School of Education and Lifelong Learning
INTERIM REPORT
Literacy in Ballymun
Dr. Gerry Mac Ruairc
Assisted by Dr. Dympna Devine, Dr. Lelia Murtagh Dr. Joyce Senior
June 2008 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 THE CONTEXT FOR THIS STUDY ...... 3
1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 4 1.2.1 Defining Literacy ...... 4 1.2.2 Some views on Literacy ...... 5 1.2.3 Challenges ...... 6 1.2.4 Strategies and Interventions ...... 14 Classroom Implementation ...... 21
2.1 SAMPLE AND METHODOLOGY ...... 24
3.1 ATTAINMENT – WHAT THE STANDARDISED TESTS REVEAL? ...... 26
3.2 TESTS IN CONTEXT ...... 34
3.3 LITERACY PRACTICES – RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AND INITIATIVES ...... 36 3.3.1 Current Practice: Reading ...... 39 3.3.2 Current Practice: Oral Language ...... 42 3.3.3: Current Practice: Writing ...... 43
3.4 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT: ...... 43
3.5 CURRENT CHALLENGES ...... 45 3.5.1 Oral Langauge ...... 45 3.5.2 Reading ...... 45 3.5.3 Self Esteem ...... 46 3.5.4 Sustaining Progress ...... 46
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 48 1.1 THE CONTEXT FOR THIS STUDY Numerous Irish studies have found problems in relation to widespread underachievement in reading in schools with significant numbers of this identified group of pupils from disadvantaged backgrounds (Archer & O’ Flaherty 1991; Cosgrove et al, 2000; Hayes and Kiernan, 2001, Weir et al 2002). The well documented links between low literacy levels, early school leaving, low self esteem and poor employment prospects (Willms 2003) point to the need to place literacy as a central focus in any programme of interventions. The problem of low levels of literacy in the Ballymun area was identified in a recent needs analysis carried out by CSER in 2006. In response to this youngballymun have included literacy as one of the strands in their programme of support. This study has been commissioned by youngballymun as part of the work of the Literacy Support Service Design. The objectives of this study are: 1. To examine current research with respect to: The range of initiatives and programmes currently in place under the Department of Education and Science DEIS initiative The different literacy support programmes used by schools to support the teaching of reading. The overall up to date view in relation to literacy in schools in disadvantaged schools. 2. To carry out an analysis of the standardised test results in reading in order to : a. establish the overall attainment patterns in relation to reading b. enable the identification of key shifts in attainment patterns within the school population– i.e. patterns that may suggest that scores begin to drop/ rise at certain ages/critical junctures and to explore possible causes for these shifts and changes . 2. To examine the current interventions and supports aimed at improving literacy in each of the schools. This will include a review of each school’s response to the national initiatives that are in place e.g. Reading Recovery together with any school based strategy/ practice that focused on enriching the children’s literacy levels e.g. Buddy/ Paired reading. This information will be collated in order to provide a clear and concise overview of current practice in relation to literacy in the participating schools. 3. To identify gaps and remaining challenges in current provision
The research was carried out in April 2008. Because some of the work on the collation of standardised testing score was carried out by the schools themselves, the present study was extended in consultation with youngballymun to include some follow up activity. This activity will focus predominantly on examining aspects of the attainment patterns revealed by this phase of the study and beginning the process of conducting research with parents with a view to accessing the parents views in relation to literacy generally and specifically as it relates to the literacy levels of the children in Ballymun. Key action points to be followed up on in this extended study are signposted in the report.
The interim findings of this study are reported under three broad headings. Section 1 provides a summary of the key literature in the area. A number of aspects of this are still under review and consequently this part of the study will be explored further in the final report. Section 2 outlines the methodology used in conducting the research. The findings are reported in section three. This section examines the attainment patterns as revealed by the standardised test scores and the interviews and focus groups discussion with school personnel. It continues by focusing on the contested nature of standardised testing in schools in disadvantaged areas. A summary of the different literacy practices currently in use in the schools participating study is provided. The final two parts of this section explore the key issue of parental involvement in children learning and identifies gaps in provision and challenges that remain as revealed by an analysis of the findings of the study.
1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW
1.2.1 Defining Literacy Although the consequences of literacy difficulties may be clear, literacy itself is not a clear cut concept. Makin et al (2000) make reference to recent studies of literacy practices in Australian early childhood classrooms suggesting that current definitions of literacy in early childhood education usually reflect ‘narrow and traditional views’. Reading literacy is defined by the OECD (1999) as ‘understanding, using and reflecting on written texts in order to achieve one’s goals, to develop one’s knowledge and potential, and to participate in society’. However, even this broad definition does not fully encompass the complexity of issues that need to be addressed in relation to literacy. Recent work by Makin et al (2000) focus on multiple literacy practices of home, community and early childhood settings such as the literacies of technology and popular culture, everyday uses of print and languages other than standard English which are often undervalued. In reality there are many ways to literacy learning and more recent discussions emphasise ‘literacy as social practice’ (Makin et al, 2000, p. 368). Snyder et al (2002) note that ‘new literacy practices refer to the ability to read and write all texts, signs, artefacts, nuances and images through which we come to understand and engage with society in the broadest sense’ (Snyder et al, 2002, p. 368, 369). Williams (2005) discusses how many types of ‘complex and challenging literacy practices’ occur outside the classroom however these are irrelevant if they don’t fit with the dominant discourse (Williams, 2005, p. 344). Children are engaged in many forms of literacy in school, in the home and in their communities and not all forms of literacy are valued equally.
1.2.2 Some views on Literacy
Language Development The presence of early language development is acknowledged as an important factor in the foundations of literacy. According to Palmer (2007), placing more emphasis on early language development, leading to proficiency in language and listening skills is fundamental to success. Palmer (2007) refers to the deterioration of these skills due to the social and cultural changes which result in parents ceasing to speak with and sing to their children as much as they did in past years. Fortunately, the Primary Curriculum (DES, 1999) places renewed emphasis on language development and a delay in the introduction of formal reading schemes.
Perspectives on Teaching Reading Understanding the processes involved in learning to read is a complex task because reading involves a host of processes operating together in concert (Ehri, 1991): The readers’ eye moves across a line of text, they pick up visual information about letters, words and sentences while at the same time they are mentally processing the information taking into account the structure and meaning of sentences and integrating this with information they already have. Ehri 1991 suggests that another reason why the account of the acquisition processes is difficult is that learning to read is influenced by many factors exerting an influence at various points along a lengthy course of development which span several years beginning in very early childhood. These factors include the child’s knowledge of letters and phonemic awareness (awareness of sound and sound patterns) the teaching methods used, how much the child practices reading and the knowledge of the spoken language (Reynor, 2008). Each of this trajectories are immersed in debate. One of the more recent theoretical developments focuses, at a broader level, on the extent to which the reader/text interaction is also at the core of a process of meaning making which is embedded in the idea that reading is a cultural practice rooted in the meaning of individuals’ lives and worldviews (Smagorinsky (2001)
It is beyond the scope of this study to fully describe the range of models that constitute the discourse in relation to learning to read. Suffice it to say that there are multiple perspectives in relation to this process. Bearing in mind the risk of over simplification it is possible to categorise many of the perspectives that exist into two broad lines of inquiry – the top down model and the bottom up model. Table 1.4 summarises the processes involved in each. What is important, however, in the context of reviewing practice is the need to bear in mind that it is unlikely that one solution will work for all and that an over dependence on any one program or intervention is likely to be problematic.
1.2.3 Challenges There are many challenges related to literacy development. These include social class origins of students and teachers, use of technology, identification of literacy difficulties, choice of teaching methods, choice of teaching program, teacher identity and teacher training and education. This section examines these challenges.
Table 1.4 Bottom-up and top-down model of reading (Reid, 2000)
Bottom- up Top- down Use of word in language Word and language experience
Word meaning Prediction of phrases, words
Word recognition Word recognition
Letter recognition Letter recognition
Phonological awareness Phonological awareness
Social class and literacy Literacy levels, social class and disadvantage appear to be closely linked. The Department of Education Report, ‘Literacy and Numeracy in Disadvantaged Schools, Challenges for Teachers and Learners’ (2005) states that a child may be regarded as disadvantaged at school if, because of economic, cultural or social factors, the competencies that he or she brings to school differ from those valued in schools (D.E.S. 2005, p. 14). A significant proportion of children attending schools designated as serving disadvantaged areas have serious literacy difficulties and teachers in these schools face particular challenges in developing the literacy of their students (D.E.S., 2005, p. 5). Low literacy levels have been repeatedly linked to lower socio-economic levels in studies such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA, OECD, 2001) which surveyed 15 year-olds. In a more recent study of literacy levels in Irish prisons, Morgan & Kett (2003) found that 52% of adults in the prison system had low literacy skills, compared to 23% of the general population. These figures suggest a link between low literacy levels and failure in society. In a survey of designated disadvantaged schools (Weir, 2001), it was revealed that pupils had average reading scores that were between half to one full standard deviation below the standard mean scores.
According to Cosgrove, Kellehan, Forde & Morgan (2000), variables which influence performance in literacy testing include school attendance, mobility, attitudes and motivation to read. The latter appears to be influenced by what children see as the function of reading and also by how they perceive their ability to read. Cosgrove et al.(2000) have also found a correlation between school attendance and reading literacy levels.
In the U.S. context Alger (2007) finds that that most teachers are white, middle class, and educated, and that the majority of the struggling readers they come into contact with are from working class and economically disadvantaged backgrounds or are ethnically and racially diverse. Thus many teachers cannot relate to the loss of agency attached to illiteracy and integrating literacy strategies into content area classes is not a priority for them. (Bartolome, 1998; Macedo, 2003) (Alger, 2007, p. 621).
According to Myers & Botting (2008) some secondary age students in the U.K. mainstream schools located in areas of social and economic disadvantage have impoverished levels of literacy despite government interventions to specifically target literacy in this population (Myers & Botting, 2008, p. 107). Myers & Botting also make reference to the body of research discussing the impact of family background on language skills and the development of later literacy (Myers & Botting, 2008, p. 109) stating that early language difficulties predict later literacy difficulties and that some young children from areas of social and economic disadvantage have poorer language skills and poorer educational outcomes than their more advantaged peers. However the authors comment that more research is needed into the interaction between language difficulties and educational outcomes (Myers and Botting 2008, p. 98). In the Irish context teachers working in schools designated as serving disadvantaged areas made frequent reference to the fact that children come to school with a significant oral language deficit and that the necessary oral competencies that are a prerequisite for the development of literacy skills had not been developed by pupils (D.E.S., 2005, p. 25). The development of children’s oral language skills in the home and the community presents a particular challenge for schools and teachers.
Makin et al (2000) refer to the literature discussing the connections between low literacy levels and social disadvantage, also detailing how children from sociocultural minority groups are less likely to experience success in mainstream or school based contexts (Makin et al, 2000, p. 368). Williams (2005) discusses students who experience ‘differences between the discourses they have learned in their families and communities and those that dominate literacy education’ describing how such discontinuities can cause conflict for the student, teacher, family and community (Williams, 2005, p. 343). In an Irish report detailing the challenges to literacy in disadvantaged primary schools lack of parental involvement in children’s schooling and pupils’ lack of exposure to books and other education capital in the home is noted as a barrier to the promotion of literacy skills in the Irish context (D.E.S., 2005, p. 25). Parental support and two way communication between parents and teachers is vital for student’s success in school, however this study finds that fair or weak links exist between home and school in the schools researched (D.E.S., 2005, p. 30). Students from working class backgrounds are disadvantaged with regard to literacy levels; this in turn impacts on their ability to access the curriculum.
Williams notes that one challenge for teachers is how to reconcile the discontinuities between home, community and school in an ethical and constructive manner while respecting student identity and equipping students with the literacies necessary to access cultural capital in school and beyond (Williams, 2005, p. 343). Referring to the work of Gee (2004) Williams states that particular students’ discourses align with those valued in school and such students do not have to make choices between ‘the identity they live with in their homes and communities and the identity that will be rewarded in the classroom’ (Williams, 2005, p. 344). Williams also discusses the conflicts experienced by students when ‘facing competing discourses’ and the choices demanded by these discourses (Williams, 2005, p. 345), referencing in particular the work of Bourdieu (1984). Williams refers specifically to the Bourdieu’s concept of ‘habitus’ where people experience conflict moving between the beliefs and values of their community and social class to another social habitus, such as school, where new values often conflict with the old and perhaps individuals choose to perform a new identity or indeed choose not to do so (Williams, 2005, p. 346). Williams also makes the point that of course different discourses can be learned but that they do have to be learned. Social class and literacy have a complex relationship which is a challenge for both teachers and learners in the Irish classroom. Students with literacy difficulties exist in all socio-economic groups; however student’s from working class background and their teachers experience particular challenges.
Literacy and technology Technology is sometimes suggested as a cure all for literacy difficulties. Snyder et al (2002) find that access to technology is no guarantee of advantage and even when people from disadvantaged backgrounds gain access to technology, they remain relatively disadvantaged (Snyder et al, 2002, p. 368). Snyder et al note ‘a disjunction between the sorts of learning opportunities afforded by new technologies when used at home as compared with school’ and that ‘access to technology ... both at home and at school ... was not enough to enhance young peoples’ literacy achievement at school’ (Snyder et al, 2002, p. 380). While technology may alleviate some of the issues associated with literacy difficulties it does not assuage the challenges associated with literacy development in the classroom.
Identification of difficulties and support for students Myers & Botting (2008) find that a high proportion of students attending a mainstream inner-city secondary school were experiencing difficulties with reading comprehension and that these students had significantly poorer spoken language skills than those who were competent readers. Students experiencing difficulties with reading comprehension in the absence of difficulties with decoding are less likely to have been identified by the school as having special educational needs (Myers & Botting, 2008, p. 110, 111). Not all students with literacy difficulties are identified and support is not available for all students experiencing literacy difficulties. Assessment, identification and appropriate intervention are vital in supporting students’ literacy.
Traveller children experience particular challenges around literacy. Jordan (2002) reports that for non-literate families the expectation that parents will play a significant role in supporting their children’s formal learning, including the acquisition of literacy skills, presents enormous challenges (Jordan, 2002, p. 124). Due to the nature of the Traveller culture and lifestyle learning difficulties often go undetected and unrecorded as missing out on standardised and national testing is common (Jordan, 2002, p. 128). Jordan also notes that the lack of culturally relevant reading materials is a factor in academic under- achievement in Traveller communities (Jordan, 2002, p. 127). Many problems experienced by Travellers are similar to those experienced by ‘other interrupted learners’, however in the U.K. local and national government directives deals with each group separately and on an ad hoc basis thus diluting available experience and resources (Jordan, 2002, p. 130).
Identification of and subsequent support for students with literacy difficulties are particular challenges experienced by principals and teachers. The D.E.S. inspection report on literacy and numeracy comments that classroom planning and assessment policy and practice with regard to literacy are aspects of provision in schools that ‘require significant attention and improvement’ (D.E.S., 2005, p. 45).
Choosing teaching methods and programs Students who experience literacy difficulties are not all the same nor can it be said that their difficulties are all the same. Thus improving students’ literacy is not a straightforward task. As Wearmouth (2002) states it is not a question of ‘solving a technical problem through instrumental means’ (Wearmouth, 2002, p. 16). Teachers must decide on both a method of teaching and a choice of programme in order to plan for their students’ developing literacy. However choosing the best method is not necessarily an easy task as every method appears to work to some degree for some children and new methods often work well initially due to the increased attention and interest they stimulate. Choice of programme is also problematic and Wearmouth attributes this to conflicting values, goals and knowledge in areas of literacy difficulties, programme development and application (Wearmouth, 2002, p. 16). Choosing appropriate teaching methods and programs for students with various literacy difficulties is a challenge for schools and for teachers.
Teacher identity Literacy and numeracy are key priorities in the primary school curriculum and the acquisition of literacy skills is central to effective learning in all areas of the curriculum (D.E.S., 2005, p. 38). However many students make the transition from primary to second level school without the literacy levels required to access the curriculum comfortably. Although this may be the case, subject or content teachers in the secondary school do not view their role or even part of their role as developing or improving the literacy of their students. Most expect their students to be able to read and have never considered that they would be required to engage in literacy instruction as they understand their role to be that of subject or content teacher.
Alger states that ‘just the demands of content instruction are daunting enough’ for those involved in second level teaching. In describing an intervention to heighten student teachers’ awareness of students’ literacy difficulties and to equip them to support their students Alger notes that certain subject teachers including maths, P.E. and teachers of the arts seem to particularly resent having to focus on reading strategies as a compulsory part of their teacher education (Alger, 2007, p. 629). In second level schools all teachers are involved in teaching literacies of one kind or another, depending on their subject area, yet there is still a reluctance on the part of ‘content area teachers’ to commit to including literacy as a goal or objective of their courses (Alger, 2007, p. 620). In reviewing the work of McDonald, Mistretta-Hampston, and Echevarria (1998) Alger (2007) also finds that teachers do provide students with comprehension tasks informed by current comprehension process research, but that teachers did not teach the reading strategies necessary to accomplish the tasks believing that students have been previously taught these strategies and could pick them up through reading activities (Alger, 2007, p. 621). Thus teachers presume that students have already acquired the necessary skills to engage in their subject matter and that those skills that have not been acquired can be picked up incidentally and do not require explicit teaching or that it is not their job to do so. Subject or content teachers are challenged by their expanding roles created by the increasing demand of the curriculum and their students very real literacy needs.
Teacher training and professional development Teachers teaching style may also be in conflict with the development of students’ literacy development. Student teachers engage in best practice as part of their teacher education, however many revert to the more traditional teaching methodologies of chalk and talk that they themselves experienced in the classroom. Alger (2007) notes that ‘breaking the cycle of the traditional teaching-as-transmission mode’ is difficult (Alger, 2007, p. 620). Clearly teacher methodology has an impact on students’ ability to access the curriculum. Myers & Botting (2008) find that the high proportions of young people experiencing difficulties in reading has significant implications for the accessibility of the curriculum following transition to secondary school (Myers & Botting, 2008, p. 107). Appropriate teaching style is an important issue for all students but is even more pertinent for those students who cannot easily access the curriculum.
Irish teachers working in disadvantaged primary schools require a high level of professional competence. Yet in one study the vast majority of teachers interviewed indicated that their initial teacher training did not prepare them for their current teaching position and referred to their day-to-day practice in the schools as being far removed from theory addressed in colleges (D.E.S, 2005, p. 32) with most teachers stating that they were not aware of courses that would be of benefit to them in further developing their skills in the teaching of literacy (D.E.S, 2005, p. 33). Secondary school teachers, due to the vast demands of the curriculum are seriously challenged by the notion that ‘all teachers should be teachers of literacy’ (Lewis & Wray, 2000, p. 1). Teacher training courses, both pre-service and in-service, face the challenge of adequately equipping teachers with the appropriate skills to support the education of their students and must constantly review their curricula to meet the demands of the 21st century student. In- service teachers need on-going support in meeting the literacy needs of their students through the curriculum.
1.2.4 Strategies and Interventions An examination of the literature reveals that a range of strategies have been put in place to develop the literacy of students and a number of these are discussed in the following section. These include: teacher and student engagement with the issue of social class and literacy, the appropriate education and training of teachers, collaboration between parents and teachers, specific programs and targeted and specific support for particular groups.
Social class and literacy - engaging with the issue The interrelationship between social class and literacy difficulties presents a challenge for students and for educators. Williams (2005) describes the challenge literacy educators face as a desire to respect student identity and discourses while acknowledging that the discourses and literacy practices valued in school can allow students to access power, money and security. For Williams one strategy for dealing with this challenge is to make it an explicit part of what is taught. When teaching about any element of literacy teachers can talk to students about why conventions exist, questioning why academic discourse is constructed as it is, encouraging students to reflect on the conflicts they feel thus giving students the knowledge ‘to make choices about how they read and write and to understand that the choices are theirs to make’ (Williams, 2005, p. 346). Teachers can assist all students by engaging with them on the subject of social class and literacy.
Teacher education and training Teachers’ social class differences from many of the students they teach is a challenge for both teachers and learners. Also content or subject teachers may feel that the literacy of their students is not their area of concern. Alger (2007) developed a unit for student teachers entitled ‘Teaching Reading in the Secondary School’. The primary purpose of the unit was to move student teachers’ thinking beyond that of their content area to an understanding of the literacy of their students as an issue of social justice (Alger, 2007, p. 620). The course was also designed to provide student teachers with strategies to support the literacy needs of their students within their own subject area, i.e. the skills necessary for learning vocabulary and comprehending text as well as the expertise necessary to assess individual students’ reading ability while the main assignment involved the planning, implementation, and reflection of a content area, text-based lesson plan with an embedded reading strategy (Alger, 2007, p. 621). Alger found that while this study provides evidence that the student teachers gained a new awareness about the links between literacy and social justice and about the consequences of illiteracy, follow up studies are necessary to document whether the student teachers’ bring their new found awareness to fruition in the classroom (Alger, 2007, p. 629).
Teacher education is fundamental to providing students with opportunities to succeed. Makin et al (2000) find that ‘high quality early education plays a crucial role in providing daily opportunities to extend young children’s capabilities as emerging literates’. They suggest that teacher education and professional development programs need to ensure close links between theory and practice, support the development of positive approaches to diversity, and develop strategies for real communication between parents and teachers (Makin et al, 2000, p. 373). Appropriate teacher education and training is a core strategy in developing the literacy of students.
Collaboration between parents and teachers The Irish Primary School Curriculum emphasises that significant educational, behavioural and social benefits are gained by children as a result of an effective partnership between parents and teachers. In a study of collaboration between teachers and parents in assisting children’s reading at infant level Tizard, Schofield and Hewison (1982) found that children receiving parental help perform significantly better in reading attainment, show an increased keenness for learning at school and are better behaved. Also Tizard et al found that reading instruction facilitated by a specialist teacher did not produce improvements in attainment comparable in magnitude with those obtained from working with parents. Some children in the study read to parents who could not read English, or in a few cases could not read at all, however this did not prevent improvement in the reading skills of those children. Teachers and parents working in collaboration did improve the academic performance of the children without the parents being given any special training other than advice and brief demonstrations (Tizard et al, 1982 in the original article, p. 55 in book published in 2002). Tizard et all suggest that a positive use of resources allocated for remedial work in primary schools would be to use it to organise contact and collaboration between class teachers and all parents thus attempting to prevent many children from falling behind with reading in the first place (Tizard et al, 1982 in the original article, p. 55 in book published in 2002). Parental and teacher collaboration is a vital support in the literacy development of primary school pupils.
Specific programs A number of different programmes and strategies are currently in use in the school participating in this study. These three main programmes are Reading Recovery, Jollyphonics and Jollygrammer and First Steps Writing. A critique of each of these programmes follows.
Reading Recovery Reading Recovery, developed by Dr. Marie Clay in the seventies, is globally the subject of many hundreds of studies and projects, from undergraduate coursework to large-scale government funded projects. Examples of these studies which both support and condemn the Reading Recovery method are found across continents both east and west. Notable examples are a study completed for the New Zealand Ministry of Education (McDowall, Boyd & Hogden, 2004); a Meta Analysis of Reading Recovery in the United States (D’Agostino & Murphy, 2005); the Long Term Cost of Literacy Difficulties (KPMG Foundation, U.K., 2006); and a ‘not so complimentary’ evidence-based report on Reading Recovery by a group of 31 reading researchers based in the United States, who submitted a lengthy letter to policy makers, educational leaders and researchers and federal research organisations who are increasingly being called upon to either support the use of Reading Recovery or to discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the programme before Congress (http://www.ednews.org/articles/2484/1/evidence--based; accessed 12/05/08).
What is this reading programme which solicits so much debate? Reading Recovery is an early literacy intervention programme designed for children who have literacy difficulties at the end of their first year in primary school. It involves reading and writing in a daily one-to-one lesson with a highly-trained teacher for a period of between fifteen and twenty weeks. According to the Reading Recovery Network (http://www.ioe.ac.uk/schools/ecpe/readingrecovery/index.html; accessed 12/05/08), at the end of this period, most children have caught up with their classmates and can read and write at a level appropriate for their age. In a study entitled ‘Comparison of Literacy Progress of Young Children in London Schools: A Reading Recovery Follow up Study’ (Burroughs-Lange, 2007), children aged around six years, attending 42 schools in urban disadvantaged areas around London, who had received tuition in Reading Recovery achieved significant gains in all assessments compared with children who did not get such tuition. Following a period of one year children who received Reading Recovery had literacy levels which were in line with (or above) their chronological age.
Reading Recovery is an early intervention and could be described (and possibly better characterised) as a preventative strategy for longer-term difficulties in literacy. According to Vellutino, Fletcher, Snowling & Scanlon (2004), after high-quality one-on- one tutoring, it is possible to reduce the incidence of reading difficulties to 1.5% of the population rather than 10-15% as is commonly maintained. The above study (Burroughs-Lange, 2007), concludes that there is strong evidence to suggest that schools could enable almost every child to read and write appropriately for their age if they were afforded the expert teaching and time-appropriate intervention of Reading Recovery. This follow-up study also reported that progress was sustained at average levels a year or more after having accessed Reading Recovery.
Many believe Reading Recovery to be the best available programme for preventing reading failure. Because of Reading Recovery’s increasing popularity, and its expense (as a result of the labour-intensity and one-on-one nature of the process), more independent evaluators are raising questions. According to Grossen & Coulter (1996), research, that is cited to support claims regarding its effectiveness, is being reviewed. Critics of the programme, such as Shanahan & Barr (1995), contend that much of the research and positive reviews of Reading Recovery are completed by people who have a vested interest in the programme or who have been directly involved in delivering Reading Recovery programmes. Because of this, Grossen & Coulter (1996) claim that there is bias in the data collected. Wasik & Slavin (1993) cited by Grossen & Coulter (1996) claim that measures used to evaluate Reading Recovery (Clay Diagnostic Measures) emphasise tasks that align with specific strategies which are taught in Reading Recovery programmes. According to Wasik & Slavin (1993), children are taught to use context to predict words rather than sounding them out. The reading measure uses predictable text rather than text that uses authentic, natural language patterns. Because of the close alignment of the measures with the strategies taught in Reading Recovery, the results of an evaluation using these measures are biased in favour of Reading Recovery.
Research shows that explicit instruction in phonemic awareness, beginning at kindergarten, followed by explicit systematic instruction in phonics combined with extensive practice reading decodable text are emerging as important factors in the effective treatment of reading disabilities. An innovation by Iversen & Tunmer (1993) added a component of systematic phonics to Reading Recovery. The result of this combination was 37% more efficient. According to the above studies, the difference between decodable text and the predictable text used in Reading Recovery appears to be quite significant in terms of long-term results. Reading Recovery is expensive to administer. According to Grossen & Coulter (1996), 30 hours of instruction for one child in Reading Recovery costs more than a full year of schooling for the child.
Jolly Phonics and Jolly Grammer Introduction Jolly Phonics is a systematic, sequential, phonics programme designed to teach children to read. It was created by a UK primary teacher, Sue Lloyd, in 1977, after the realisation that the whole language approach used in her classroom was not reaching a small group of children. As part of an experiment, these children were taught structured blending of words. They were taught to listen carefully to the sounds in the words, identify the sounds and relate them to the letters. As a result, these students who were previously demonstrating difficulty in reading and writing had significant improvements in abilities. After many years of research, Lloyd was encouraged to compile The Phonics Handbook and this was published in 1992. It was immediately embraced by teachers in the UK. This programme was then introduced to Dr. Dale Willows, at the University of Toronto, Canada, who was researching balanced literacy approaches. Her trials and research have been supportive of this approach and currently, about 22% of Canadian elementary schools are using the programme.
Overview of the Programme
The initial programme has 6 phases through which students work through:
Sound Sheets Children learn 40+ sounds of the English language, rather than the alphabet. They are then taken through the stages of blending and segmenting words to develop reading and writing skills. Each sound has a suggested storyline, a picture to colour and a corresponding action. By performing an action for each sound, students are using kinesthetic, auditory, visual and speech to help them remember. This multi-sensory approach is a very effective way to reach all children as well as being enjoyable as well. The sounds are arranged in seven, six-letter groups which have been carefully selected for several reasons. The letters that are easily confused, like "b" and "d", are presented in separate groups. The "g" and "d" are presented after the "c", to follow a developmental speech pattern and help link the letter formation in printing. In addition, the first sounds and letters taught can be combined to create a large number of simple words. The materials are arranged to support these sound groups. It is suggested that each group be introduced in one week.
Auditory Training In the Jolly Phonics programme, students are given auditory training, to develop phonemic awareness, through a variety of activities, to hear sounds at a very early age. Blending: In reading, this is simply the action of combining the letter sounds together to make a word, which is automatic for literate adults but difficult for young children. There are two main reasons why students might have difficulty with this, first, they might not know the sounds well enough and they lose track of the word. Second, the letter sounds are not emphasized correctly. To assist children understand this concept, several strategies are suggested where students can practice blending and decoding.
Identifying the Sounds in Words: In writing, students need to hear, identify and write the sounds of a word. When introducing three letter words, initially students are able to identify initial consonant sounds, last consonant sounds come next, and vowel sounds are learned next. After a student is able to sound out three letter words, they can progress to longer words. This will involve the introduction of consonant blends, including initial consonant blends and final consonant blends. Students learn these blends as units. Thus, the word "dent" is identified as "d –e –nt".
Reading Books Reading books are introduced once the students are able to recognise the 40 sounds and are able to blend the sounds into simple words. A list of sight words are introduced, as these are not phonetic and must be memorized to increase reading fluency.
Writing By listening to letter sounds and seeing a teacher modeling writing techniques, students’ writing develops rapidly. Several strategies are provided to give students practice in phonetic writing. Originally, writing involved the introduction of cursive, as is customary in the UK. However, recent versions have included regular printing.
Spelling Although in the first year of reading instruction, there is little time to introduce a systematic spelling programme, Jolly Phonics does offer several suggestions to assist students in improving spelling:
Teaching letter names Understanding of short and long vowels The use of capital letters High frequency word lists Parental Involvement The Jolly Program recognises that many parents do not know how to help their children in reading and offers several suggestions in providing parents with the tools to help them. It is suggested that a parent meeting be conducted early in the program, to introduce parents to some of the strategies being taught to children.
Classroom Implementation The Jolly Phonics program can be implemented into the early primary classroom with minimal resources or training. The Jolly Phonics Handbook is a comprehensive and easy to follow resource covering all 6 areas of the program, as well as many reproducibles. Most Junior and Senior Kindergarten students (age 4 and 5 years) are able to learn the sound sets at the suggested teaching rate of 6 sounds per week.
In addition to the Handbook, are a variety of other resources to support and engage students, including puppets, videos, puzzles and big books. Jolly Jingles, created by Arlene Grierson, uses familiar songs and a big book to reinforce the phonics sounds. The Jolly Grammar program offers a comprehensive spelling and grammar program for students who have completed the program successfully.
It should be noted that one of the major concerns regarding synthetic phonics is that it is taught in isolation and is boring for students. However, within effective literacy instruction, neither of these assumptions is true. Phonics instruction is part of a balanced literacy approach (which is very different from whole language) and should never be exclusive of meaningful connections to text. In addition, creative teachers can make explicit phonics instruction fun for children. The interactive premise behind Jolly Phonics makes it fun for kids.
Evaluation of Jolly Phonics Previous studies demonstrate that phoneme awareness training, particularly when combined with letter-sound teaching, results in improved reading and spelling development. Sturat (1999) sought to extend previous findings by (a) including children learning English as a second language, who have typically been excluded from previous studies; (b) providing training for whole classes, rather than small groups; (c) using a commercially available programme (Jolly Phoncs); and (d) giving minimal training to teachers administering the programme. The sample comprised two groups (N = 112) of 5- year-olds, 96 of whom were learning English as a second language, were enrolled into either the experimental (phoneme awareness and phonics) programme or the control programme, which took a more holistic approach based on Holdaway's (1979) use of Big Books. The children were pretested on measures of spoken and written language, phonological awareness and alphabet knowledge, prior to a 12-week intervention using either the experimental or control programme. Children were post-tested on all measures immediately after intervention, and again one year later. Anlaysis of the experimental programme showed acceleration of the children's acquisition of phoneme awareness and of phonics knowledge, and their ability to apply these in reading and writing. In the year following intervention both groups made comparable progress in most areas; however, at the end of this year the experimental group were still significantly ahead in phoneme awareness and phonics knowledge, and on standardised and experimental tests of reading and spelling. The study concluded that early concentration on teaching phoneme awareness and phonics can radically improve reading and spelling standards in inner city second language learners.
1st Steps Writing Reading and Oral Language The First Steps programme was originally designed to improve the literacy of primary school students in Western Australia, particularly those considered at-risk. The four themes of First Steps (reading, writing, spelling, and oral language) are organized around a development continuum of milestones along the child's path to literacy. At present all schools in this study have trained First Steps coordinators in their schools. The programme is delivered by the class teachers and coordination and support is provided by the First Steps coordinating teacher. This programme is supported by the DEIS/ Primary School Curriculum coordinator.
Supports for Traveller families Jordan (2002) suggests a number of strategies to support the learning and literacy needs of Traveller children. Practical reading and writing skills, including reading with a purpose that is recognised and valued within the family is vital to engage traveller children in learning. Hand-held records allow ease of transfer between different schools. Traveller parents benefit from the support of verbal and practical instructions, modelled by teachers at school meetings, in the home and on video clips in supporting their children’s literacy and learning. Such approaches are working with more and more Traveller families and increasing numbers are engaging successfully with primary schools (Jordan, 2002, p. 124). Many of these strategies could be beneficial to many parents and children who are not members of Traveller families.
Conclusion Lewis and Wray (2000) note that comparing standards of literacy, over time, is difficult for a number of reasons as there are problems concerning what is being compared, whether compatible measurements are being applied and whether comparable groups are being compared (Lewis & Wray, 2000, p. 1). Despite all these uncertainties literacy development is a real and serious issue. Children with literacy difficulties face great challenges as do their teachers, families and communities. There are no simple solutions for these students and as Wearmouth (2000) comments; dealing with these difficulties requires much more reflection on, and reframing of problematic issues in order to gain new understandings of uncertainties, complexities and conflicting viewpoints (Wearmouth, 2002, p. 16) in order to develop strategies which consistently and successfully develop the literacy skills of our students. 2.1 SAMPLE AND METHODOLOGY The sample was drawn from 11 primary schools and one second level school in the Ballymun area. In addition to this a number of other people who are working in areas related to literacy participated in the study. An overview of the sample and the research methodology is provided in table 1.1. Table 1.1 Overview of Sample Primary Schools (n=11) Questionnaires 74 Interviews/ Group Discussion - between 35 minutes and 1hr10mins with: Principal Teachers 10 Class Teachers 19 Support Teachers 22 HSCL 7 Second Level (n=1) Focus group discussion for 45 minutes with: Vice Principal 1 Literacy Support Teacher 1 Class Teacher 1 Other Participants (n=4) Individual Interviews between 20 minutes and 2 hours with: Youthreach 1 PCSP DEIS co-ordinator 1 Adult Education Coordinator 1 Adult Literacy Coordinator 1
A class teacher questionnaire was distributed to each primary mainstream class teacher. This questionnaire was collected by the research team towards the end of the data collection period. The qualitative dimension of the study required a great commitment in terms of time on the part of individual school personnel and other relevant participants. In order to minimise the level of disruption that the data collection could cause to the work of the schools, a range of alternative models of research gathering strategies were made available. The findings were collected using a mixture of group discussion, individual interviews and focus group interviews. Schools were very cooperative with the data collection process and the research team wish to express their gratitude for the openness and hospitality of all participants in the research.
74 questionnaires were collected from mainstream class teachers. These represent the different class grouping in the school evenly. The profile of this sample of teachers is described below. The breakdown in terms of class group taught by the questionnaire respondents is summarised in table 1.2. Table 1.2: Overview of sample and class group taught Class group Number of returned questionnaires Infants 14 1st & 2nd 18 3rd & 4th 24 5th & 6th 18
One of the most significant findings of the research is the number of years experiences of mainstream class teachers. The questionnaire findings reveal that 82% mainstream class teachers have less than ten years teaching experience. This figure is made up of 50% with less than five years experience and 32% between six and ten years. While many support initiatives in place in schools target individual children in the learning support context recent initiatives including Jollyphonics and 1st Steps target mainstream class room activity. The potential here for broad based targeting that will benefit the quality of teaching and learning for larger groups of children is significant. Support structures from more experienced staff may be needed in order to assist mainstream class teachers in their formative years who are required to deliver and monitor specific staged programmes sometimes in challenging circumstances. 3.1 FINDINGS: ATTAINMENT – WHAT THE STANDARDISED TESTS REVEAL? There have been a number of developments in relation to the measurement of attainment and the role of assessment in primary schools in recent years. One of the most recent and challenging developments is the recent decision by the Department of Education and Science in the Republic of Ireland to introduce the mandatory testing of children in Irish primary schools has resulted in a much great emphasis being place n the outcome of standardised tests. The use of test results in providing base line data for policy development in schools is also becoming more common. This practice was used in the schools in Ballymun as a precursor to the recent planning activity that took place in drawing up the five year DEIS plan in conjunction with the DEIS cuiditheoir. Schools are therefore focusing on the outcome of these test results in a way that hitherto was not part of normal practice. The results of the findings of the analysis of standardised tests point very strongly to the low levels of attainment in literacy in the schools in the Ballymun area. There are difference between schools with respect to overall patterns of attainment, with some schools performing better than others on the tests. However, when compared to the national averages the patterns in all of the schools would be notably lower. It is important to state that the schools in Ballymun are not alone in this regard. A number of reports on schools designated as disadvantaged point to the persistence of low levels of attainment in reading among children in lower socio-economic groups (Cosgrove et al, 2000; Eivers et al, 2004; Department of Education and Science, 2005).
Because of the sensitive nature of the test results, the collection and collation of this data was carried out through the local Principal’s Network. Schools were requested to collate their own test scores and forward them to the chairperson of the Principal’s Network. The chairperson sought agreement form the group to make these results available for the purposes of this research. The collated results are present below in graph form on a class by class basis.
1st Class-Micra T Results
30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5%
% of Students in Range in Students of % 0% below 10 b11 -30 b31-50 b51- 70 b71 - 90 >90 Percentile Score
The findings of these tests results indicate that children perform broadly in line with the standard curve with respect to test scores. There are a number of possible explanations for this pattern. Many of the recent targeted interventions have been focused at the junior end of the school. In all of the schools who teach junior class (Infants, 1st and 2nd) early intervention is a key principle that underpins practice in relation to literacy. A key element of this focus is a concentration on teaching the skills associated with learning to read . i.e. word attack skills. The widespread use of the Jollyphonics programme as the mainstay of this intervention and the focus of this programme on word attack skills is considered by all school personnel who use the programme to be impacting positively on the test scores for this group of children. Reading Recovery as an intervention specifically targets a small number of children in each of the schools within this age bracket. This may also be a contributing factor to the overall trend. Interview discussions with learning support teachers and school principals provide an insight in some of these attainment patterns. This data strongly indicates that this positive result is recent with fewer children than previously scoring lower than the 10th percentile. Other patterns are not referred to specifically by the participants but the overall thrust of the interviews points solidly to a view that reading standards have improved among children at this stage in the school cycle. Test scores from previous years were not available at the time of writing this report, it is impossible therefore to be accurate about the degree of extent of the improvement referred to in the interview data. It emerged during the interview with the chairperson of the Principals Network that test scores for 2004/ 2005 were collated and may be available for comparison.
2nd Class Micra-T Results
25% 20% 15% 10% 5%
% of Students in Range in Students of % 0% below 10 b11 -30 b31-50 b51- 70 b71 - 90 >90 Percentile Score
The findings of this data indicate a downward shift in the pattern of overall attainment. This trend exists despite the fact that many children are still following the programmes that are considered to be very successful at 1st class level. 25% of the children in 1st class score less that the 30th percentile compared to a rise of 15% to 40% in 2nd class. Teachers do not make reference to this in interview discussions or in questionnaire responses. These data sources indicate that the downward trend is notable only in later years –end of 3rd /4th class. There has been a marked drop in the number of children scoring above the 50th percentile with 53% of the children above the 50th percentile in 1st compared to 37% above the 50th one year later. The fact that the trend begins here requires further investigation in an effort to explore the reasons why this is the case.
3rd Class Micra-T Results
30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5%
0% % of Students in Range in Students of % below 10 b11 -30 b31-50 b51- 70 b71 - 90 >90
Percentile Score
The results from 3rd class reveal a further increase (7%) in the number of children scoring less that the 30th percentile. The number of children scoring greater than the 50th percentile has shown a smaller drop from 37% to 35%. This suggests that the children in this achievement band is more or less stable and while it is lower than the normal curve would suggest it has remained stable for a two year period.
4th Class Micra-T Results
40%
30%
20%
10%
% of Students in Range in Students of % 0% below 10 b11 -30 b31-50 b51- 70 b71 - 90 >90 Percentile Score
The test results in 4th class indicate a very significant shift in a downward direction. The most notable concern here is the extreme drop in students scoring above the 50th percentile. The percentage has dropped here by 22% from 37% to 15%. This is a very sharp decline and requires a more detailed examination of the results on an individual basis in consultation with school personnel. Literature would suggest that at this stage in the school cycle children move from a stage where they are learning to read to where they are reading to learn. The comprehension requirement in this shift of focus is considerable and may go some way to explaining this extreme pattern.
5th Class Micra-T Results
40%
30%
20%
10%
% of Students in Range in Students of % 0% below 10 b11 -30 b31-50 b51- 70 b71 - 90 >90 Percentile Score
6th Class Micra-T Results
40%
30%
20%
10%
% of Students in Range in Students of % 0% below 10 b11 -30 b31-50 b51- 70 b71 - 90 >90 Percentile Score
The patterns identified in the 5th and 6th class tests results indicate that the scores remain more or less stable, with some slight drop in attainment between 5th and 6th class for children scoring above the 50th percentile. What is of most concern here is the low level at which the attainment pattern stabilises. The reading level of children leaving primary school, as revealed by the 6th class scores, creates a significant difficulty for almost all of the children in the Ballymun area.
Interview discussion with school personnel in the second level school revealed that there is a further decline in children’s attainment in 2nd level. We did a GRT (Group Reading Test) with 3rd years.. and the results were eh shocking…surprising in that some students had fallen back on their reading ages compared to what they came in with in first year… some have remained stagnant – they haven’t gone up at all. (Second level teacher)
An examination of these test results was not carried out at this phase of the study. This activity will be part of the follow up work in Septembers and arrangements are in place to examine these test results with school personnel.
Summary While the test scores in 1st class indicate patterns broadly in line with the expected outcomes from a statistical point of view, the downward trend that follows from 2nd class on is of great concern. When the results are combined within the <30th percentile and >50th percentile band, the extent of the trend is evident.
Combined Patterns of Test Scores
80%
60% <30ile 40% >50ile 20%
% of Students in Range in Students of % 0% 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Class Group
This pattern however is not unusual in schools in disadvantage/ working class areas. Other research (Mac Ruairc 2006, DES 2005) indicate similar patterns of attainment. These results are grouped differently to the results collated for this study. The quintile band module is used in these cases. Figure 1.1 provides a summery of research carried out by Mac Ruairc in 2006 in a 12 disadvantage schools (DEIS Band 1 and 2) and report test results from 6th class only. Figure 1.2 reports the findings of a survey conducted by the DES inspectorate in 2005 in a number of disadvantaged schools throughout Ireland. The scores reported here represent a combination of the tests results of 1st and 5th classes.
Figure 1.1 Performance on Standardised Reading Tests (6th Class): Working Class School Sample (Mac Ruairc 2006)
200
150 Number of Pupils 100
50
0 Quintile 1 Quintile 2 Quintile 3 Quintile 4 Quintile 5 Quintile Band
Figure 1.1: Reading Test Results in a Sample of DEIS School (Band 1) (DES 2005)
3.2 TESTS IN CONTEXT It is important to point out that the use of standardised tests in schools in disadvantaged areas is and has always being contested. Debate in relation to this issue in the Irish context has been very limited and in line with international trends, the notion of a standardised test retains a dominant position in terms of its assumed objectivity therefore enjoying enormous trust and support on the part of the public and of institutions (Shohamy, 2001b). There are a number of issues related to testing that require need to be firmly articulated in all debate and discussion. At a broad level, the link between testing and the setting and maintenance of standards holds firm. The often uncontested nature of this discourse of standardisation needs to be examined rigorously. “What counts as standards, who should decide them, where they should come from, what their purposes should be in practice, how they are to be used. What counts as meeting them: These are the real issues” (Apple, 2000, p.725). Many believe that having standards and testing them will lead to higher achievement especially where it is currently problematic i.e. among disadvantaged students. Empirical evidence and analysis would not support this assertion (Delpit, 2006; Lam and Bordignon, 2001; McNeil, 2000; Meier, 2000 Shohamy, 2001a). This negative impact is particularly notable in schools currently succeeding in connecting curricula and teaching to the realities of students’ cultures, backgrounds and economic conditions (McNeil, 2000). The seemingly objective task of filling in blanks in a cloze test with a no. 2 pencil takes on a different meaning in the context of national testing or a national assessment of reading attainment. At this level the results are passed through “a series of translations – from the individual to the aggregated publicized number” (Graham and Neu, 2004, p.314). The outcome of this practice only serves to further stigmatise and pathologise the perceived failure and/or inadequacy of the majority of children in working-class communities. It is not surprising therefore that there is considerable amount of international literature pointing to a more intensive stratification by class and race as a result these practices despite the fine sounding rhetorical language in which they are packaged (Gipps and Murphy, 1994; Apple 2001). At present, the focus of reform in many countries is driven by system of National testing based on neo liberal notions of free markets, increased surveillance and a neo conservative sense of the need to return to high standards, discipline and real knowledge. Testing, “provides the mechanisms for comparative data that consumers need to make markets work as markets” (Apple, 2002, p.606). The policies that emerge from this rationale are often discussed as shared or common standards yet what counts as common and who determines it is highly contested (Apple, 2001).
At a micro level, what happens with test results in individual schools and the consequence of results on teacher and student classroom practice is largely overlooked (Anagnostopoulos, 2005). What is necessary to examine are the implications for the role test results play in instructional tasks in classroom and discourse at local school level. Tests possess inter-textual attributes (Bakhtin, 1986) where the tests as texts are doubled voice and where tests results are transformed into instructional texts and transform instructional discourse. In this way they facilitate the construction of particular meanings and subject position which constitute and are constituted by unequal power relations in school (Devine, 2003). Where this inter-textuality has a positive impact on student learning i.e. where attainment levels are high do these tests function in a positive way and impact favourably on teacher expectations and the overall sense of success within the school? On the other hand, where results are predominately low, does this intertextual attribute result in negative consequences for the learning opportunities for students? This in turn can result in reduced teacher expectations and negative consequences for the belief in the efficacy of the school and schooling for children who are persistently failing on this type of test.
Despite the contested nature of the use of testing, it will not be possible for schools in the current climate to decline to use standardised assessments. It is necessary therefore to promote the judicious use of these type of tests in disadvantaged schools and augment and challenge the findings of these test using a range of other rigorous and reliable assessment techniques and strategies. The quality of the processes used in carrying out these additional assessments and the maintenance of accurate records on student progress will be key to how this data is regarded within the system at a micro and macro level. The findings of this research indicate that while all schools carry out standardised tests in English and Mathematics the use of the results of these tests differs from school to school and within schools from teacher to teacher. What is common in all schools is the decisions that are made in relation to children’s ability and the degree of learning support they need on the basis of these test results. Because of the difficulty with these test described above this practice is a matter of concern. There is very little evidence of the coordinated use of the diverse range of assessment techniques needed to capture the success of the students in the area of literacy perhaps some decisions are being made in the absence of complete information. While there is clear evidence of individual models of good practice it is vital that schools receive training and support in relation to the systematic use of a broader range of assessment techniques in relation to literacy. This is something that could possibly be funded by youngballymun as a way of enhancing teacher’s capacity to support and encourage the literacy levels of the children.
3.3 LITERACY PRACTICES – RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AND INITIATIVES One of the most significant findings to emerge from this research is the fact that dealing with the low levels of attainment in literacy is a key priority in all of the schools. The recent DEIS initiatives currently being funded by the Department of Education and Science is underpinned by a model of targeted planning that requires participation schools to developed a five year plan that includes agreed targets that are SMART. The response in the schools to this model of planning is very positive and the interview discussions strongly point to the impact this is having on planning and review in the schools. ‘It really focuses people on what has to be done and on who is going to do what and when’ (School Principal) Literacy has been identified as one of the DEIS targets in all schools and as a result there is a unified focus on improving the outcomes in this area. The overall DEIS programme is supported by a DEIS Cuiditheoir (an advisor and support to the schools). The Cuiditheoir works in conjunction with the Primary School Curriculum Support Programme (PCSP). Their role is to support and advise school in the implementation of the DEIS plan and also to help schools keep on track with the initiatives funded under the DEIS scheme. At present there are two specific initiatives targeted at increasing literacy attainment in the DEIS suite i.e. Reading Recovery and First Steps Writing. Currently there are arrangement in place to extend the use of the First Step series to include First Steps Reading. Some PCSP and school personnel are already trained in the delivery of First Steps Reading. Proposals to introduce the First Steps Oral Language program are currently under review. There is some concern as to the efficacy of this programme and its suitability for use in schools in Ireland.
It is important at this point to refer to another common target among schools i.e. attendance. The levels of attendance in many of the schools is very low and because of the well documented links between attendance and early school leaving and low level of literacy and poor attendance (Willims, 2008) it is important that both these targets are supported in a coordinated and sustained manner. The focus on this research is on literacy, the issue of initiatives to improve attendance will not be discussed. Notwithstanding this, the inextricable link between good patterns of attendance and success at school are acknowledged and should be part of the context within which this study is viewed.
Support for schools under DEIS has been in place for three years and consequently some developments and initiatives arising from and separate to DEIS are already in place in schools. The positive impact of these is currently evident in all of the schools. The clearest evidence of this impaact is in the widespread agreement among teachers that literacy levels are improving. The questionnaire responses indicate that 87% agree that literacy levels are improving (30% of this group in strong agreement with this) while 2% were unsure and 11% were neutral on this issue. When degrees of agreement were correlated with class level taught the data revealed that the view that things were improving was evenly spread throughout the class groups. In addition to this, while there are differences between schools with respect to elements of current and emerging provision and practice, there is clear evidence that a systemic approach to tackling low level of literacy is developing in each school. When teachers were asked to rank their reading levels of the children in their classes they were broadly positive with 29% of the children considered to be below average, However when this was correlated with class group there was a notable drop in positive comment in relation to this issue as children moved up through the school. Table 1.3 provides a summary of these findings. Table 1.3 Teachers perceptions of literacy standard in class
Level of Literacy Infants 1st& 2nd 3rd & 4th 5th & 6th
Attainment in Class
Low 7% 6% 9% 13%
Below Average 14% 12% 30% 62%
Average 36% 53% 48% 19%
Above Average 43% 29% 13% 6%
The trend here is broadly in line with the patterns established in relation to attainment levels on test results. The response to this item revels, however, that teachers have a more positive view of the literacy levels that the standardised test results indicate. 61% of 5th class children and 25% of 6th class children are considered to be in the average/above average range. The test results indicate that only 19% of 5th class and 17% of 6th class are in this range (> that 50th percentile). Teachers are also very aware of the gap that esixit between social class groups with 79% stating that the children’s attainment levels in Ballymun schools compares either unfavourably on very unfavourably to their middle class peers. The degree of unfavourable comparison increases as children move up the school (96% of 6th class teachers in the unfavourable/ very unfavourable category compared to 46% of infant teachers in these categories). Not surprisingly, the data also indicates that the negative impact of reading attainment on other curricular areas and learning activities also becomes more magnified in senior classes and in 2nd level school. The overall trend strongly points to a more complex and challenging context with respect to literacy the further up the school children progress.
An overview of current practice with respect to literacy is included below. The findings are reported under the headings reading, oral language and writing in order to provide a clear picture of practice in the different areas. The overview is based on interview and focus group discussions and on the details that were provided in response to the questionnaires.
3.3.1 Current Practice: Reading The findings of the review of practice indicate a number of different issues. When asked about the role that reading plays in the life of children outside the school there was a view that for many reading was solely connected with school life. 32% believe that reading is not part of children’s lives outside school, 31% were unsure while 37% felt that reading was part of home lives. There was a correlation between teachers working with older children and the percentage who feel that reading is not part of children’s lives outside school. Lack of print in the Ballymun area and in children’s home contributes to this lack of connection.
There is some evidence to suggest that children themselves are changing this culture. Almost all teachers 98% on the questionnaire believed that children liked reading and there is clear evidence of very positive developments in terms of amount of reading among the children. In some cases clear targets set by class teachers (25 books in the year in one class in one school – with many exceed this target). All teachers agreed that the reading material available in school is suitable for the children. There is no doubt that quality and quantity of books available in the schools is excellent and this should continue in the case of some of the schools as a result of dormant account funding.
The availability of a much broader range of graded reading material for all levels, sometimes in multi–media format, has added to the overall attractiveness of books for children. Other features of current practice add to this overall positive trend. There is more emphasis on real books and reading at an individual pace. The old fashioned round robin reading model is not so prevalent. There is evidence now that children follow particular authors and this is supported by class and school libraries and this is a clear sign of engagement on the part of children. In addition to this the impact that the range of high impact low vocabulary books have on children’s engagement with reading is a notable element of current practice. Children are now able to experience success reading age appropriate material at their own level.
Table 3.1 provides a summary of the frequency of use of the different types/genres of reading material in schools. The level of use of class novels is very positive as is the level of usage of class libraries. In an effort to extend the role of reading outside the school the findings described in table 3.1 suggest that great use could be made of the local library and increased use of ‘outside school’ type reading, newspapers, magazines and comics could be incorporated into the reading practice in school.
Table 3.1 Frequency of use of reading material Frequency of use Reading Material Regularly Seldom Never Class readers 85 11 2 Novels 71 21 7 Workbooks 83 7 10 Newspapers 12 67 21 Magazines 17 29 54 Library books (class) 93 5 2 Comics 19 52 29 Library books (local library) 19 45 36 Material of local/community 10 61 29 interest
Supports for Reading There are three main programmes in almost all of the schools to support reading attainment these are reading recovery, Jollyphonics and Jollygrammer. The impact of each of these initiatives is analysed below.
Reading Recovery Reading Recovery has been discussed earlier. As a programme it focuses on a small group of children in first class (age approximately 7 years). The research discussed above presents broadly positive claims for the programme. It is excellent for the small group of children who can avail of programme but has and will continue to have little impact at a broader class group level. Powerhour is a intervention based on reading recovery principles which extends the impact of the model to a greater number of children. This is used in some of the schools and the findings this study indicate that it is having a positive impact. Overall the programme is not long enough in place to measure sustained impact in this context of Baallymun.
Jollyphonics Infants/ 1st and 2nd Jollyphonics has changed the profile of reading in all of the schools. Some schools using program longer than others. All participants in this study are very positive about the programme and the degree of positivity is in direct proportion to the length of time using the programme. There is already evidence of positive impact with fewer children in need of learning support for reading when they move to 1st /2nd classes. The senior schools/ class teacher report that they are seeing clear benefits in terms of better word attack skills among the children. 3rd – 6th classes While there is broad support for the programme some limitations of the Jollyphonics programme emerge in the senior classes. Some children are hyperlexic i.e. they can read word but they don’t understand hat they mean. Challenges therefore remain in relation to comprehension. While many different initiatives are already in place to address comprehension difficulties this in schools, greater consistency with respect to comprehension support is needed. The children’s lack of experience of the language they read in school in their lives in general is impacting on their ability to comprehend what they are reading. This is at the core of the challenge that exists for schools with respect to oral language intervention Jollygrammer Jollygrammer is the follow on programme from Jollyphonics for use in senior class. Currently its use is limited to only one school with two other schools exploring the possibility of introducing the programme. There are positive reports on its impact so far- however this programme does not address the comprehension issue adequately.
Other Reading Initiatives and Enrichment Activities
Paired reading – with parents (all schools have used this at some time)
Buddy reading (some schools use this)
Bedtime stories (Home School Initiative)
Reading Bags (Home School Initiative -Infant CAPER - Children and Parents Engaging in Reading HSCL – All schools
DEAR – Drop Everything and Read – some schools
Extensive variety of graded reading schemes, novels etc
Readathon (used in a small number of schools)
Book Fairs ( most schools)
3.3.2 Current Practice: Oral Language Oral language proficiency and competency in the use of the school language register is central to children’s success in relation to literacy. This remains problematic in almost all of the schools. This issue is not confined to children in Ballymun but extend to other disadvantage schools nationally and internationally. Whether it is popular for educationalists to recognise this or not, the language register of the home and of the children is core to the child’s self-identity and the key building block through which children develop meaning as they make sense of their lifeworld. There needs to be an overt recognition of the validity of this register in the child’s life if progress is to be made in relation to this matter. Notwithstanding this core issue there are some positive findings with respect to the development of oral language in the schools at present. Success of other literacy programmes i.e. 1st steps, Jollyphonics is impacting positively on oral language. There are two notable programmes currently in use that could be extended. There is an oral language programme developed with in conjunction with the speech therapist in one of the schools. It is not long enough in use to fully evaluate its efficacy but the early indications are positive. Parents are engaged in structured oral language programme with infants in one other school. An extension of this could be examined.
The findings of this study indicate strongly that formal oral lanaguge teaching in largely confined to the junior classes. There is a formal/ structured oral language programme in place in all primary schools where junior class exist. The lack of this focus in the more senior classes and indeed the absence of suitable programmes for use with senior classes in these contexts may be a contributing factor to the persistence of problems in this area.
3.3.3: Current Practice: Writing The first steps programme is core element of the support offered to schools under DEIS. It is monitored and support by the DEIS cuiditheoir on a regular basis. There is very positive feedback on the programme from all schools. One of the most notable aspects of this initiative is the impact it has on whole class groups. Consequently class teachers are very enthusiastic about this and the impact it is having on student attainment in writing. Prior to the introduction of First Steps the standard of writing, especially in terms of content was described as “chronic”. The first steps programme provides a very clear structure for scaffolding children’s writing. It is systematic and sequential. The findings indicate that a higher standard of content of written work for all children irrespective of ability is now common . The implementation of the programme also supports and requires high level of oral language input. It is possible that some of the issues with oral lanaguge and literacy generally can be addressed through first steps. This link between writing, oral language, reading and improved general literacy is well explored by Cummins (several publications)
3.4 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT: While schools are actively engaged in supporting and trying to extend the children’s literacy skills, a consistent finding to emerge from this research is the support that is required from parents in order to consolidate the work of the school. However parents themselves need to be supported in how they can best help their child with reading in the home. While this falls mainly within the remit of the Home School Liason Teachers, a number of schools in the area had instigated specific programmes to enhance parental involvement including e.g ‘Maths for Fun’, ‘Science for Fun’. While these were well received, and parents seemed willing to participate, the follow through was poor and once any difficulties in experience with the programme were evident, it was difficult to maintain the parents’ interest and engagement.
A key explanation for the absence, or minimal level, of parental involvement derives from parents’ own lack of confidence and poor literacy skills and this is especially evident in their attitudes toward doing homework with their children. As children move through the primary school and begin to cover more challenging material, parents are less likely to become involved. Furthermore they transfer their own doubts and perception of the difficulty of the work to their children, and are reluctant to put pressure on the children (and possibly upset them) to do work which they struggle with. The fact that children tend to be given more freedom as they get older also contributed to the more ‘hands off’ approach in relation to the completion and support of homework. Parents also had difficulties thinking about homework as anything other than ‘written’ work which was tangible and ‘real’ in its effects. Oral work on the other hand, which would be extremely important for language development was rarely done by parents as it was not perceived as ‘real’ work.
There is a sense then that as the children move through their primary school, parents are less likely to become involved and perceive that they have little to offer the children by way of support and guidance. Work is school work, to be done in school and with the support of teachers and financial support from parents for the book club for example, if needed. While parents were perceived as often being ‘scared’ of reading, there were some very positive examples of parents, with the encouragement of the school, reading the same novel as their children, participating in music activities, participating in the school library, reading a bed-time story or buying book as presents for their children. A persistent problem is reaching to parents who rarely engage with the school. The success of some initiatives indicates that more attention needs to be given to raising parent’s awareness of the role they can play in supporting their children’s learning, and establishing initiatives that ‘capture’ the imagination and interest of all parents and enabling them to feel the excitement of learning and reading. Making parents aware of the importance of trips to the library as well as broader cultural activities such as visits to art galleries was also emphasized.
3.5 CURRENT CHALLENGES A number of problems have been consistently identified across all the schools that warrant attention. These can be identified under a number of sub-themes to include: oral language; reading development, self-esteem, sustaining progress.
3.5.1 Oral Langauge Oracy is the pillar on which all subsequent literacy is based and it is an issue that teachers considered to be problematic in each of the schools. This problem is exacerbated by the fact that formal language instruction becomes less prominent as one moves up through the primary school curriculum, with much more defined and structured support in the junior cycle programme. Teachers tended to come from a ‘deficit’ perspective in their views of the children’s linquistic skills. However a distinction needs to be drawn between what is termed ‘language’ delay and language ‘difference’, the former a diagnosed learning difficulty, the latter a matter of difference in cultural norms and an experience of school English as a ‘foreign’ or alien language/dialect to most of the children. Language for literacy should be a key component of the children’s learning throughout the senior end of the primary school.
3.5.2 Reading A number of the children have been identified as hyperlexic – meaning that they can read words clearly (perhaps as a result of the skills they have acquired as a result of on the jollyphonics) but have little comprehension of what the words actually mean. This is where the issue of oracy is important as it stretches the children’s comprehension and linguistic fluency that enables them to read with meaning, once they have acquired the initial ‘word attack’ skills. The programme ‘first steps writing’ that is currently being implemented in a number of the schools is working very well in the developed of the structure of writing with a related positive impact on oral language. It is not clear what the longer term benefit and impact of this will be or whether this will be sufficient to support and enhance oral language development. It is expected that when the current infants cohort move through to 6th class and onto secondary school that the benefits of the programme will be evident. Difficulties with reading become more pronounced as the children move through to the senior cycle of primary school (as noted throughout the study schools in the downward shift in attainment scores at this level) and transfer to the secondary school, where it is perceived that the text of the books was pitched at a level that was too high for most of the children. This is a tremendous disincentive for the children, and makes the transfer to second level especially traumatic for those with literacy difficulties. There is a need for a greater variety of books that are appropriate to the children’s reading level, at this point of transfer to secondary school.
Writing also presents a problem again with issues of terminology and lack of understanding of the children of the words they are using. The involvement of parents is important here, as is increasing the awareness of teachers in second level of the difficulties the children experience in this area around comprehension and more extended elaboration of concepts and ideas.
3.5.3 Self Esteem The issue of confidence of parents in relation to helping and supporting their children’s literacy has already been noted. Not surprisingly teachers also talked about the poor self esteem of many of the children when it came to tackling challenging reading and writing material. Internationally research indicates the significance of feelings of self worth and positive validation to children’s engagement with and motivation to learn (Cummins 2001. Willms, 2007)). This is especially the case when it comes to challenging tasks and the risk to ‘self’ that is involved.
3.5.4 Sustaining Progress A difficulty that was mentioned by teachers was the difficulty in sustaining progress of the children in relation to their oracy and literacy that is compounded by the lack of parental involvement in their children’s learning. Long school holidays without any focused instruction/continued literacy activities and even weekend breaks, ensured that children took some time to readjust to the learning environment and focus their attention on their work in school. Teachers talked about having to repeat the same work over again after the weekend, or break in holidays as the children ‘forgot’ what they had learned the previous week. This meant that it was often difficult for teachers to extend the children’s learning beyond the ‘basics’, yet it is only through such extension that critical/higher order thinking can be fostered and developed.
A number of suggestions emerged in relation to how progress in literacy can be sustained. These include:
Greater co-ordination of literacy activities between and within schools to scaffold the children’s transition from primary to second level.
Schools need to continue to set clear targets for their literacy programme. This provides a focus for their work that is agreed at school level, and allows them to measure and evaluate what is working and what needs to be further developed.
Schools need to continue talking to one another about their practices and their experience of what works. This is an important aspect of their own professional development as well as providing a rich bank of information that can be shared for the benefit of the entire community of children in the area. A designated space in the community for teachers to work together across schools should be provided.
A problem of high staff turnover has been identified as well as the need for up- skilling newly qualified teachers to work with children in the Ballymun area. The development of professional support services should help this
Continue to support the gains which are being made in literacy at the same time as new initiatives for support for example in numeracy are being introduced. There is a need to publicly acknowledge/affirm the work that is being achieved in the schools and to celebrate achievements and successes
Literacy support activities need to be provided to children during holiday periods, weekends and perhaps through after school clubs and activities. At community level greater attention should be paid to the organization of youth/child activities that support and extend children’s literacy development. Parents should be encouraged to become involved in these.
Community support for parents needs to be extended to empower them to become educators of their own children. This would include their own literacy development as well as issues related to self esteem and confidence and awareness of the key role they can play in supporting their children’s learning.
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