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Zeitgenössisches Islamisches Denken Zeitgenössisches islamisches Denken. Eine kritische Studie des Ansatzes von Asghar Ali Engineer (Indien 1939-2013) Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde der Philosophischen Fakultät der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg i.Br. vorgelegt von Fatmatüzzehra Sagir aus Sivas Wintersemester 2014/2015 Erstgutachterin: Prof. Dr. Johanna Pink Zweitgutachter: Junior-Professor Dr. Tim Epkenhans Vorsitzender des Promotionsausschusses der Gemeinsamen Kommission der Philologischen, Philosophischen und Wirtschafts- und Verhaltenswissenschaftlichen Fakultät: Prof. Dr. Hans-Helmuth Gander Datum der Fachprüfung im Promotionsfach: 06.07.2015 2 Inhalt i. Verzeichnis der verwendeten Abkürzungen 8 ii. Formale Anmerkungen 9 iii. Anmerkungen zur verwendeten Terminologie 11 Abschnitt I 1. Einleitung 1.1 Einführung in die Thematik 13 1.2 Forschungsstand 18 1.3 Leitfragen und Leitthesen der Arbeit 25 1.4 Quellenlage 27 1.5 Methodische und theoretische Grundlagen der Arbeit 30 1.6 Anmerkungen zur verwendeten Terminologie 32 1.7 Aufbau der Arbeit 41 2. Kontextanalyse 42 2.1 Muslime in Indien seit 1947 42 2.1.1 Die Teilung: Ein Blick zurück 47 2.1.2 Nach 1947: Prekäre Situation 51 2.1.3 Die Loyalitätsfrage 51 2.1.4 Exkurs : Das Kastenwesen in der indischen Gesellschaft 56 3 2.2 Biographische Notizen zu Asghar Ali Engineer 60 2.2.1 Religiöser Hintergrund 60 2.2.2 Die Dawoodi Bohras und ihre religionshistorische Genese 61 2.2.3 Die ismailitische Mission und die Entstehung der Dawoodi Bohras 63 2.2.4 Die Bohras in der Gegenwart 65 2.2.5 Der Da’i 67 2.2.6 Religiöse Praxis 70 2.2.7 Besteuerung 71 2.2.8 Bekleidung 73 2.2.9 Weibliche Beschneidung 73 2.2.10 Die Reformbewegung Progressive Dawoodi Bohras 75 2.2.11 Die Organisation 76 2.2.12 Die Kritik der PDB 77 2.2.13 Die Kritiker: Fallbeispiele 78 2.3 Asghar Ali Engineer: Biographie im Überblick 80 2.3.1 Die Autobiographie 82 2.3.2 Kindheit und Jugend 83 2.3.3 Schlüsselerlebnis Qadambosi – Verweigerung der sajda 88 2.3.4 Studienjahre: Kritische Reflektion im Auftrieb 89 2.3.5 Bombay: Arbeitsleben und Aktivismus 91 2.3.6 Kritik am Da’i und Exklusion 93 2.3.7 Das CSSS und die PDB 96 4 Abschnitt I I 1. Einführung in die Analyse des Textkorpus 99 1.1 Autor und Text 99 1.1.1 Themen 103 1.1.2 Adressaten 105 1.1.3 Textgattung 107 1.1.4 Aufbau der Texte 111 1.1.5 Textelemente 113 1.1.6 Leitsätze 116 1.2 Die Rolle und die Bedeutung des Koran bei Engineer 119 1.2.1 Hermeneutische Techniken 122 1.2.2 Kategorisierung der Koranverse bei Engineer 123 1.2.3 Die Kritik: Subjektivität und Selektivität 124 1.2.4 Kontextuelle und normative Verse: Engineers Replik 129 1.2.5 Wer spricht für den Islam? 135 1.2.6 Die spirituelle Dimension 138 1.3 Stereotype 139 1.3.1 Exkurs : Anerkennung 140 1.3.2 Was ist ein Stereotyp? 142 1.3.3 Korrektur von Stereotypen 144 1.3.4 Stereotype, auf die Engineer reagiert 147 1.3.5 Reaktionen Engineers auf die Stereotype 151 5 2. Analyse der Themenkomplexe 153 2.1 Themenkomplex Zusammenleben mit Anderen 153 2.1.1 Kufr – „the greatest of all sins“ 153 2.1.2 Sind Hindus ahl al-kit āb? 159 2.1.3 Die Rolle der Sufis in Engineers Texten 160 2.2 Themenkomplex Geschlechterdifferenz 170 2.2.1 „Why this negative attitude towards women?“ 170 2.2.2 Kann eine Frau das gemischtgeschlechtliche gemeinsame rituelle Gebet leiten? 171 2.2.3 Kritik an Qaradawi als Vertreter der etablierten muslimischen Gelehrsamkeit 175 2.2.4 Gewalt gegen Frauen: Vers 4:34 und das Wort ḍaraba 181 2.3 Reiseberichte: Wissenstransfer und innerreligiöse Kritik 190 2.3.1 Reise nach Afghanistan 190 2.3.2 Die Reise 190 2.3.3 Frauen und Drogen 193 2.3.4 Drogen und ulama 194 2.4 Themenkomplex Säkularismus 196 2.4.1 „Is Islam compatible with secularism?“ 196 2.4.2 Religion und Politik 199 2.4.3 Islam und Demokratie 200 2.4.4 Exkurs : Säkularismus in Indien 202 2.5 Themenkomplex Religion 211 6 Abschnitt I I I 1. Schluss 215 1.1 Der, Die, Das Andere … im zeitgenössischen islamischen Denken 215 1.2 Engineers exegetische Koranlektüre: Anschluss an den universellen Menschenrechtsdiskurs? 222 1.3 Subjektivität und Selektivität bei der Koranlektüre- und exegese 226 1.4 Infantile Theologie?: Implizit und explizit normative Zugänge zum Forschungsobjekt Islam 235 2. Fazit 244 3. Ausblick 249 4. Bibliographie 251 7 i. Verzeichnis der verwendeten Abkürzungen AJSS = Asian Journal of Social Science BJP = Bharata Janata Party Congress = Congress Party CSSS, csss = Centre for the Study of Secularism and Society EI² = Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition FAZ = Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung IIS, iis = Institute of Islamic Studies JOAS = Journal of the American Oriental Society JQS = Journal of Qur’anic Studies JRAI = Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute MAS = Modern Asian Studies PDB = Progressive Dawoodi Bohras RSS = Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh TOI = Times of India 8 ii. Formale Anmerkungen 1. Ich folge in der Transkription islamwissenschaftlicher Termini den Vorgaben des International Journal of Middle East Studies (IJMES). 2. Im deutschen Sprachgebrauch standardisierte Begriffe belasse ich als solche, wie etwa Kalif . 3. Bei persischen Begriffen oder Wörtern aus dem Urdu oder Hindi übernehme ich die Schreibweise aus der englischsprachigen Literatur, wie etwa mullaji sahib . 4. Den arabischen Artikel al schreibe ich immer klein, wie etwa bei al-Mansur , außer am Satzanfang. 5. Bei arabischen Bezeichnungen von Gruppen verwende ich sowohl die arabische Bezeichnung, als auch die ins Deutsche übertragene Bezeichnung, wie etwa Ismailiyya als auch Ismailiten . 6. Eigennamen transkribiere ich nicht. 7. Ich schreibe durchgehend Heilige Texte groß, um so die selbstreferentielle Konnotation durch die Gläubigen auszudrücken, da die Bezeichnung heilig die ihre ist. 8. Zitate von Engineer übernehme ich aus dem englischen Original ohne Korrektur von Orthographie oder Zeichensetzung, Ausnahmen hiervon dienen der Vermeidung von Missverständnissen. 9. Alle Zitate werden im Englischen wiedergegeben. Eine Übersetzung erfolgt in der Regel nicht. Dies gilt ebenso für die verwendete Sekundärliteratur. 10. Koranverse übersetze ich, sofern nicht anders vermerkt, in Anlehnung an die Übersetzung Rudi Parets 1 selbst. 1 Paret: Koran . 1971. 9 11. Ich verzichte aus ästhetischen und stilistischen Gründen auf das „Durchgendern“ der deutschen Sprache. Überall dort, wo die grammatikalisch maskuline Form gewählt wird, sind Frauen, Männer und alle anderen Geschlechter gleichermaßen eingeschlossen. 10 iii. Anmerkungen zur verwendeten Terminologie Von Asghar Ali Engineer verwendete englische Termini, wie communalism, communal riots, communal harmony , bleiben unübersetzt um missverständliche Konnotationen zu vermeiden. Communalism darf nicht mit Kommunalismus übersetzt werden: Communalism ”signifies a politics of belonging that does not emphasize the nation in all its diversity, but the homogenous, religious community.” 2 Gemäß dieser Definition von van der Veer kann es communalism auch innerhalb einer Religionsgemeinschaft geben, beispielsweise unter den Muslimen zwischen Schiiten und Sunniten. Engineer hat sich mit communalism 3 und den damit verbundenen Unruhen und blutigen Auseinandersetzungen ( communal riots ) seit den frühen 1960er Jahren beschäftigt. 4 Sein Engagement für communal harmony als Gegenentwurf zu communalism ist signifikant für seine soziale Arbeit und die Auseinandersetzung mit dem Islam in der Gegenwart. Die Bedeutung seines Einsatzes wurde mit zahlreichen nationalen und internationalen Auszeichnungen herausgestellt. 2004 ehrte man ihn mit dem Alternativen Friedensnobelpreis. 5 Zahlreiche nationale und internationale Auszeichnungen verdeutlichen die Bedeutung dieses Engagements. Daher wird er häufig auch als activist oder social activist bezeichnet. Dem Konzept des communalism steht in Indien der nationalism bzw. secular nationalism oder secularism gegenüber. Alle drei Konzepte wollen einen 2 van der Veer: Communalism. In: International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2286-8. 3 Zur Erforschung von communalism hat Brass, Paul R. mit zahlreichen Arbeiten einen wichtigen Beitrag geleistet, siehe weiterführend beispielsweise: Brass: Ethnicity and Nationalism . 1991; Brass (Ed.): Riots and Pogroms . 1996. 4 Ein Werksverzeichnis findet sich auf der Website des CSSS. Vgl. Bibliographie dieser Arbeit. 5 Zusammen mit dem hinduistischen Aktivisten Swami Agnivesh. Siehe www.rightlivelihood.org/asghar-ali-engineer.html . 11 Gegenentwurf zu communalism darstellen, der in einer heterogenen und multireligiösen Gesellschaft wie Indien als die zentrale Bedrohung für die nationale Einheit und den gesellschaftlichen Frieden gesehen werden kann. Während der Terminus nationalism, zur Zeit der Teilung Indiens und in der darauf folgenden Periode, positiv im Sinne eines Widerstandes gegen die Kolonialherrschaft der Briten sowie gegen die Teilung des indischen Subkontinents verstanden wurde, ist zu beobachten, dass die häufige Führung des Begriffs in Zusammenhang mit Hindu- nationalism 6 diese Konnotation zunehmend in den Hintergrund drängt. Darüber hinaus verwendet Engineer in der Auseinandersetzung mit dem Islam und den Muslimen Termini wie orthodox , liberal , ulama-caste, ulama , dissident , reformist . Termini wie dissident, reformist und liberal verwendet Enginer selbstreferentiell. 7 Die von ihm verwendeten Begriffe schreibe ich klein und kursiv. 6 Siehe hierzu weiterführend die Arbeiten von Julia Eckert, aufgeführt in der Bibliographie dieser Arbeit. 7 Die Begrenztheit bestimmter Termini zum Ausdruck von hochgradig komplexen Vorgängen, Zuständen
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