage rupestre. Ainsi, le futur de l’art through a multi-faceted grass roots rupestre sous tend une transformation de approach which empowers them to promote l’identité de la communauté au travers d’une sustainable utilization of non-replaceable approche du peuple, qui habilite tout les and priceless rock art resources. antagonistes vers la promotion et l’utilisation durable d’une ressource culturel à la valeur inestimable et non remplaçable.

Heritage Management of significance, management op- of stakeholders and the influence and Communities portunities and constraints. From of national politics have to be Heritage management is an ex- the above synopsis, heritage man- considered in developing ways of ceptionally crisis driven pursuit, agement is a complex and diverse caring for the heritage. swamped by manifold urgent is- issue in that a wide range of ex- sues, overwhelmed by imminent pectations and perceptions of Heritage Management is born threats to fabric or integrity, and all stakeholders have to be met, out of the concept of Cultural driven by successive emergencies but above all, the significance of Resources Management (CRM) (Lowenthal 2003). Management the heritage place has to be sus- (Deacon 1995). Over the last decisions relating to heritage tained. Heritage places include few years the definition of CRM places are dependent on a wide archaeological and historical has been broadened to include range of factors, including degree places, cultural landscapes, rock documentation, protection and art sites and sites associated with management of cultural re- 1 Pascall Taruvinga [email protected] National Museum and Monuments intangible values. Consequently, sources, thereby bringing out Zimbabwe the applicable legislation, the role the complexity of heritage man-

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 135 agement. Irrespective of which consultations with relevant stake- term one uses to refer to heritage holders and adherence to agreed management, the management international guidelines and con- of cultural resources has become ventions. It must be understood important. Heritage legislation is that specific protection and therefore being used in protect- conservation strategies vary ac- ing sites and creating a platform cording to the context and values for both public and private ini- associated with each site. tiatives that are integral to the identification, documentation, It is within this context of risk presentation, and management management that local com- of sites. Heritage Management munities can play an important thus takes place within a legal and role in rock art management. Lo- administrative framework estab- cal communities are the makers lished by governments (Pearson of the heritage as the sites and & Sullivan 1998). Heritage man- objects hold certain values as- agement is a continuous process sociated with their history and whose ultimate goal is promot- identity. According to Colley ing sustainable utilization of the (2002) indigenous cultures are non-replaceable and priceless created and owned by a particu- cultural resources. This process goes beyond just putting up a Risk identification fence around the site or present- ing the site to visitors. Risk estimation Contemporary heritage management philosophy has recognized that heritage places are at risk as a Risk evaluation consequence of both human and natural factors, with the former Risk control and reduction being more devastating than the latter. Subsequently, the concept of Risk Management has become lar people with strict rules about the cornerstone of heritage man- what is appropriate and how agement throughout the world they should be managed using tegral to intangible processes and (Darvill & Fulton 1998). Risk traditional protection systems. these include forests, water pools, Management revolves around Therefore, the community itself etc. The depiction of rain making four interlinked steps: risk iden- determines the significance of a ceremonies and activities relat- tification, risk estimation, risk place. From this perspective local ing to the contact period (e.g. evaluation and risk control and communities have a right to use sheep, horses, ships) shows direct reduction (Ndoro 2001). Risk their cultural resources. However significance to contemporary management aptly describes heritage managers usually view communities. In other circum- what encompasses heritage this as a threat to the site there- stances local communities are the management nowadays (Darvill by failing to realize that usage is creators of the rock, for example & Fulton 1998). Risk manage- central to maintaining and sus- the Aborigines in Australia and ment recognizes the link between taining the value of a particular the hunter-gatherers in the Ka- four important steps in herit- site. In the contemporary world, lahari Desert. Therefore, local age management: identification, the heritage manager’s role is to communities are either indirectly documentation, assessment and bridge the gap between use and or directly related to the rock art monitoring. It underlines the conservation. in their places. This includes the fact that heritage management is setting of such sites within the a continuous process, and not a In respect to rock art sites, local landscape. Though communities once off event. Rock art heritage is communities place several values regard rock art sites as important, one such non-renewable resource on them. Local communities con- more often they do not respect that requires a risk management sider hills, caves and tunnels as the paintings themselves, leading approach, especially in the face of avenues for communicating with to cases of vandalism. the fast changing world, which is spirits, and the location of these witnessing increasing human places and their physical features However the ownership of in- activities. Thus effective rock become sacred. Therefore specific digenous cultures was seriously art conservation requires proper elements of the landscape are in-

136 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 and its material remains, while functions, entitlements and excluding indigenous people responsibilities” (Borrini-Feyer- and devaluing their knowledge abend 1999). (Colley 2002:174). The colonial legislation further alienated the This approach recognizes the indigenous communities by rec- different values, interests and ognising values considered to be concerns of all stakeholders, important by the western world, thereby allowing the civil soci- thereby deliberately ignoring ety to assume important roles values important to the commu- and responsibilities in heritage nities. management. It is also open to various modern and traditional This also witnessed the non- types of management, therefore recognition of the traditional ensuring sustainable use of both protection systems that actu- cultural and natural resources. ally contribute to the sustainable management of cultural and nat- Therefore this paper presents ural resources. However a tide of issues pertaining to the empow- change is sweeping over Africa, erment of local communities in Australia and many parts of the rock art management in Zimba- world. Many nations are moving bwe. Emphasis will be placed on towards the recognition of values the strategies being employed. placed on sites and objects by in- These include recognizing values digenous communities, as well as placed on sites by local communi- the associated traditional protec- ties, the adopt-a-site programme, tion systems. the employment of local people as site custodians, the promoting This is being done through amend- of sustainable tourism projects, ments of legislation to include the tapping of traditional (indig- protection of values important enous) conservation knowledge, to local communities, empower- the development of integrated ing local communities through a management plans and the multi faceted grass roots approach creation of dialogues with tra- and international conventions ditional leadership. The paper such as the one on the Protection also discusses the problems being of Intangible Heritage. encountered during this empowerment process. Community participation in heritage management comes in In this discussion, the paper ar- different ways and many terms gues that local communities are have been used in trying to ex- integral indigenous managers in plain this participation. Terms rock art management. Thus the that have been used include col- future of rock art lies in trans- laboration, joint, mixed or multi forming the identities of the party management, round table community through a multi management, participation, in- faceted grass roots approach, volvement, and co-management which empowers them towards (Borrini-Feyerabend 1999). promoting sustainable utilization of non-replaceable and priceless But the best definition of what rock art resources. should entail effective community role in heritage management is Rock Art of Zimbabwe affected by colonialism especially the term ‘Participatory Manage- Zimbabwe has one of the great- in Africa, Australia and other parts ment’. It is defined as “a situation est variety and largest number of of the world. Colonisation in in which two or more social ac- rock art sites in Southern Africa. many ways institutionalised and tors concerned about a cultural To date over 4 600 rock art sites legitimised western knowledge heritage site negotiate, define and have been recorded out of an esti- and traditions, and empow- guarantee amongst themselves a mated 30 000 sites (Fig. 2). Rock ered non-indigenous culture fair sharing of its management art sites probably constitute more

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 137 Fig. 2: Map showing the distribution of rock art sites in Zimbabwe.

than 55% of known cultural sites were derived from iron oxides in Zimbabwe. The rock art of commonly known as haematite, Zimbabwe comprises rock paint- which is readily available in the ings on granite and sandstone, granite hills characterizing the and a few engravings confined Zimbabwean Plateau. The white to the south-eastern parts of pigments were extracted from the country. The paintings are kaolin clays. Generally the red mainly found in the granite belt, rock paintings are attributed to which stretches from the Matobo the hunter-gatherer communi- Hills (south western Zimbabwe) ties, whilst the white paintings to Mutare (eastern Zimbabwe). were done by early farming communities (Garlake 1995). The paintings are found on cliff The paintings have distinct tech- overhangs and individual boul- niques ranging from outlines, ders, and in caves and shelters monochromes (one colour) and that are usually associated with bi-chromes (more than one col- Stone Age deposits. The sites are our). Figures are painted in every widely distributed within com- possible detail. A system of mul- munal areas, commercial farming tiple view-points was adopted so zones, national parks and private that each subject is clearly visible, conservancies. readily legible and easily outlined (Garlake 1995). The paintings The rock paintings have been re- include human and animal fig- searched since the 1920s, thereby ures, as well as abstract motifs creating a wealthy databank of characterized by different geo- information (Frobenius 1962; metric designs. Cooke 1970; Garlake 1985, Significance of the rock hunter-gatherer communities. 1987, 1995; Walker 1995). The paintings Thus the rock art of Zimbabwe paintings have been indirectly The rock art of Zimbabwe exhib- can be used to understand several and broadly dated to the period its distinctive styles and contents aspects of prehistoric landscapes. 10 000-2 000 years ago (Garlake that are largely a result of the These range from the relation- 1987, 1995; Walker 1995). The interaction between people and ships of the hunter gatherers with rock paintings are done in dif- their natural environment, and the natural environment, to their ferent shades of red and white the world beyond; characterised settlement patterns, their cosmol- pigments. The red pigments by the cosmology and beliefs of ogy and their relationship with

138 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 other groups, especially the early munities. and managed on the basis of its farming communities within the scientific value, usually in the same landscape and how it has Therefore the rock art of Zim- tangible form such as stone walls, shaped present day communities babwe is conceptual and ritual rock paintings, Stone Age depos- (Loubser & Laurens 1994:85). rather than merely art for art’s its and many others. However, sake. Linkages between painted the NMMZ Act is now being A traditional interpretation of images and oral traditions of amended to include intangible rock art emphasised the pleas- surviving hunter-gatherers have and other associative values. ure it gave to both the artists been established (Yates et al. According to the NMMZ na- and the viewers (Burkitt 1928). 1994:29). The cosmology illus- tional monuments register there The artist’s response to his sub- trated in the various panels, and are 26 rock art sites designated ject was so immediate, intuitive how contemporary communities as national monuments among and personal that it allowed lit- relate to this cosmology and to other sites, and the rest are just tle conceptualisation. In another the places themselves, defines the ordinary monuments. The sites words it was ‘art for art’s sake’ de- significance of rock art sites. were declared between 1937 and picting human figures running, 1976, when the colonial or eu- hunting, dancing, gathering Legislation and rocentric perception of tangible food, animal resources available, Rock Art Management values was considered important. plant resources exploitable in the The Zimbabwe National Muse- landscape and so on. ums and Monuments (NMMZ) The aesthetic value and threats Act 25:11 provides for the es- posed by both natural and hu- However current thinking asserts tablishment and administration man factors were the cornerstones that the art was deeply rooted in of museums, preservation of of these listings. After independ- a particular culture, that of the ancient, historical, and natural ence, no rock art sites have been

San, and that it expresses, often monuments, relics and other declared as national monuments, in complex and indirect ways, objects of historical or scientific except for Matobo Hills Area the central perceptions, concepts value or interest. The NMMZ which was declared a World Her- and beliefs of the San (Garlake Act has been the cornerstone itage Site in 2003. However some 1987). David Lewis Williams is for defining typologies of cul- of the rock art sites that were on credited for developing the lat- tural heritage, as well as defining the register were de-listed, largely ter approach. Rock paintings the management systems. Every because they have been vandal- depict the socio-religious life or monument or site is defined ised. A classic example is that cosmology of hunter gather com- The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 139 of Makumbe cave which was Whereas large strides have been was proclaimed a national monu- de-registered as a national monu- made in the field of interpreta- ment in 1936, covering only one ment after all the paintings had tion, neither documentation nor acre. This physical boundary been completely destroyed. All conservation has been developed of the site was further extended rock art sites were declared as to the same level. These have seri- in 1996 to cover three hundred national monuments on the ba- ously lagged behind resulting in a hectares. The proclaimed area sis of their “archaeological value”, lopsided rock art research devel- now encloses rock paintings, Late which was derived from the ‘type opment programme in Zimbabwe Stone Age deposits, a geological of monument’ i.e. archaeological (Taruvinga 1995). The post-colo- tunnel which is associated with monument. nial heritage management system intangible values of the site (rain has thus not seriously departed making ceremonies), a sacred for- This categorisation was derived from the colonial approach, as est, spectacular granite geological from the typology of the sites. In heritage institutions have contin- formations and a buffer zone for other cases like Domboshava and ued to reinforce the conservation management purposes. The tan- Silozwane caves, reference was strategies borrowed from the gible heritage of the site, which made to the fact that these sites colonial period. According to comprises rock paintings and are used for ‘native rain making Pwiti & Ndoro (2001) heritage Stone Age deposits, give the site a ceremonies’ while for Bumboose management in Southern Africa scientific value. The site has more ruins and engravings site refer- has thus “continued to reflect co- than 120 individual rock paint- ence was made to ‘unspecified lonial discourse within which it ings executed in red and brown Fig. 3: Domboshava Hill ceremonies that are held at the was scientifically established”. pigments. They are attributed and its tunnel, considered site’. This clearly shows that no to hunter gatherer communities. to be sacred by the local deliberate attempt was made to Hence traditional protection The shelter has scatters of Stone communities identify all the possible values associated with the site and the degree to which the community values them.

Another interesting point relating to the management of rock paintings in Zimbabwe stems from the origin of the NMMZ Act 25/11. On its inception as the 1902 Ancient Monuments Protection Ordinance, it omitted the rock art sites in its definition (Ndoro 1996, 2001).

It was only through the Bushman Relics Ordinance of 1912 that this anomaly was rectified. It was in response to the exploitation of rock art sites in South Africa that was posing serious conservation threats to sites. It is against this strategies have not been fully background of imminent threats recognized. It is only now that de- associated with developments liberate efforts are being made to that led to declaration of several address this colonial imbalance. rock art sites as national monu- The following case studies present ments in the 1930s. the results of current efforts in empowering local communities Towards community in rock art management. participation in rock art management: the Domboshava rock art case of Zimbabwe site: re-enactment of The history of rock art man- living traditions and agement in Zimbabwe tells an tourism based projects Age deposits attributed to hunt- unfortunate story, mainly char- Domboshava cave (Fig. 3) lies er-gatherers. acterized by mixed successes. 35 km north-east of Harare and

140 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Domboshava cave has a tunnel Domboshava Hill, as if through a (northern Zimbabwe) and many that was formed through geologi- chimney. The smoke was expect- other rock art sites, where rain cal processes and which through ed to come out through one of making and other ceremonies time has acquired ritual signifi- the tunnels. If the smoke issued are held. The intangible values cance. The tunnel is associated out straight into the open skies, should be crucial in assessing with a rain making ceremony this signaled the imminence of the significance of rock art sites which has been conducted at rain and promise of a good har- for national monument status, the site from historical times by vest (Chidiziva 1964). If the as well as determining the stake- the local community. The tunnel smoke did not issue out, then the holders in terms of management. had been closed during the colo- offerings had not been accepted, Reenactment of living traditions nial period, probably leading to implying the ceremony had to be as in the case at Domboshava is a the repeated vandalism that has restarted again (Goodall 1959; way of empowering and integrat- occurred at the site. The tunnel Cooke 1970). ing traditional custodians in the was however re-opened in 1998 management process thereby rec- after the local community held During this ceremony the rest ognizing traditional protection a traditional ceremony. In times of the community would be systems. of drought people made pil- gathered in the Rambakurimwa grimages to the cave to perform forest chanting traditional songs The adopt-a-site programme is rainmaking ceremonies (Cooke of praise, anxiously waiting for another approach that has been 1970; Chidziva 1964). The cer- the results. The Rambakurimwa used at Domboshava. The strate- emony was held once every year (which literally means ‘the un- gy revolves around appointing the before the rainy season under the ploughable’) forest is heavily school in the vicinity of the site as guidance of the rain diviner or colonised by the Muzhanje (Ua- the site custodian. The school un- dertakes the general maintenance of the site as well as utilizing it as an educational resource. In return the school gets free access to the site, and enjoys educational tours to other sites and museums during the routine holiday excur- sions. At Domboshava, Harare International School and other local schools have adopted the site, thereby creating a sense of ownership among future heritage managers. As part of empowering the schools and the local communities NMMZ has further provided US$2500 towards the electrification of the home- steads around the site under the Rural Electrification Programme. NMMZ has also introduced beekeeping projects at the site with maker to ask for rains from the paca kirkiana) trees. Naturally, the hope that part of the commu- ancestors. The ceremony involved such forests are considered to be nity will be trained in beekeeping sacrificing a sheep and beer home of the spirits in Zimbabwe. in the near future, thereby avert brewed under a Muhacha tree Therefore, from ancient times the cutting down of trees within by old women who had reached people have not been allowed to the general environment of the menopause, and young girls who collect firewood from the forest Domboshava area. . had not yet become sexually ac- or tamper with it any way, neither tive. The sheep was suffocated is any one allowed to construct Mutoko Cluster of rock and burnt at the entrance of the any building in this area. Thus art sites: economic em- tunnel in the cave by the Rain the site is now protected by ta- powerment and rural Diviner (Cooke 1970). boos and myths associated with development the landscape. The Mutoko cluster of rock art The smoke from the offerings sites is located almost 160 km would move into the geological The same applies to Silozwane north-east of Harare (the capi- tunnel and emerge at the top of (Matobo Hills Area), Zombepata tal city of Zimbabwe). Mutoko

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 141 is probably the second largest of a protracted community de- tablished through archaeological area with a high concentration of velopment strategy, accepted at research that interaction between rock art sites after Matobo World political level, but negatively im- people and the landscape began Heritage site in Zimbabwe. Sev- pacting on the cultural resources. at least 500 000 years ago. With- eral sites in this area are national It is a classic example of resource in the last 10 000 years, rock monuments, and among them exploitation which has inadvert- paintings of outstanding beauty are Gambarimwe, Manemba, ently destroyed the fabric of the and intricate detail recorded how Ruchera and Charewa caves. cultural landscape. people obtained spiritual power Most of the sites are also asso- from the landscape, trees, and ciated with intangible values. Makumbe Cave: free- animals such as the kudu, giraffe, However these sites are under dom of religion within elephant and termites (Matobo serious threat from the extraction landscapes and at sites Hills Management Plan). of black granite in the area. Black Makumbe cave is located Granite is classified as a mineral north-east of Harare, in the Strong religious beliefs fostered in Zimbabwe, and the Mines and Masembura-Chinamora area. It by the landscape continue to play Minerals Act therefore governs was declared a national monu- its exploitation. In Zimbabwe, ment because of its outstanding Rural District Councils (RDCs) paintings. Christianity is one in conjunction with the Mines of the predominant religions in Commissioner give permission/ Zimbabwe, alongside traditional and licenses to private compa- ones. But over the years sev- nies to quarry black granite for eral apostolic groups have been export. In return the RDCs re- camping in the cave from time ceive mining royalties on behalf to time. In the process they have of communities. The royalties lighted fires to keep themselves are used to upgrade schools and warm and provide general light- clinics in the area, while roads ing during prayers. The camping are regularly maintained with the is reminiscent of the biblical help of the quarrying companies. prayers held in Mount Sinai, Creation of employment for lo- and the passing of the Ten Com- cal communities in the quarrying mandments. Inadvertently the industry is another benefit. The entire panel was destroyed and sad story of this so called ‘eco- obliterated by smoke. Regrettably nomic empowerment` is the the intangible values associated wanton destruction of irreplace- with modern religions have led able cultural resources in the to the progressive desecration of name of developing rural areas Makumbe cave. Today it is an through exploitation of natural empty cave, which has already resources. Though the RDC col- been de-listed from the National lects levies from all the quarrying Monuments Register. companies, and members of the community are gainfully em- Matobo Hills World ployed, ‘scars’ (as a result of the Heritage Site: Inte- open quarrying methods used) grated Management now characterize the Mutoko cul- Planning approach an important role in contempo- tural landscape. Many recorded Matobo Hills Area was declared rary communities. Some of these and unconfirmed rock art sites, a world heritage site in 2003 beliefs date to at least 2000 years as well as Stone Age sites, have under the category of cultural ago and they are manifested in been destroyed, including the landscapes. The site has rock art, natural features such as rock for- desecration of intangible values Stone Age and Iron Age sites, mations, pools, trees and certain associated with several hills, and natural values, historical sites and animals which are considered to other places. The Environmen- intangible values. The intrinsic be important for rain-making, tal Impact Assessments (EIAs), values of the Matobo Hills Area fertility, cleansing, burial, shield- which include Archaeological stem from the way the cultural ing and healing ceremonies. The Impact Assessments (AIAs), were beliefs of people (over many mil- Mwari religion, for example, re- not enforced by the miners. In lennia) have been inspired by its gards the Matobo rocks as the most cases the EIAs and AIAs rock formations and associated seat of God and ancestral spirits. are done when the mining is al- features, and by particular species The intangible heritage associat- ready underway. This is a case of fauna and flora. It has been es- ed with the shrines is one of the

142 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 most powerful living cultural tra- opportunities in conservation, of certain activities, thereby wast- ditions in Southern Africa and management, tourism and ac- ing financial resources, creating attracts pilgrims from all over the commodation, and from selling conflicts among stakeholders, region (Matobo Hills Manage- curios. Mutual benefits such as alienating local communities, ment Plan). cutting of grass in the Park for and subsequently leading to thatching and stock fodder cre- uncoordinated marketing and de- In recent times the synergy of ate good relationships with local velopments in the landscape. Also landscape and beliefs has led to communities. there was no evaluation of the the choice of the Matobo Hills management strategies employed Area for the memorialization of Prior to the establishment of the by the different stakeholders in historical figures such as King current management system, the the same landscape. This kind of Mzilikazi, Cecil John Rhodes management of the Matobo Cul- individualistic approach does not and Leander Starr Jameson, tural Landscape was fragmented augur well for the management and events such as World War according to boundaries and of cultural landscapes, as they II, the Shangani battle and the specific aspects and attributes require holistic and integrated Rhodes Indaba. The combina- of the landscape falling under management approaches. tion of the unique values of the respective institutions. As such Matobo Hills Area contributes to institutional management plans It is against this background that the economic empowerment of were dovetailed to promote this the stakeholders agreed to estab- local communities. They gener- individualistic management ap- lish an Integrated Management ate income from employment proach, resulting in duplication Plan. Integrated management planning recognizes the different institutional structures and their statutory obligations, but facili- tates a co-coordinated approach to the management of the Ma- tobo Cultural Landscape. Thus, a technical committee evaluated all existing management plans relating to the site and held con- sultative meetings with the local communities towards building an integrated management plan that was produced with the bless- ing of all key stakeholders. It is now being operationalised.

During a stakeholders meeting held on 27 February 2004 at Maleme Rest Camp (Rhodes Ma- tobo National Park), the Matobo World Heritage Site Manage- ment Committee (MMC) was established. The committee is comprised of key stakeholders of the Matobo Cultural Landscape namely; National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe (NMMZ), Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority (ZIPWA),

Zimbabwe Tourism Author- ity (ZTA), Mafela Trust (MT), Matobo Rural District Council (MRDC), Umzingwane Rural District Council (URDC), Chiefs Representative, Veterinary Serv- ices, Farmers Representatives

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 143 and Oral Traditions Association. wrangles relating to ownership of ZIPWA chairs the Management sites using traditional systems. Committee. The Management Committee draws its strength from Conclusion References the specialised expertise found In conclusion, risk management Borrini-Feyerabend, 1999. within the member institutions. analysis of the recent history Participatory Management of The fact that the Management of several rock art sites open to Cultural Heritage. Unpublished Committee comprises all the ma- the public in Zimbabwe has notes for the Africa-2009 jor stakeholders makes it possible shown that a participatory and Regional Course Kenya, 12-16 to shift away from a fragmented, integrated approach is to be July 1996. to an integrated management ap- recommended for the manage- proach. ment of rock art sites. Such an Burkitt, M.C. 1928. South approach should recognize the African’s Past in Stone and Challenges in empow- historical factors that have mar- Paint. Cambridge: Cambridge ering communities in ginalized local communities in University Press. heritage management the past, and aim at coordinating In empowering local communi- the roles of local communities, Chidziva, J. 1964. The Vashawa- ties there are several challenges state institutions and various lev- sha people in the Chinamhora as already illustrated in the case els of government. area. NADA 9(1):16-33 studies. But glaring challenges from these case studies include: Properly implemented, the ap- Colley, S. 2002. Uncovering Aus- proach ensures sustainability tralia. Archaeology, Indigenous · defining the manner in which because there is a shift from pres- people and the Public. Crows the local communities should ervation to conservation, and Nest NSW: Allen & Unwin. participate in the management above all the traditional protec- process in view of the restric- tion systems are recognized. It Cooke, C.K. 1970. Shelters for tive and non-encompassing also promotes the holistic pres- Late Stone Age man shown legislation; ervation of the integrity and in the paintings of Rhodesia. authenticity of the rock paint- South African Archaeological · defining who should consti- ings, including their setting. Bulletin 25:65-66 tute the local community (e.g. Together these initiatives ensure local residents, traditional cus- efficient use of available human Darvill, T. & Fulton, M. 1995. The todians, politicians etc); and financial resources towards Monuments at Risk Survey of one goal. England. Bournemouth: Eng- · recognising the diversity of lish Heritage and University of the communities and how However it must be acknowl- Bournemouth. to balance their varying and edged that the continued sometimes divergent interests; isolation of local communities in Deacon, J. 1995. Cultural re- · balancing the use and sub- rock art management is a risk as sources management in South sequent destruction and it provides opportunities for de- Africa: legislation and practice. desecration of irreplaceable struction. In: Pwiti, G. & Soper, R. (eds) cultural resource as in the case Aspects of African Archaeology. of Makumbe cave; and Other challenges are the lack of Papers from the 10th Congress adequate financial resources, lack of the PanAfrican Association · dealing with political processes of trained conservators and tech- for Prehistory and Related Stu- that empower local commu- nicians, the adverse impact of dies: 839-848. Harare: Universi- nities through use of local tourism in the absence of visitor ty of Zimbabwe Publications. resources, as the case of black management and interpretative granite quarrying in Mutoko plans, impact of land resettlement Frobenius, L. 1962. Madsimu which in the long term lead to programmes, and difficulties as- Dsangara. Graz: Akademische destruction of sites. sociated with resolving wrangles Druck – u. Verlagsanstalt. over site ownership. The big- On the other hand, dealing with gest challenge is to integrate the Garlake, P. 1985. Great Zimba- conflicts arising from adoption roles of all stakeholders towards bwe: described and explained. of traditional protection system achieving a participatory man- Harare: Zimbabwe Publishing (such as restricted access, sacred- agement approach that preserves House. ness, marketing vs. desecration) the integrity and authenticity of is very difficult, including prob- the rock paintings. Garlake, P. 1987. The Painted lems associated with resolving

144 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Caves: An introduction to the for CRM. CRM, The Journal of Pearson, M. & Sullivan, S. 1998. Prehistoric Art of Zimbabwe. Heritage Stewardship 1(1):7-13 Managing Heritage Places. Mel- Harare: Modus Publication. (US National Park Service for bourne: Melbourne University the Heritage Community). Press. Garlake, P. 1995. The Hunter’s Vision: Prehistoric Art of Matobo Hills World Heritage Taruvinga, P. 1995. Dombosha- Zimbabwe. Harare: Zimbabwe Site Management Plan (2005- va Rock Art Site: Implications of Publishing House. 2009). Report of the Matobo Preservation Related Docu- Hills Management Committee, mentation. Unpublished BA Goodall, E. 1959. Prehistoric National Museums and Monu- Honours Dissertation: History Rock Art of the Federation of ments of Zimbabwe. Department, University of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Zimbabwe. Salisbury: National Publications Ndoro, W. 1996. The question Trust, Rhodesia and Nyasaland. of authenticity and its applica- Walker, N. 1995. Late Pleistocene tion to Cultural Heritage in Af- and Holocene hunter-gatherers Loubser, J. & Laurens, G. 1994. rica. ICOMOS AFRICA Scientific of the Matopos. An archaeo- Depictions of domestic ungu- Journal. Paris: ICOMOS. logical study of change and lates and shields: hunter/gath- continuity in Zimbabwe. Up- erers and Agro-pastoralists in Ndoro, W. 2001. Your Monu- psala: Societas Archaeologica the Caledon River Valley Area. ment, our Shrine: the preserva- Uppsaliensis. In: Dowson, T.A. & Lewis-Wil- tion of Great Zimbabwe. Up- liams, J.D. (eds) Contested psala: Societas Archaeologica Yates, R., Manhire, A. & Parking- Images: diversity in Southern Af- Uppsaliensis. ton, J. 1994. Rock painting and rican Rock Art Research: 83-118. history in the South-Western Johannesburg: Witwatersrand Pwiti, G. & Ndoro, W. 2001. Heri- Cape. In: Dowson, T.A. & Lewis- University Press. tage Management in Southern Williams, J.D. (eds) Contested Africa: local, national and Images: diversity in Southern Af- Lowenthal, D. 2003. Pioneering international discourse. Public rican Rock Art Research: 29-60. Stewardship: New Challenges Archaeology 2(1). Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 145 Analysing and comparing rock art sequences in the uKha-hlamba-Drakensberg Park, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa Joané Swart1

Analyse et comparaison des séq- Abstract uences d’art rupestre dans le parc Ukhahlamba-Drakensberg The Harris Matrix method was applied to Park, Kwazulu-Natal, Afrique du superimposed paintings at two rock art sites Sud in the Drakensberg region of KwaZulu- Natal, South Africa, Ngwangwane 8 rock La méthode de la matrice Harris fut appliquée shelter and Eland Cave, as a contribution à la surimpression de peintures situées sur towards investigating continuities, variation deux sites de la région de Drakensberg, Kwa- and change over time and space. Analysis Zulu-Natal, en Afrique du Sud, dénommés of the patterns that emerged suggests that l’abri 8 Ngwangwane et la cave de l’éland. there are general trends in the depiction and Cette méthode permet de travailler sur les superimpositioning of certain subjects and continuités, les variations et les changements colours, and that phases that might have dans le temps et l’espace. L’analyse des mo- chronological significance can be identified. tifs qui se dégageaient suggère qu’il y a des Both sequences show, for example, that tendances générales dans les représentations although animals appear in the oldest phase et la surimpression de certains sujets et de of painting, no specific species, including certaines couleurs introduits graduellement, eland, could be positively identified. pouvant avoir une importance chronologique, Rhebuck and therianthropes, on the other est identifiée. Les deux séquences montrent, hand, are more frequently depicted in the par exemple, que bien que les animaux ap- later phases. This could suggest changing paraissent dans la phase la plus ancienne roles and significance in hunter-gatherer de peinture, aucune espèce spécifique, y belief systems through time. compris les élands ne peuvent être clairement identifiés. D’autre part, les Rhebuck and therianthropes, sont représentés plus fréquem- ment dans les phases suivantes. Cela voud- rait signifier des changements de rôles et d’importance dans les systèmes de croyance ‘chasseur- cueilleur’ à travers le temps.

Introduction Ngwangwane 8 (Fig. 2) and Southern African rock art lacks Various researchers (King 1998; Eland Cave’s (Fig. 3) sequences a secure chronology. The main Mason 1933; Pager 1971; Pearce were produced through the research focus in the past three 2002; Russell 2000; Vinnicombe decades was aimed at establishing 1976; Willcox 1956) have an understanding of the meaning suggested sequences for painted of the rock art. As a result, South sites in the Drakensberg region, Africa’s wealth of ethnographic which now falls within the records has generated remarkable uKhahlamba-Drakensberg Park insights (e.g. Lewis-Williams (UDP); some of these are based on 1981 and subsequent work). observation and some on formal methods. This study analyses There has, however, been only and compares these sequences limited research into regional with two new sequences from chronologies that may help to Ngwangwane 8 in the southern account for temporal and spatial UDP and Eland Cave in the relationships in the art. Southern northern UDP (Fig. 1). The African rock art therefore analysis of the various sequences lacks information that would attempts to create a platform application of the Harris Matrix help to investigate change and for investigating continuities, method. The Harris Matrix Fig. 1: Location of sites continuities over time and space. variation and change over time is a non-destructive relative in the uKhahlamba- and space in the rock art of dating technique designed to Drakensberg Park, 1 Joane Swart [email protected] Natal Museum KwaZulu-Natal. unravel complex stratigraphic KwaZulu-Natal, South South Africa relationships (Harris 1989). It is Africa

146 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Table 1: Suggested painting phases for Ngwangwane 8.

Phase Subjects Colours Techniques

1 H,An R, M M Rfw ?b

2 H, An RW, R b, m E

T MW, MPi, RW b, Bl

3 E (HB, RH) RW, MW b, S, FS

4 H M, M RW, MW B (E) (RW) B Fig. 2 5 RH W, WR m, b

6 H R, RW, oRW, oR m, b, S (E, An) (YW, WM, oR)

7 RH, SF W, R M

Table 2: Suggested painting phases for Eland Cave Z8 PB

Phase Subjects Colours Techn- iques

1 BG, An, ?H R M

2 A, An RW B

Fig. 3 3 A, An, RH, MW, R W b, m Fig. 2: Numbered KEY: BP WC paintings from Subjects: human (H); animal (An); antelope (A); 4 E, H, F WMR, MW, ROW, b, p, S Ngwangwane 8 eland (E); therianthrope (T); hartebeest (HB); OW bushpig (BP); feline (F); ‘winged creature’ (WC); Fig. 3: Numbered rhebuck (RH); therianthrope-rhebuck (TRH); 5 H, A, E, BP ORW, oR, RW, W, m, b, p paintings from panel D, reedbuck (RE); baboon (Ba); background (BG); R, M Eland Cave stick figure (SF). H, RH oRW, OW B

Colours: red (R); maroon (M); black (B); white (W); Table 3: Suggested painting phases for Eland Cave Z8 PD. red and white (RW); white and red (WR); red and fugitive white (Rfw); maroon and white (MW); white and maroon (WM); maroon and pink Phase Subjects Colours Techn- (MPi); orangey-red and white (oRW); orangey-red iques (oR); yellow and white (YW); white, maroon and red (WMR); orange and white (OW); red, orange 1 H B, M, R M and white (ROW); orange, red and white (ORW).

Techniques: monochrome (m); bichrome 2 E, A, RH, RW, W m, b, Bl (bi); polychrome (p); blending (Bl); shading (S); An, H Ba, MW, R foreshortening (FS). TRH, ?WC RE, F

3 E, A, H WC RW, OW m, b, Bl YW, R E, A, H WR, YW, R

The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 147 based on the ‘law of stratigraphic the phases are separated by lines, beneath a red and white eland at succession’. I use it to analyse it does not necessarily indicate Main Caves in the central UDP superimposed rock art images. that a subject or colour appears in yielded dates between 3130 and Each painting is viewed as the one phase and disappears in the 2810 BP (one sigma) (Mazel & smallest stratigraphic entity and next. Subjects and colours that Watchman 2003). Since red and has a position in the stratigraphic are particularly well-represented white eland fall into the second- sequence of a site in relation to are shown in bold. Phase 1 in all oldest phase at this shelter (Russell the other units. The Harris Matrix tables represents the oldest unit 2000), Mazel and Watchman technique produces schematic painted on the rock face. suggest that art in the oldest diagrams of the stratigraphic phase at least predates 2500 BP. relationships of each of the Both the Ngwangwane 8 and The second-oldest phase at Eland images in a painted panel. Eland Cave sequences show Cave and Ngwangwane 8 also that although animals appear in includes red and white eland. The identification of clearly the oldest phase of painting, no defined painting phases is specific species, including eland, Mazel and Watchman (2003) complicated by the degree could be positively identified. have other maximum dates of individual variation in the In Tables 1 and 3 eland from the central UDP associated superimpositioning of images occur from Phase 2 onward. with another red and white and the lack of absolute dates. Rhebuck are more frequently eland (one sigma range 2930- The cultural, cognitive and depicted towards the end of 2810 BP), a shaded polychrome social knowledge of individual the sequences. Therianthropes rhebuck (2410-2370 BP) and a artists influenced what images are also introduced in the later red and white hartebeest (2390- could and could not be phases. This raises the question 2200BP). At Ngwangwane 8, red superimposed. For example, of the role played by the eland in and white eland continue into Lewis-Williams (1974) suggested hunter-gatherer culture during the third-oldest phase, followed that because superimposed the earliest phase of the rock art by hartebeest and rhebuck. images from the Barkly East tradition, and possibly suggests Mazel and Watchman’s dates district followed certain rules of changing roles and significance therefore correspond well with depiction, superimpositioning in hunter-gatherer belief systems the sequence of subject matter might not necessarily reflect through time. generated by the Harris Matrix. chronological overpainting. I More site-specific absolute dating would nevertheless argue that The colours and techniques based on relative sequences is, although the superimpositioning applied at the shelters follow a however, necessary. reflects a chronology, it is not similar pattern with monochrome necessarily a chronology that reds and maroons being the Acknowledgements can be associated with successive oldest, followed by a strong This material is based painting phases. There is no way introduction of red/maroon and upon work supported of knowing how much time white bichromes, ending in an by the National Research elapsed between painting episodes array of colours and combinations Foundation under Grant without absolute dates and some with yellow and orange added to number 2053178. Any opinion, findings and conclusions or superimpositioning might have the spectrum. Shading, blending, recommendations expressed been done deliberately in the and foreshortening techniques in this material are those of the same painting phase. are applied from the middle of author and do not necessarily the sequences to the end. reflect the views of the National The purpose of this study was Research Foundation. I would to document sites with many All painting sequences of the UDP like to acknowledge and thank cases of superimpositioning to are similar to a certain extent. the NRF who funded this see what patterns emerged. It Regional sequences are based on project, and the Natal Museum and Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife for has shown that there are general broader observations and make their assistance trends in the depiction and integration slightly easier, but superimpositioning of certain differences in categories used by References subjects and colours, and that various authors for the suggested Harris, E.C. 1989. Principles of phases can be identified that might sequences complicate complete archaeological stratigraphy. have chronological significance. integration. Second edition. London: Tables 1, 2 and 3 show the Academic Press. subjects, colours and techniques The integration of rock art King, A.G. 1998. that have the highest frequency sequences with absolute dates is Superpositioning and the in each phase, or are introduced the next step towards more secure art of Fallen Rock, Junction in a particular phase. Although chronologies. An oxalate crust

148 The Future of Africa’s Past - Proceedings of TARA Conference, November 2004 Pager, H. 1971. Ndedema: A Shelter, Didima Gorge, documentation of the rock KwaZulu-Natal. Unpubl BSc painting of the Ndedema Gorge. (Hons) thesis: University of the Graz: Akademische Druck. Witwatersrand. Pearce, D. 2002. Changing men, Lewis-Williams, J.D. 1974. changing eland: sequences in Superpositioning in a sample the rock paintings of Maclear of rock-paintings from the District, Eastern Cape, South Barkly East Africa. American Indian Rock Art District. South African 28: 129-138. Archaeological Bulletin 29:93- 103. Russell, T. 2000. The application of the Harris matrix to San Lewis-Williams, J.D. 1981. rock art at Main Caves North, Believing and seeing: symbolic KwaZulu-Natal. South African meanings in southern San rock Archaeological Bulletin 55:60-70. paintings. London: Academic Press. Vinnicombe, P. 1976. People of the eland: rock paintings Mason, A.Y. 1933. Rock of the Drakensberg Bushmen paintings in the Cathkin Peak as a reflection of their life and area, Natal. Bantu Studies 7:131- thought. Pietermaritzburg: 159. University of Natal Press. Mazel, A.D. & Watchman, A.L. Willcox, A. R. 1956. Rock 2003. Dating rock paintings in paintings of the Drakensberg: the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Natal and Griqualand East. and the Biggarsberg, KwaZulu- London: Max Parrish. Natal, South Africa. Southern African Humanities 15: 59-73

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