CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE

THE MUSICAL FILM GENRE \' i' 1955-1979

A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in

Mass Communication

by

Cathy Rabin

June, 1980 The thesis of Cathy Rabin is approved:

Dr. JolmlAllyn

Dr. Susan Hem:y

rt. ftolm Schultheiss, Carmittee Chairperson -

California State University Northridge

ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Gratitude is extended to Dr. Susan Henry for her con­ cern and the dedication of her time and knowledge through­ out this study.

The author wishes to express thanks to Dr. John

Schultheiss and Dr. John Allyn for their assistance and for serving on this thesis committee.

The author also wishes to acknowledge Dr. Timothy E.

Scheurer for his previous work in the field and his assis­ tance on this thesis.

iii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii LIST OF CHARTS . vi-i ABSTRACT viii Chapter

1 INTRODUCTION 1 SIGNIFICANCE . • • . • . • • . 3 KEY POINTS • • . • • • • • • • . • • • 4 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY • • • • · 5 DE F I N I T I 0 NS. • • • • • • • • · • • • 6 STUDY LIMITATIONS • • • • • . . . . 8 ORGANIZATION • • • • • • · 9 CONCLUSIONS • • . • • . • • • • • • 10

2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 13 INTRODUCTION' • • . • • • · 13 INDICES .••• ·. • . • . • • • • • 13 FILM MUSICALS: BOOKS . • • • . • • 17 FILM MUSICALS: ARTICLES...... 20 FILM DEVELOPMENTS • . • . • • • 22 ROCK MUSIC AND FILM • • • • . • • • 26 STATE OF THE ART OF MUSICALS . • • • • 30 ADDITIONAL SOURCES .••••.... • 32 SUMMARY ••••. ~...... 32 METHODOLOGY SOURCES • . . . • • . . • • 34 METHODOLOGY FOR CHRONOLOGY • . . . • • 37 ADVANCING THE FIELD • • • • 38

3 METHODOLOGY . . . 47

INTRODUCTION •••••••• ~ • • • • 47 JUSTIFICATION. • • • • • • • • • • • • 48 PROCEDURE . • • • • . • • • 49 SPECIFIC PROCEDURE UTILIZED • • . • • • 51 ORGANIZATION • • . . • • . . . 53 ALLEVIATION OF BIAS . • . • • • . • . . 54 p •

Chapter Page

STUDY LIMITATIONS 55 CONCLUSION •••• 56

4 THE MIDDLEMAN FACTOR 59

INTRODUCTION •• ~ 59 THE MUSIC INDUSTRY 60 THE FILM INDUSTRY ••• 65 THE FILM MUSICAL ••• 70 CONCLUSION •••• 74

5 THE MUSICAL FILM 1955-1979 79

INTRODUCTION 79 CHRONOLOGY 81 1956 83 1957 86 1958 89 1 9 59 • • • 91 1 960 • • • • • • • 94 1 9 61 95 1 962 • • • • • • 97 1 9 6 3 • • • • • • • • • • • • • 99 1 9 64 • • • • 100 1 9 6 5 • • • • • • • • • • • • • 103 1 9 6 6 • • • 106 1 9 6 7 • • • • • 108 1 9 68 • • • • • • 110 1 969 • • • • • 112 1 97 0 • • • 114 1 9 7 1 • • • 116

1972 e e e • • • • • • • • • • 118 1 9 7 3 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 119 1 9 7 4 • • • • • • • • • • • • • 121 1 9 7 5 • • • • • • • • • 123 1 9 7 6 • • • • • • • 124 1 9 7 7 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •. 126 1 g·7 8 • • • • • • • • • 127 1 9 7 9 • • • • • • • • • • • 129 SUMMARY • • . . .•.•• 130

Total Films 130 Rock Versus Non-Rock Musical

Films . . I • • • • • • • • • • • 132 Adaptations . • ...... 132 Musical Biography ...... 135 Documentary ...... 135

v Chapter Page

6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . 140

SUMMARY AND INTERPRETATION 140 CONCLUSIONS • • . ••• 146 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 148

BIBLIOGRAPHY 150

APPEND I X . . 157

vi LIST OF CHARTS

Chart Page 4.1 Number of Authorized Radio and Television Stations 1922-1974 ...... 63

5.1 Musical Films Produced, 1955-1979 131 5.2 Rock Versus Non-Rock Musicals 133

5.3 Adaptations 134

5.4 Biographies 136 5.5 Documentaries (Rock and Non-Rock Music} . 138

vii ABSTRACT

THE MUSICAL FILM GENRE

1955-1979

by \ Cathy Rabin

Master of Arts in Mass Communication

An historical study of the musical film genre, the thesis covers the growth and development of the art form

from 1955-1979. Included in the study is a comprehensive review of literature that both names and evaluates sources published on the subject matter. The thesis describes the social and economic factors that governed the evolu­ tion of the film form and provides a separate chronology of film titles, dates, and associated information. The

summarized data presents the trends that emerged during the 25-year period. Charts are utilized to illustrate the trends. The study acknowledges the influence of non­ filmic factors upon the art form. A filmography is included in an appendix.

viii Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

The primary purpose of this thesis is to offer a com- prehensive listing of musical films from 1955 through 1979 as well as to provide information on the growth and development of the genre during that period. To date there is no published source on the genre that is inclu- sive of all film musicals produced during that period.

(This point is evidenced in Chapter 2, "Review of the

Literature.") The primary factors that have contributed to the lack of such a source are the end of the Golden 1 Age of Musicals in 1955, the introduction of rock music to film in 1955, 2 and the absence of an objective method- ology and standard criteria for films selected for inclu- 3 sion into the genre. The years 1927-1955 constituted the Golden Age of

Musicals in America. During this 28-year period the film musical was born and, according to most historians of the 4 genre, reached its peak. Because of the importance attributed to this period, film musicals produced prior to . 5 1956 are adequately chronicled.

The introduction of rock music to film in 1955 in

Blackboard Jungle spawned a new genre of film most

1 2 commonly known as the "teen" or "cult" film.6 The follow- ing year musical films began to utilize rock music scores 7 in addition to scores by traditional film composers.

However, nearly all of the film musicals that utilized rock music were excluded from the genre (by both critics 8 and historians) for nearly 20 years. By the mid-Seventies rock musical films were more prevalent than musical films utilizing traditional composers and by this time they were 9 accepted as legitimate contributions to the genre.

Nevertheless, the rock musicals produced in the 20 preced- ing years were still termed teen or cult films and have 10 yet to be included into the genre.

The absence of an objective method of selection or standard criteria for musical films is one reason for the lack of a comprehensive source on the subject. Examples of criteria for selection for inclusion in sources on film 11 12 musicals include merit, designation as a classic, and 13 widely held judgment. This thesis establishes more objective criteria for inclusion.

In fulfilling its objective to provide a comprehen- sive listing of the musical film from 1955 through 1979 this thesis will (1) provide a complete record of the genre past its Golden Age, (2) include the previously ostracized rock musical film (and by its inclusion legitimize it), and (3) provide a methodology and standard criteria for locating all films within the genre of the 3 musical film.

SIGNIFICANCE

The film musical is now experiencing a resurgence, although barely five years ago it was eulogized as a dying 14 art form. Its resurrected popularity is attributed to the genre's increased accessibility through the utiliza­ 15 tion of rock music. And, while the use of rock music in film is not a new concept, few "rock music musicals" have been classified as true representations of the film musi­ cal form. Therefore the current style of the majority of film musicals recently produced or in production, appear to be a new phenomenon rather than a style grounded in the history of the genre.

The significance of this work is twofold. First, in its objective and comprehensive form it will offer a standard criteria and methodology for the study of the genre. Second, by providing a comprehensive analysis of the film musical genre, it will clarify the role of the previously ignored rock music musical in the development of the genre.

Because of the number of films that were excluded from the genre as a result of their utilization of rock music, this thesis will generate implications into the fields or variables that were responsible for the exclu­ sion of that specific style into the genre over the past 25 years. It will also shed light on those variables that later led _to the acceptance of the rock music musical as a true representative of the musical genre.

This means that, in addition to the significance pro- \ vided to the art form itself, relevant implications will be drawn in the fields of film and record industry finance and promotion as well as the two industries' increasing interdependence. Peripheral implications into socio- cultural values as they are reflected in the selection of popular art forms will also be discussed. k~d, ultimately, new light will be shed upon film history and popular cul- ture in general.

KEY POINTS

Given the information provided through the review of the literature, this study considers the following to be causal factors in the development of the musical genre:

1. The end of the Golden Age of Musicals in 1955.

2. Socio-cultural biases against the rock music musical throughout the 1950s, 1960s, and early 1970s. 3. The absence of objective criteria and method­ ology in the chronicling of the musical film genre. 4. The broadening demographics of the rock music listening audience to coincide with the film viewing audience in the early 1970s. 5. The extended role of the record companies into film production in the early 1970s. 5

6. The extended role of the film studios into music publishing in the early 1970s.

7. The technique of cross-promotion utilized by both the film and music industries on mutual products in the mid-1970s.

These key aspects result in the following hypothesis that stands as the focus of this thesis:

Given an objective method of selection and stan­ dardized criteria, a comprehensive chronicle of the musical film genre can be written to include the rock musical as a legitimate element of the genre.

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The study of film history tends to be a subjective endeavor as evidenced by the major filmographies citing significance--a relative concept--as their primary cri- teria for selection for inclusion of films in historical 16 works. This subjective selection can lead to any factor as cause for exclusion from the history, such as low budget, lack of popularity, or nationality of production.

The chronicling of a particular film genre becomes even more selective when setting down its criteria. Here, any film whose storyline or camera angles do not adhere to the historian's definition can be excluded from the filmography. The criterion for exclusion of rock musicals from the musical genre has been the use of rock music as 17 opposed to a score by an established film scorer.

Although some rock musicals have been included (those few deemed significant by the historian) the majority have 6 not. Under this inherent bias it has been impossible to objectively chronicle the musical film genre in the past.

DEFINITIONS

The key terms utilized in this study are defined as follows: Film Musicals. - a form distinguished by its interplay and synthesis of non-musical and musical sequences. In the context of the musical as a whole, music is the most important governing principle in the style, structural 18 unity and movement of the film. In addition, the usage of song and/or dance in a musical film may serve three purposes: (1) to set the environment or atmosphere or character behavior of a particular locale or particular set of characters, (2) to move the story or character 19 along; further the action, and (3) to entertain.

Rock Musicals - those films that adhere to all cri- teria of the film musical, but utilize music or song written by artists associated with the rock music idiom.

Golden Age of Film Musicals - 1927-1955.

Fad, Teen or Cult Films - pre-1972 .film musicals and non-musicals that utilized rock music on their soundtracks.

Color - the use of music to establish time, place, or character behavior in a non-musical film. That is, the film does not adhere to the definition provided for the genre. An example of this would be the film American 7

Graffiti, wherein rock music is featured continuously on the soundtrack in an effort to establish time, place, and mood. However, it is not a musical because the music is not "the most important governing principle in the style, structural unity and movement of the film." Simply, it was the director's choice to utilize rock songs instead of a traditional score to establish environment and mood or,

"color."

Major Labels - those recording companies that own their own manufacturing plants and directly control their distribution outlets in addition to simply producing records, e.g. MCA, CBS, and RCA.

Independent Labels - those recording companies that produce records but subcontract for distribution and manu­ facturing, e.g. Sun, Chess, and Modern.

Cover Records - the recording of a black song by a white artist for the purpose of attracting white audiences and in turn greater sales.

Top-40 Radio limitation of the station playlist to mainstream market pop singles, characterized by repeated station identifications, jingles, sound effects, and integration of hourly news broadcasts into the music format.

Payola the practice of paying disc jokeys, music directors, or program directors of radio stations to get them to play specific songs on the air. The practice was 8 outlawed during the 1959-1960 congressional hearings that

initially attacked the practice of rigging quiz shows on . . 20 te 1 evJ.sJ.on.

Crossover a song which can be categorized into more than one format, i.e. Top-40 and Country-Western.

Cross-Promotion - utilizing the media of film and recorded music, the ability to promote a product from one medium through the sales and popularity of an associated product in the other medium.

STUDY LIMITATIONS

Certain limitations are inherent in an historical study of film genre, none of which affect this study's objectivity or outcome.

With regard to subject matter, not every facet of the film and music industries can be explored. However, this study is on film musical history, and those factors that have influenced or altered that genre's history are pre- sented.

The chronology of films offers a limited amount of information on each work. The selection of information on the films does not determine the film's inclusion into the genre, but merely serves to more clearly identify the film.

The decision to provide only a minimum of information serves to maintain a focus on the film titles, not their content, as is the purpose of this study. 9

Accessibility of film sources is another limitation inherent to the study. Not all films can be viewed at the time this thesis is being constructed. However, knowledge of the films, supplemented by numerous filmographies con­ taining vital information as well as synopses, compensate for the lack of current availability.

Therefore, while this study is limited, its limita­ tions do not affect its objectivity or outcome.

ORGANIZATION

This thesis' organization is primarily chronological.

This is necessary in order to describe the growth of the genre, as well as to exemplify certain films (or non­ filmic factors) as influential to the particular trends of the genre. As a comprehensive history, the earlier chap­ ters present and discuss the relevant factors that exer­ cise control over the development of the genre (as pre­ sented in the later chapters).

Specifically, following the Review of the Literature

(Chapter 2) and the Methodology (Chapter 3) is an explana­ tion of the financial and social ramifications (indivisible in this study) of the film and music industries as they relate to the musical film genre. The particular focus of that chapter (4) is on the growth of the rock musical.

Because this study introduces the form into the genre and subsequently presents it as the most prevalent style of 10

the genre, it is necessary to provide secondary factors

that contributed to its growth. The subsequent chapter

details the growth of the genre from 1955 through 1979,

followed by conclusions and recommendations for further research. By not segregating the traditional musical film

from the rock music musical, the form of this thesis rein­

forces the theory presented in its content. In addition, an alphabetical filmography of film titles and year of

their release is included in an Appendix.

CONCLUSIONS

The growth of the film musical genre from 1955-1979

in its two stylistic manifestations--the traditional musical and the rock musical--is chronicled in this thesis

in order to present a comprehensive analysis of the past

25 years of the genre. The recent acceptance of the rock musical as a representative of the genre underlines both

the timeliness and the necessity of the study. This

thesis serves to rectify the void left by film historians

in their subjective methods of selection and to serve as a complete and objective reference on the subject of film

musical history, past its Golden Age, from 1955-1979. 11

FOOTNOTES

1. This established time period is substantiated by Tom Vallance, The American Musical (New York: A.S. Barnes, 1970), p. 5, Lee Edward Stern, The Movie Musical (New York: Pyramid, 1974), p. 2, and John Spr1nger, All Talking! All Singing! All Dancing! (New York: Citadel Press, 1966), p. 3.

2. Philip Jenkinson and Alan Warner, Celluloid Rock (London: Lorrimer, 1974), p. 3.

3. Examples of subjective methodologies are included in Stern, Movie Musical, p. 11, which states that in its selection, "the accent is on classics," in Vallance, American Musical, p. 5, which utilizes "widely held judgments" as to what constitutes a musical, and Irwin Bazelor, Knowing the Score (New York: Van Nerstrand · Reinhold Co., 1975), p. 7, which states inclusion of films that "merit serious consideration."

4. Stern, Movie Musical, p. 2, Springer, All Talking!, p. 3, and Vallance, American Musical, p. 5.

5. See section on "Film Musicals: Books" in Chapter 2.

6. Jenkinson and Warner, Celluloid Rock, p. 3 cite the use of the song "Rock Around the Clock" under the titles of Blackboard Jungle as the first usage of rock music in film.

7. Rock musicals produced in 1956 included Rock Around the Clock, Shake Rattle and Rock, Rock Pretty Baby, DOn't Knock the Rock, and The G1rl Can't Help It.

8. Other than select Elvis Presley and Beatles films, the first instance of a rock musical being grouped with a traditional musical by a critic or historian occurred in Charles Michener, "The New Movie Musicals," Newsweek, May 24, 1975, p. 54.

9. See "State of the Art of Musicals" section in Chapter 2. 12

10. Ibid.

11. Stern, p. 11.

12. Bazelor, p. 7.

13. Vallance, p. 5.

14. John Cutts, "Bye Bye Musicals," Films and Filming 10 (2), (November 1963) :42, and Vincent Canby, "Whatever Happened to Movie Musicals?," New York Times, July 7, 1974, Sec. 2, p. 1.

15. Vincent Canby, "Music is Now Profit to the Ears of Filmmakers," New York Times, May 24, 1966, p. 53, and Paul Gardner, "How to Make Sweet Music at the Box Office," New York Times, May 31, 1974, Sec. 2, p. 1, and "Pix Look for Cut of Music Biz Action," Variety, November 16, 1977, p. 5, and Joel Friedman, "Spinning Wax Sells Movies Now-A-Days," Billboard, November 10, 1956, p. 20.

16. Liz-Anne Bawden, ed., Oxford Companion to Film (Lon­ don: Oxford University Press, 1976), p. 1 states that films are selected that "offer certain signposts to the significant development in film art and enter­ tainment. The 280 reviews pay tribute to the films responsible for such trends" artd Peter Cowie, ed., Eighty Years of Cinema (London: A. S. Barnes, 1977), p. 1 includes "the most effective picture on the sub­ ject" and Leslie Halliwell, ed., Halliwell's Film Guide (London: Granada Publishing Co., 1977), p. VII states "I consider significance either historically or as pure entertainment" as criteria for inclusion.

17. Springer, All Talking! and Bazelor, Knowing the Score.

18. Timothy E. Scheurer, "The Aesthetics of Form and Con­ vention in the Movie Musical," Journal of Popular Film (Fall 1974) :308.

19. John Russell Taylor, The Hollywood Musical (New York: McGraw Hill, 1975), p. 8.

20. Steve Chapple and Rebee Garofalo, Rock and Roll is Here to Pay (Chicago: Nelson Hall, 1977), p. 67. Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

The strength of this thesis is largely dependent upon

the review of the literature for two reasons. First, the

review must evidence that no such work has yet been writ­ ten. Second, because this study is historical, the review

must present all data relevant to the history in order to

present an unbiased account. Therefore it is necessary to

the primary object~ves of this thesis~comprehensiveness

and objectivity--that the review of literature utilize all

sources relating to the subject matter. Standards and

growth of the musical film, changes in the film and music

industries and the growth of the rock music musical are

all discussed in this section in order to draw a clear

picture of both the work in the field and the state of the

art.

INDICES

Due to the current and popular nature of the subject, the sources utilized are not necessarily those tradi-

.. --t.icn1aTly-used Bythesis-wrr-ter~r-.-Theyare·;--howeve-r,-- tra=-­

ditional in the chronicling of the growth of the rock

13 14

music musical. Subsequent to locating the few texts

written on the traditional film musical through Film 1 Study: A Resource Guide numerous indices were utilized in

order to obtain all sources related to the subject matter.

Most academic and popular film journals are indexed in the 2 Retrospective Index to Film Periodicals 1930-19?1. This

is the source for both Films and Filming and Films in

Review, two periodicals with in-depth articles on film

musical tradition, as well as Film Quarterly~ Cinema and Hollywood Quarterly. (How film periodicals not indexed in

this source were searched is explained later.)

While most scholarly music journals are geared toward 3 classical music, The Popular Music Periodicals Index offers leads to useful articles in Circus and Rolling

Stone magazines. These magazines are both music and pop-

culture oriented, and geared toward the general public,

primarily a younger readership. One drawback of this

index is that its availability is limited to 1973-1976.

Billboard and Variety are the two main "trade"

journals on the music and film industries respectively,

and have been throughout the period of time that this

·study covers. They are both indexed from 1955-1977 in The . . d 4 Mus-~.-c In ex. These two magazines are the primary sources

for information on economic changes within the music and

film industries for-'the purposss of this_ paper. __ The _Busi.-_

ness Periodicdls Index was not utilized, as this thesis is 15 not on the financial growth of a genre. Hence, any reference to economic development or loss that affected the evolution of the musical film genre are from the

"Bibles" of the music and film industries to insure that the causes and effects are both integrated and relevant.

The index to the Educational Resources Information 5 Center (ERIC) was utilized to locate educational report literature. Because the subject matter of this thesis has only recently been explored on a scholarly level, this index was reviewed from 1972-1979 only. 6 The Popular Periodical Index and The Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature7 were both utilized to obtain popular general interest sources containing relevant articles on the subject. These indices led to articles contained in such publications as Newsweek, Time, and

Stereo Review. The Popular Periodical Index is available from 1974-1978 only. Reader's Guide was searched from

1955-1979.

Abstracts of Popular Culture, 8 1976, published by the University of Ohio at Bowling Green was utilized to locate articles in that same university's Journal of Popular Film which is the leading academic journal covering rock films today. Due to the limited period that this index has been published and the importance of the journals contained within, all issues of the Journal of Popular Culture

(1967-1979) and the Journal of Popular Film (1972-1979) 16 were examined to locate articles pertaining to the subject matter.

For the purpose of monitoring public opinion on the evolution of the musical film genre, one major daily news­ paper was researched throughout the entire time span covered in the study. The Los Angeles Times and the New

York Times were both considered, as they are both located in major en~ertainment industry cities. The New York

Times was selected, however, for two reasonsi first, it is indexed throughout the 25 years covered in this studyi the

Los Angeles Times is not. Second, the New York Times film reviews are indexed separately, thus increasing their accessibility, not just to this researcher, but to all writers and making those reviews some of the most quoted, and hence influential reviews in American newspapers. 9 Therefore, the New York Times Index and the New York 10 Times.Film Review Index were both utilized from 1955-

1978. Because most relevant articles occurred post-1972, and because Los Angeles is the primary home of both the film and music industries, the Los Angeles Times Index11 was utilized from 1972-1979.

For current books on the subject not traditionally utilized by film historians (therefore not located in 12 Film Study: A Resource Guid~), The Cumulative Book Index was utilized for the y_~ars ).9_~5 to 1979.

Lastly, sources not indexed in published volumes were 17 obtained through the card catalogue, the special collec­ tions section, and the shelves of the University of Cali-

fornia at Los Angeles Theatre Arts Library.

All of these indices were of great value in locating

sources. The combination of the varied indices offered access to a range of sources from which was extracted the most useful and current information in order to build, strengthen and prove the concepts of this paper. However, as must be expected, not all articles located through indices were useful. The New York Times ranks first per article found and later disregarded due to lack of useful information. Almost half of the articles located were

later discarded due primarily to their strong publicity­ oriented influence which negated their credibility.

Billboard and Variety suffer the same weakness but to

lesser degrees. The articles found to be the most useful were located in the film periodicals which adequately and intelligently described the state of the art.

FILM MUSICALS: BOOKS

If there is one unifying factor among the books written on the musical film, it is that they are mo~e homages than sources of information. High on the list of 13 musical idolatry are Tom Vallance's The American Musical 14 and Lee Edward Stern's The Movie Musical. Primarily photographs (although the leader in that category is The 18

Movie Musicals from Vitaphone to 42nd Street) 15 these col- lections are complete on titles, stars, directors and years, but low on insight and information. They are best utilized as references on directors and dates.

Without a doubt the best of these books is John

I h 7-, d • -, 16 Russe 11 Tay 1 or s T e Hovvywoo Mus~aa&. Taylor provides not just the entire history of the film musical but also discusses its theatrical roots, its continuous connection with the stage musical, and its auteurs. In addition, he provides excellent definitions of the genre as a whole and its two unique manifestations of the singer's musical and the dancer's musical. His comments on the role of fantasy in the musical have been quoted many times. Although written with the same uncritical hand that seems to char- acterize this genre, Taylor's observations contain both knowledge and insight. 11 Jazz in the Movies by David Meeker includes all films that utilize jazz in their scores and does not limit its text to musicals. However it remains a valid source for key figures and dates . ., ., .,k. ., ., . . ., ., . 18 . . Avv Tav ~ng! Avv S~ng~ng! Avv Dana~ng!, wr1tten 1n

1966, contains almost 300 pages of pictures and text, yet only 25 are devoted to the mid-Fifties and beyond, and appropriately enough are entitled "The Lean Years." Other than realizing the impo_r_tance__ of the fir§t two Beatle films, the author shows that he knows very little about 19 the growth of the art form. His text is self-satisfying and his criticisms are anything but intellectual: "Original movie musicals now largely became a matter of the dreary little program pictures that starred Elvis Presley [or] 19 Pat Boone." This source, although cited by other authors, has little value in academic research.

Three books on soundtrack scoring contain relevant chapters on film musicals and enough insight of film music 20 to be adapted to the musical genre. A Neglected Art discusses the role of music in film, helping to delineate the fine line between film music and the film musical. 21 Soun d trac k : T h e Mus~c· o f t h e Mov~es· a·1scusses t h e emergence of rock music in films as color only, but the theory is adaptable to musicals. The book also covers the mid-Sixties emergence of songwriters as scorers, which is strongly intertwined with the new musical writers of the 22 next decade. Knowing the Score by Irwin Bazelor touches on many of the same concepts as Soundtrack, but Bazelor's film composer's reverence exemplifies the friction between the traditional film composer and the new songwriter- composers that evolved in the Sixties and Seventies.

Bazelor contends that rock music in films is a sales factor only. The most recent literary endeavor on the 23 genre 1s. T h e Mus~ca~. "1 b y M1c . h ael B. Druxman. The book, published in 1980, is-another selective account on the history of film musicals, but is not (nor does it purport 20 to be) a comprehensive and/or objective chronicling of the genre.

These are the books located on the film musical genre. One factor they have in common is that none of them offer a comprehensive listing of film musical titles past

1955. This point is true not only in terms of exclusion of the rock music musical, but in respect to the genre as a whole. No single source offers a complete listing of musical films produced after 1955. In addition, the books are written, for the most part, in a patronizing and sub­ jective manner. Thus, while they do offer useful informa­ tion on the genre, they are of little value in a scholarly study of it.

FILM MUSICALS: ARTICLES

Overall, the articles on film musicals tend to pay less homage and offer more insight than the books. Fore­ most among them is Timothy Scheurer's "The Aesthetics of

Form and Convention in the Movie Musical" published in the Journal of Popular Film~ 24 To date this is the best source on the definition, role, and popularity of the filmed musical. Scheurer, the nation's leading scholar on film musicals, breaks down the genre into its components and puts it back together by way of flawless formulas.

This article tells exactly what the film musical is.

The re~t of the film journal articles are less 21 scholarly but still attempt to put into order the history of the genre. Many of the articles are out of the British journals Films and Filming and Film.

George Sidney, an authority on the subject, writes in 25 Films and Filming on "The Three Ages of the Musical."

The "ages" are clearly defined but arbitrary and have not been referred to in later works by Sidney or anyone else.

Bernard Hruse, in a two-part article for Film 26 entitled "On the Musical" contends (in 1958) that the film musical will live because musical theatre will live and the former is dependent upon the latter. And it is that same dependency that John Cutts in his article "Bye Bye Musicals" states is killing the genre just five years 27 later. Cutts contends that musicals are at a "dead end" because they are built around properties and not stars.

Other than Elvis Presley's and Cliff Richard's films,

Cutts contends that film musicals are just filmed shows.

Lionel Godfrey writes in his "Heretic's Look at Musi­ 28 cals" (Films and Filming, March 1967) that the criterion for the success of a musical is, plainly and simply, the music. "A musical" Godfrey states, "stands or falls according to the excellence or poverty of its music."

What makes a musical yields to the history of musi- cals in the balance of the articles. Each author states the director (s), star (s), and/or studio (s) that they feel are responsible for the height of musical filmmaking. 22

Charles Altman's "The American Musical Film" (Wide

Angle), 29 Alan Warner's "Thanks for the Memory" (Films and 30 Filming) Edward Jablonski's "Filmusicals" (Films in 31 Review), and John Mariani's "Come On With the Rain" 32 (Film Comment) all chronicle the golden heights of the golden years of the musical film. And, whatever the year of publication, all articles stop at the mid-Fifties as the end of the genre's "Golden Age."

The film periodicals' articles on the genre draw_ definitions and standards for the genre. And while the most recent guidelines as drawn by T. E. Scheurer appear to be the most absolute, the standards drawn by other historians have been (and still are) considered valid criteria for the evaluation of film musicals.

Fl LM DEVELOPMENTS

The articles in the New York Times~ Variety~ and

Billboard chronicle clearly the changes-both financial and aesthetic for they are inevitably linked--in the film industry. They are presented here and in the next sec- tion, in a chronological manner in order to evidence their causal effects on the growth of the industry. For the purposes of this thesis, only those articles containing information on the changes in the film industry that affected the music are reviewed.

A 1955 article in the New York Times, "Survey of 23

Movies: Out of Crisis They Achieve Stability," notes the financial problems in the film industry. Television's increasing popularity, charges of Communist infiltration in Hollywood and the divorce of the once single-owned studios and theatres are all attributed as causes of one 33 of the worst financial periods in American film history.

Saving the cinema, the same article points out, was tech- nology. The wide screen, the faddish 3-D, color, and drive-ins, kept the films rolling.

"Aging Film Stars Chided on Roles" (New York Times, 34 June 22, 1957) points to another problem in the cinema, the demographics of the moviegoer. The average age of the moviegoer had decreased to the 15 to 30 years age bracket.

This new audience wanted new and younger stars, and on a small scale, this was accomplished.

"Teen films" as they were termed were primarily products of independent production houses or smaller studios until approximately 1965 when, as the New York

Times points out in its article, "Hollywood Finds Gold on

Beaches," the major studios (citing in particular Warner

Brothers, Columbia, and Paramount) all wanted in on "teen f 1.'l ms. .. 35

"Teen films" weren't all that was gold at that time.

According to the New York Times, "Virtuous Films [were] As 36 Good As Gold" (December 27, 1965) . The article cites the four top grossing films of that year, Mary Poppins~ My 24

Fair Lady~ Goldfinger~ and Sound of Music, as netting a $67 million profit between them. Three of the four are musicals.

The New York Times reported (May 14, 1966) that 37 "Hollywood Finds Harmony Paying." With the success of

the musicals in 1965, the article points out that the

studios had committed nearly $100 million to future musi-

cals. In planning or production were Camelot~ Dr.

Dolittle~ Half a Sixpence~ Funny Girl and Oliver.

According to the article, "the time is ripe for the come­ 38 back of musicals."

In 1969, the Times reported a different story. In an article on the premiere of Hello Dolly, the newspaper con- eludes that "the future looks bleak for the big movie 39 musicals." Another article, published just a month

earlier, questions "Is Hollywood in Hot Water?", and

answers by stating the $6 million loss on Dr. Dolittle and the $12 million loss on Star. 40 The article goes on

to explain that "the movies causing the most excitement

these days--and making the biggest profits ... are not

the $20 million elephants, the out of date musicals ... 41 they are all inexpensive ($3 million or less)." The article cites as examples Easy Rider~ Alice's Restaurant~

Midnight Cowboy~ and The Sterile Cukoo. It should be noted that each of those films contains rock music on its

soundtrack and features new, young ·stars. But they are 25

not termed teen films in the article. "For Neo Adults Only" (New York Times, July 27, 42 1969), primarily a review of Easy Rider, discusses the low budgets and widespread appeal of the youth-oriented

film citing also Midnight Cowboy and Goodbye Columbus.

In 1971, the New York Times reported that "the indus- 43 - try" was seeing more changes. "Glitter Yields to Bitter in Hollywood Slump" describes the decreasing amount of

films being produced by the major studios and the increase

in those being made by independent producers. "Of some

100 motion pictures currently in production by American 44 companies, 30 are being made by independent producers."

Finally, in 1974 Vincent Canby, film editor of the

New York Times, questioned "Whatever Happened to Movie

Musicals?" 45 Here Canby argues, as did John Cutts in 4 6 F-z-[.,ms. .., an d F1.-[.,m-z-ng,. .., . t h at t h e f ew mus.1.ca . 1 s com.1.ng . to the

screen are coming from the stage, where they are already.

such "institutions" that the filming of them is not even necessary.

These New York Times articles chronicle the rise and fall and the rise and fall of the musical film. They provide evidence on the increasing rise (with no fall) in popularity of the "teen film" later termed the "youth- oriented" film, the independent producers who introduced

it and the eventual growth and expansion of importance of the independent producer in the film industry. These 26

three newsworthy subjects-the musical film, "teen" films,

and independent producers-are not found to have been dis-

cussed together in an article, although each plays a part

in the development of the others.

ROCK MUSIC AND Fl LM

A New York Times article entitled "Fad Also Rocks

Cash Register," reports that Rock Around the Clock, a teen

film with rock and roll music, made $3 million in profits. The film only cost $350,000 to produce. 47 However, this was not enough to persuade the studios to start turning out reels of rock-and-roll films. The primary reason

according to the Times reports ("Aging Film Stars Chided

on Roles," June 22, 1957), was that rock and roll was a

fad, or so said a survey of high school and college students. Ninety-three _percent of the students looked

upon rock and roll as a passing fad. And, in a popularity

poll with Tab Hunter and Rock Hudson in the top two spots, 48 the students voted Elvis Presley in at a low 14.

Rock music films didn't begin to make headway until

1964 when Variety reported how "British Pix Roll to Rock 49 Beat." Citing five hit British rock-and-roll films,

Hard Days Night (Beatles), Wonderful Life (Cliff Richard), Just for You (Freddie and the Dreamers), It's All Go (the

Animals), and Every Day's A Holiday (John Leyton), the

article documents the rock music celluloid hits. 27

Falling on the trail of the British boom, Billboard reported the following year that "UI [Universal Interna­ 50 tional] to Roll'Em on Rock Films." The article states that 14 rock films were scheduled to be made in the next two years (no titles), with budgets of $200,000 to

$300,000 each, because musical trend films have racked-up 51 solid box-office grosses on relatively small budgets."

The article also discusses Warner Brothers' and United

Artists' interests in rock-and-roll films as well as the film executives checking out music clubs for new talent.

This affirmation of major studio involvement is an impor- tant point in the film industry's transition.

The film and music industries moved still closer in

1966 when the New York Times reported in its article

"Music Is Now Profit to the Ears of Filmmakers" that "film music, long a subliminal advertising tool, has now also 52 become a significant source for recurring profits." The film that brought them to this conclusion was Hard Day's

Night, which profitted more than three times the film's

1n1t1a... 1 cost.. 53

Whenever a rock film was successful, the studios put money into making more. The success of Woodstock and Mad

Dogs and Englishmen led to the production of Two Lane

Blacktop and Medicine Ball Caravan (as well as others) 54 according to Billboard (August 28, 1971).

By 1974 film and music became the chicken and the egg

/ 28 and the industries argued which begat which. Variety

(March 13, 1974} claims that films such as The Poseiden

Adventure and The Way We Were spawned hit songs ("The 55 Morning After" and "The Way We Were") . It; also claims

(January 2, 1974) that the pictures were "used" to boost 56 the songs' sales, naming SuperfZy and Live and Let Die.

But later in the year Variety concedes that it could work both ways, citing Alice's Restaurant, where "a hit record became a hit film which begat further hit records." 57

The New York Times defends the rock music faction in its 58 article "How to Make Sweet Music at the Box Office."

Naming The Graduate and Easy Rider as the innovators, the article contends that films use pop artists' music to gain box office sales. The eventual result, as Variety reports, was that "film producers are no longer suspicious 59 of writers who emanate from the rock idiom." That was the turning point. 60 In 1975 Newsweek described "The New Movie Musicals" including Tommy right alongside Funny Lady. This was one of the first times that a rock music film was termed a musical.

Variety reported in its 1976 article "Bonanza in New

Soundtrack Albums" that "the film people are finally mak­ 61 ing films with music as an integral part." Robert

Hillburn reinforces the concept of give and take in the two industries in his overview of rock music in movies for 29

62 for the Los Angeles Times (November 6, 1977). Similarly

film songs are often hit songs. Billboard reports that 63 "Film Themes Spur Rash of Hit Singles," naming- numerous

film songs that rose to "number one" on their charts.

The film industry wanted all it could get from the music industry according to "Pies Look for Cut of Music 64 Action" (Variety, November 16, 1977) . The reason was

that "the music and film industries are looking to lure

similar demographics . . . record business is booming and 65 Hollywood wants a piece of the action." But, according

to Billboard (February 21, 1976) even that worked both 66 ways, because record labels wanted to produce movies.

"Labels Spawn Big Movies" discusses the innovation of

record labels producing top grossing film fare such as One

Flew Over the Cukoo's Nest (Fantasy) and Mahogany (Motown).

A synthesis had been made.

The ultimate crossover of the two industries came not through production, but through promotion. Although radio

play of songs had been known to help box office for year~ 7 the two businesses rarely worked as a team. By the mid-

Seventies it was a planned, paired effort.

In 1974 the Journal of Popular Culture discussed the

first cross promotion between the two industries with the film To~my. 68 Three years later Variety reported on the multi-media promotional plan to sell both the soundtrack

and the film of A Star is Born, in "A Hit is Born and 30

Made."69 The key move was to release the album first and push its sales. The New York Times describes similar 70 strategies on Grease (August 29, 1977) and Thank God 71 It's Friday (March 10, 1978). Each article details the plan to generate interest in the soundtrack prior to release of the film.

Basically these articles chronicle the long road to unity of rock music and film. Following 20 years of small budgets as "teen" or "fad" or "cult" films, independent producers.and limited success (limited only by the studios themselves), the forms were united by success.

Then each built sales for the other and finally each con­ tributed to the production of the other.

STATE OF THE ART OF MUSICALS

The current state of the art of musicals appears to be found in rock music musicals. Once not even considered part of the musical genre, the rock-and-roll film cur- rently dominates both box office and album sales charts.

And now periodical writers are discussing rock films of the Seventies as they once wrote about the musicals of the Forties. Oddly enough, the only book on rock musi­ 72 cals, Celluloid Rock, groups rock musicals together with all youth culture films of the past 25 years. (The book chronicles 20 years, 1955-1974). Thus by selecting films by their themes rather than by their music the writer 31 again classifies the rock musical as a "teen" film, not a musical. (Robert Hillburn's article, "The Double Threat of Hollywood Pop" in the Los Angeles Times is guilty of 73 the same type of "cult" grouping.) However, Celluloid

Rock is an excellent source for dates and stars of all rock music films.

RaZZing Stone devotes three articles in one issue to 74 . 75 the new musicals, Rock on Reels, Amer1.-can Hot Wax, and 76 Sergeant Pepper's Lonely Heart's Club Band. All, basically, surmise that in the Seventies, rock musicals are the musicals. (So overwhelming are rock musicals today, that Newsweek in its cover story on Robert Stigwood

[President of the Stigwood Organization] wrongly cites

Stigwood as "the first to realize the phenomenal potential 77 of merging rock music with theatre and movies.") A special edition of the National Film Theatre discusses rock musicals as the new musicals and offers filmographies on several of them. 78

An article in Stereo Review entitled "Rock Goes to the Movies" compares Forty-Second Street to American Hot Wax. 79 MarJOrl.e . . Rosen 1.n. h er rev1.ew . o f Grease f or A mer1.-can• 80 Film discusses the influence of Busby Berkeley. And

Marsha Kinder, in her review of Saturday Night Fever for

Film Quarterly discusses the sociological differences between that film and the films of Fred Astaire (to whom 81 John Travolta of Saturday Night Fever is likened}. All 32 of these articles provide evidence that the rock musical

is now accepted as a musical.

Oddly enough, it is a writer of rock-and-roll journal-

ism, Dave Marsh (RaZZing Stone) who contend~ that rock

films cannot be grouped into a genre. In an article for

FiZm Comment entitled "Schlock Around the Rock," Marsh argues that a documentary such as Woodstock cannot be grouped into a genre with films like FM or The Buddy HoZZy 82 Story.

It is important to note that these articles are the only current articles found on the genre of the musical, and that their subjects are all rock musicals. The film style has been accepted.

ADDITIONAL SOURCES

Additional sources that were utilized primarily for . . . 83 F . ., stat1stical 1nformat1on were Popcorn Venus, ~~ms ~n 84 America, CBS AnnuaZ Report, 85 and Rock and RaZZ is Here 86 to Pay which chronicles the economic rise of rock music.

These sources were used exclusively in Chapter 4 to explain the "middleman factor" influences upon the genre.

SUMMARY

While these sources cover several concepts, a-· few key points surrunarize the work done in the field.

First the books on film musicals all deal with the traditional musical, barely touching upon rock music's 33 contribution to the genre. Both the books and the articles in the film journals are most valuable for the definitions and criteria that they have set up to analyze the musical film. No single source comprehensively chronicles the genre past its Golden Age which ended in

1955. While Timothy Scheurer's "The Aesthetics of Form 87 and Convention in the Movie Musical" is the most current and comprehensive work on the subject, its predecessors remain valuable references from which to draw and adapt.

Articles chronicling the changes in the film (and music) industry evidence three basic points. First is that the demand for "youth culture" films was small in the

Fifties, grew to proportion in the mid- to late-Sixties and continued to grow throughout the Seventies. Second is that the films produced by factions other than the major film studios have increased. Third is that rock music has increased in acceptance, and hence widened its demographics both within and without the film industry.

These three major evolutions in film and music resulted in both co-production and co-promotion of rock musical films by the film and music industries by the mid­

Seventies. Until that time, rock musicals were cate­ gorized as "teen" or (youth) "cult" films, but not legitimized into the musical film genre. Currently, articles on rock musicals classify them as legitimate musicals, and despite their 25-year history, they are 34

treated as a relatively new phenomenon.

These are the key points on the subject as acquired through this comprehensive review of the literature.

METHODOLOGY SOURCES

Methodology sources are utilized to serve two pur- poses in the construction of this thesis. First is to explain the general descriptive historical techniques of information gathering. Second is to more specifically present the sources utilized in the gathering of informa- tion for this thesis.

While several sources exist on the methodology of film history, none are written in English. These sources, as located through the Theatre Arts Library of the Univer- sity of California at Los Angeles, offer insight into various aspects of film history writing.

Methods utilized by film critics and historians when studying film are discussed in articles in Cashiers de Za . 88 89 C~nema, . and Iskusstvo K. "A Propos d' Alice Guy" in 90 Earan discusses the pitfalls in using film catalogues for dates in research.

Avant Saen'e offers an article ("Griffith le Cinema L' Historie et la Politique") 91 criticizing the ideologi- cal position of modern criticism towards the history of film. A later article in that same periodical criticizes 92 the met h o d s proposed 1n. t h e f.1rst art1c. l e. Last 1 y, 35

Skrien offers an article on how the films of the Nether- lands, produced under the influence of the Germans during

World War II, were studied. 93

While all of these sources would be of great value, they were not utilized for this paper as translations are not available. Subject matter descriptions were provided by the UCLA Theatre Arts Library, Special Collections.

Some of the more traditional sources on historical method were found to be useful. A Guidebook to Historical 94 Method by Gilbert Garraghan, although over 30 years old, is one of the most comprehensive works on the subject.

Particularly useful are sections on the integrity and credibility of sources, since musical film subject matter is not chronicled in traditional academic journals.

Several works95 offer little more than the traditional generalizations on historical writing ("your commitment as a researcher" etc.). However, How to Study History has 96 one useful chapter on "Shaping a Historical Essay" which includes information on chapter breakdown and historical proof versus demonstrable, inferential or synthetic proof.'

This material is useful in justifying conclusions.

Another source with a useful section on chapter 97 breakdown is The Modern Researcher. Although slightly out of date (1911), Historical Research by John Vincent

~ offers insight into literary style and discusses pictorial . 98 sources o f h 1story. 36

A concise guidebook on the subject, Guide for

Research Students Working on Historical Subjects, offers illumination on points such as objects of research, choice of subject, equipment needed, reviewing and presenting the evidence, and researcher's notes. Two sources useful in the explication of historical method are A Guide to 99 H~stor~ca&. . .., Met h o d and Un d erstan d.~ng H.~story. lOO

History and Social Theory is both a unique and useful source on the subject. Rather than a "how to" book, it is a theoretical approach to historical writing, particularly as it relates to the subject matter as a tool of sociali- zation. It includes sections on "History as Reconstruc- tion," "Causation and Change," "Historical Imagination," 101 and "Objectivity." It is a holistic, rather than

"point for point," socially conscious guide book to historical evaluation.

Sources that are insightful on the subject but not 102 a d ap t a bl e to t h ~s. stu d y ~nc . 1 u d e H'~stor~ans . at War k an d . . .., .., . 103 H~stor~ca& Ana&ys~s.

Without a doubt the most useful source in construct- ing the methodology of this thesis is an article, "Popular

Culture and Methodology," in the Journal of Popular Cul- ture. This insightful and well written article discusses the criteria for the formulation of a genre, and the effects of the "middleman factor" (producers, box office receipts, sales charts) on the conventions of the art 37

form. Most importantly, for this thesis, the article

discusses the concept of popular culture analysis, tracing

the evolution of a formula with regard to "the tradition

and the history of the formula and its conventions," and emphasizing how "the popular culture analyst can account

for these changes. 104

METHODOLOGY FOR CHRONOLOGY

The techniques presented in the aforementioned methodology sources are applied to the following sources

in the gathering of data for Chapter 5, "The Musical Film

1955-1979." The following titles are utilized only to obtain film titles and related filmic data for the

chronology offered in Chapter 5. (The utilization of

these sources is fully explained in Chapter 3, "Method- ology. ")

In addition to all books listed in the section "Film

Musicals: Books," the New York Times from 1955 to 1979 and

the Los Angeles Times. from 1972 to 1979, Film Daily Year­ book105 and the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and 106 Sciences Screen Achievement Records Bulletin are

utilized for title and credit information. Variety

Anniversary Issue(s) 107 are u t l"1" lZe d f or f.lnancla . 1

figures.

Additional synopses are sought in Halliwell's Film

Gu-z-"d e, 108 Ox f or d Compan-z-on. t o F.1.- 7vm, 109 E.-z-g h ty y ears o f 38

Cinema,llO American Movies Reference Book: The Sound 111 . 112 Era, and TV Mov~es. The Index to Critical Film 113 Reviews is utilized for additional source information on film titles.

Information from sources cited in the section "State of the Art of Musicals" is supplemented and substantiated with information from sources located in the Popular Music 114 115 Periodicals Index. Broadway's Greatest MusicaZs is utilized for background information on all Broadway adapta- tions.

The American Film Institute Catalogue of Feature

• 7 116 t . . f F~~ms 1961-?0 1s. ut1 . 1 1ze. d o 1nsure 1nc 1 us1on . o a 11 films produced during that period.

These key sources provide the guidelines, justifica- tions for methods, and data for the methodology applied in the research and writing of this thesis.

ADVANCING THE FIELD

This review of the literature evidences a need for a single comprehensive work on film m~sicals. This work would fill several gaps in this area of film history.

First, it would be the first work on film musicals to include all rock musicals into the genre. Second, by dis- cussing not merely the growth of the films, but the growth of the film and music industries as well, new insights will be drawn onto the growth of film as both an art and a 39 business. Third, the writing of this history as an academic endeavor rather than as a homage to a genre will provide a reference tool for future film histories. And

fourth, the presentation of standardized criteria and method provides a model for the evaluation of the film musical that can be adapted and applied to studies of other film genres. 40

FOOTNOTES

1. Frank Manchel, Film Study: A Resource Guide (New Jersey: Farleigh Dickenson University Press, 1973), p. 39.

2. Linda Batty, ed., Retrospective Index to Film Periodi­ cals 1930-1971 (New York: R. R. Bowler and co., 1975).

3. Dean Tudor and Andrew Armitage, Popular Music Periodi­ cals Index (New Jersey: Scarecrow Press, 1973-1976).

4. Florence Kretzshrnar, The Music Index (New York: Information Coordinators, Inc., 1955-1977).

5. Educational Documents Index (New York: Macmillan Pub­ lishing Co., 1972-1979).

6. Popular Periodical Index (Camden, New Jersey, 1973- 1976).

7. Zada Limerick, ed., Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature (New York: H. W. Wilson Co., 1955-1978).

8. Ray B. Browne, ed., Abstracts of Popular Culture (Ohio: Bowling Green Un~versity Popular Press, 1976).

9. New York Times Index (New York: The New York Times Co . , · 19 55-19 7 8 ) .

10. New York Times Film Review Index (New York: The New York Times Co., 1955-1978).

11. Los Angeles Times Index (Ohio: Bell and Howell Micro Photo Newspaper Indexing Center, 1972-1979).

12. Gary Ink, Cumulative Book Index (New York: H. W. Wilson Co., 1978).

13. Torn Vallance, The American Musical (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1970).

14. Lee Edward Stern, The Movie Musical (New York: Pyramid, 1974). 41

15. Miles Krueger, ed., The Movie Musicals from Vitaphone to Forty-Second Street (New York: Dover Publ~shing Co., 1975} . 16. John Russell Taylor, The Hollywood Musical (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975}. 17. David Meeker, Jazz in the Movies (New York: Arlington House, 1977}.

18. John Springer, All Talking! All Singing! All Dancing! (New York: Citadel Press, 1966}.

19. Ibid., p. 57.

20. Roy M. Pendergrast, A Neglected Art (New York: Uni­ versity Press, 1977}.

21. Mark Evans, Soundtrack: The Music of the Movies (New York: Hopkins and Blake 1975}.

22. Irwin Bazelor, Knowing the Score (New York: Van Nerstrand Reinhold Co., 1975).

23. Michael B. Druxman, The Musical (New Jersey: A. S. Barnes and Co., 1980).

24. Timothy E. Scheurer, "The Aesthetics of Form and Con­ vention in the I-:lovie Musical," Journal of Popular Film 20 (Fall 1974) :306.

25. George Sidney, "The Three Ages of the Musical," Films and Filming, June 1968, p. 4.

26. Bernard Hruse, "On the Musical," Film, November­ December 1957, p. 16, and Film, January-February 1958, p. 17.

27. John Cutts, "Bye Bye Musicals," Films and Filming, November 1963, p. 42.

28. Lionel Godfrey, "A Heretic's Look at Musicals," Films and Filming, March 1967, p. 5.

29. Charles F. Altman, "The American Musical Film," Wide Angle 2 (2} :10.

30. Alan Warner, "Thanks for the Memory," Films and Film­ ing, October 1971, p. 18. 31. Edward Jablonski, "Filmusicals," Films in Review, February 1955, p. 56. 42

32. John Mariani, "Corne on With the Rain," Film Comment, May-June 1978, p. 7.

33. Bosley Crowther, "Survey of Movies: Out of Crisis They Achieve Stability," New York Times, February 6, 1955, sec. 2, p. 5.

34. "Aging Film Stars Chided on Roles," New York Times, June 22, 1957, p. 9.

35. Peter Bart, "Hollywood Finds Gold on Beaches," New York Times, June 22, 1965, p. 25.

36. Vincent Canby, "Virtuous Films as Good as Gold," New York Times, December 27, 1965, p. 33.

37. Peter Bart, "Hollywood Finds Harmony Paying," New York Times, May 14, 1966, p. 19.

38. Ibid.

39. Mel Gussow, "Excitement Fills the Premiere of Dolly," New York Times, December 18, 1969, p. 62.

40. Vincent Canby, "Is Hollywood in Hot Water?", New York Times, November 9, 1969, sec. 2, p. 1.

41. Ibid.

42. Vincent Canby, "For Neo Adults Only," New York Times, July 27, 1969,

43. Robert Wright, "Glitter Yields to Bitter in Hollywood Slump," New York Times, June 6, 1971, p. 38.

44. Ibid.

45. Vincent Canby, "Whatever Happened to Movie Musicals," New York Times, July 7, 1974, sec. 2, p. 1. 46. Cutts, p. 42.

47. Alexander Hammer, "Fad Also Rocks Cash Register," New York Times, February 23, 1957, p. 12.

48. "Aging Film Stars," p. 9.

49. Roger Watki~s, "British Pix Roll to Rock Beat," Variety, April 22, 1964, p. 1. 50. Elliot Tiegal, "UI to Roll 'Ern on Rock Films," Bill­ board, October 30, 1955, p. 1. 43

51. Ibid.

52. Vincent Canby, "Music is Now Profit to the Ears of Filmmakers," New York Times, May 24, 1966, p. 53.

53. Ibid.

54. Nat Freedland, "Rock and Film Roll Past Woodstock," Billboard, August 28, 1971, p. 28.

55. "Hit Ballads Spark Film Music's Rise on Album Market," Variety, r.farch 13, 1974, p. 60.

56. Herm Schoenfield, "Songs Used to Help Film B.O. Now Pix Boost Songs to Hits," Variety, January 2, 1974, p. 1.

57. Gary Sherman, "Pic Scores Follow Pop Trends From 'Jazz Singer' to Beatles," Variety, May 15, 1974, p. 59.

58. Paul Gardner, 11 How to Make Sweet Music at the Box Office," New York Times, May 31, 1974, sec. 2, p. 1.

59. Harold Shampan, 11 British Film Husic Enters Pop Charts," Variety, May 15, 1974, p. 61.

60. Charles Michener, 11 The New Movie Musicals, .. Newsweek, May 24, 1975, p. 54.

61. Frank Meyer, 11 Bonanza in New Soundtrack Albums, Variety, November 24, 1976, p. 109.

62. Robert Hilburn, 11 The Double Threat of Hollywood Pop," Los Angeles Times, November 6, 1977, 11 Calendar, 11 p. 65.

63. Paul Green, 11 Film Themes Spur Rash of Hit Singles, .. Billboard, October 7, 1977, p. 1.

64. 11 Pix Look for Cut of Music Biz Action, .. Variety, November 16, 1977, p. 5.

------6~-.---~h~d•. ------

66. Nat Freedland, 11 Labels Spawn Big Movies," Billboard, February 21, 1976, p. 1.

67. Joel Friedman, 11 Spinning Wax Sells Musical Movies Now-A-Days, .. Billboard, November 10, 1956, p. 20. 44

68. John Leverence, "Promoting Tommy," Journal of Popular Culture 32 (Winter 1974) :465.

69. "A Hit is Born and Made," Variety, February 9, 1977, p. 124.

70. Leonard Sloan, "Smoothing the Way for Grease," New York Times, August 29, 1977, p. 43.

71. Aljean Harmetz, "Advance Album to Push 'Thank God It's Friday'," New York Times, March 10, 1978, sec. 3, p. 14.

72. Philip Jenkinson and Alan Warner, Celluloid Rock (London: Lorrimer, 1974).

73. Hillburn, p. 65.

74. Ben Fong-Torres, "Rock on Reels," Rolling Stone, April 20, 1978, p. 14.

75. Cameron Crowe, "American Hot Wax," Rolling Stone, April 20, 197g; p. 16.

7 6. Ed Zuckerman, "Sgt .. · Pepper' s Lonely Hearts Club Band," Rolling Stone, April 20, 1978, p. 18.

77. D. Ansen, "Rock Tycoon," Newsweek, August 31, 1978, p. 41.

78. Ken Whaschin, "Rock Movies in the Seventies," National Film Theatre, August 1978.

79. Steve Simels, "Rock Goes to the Movies," Stereo Review, June 1978, p. 82.

80. Marjorie Rosen, "Grease," American Film, February 1978, p. 10.

81. Marsha Kinder, "Saturday Night Fever," Film Quarterly, Spring 1978, p. 40.

82. Dave Marsh, "Schlock Around the Rock," Film Comment, July/August 1978, p. 7.

83. Marjorie Rosen, Popcorn Venus (New York: Avon, 1974).

84. Martin Quigley Jr., and Richard Gertner, Films in America (New York: Golden Press, 1970). 45

85. CBS Annual Report 1973, p. 8 (as based on data from McCann Erickson Inc., and CBS Broadcast Group Economics and Research).

86. Steve Chapple and Rebee Garofalo, Rock and Roll Is Here to Pay (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1977).

87. Scheurer.

88. V. Bachy, "Critique Historique et Cinema," Cashiers de la Cinema, Summer 1976, pp. 82-93.

89. M. Zak, "Iz Istorii," Iskusstvo K, September 9, 1976, pp. 116-125.

90. J. Mitry, "A Propos de Alice Guy," Ecran, July 1976, pp. 5-6.

91. J. Mitry, "Griffith, le Cinema L'Historie et la Politique," Avant Scene, December 15, 1978, p. 64.

92. J. Mitry, Sourlin and F. Courtade, "Griffith, Murnau et les Historians," Avant Scene, May 15, 1978, pp. 62-65.

93. G. N. Donaldson, "Reactie op Speelfilms, '40-'45," Skrien, 17 (Summer 1978) :54-57. 94. Gilbert s. Garraghan, A Guidebook to Historical Method (New York: Fordham Un1vers1ty Press, 1946).

95. Fred Morrow Fling, Writing of History (Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1920).

96. Norman F. Cantor and Richard I. Schneider, How to Study History (New York: Thomas I. Crowell Co., 1967).

97. Jacques Barzun and Henry F. Graff, The Modern Researcher (3rd ed.; New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977).

98. John Martin Vincent, Historical Research (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1911).

99. Robert Jones Shafer, ed., A Guide to Historical Method (Illinois: Dorsey Press, 1969).

100. Louis Gottschalk, Understanding History (2nd ed.; New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969). 46

101. Gordon Leff, History and Social Theory (Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 1969).

102. David Duffy, Historians at Work (Australia: Hicks Smith and Sons, 1973).

103. Richard Berenger, Historical Analysis (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1978). 104. Donald Dunlop, "Popular Culture and Methodology," Journal of Popular Culture 36 (Winter 1915) :375-382.

105. Gene Arneel and Vance King, ed., Film Daily Yearbook (New York: DFI Communications Inc. Co., 1955-1970).

106. James M. Roberts, ed., Academy of Motion Pictures Arts and Sciences Screen Ach1evement Records Bulletin (Beverly Hills: Academy of Motion Pictures Arts and Sciences~ 1971-1978).

107. Variety Anniversary Issue (New York: Variety Inc., 1955-1980). y 108. Leslie Halliwell, Halliwell's Film Guide (London: Granada Publishing Co., 1977).

109. Liz-Anne Bowden, ed., Oxford Companion to Film (London: Oxford Univers1ty Press, 1976).

110. Peter Cowie, Eighty Years of Cinema (London: A. s. Barnes, 1977).

111. Paul Michael, ed., American Movies Reference Book: The Sound Era (New Jersey: Prent1ce Hall Inc., 1969).

112. Leonard Maltin, ed., TV Movies (New York: New American Library Inc., 1978.

113. Stephen E. Bowles, ed., Index to Critical Film Reviews (New York: Burt Franklin and Co., Inc., 1974.

114. Dean Tudor and Andrew Armitage, Popular Music Periodicals Index (New Jersey: Scarecrow Press, 1973-1976.

115. Abe Laufe, Broadway's Greatest Musicals (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1970).

Richard P. Krafsur, ed., American Film Institute Catalogue of Feature Films 1961-l970 (New York: R. R. Bowker Co., 1976). Chapter 3

METHODOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

The overall objective of this methodology, as well as this entire endeavor, is to provide for the inclusion of all film musicals as defined in the introduction of this

thesis. The exclusion of any proper musical film would result in both a biased and incomplete representation of

the genre, which is the precise problem that this work is

intended to rectify.

This is an historical work. Most complete books on

the subject of film musical history are more editorial than historical (as evidenced in.the review of the litera­

ture), and cannot be considered as scholarly endeavors. Hence, this paper will not follow .the style of the previ­ ous work on the subject, but will instead adhere to a strict historical chronology in explicating the history of the genre. By exercising a strict historical method this

study is insured of resulting in both a lack of bias and

a comprehensive overview of the subject. Historical method, as described by Louis Gottschalk in Understanding

History, is "scientific-i.e., its results are subject to verification and to intelligent agreement or disagreement

47 48

among the experts."1 Thus although descriptive in nature,

this history remains an objective analysis.

JUSTIFICATION

An historical analysis necessitates an historical method. And, while there is no established model on which to base this thesis, there are numerous highly regarded

filmographies that must be considered in selecting a method for the inclusion of data (films) into the history. While many of the better known filmographies do not

describe the criteria for their method of selection (i.e. 2 American Movies Reference Book: The Sound Era and Inter- 3 national Encyclopedia of Film ) neither do they indicate inclusion of all films. Thus they imply some manner of

subjective selection.

Those that do state their criteria for the selection of films appear to be equally subjective in their prefer-

ence for significance as the primary factor for inclusion.

The Oxford Companion to Film states that "those selected

for the Companion claim to be the most significant."4

Eighty Years of Cinema by Peter Cowie notes similarly that its selections "offer certain signposts to significant 5 developments in film art and entertainment." Halliwell's

Film Guide more specifically states that in addition to

significance "every film which seemed likely or worthy of

remembrance by the keen filmgoer or student, whether with 49 affection for its own sake as good entertainment, for showcasing memorable work by a particular talent, for 6 sheer curiosity value or for box office success" is included.

Since this thesis is an objective endeavor, the criteria for method of selection utilized in these established filmographies must be rejected due to their inherently subjective and biased nature.

The criteria established for the inclusion of data into this thesis are selected to serve two main functions: to maintain objectivity, and to avoid omission of any con- tribution to the genre. With regard to these standards, the method of selection for films into this thesis are based on the three following criteria:

1. Theatrical distribution in the United States;

2. Eng~ish language production;

3. Adherence to the definitions of film musical or rock music musical as set down in the introduction of this thesis.

By adhering to these criteria, this thesis remains an objective und comprehensive account of the film musical genre from 1955-1979.

PROCEDURE

The primary step in the formation of this study is the collection of the data. This includes the location of titles and relevant information--including date, director, 50 stars, studio and synopsis--on all legitimate film musi­ cals between 1955-1979. (Not all information is available for every film.) All data is gathered through the utilization of the sources named in the review of the literature. Studio sources are avoided to alleviate the publicity-oriented "information" that they distribute.

There is no way to validate all of the information ascertained through the sources, however, that does not inhibit the validity of this thesis. The primary dis­ crepancies on filmic data usually lie in the release date of the film and the amount of money that the film grossed.

The first issue is alleviated through cross-checking on the numerous references available. Since film release dates are given out by the publicity departments of the studios, a concensus of sources is a reliable method. (If there is a major discrepancy, the publicity department is referred to and that date is accepted and footnoted.)

The second issue is of minimal. concern to the inter­ ests of this study in most cases. And, the cases that are relevant (i.e. largest grosser) do not tend to experi­ ence any notable discrepancy.

No specific films were viewed during the formation of this thesis, as the viewing is subject to the accessibility of the films. Filmic information was gained through prior screenings or through synopses offered by previous film­ ographies. 51

As an objective history, all analyses and conclu-

sions must be drawn from the researched data. Judgments

of the growth of the genre are based completely on the

trends evidenced in the research. This the~is presents a

summation of the events as opposed to an interpretation of

them, ·since an interpretation would negate obj ecti vi ty.

SPECIFIC PROCEDURE UTILIZED

Following are two examples of methods utilized to gather information on films that were previously unknown to the researcher. These procedures were utilized in the construction of Chapter 5 to obtain comprehensiveness as well as to validate unknown films as film musicals.

Example 1: In examining every film review in the New York Times Film Review Index the researcher finds a film title that by the credits listed (inclusion of score, lyrics, book) stars and synopsis, appears to apply to the film musical genre. Given that the researcher was unaware of the film until this discovery, she reinforces the New York Times data with data from another source. If the New York Times states (in its listing of credits) that the film is adapted from a stage play, the source Broadway's Greatest 1 Musicals is referred to for additional information.

Whether the score was adapted or not, if it was produced between the years of 1955 and 1969, Film Daily Yearbook 8 is examined to substantiate and gather additional informa- tion on credits or awards. (Film Daily Yearbook's final 52 publication was in 1970 with film listings inclusive through the end of 1969.) Post 1970 the Academy of

Motion Picture Arts and Sciences Screen Achievement 9 Records Bulletin is examined to substantiate information as well as for additional credit information. Variety

Anniversary Issue(sJ 10 are utilized for financial informa- tion.

To substantiate the subjective review offered by the

Times a more objective synopsis would be sought in an established filmography. To this end the researcher would 11 utilize Halliwell's Film Guide, Oxford Companion to 12 F ~.l m, E"~g ht y Y ears o f c·~nema lJ or A mer~can. Mov~es . 14 Reference Book: The Sound Era. All four filmographies might be used if any discrepancies appeared in the compari- sons. If the status of the film as a representative of the genre were still in question, additional reviews would be sought through the use of the Index to Critical Film 15 Reviews. The American Film Institute Catalogue of 16 Feature Films 1961-1970 would be utilized as a final check for all films produced during that time period. In addition, all previously published books on the subject

(as named in the review of literature) are examined for additional information relating to the films they cover. Example 2: A film title (that by its credits, stars and/or synopsis appeared to be a musical) was found in a source other than the New York Times and was (a) not reviewed in the Times and/or (b) not a film known by the researcher. 53

(This situation occurred most often with film titles found in Celluloid Rockl7 or Film Daily Yearbook. This example utilizes Celluloid Rock) .

All sources named in Example 1 would be referred to in a similar manner. In addition, the Popular Music Periodi­ 18 cals Index would be re-examined as well as the source­ 19 book TV Movies which offers credits and synopses on many films overlooked by other filmographies. In addition, the Los Angeles Times would be examined for all films post

1972.

The application of these methods in the gathering of information for Chapter 5, "The Musical Film 1955-1979" allows for the discovery (and therefore inclusion) of all film musicals that adhere to the definitions and require- ments set forth in this thesis. The methods also include a system of double-checking all information found in any given source to insure accuracy.

ORG!1N I ZAT I ON

The method utilized in the organization of this thesis serves to minimalize editorialization and maximize the objective presentation of relevant information. This is done by separating that data which affects the genre of the musical film from that data which constitutes the genre of the musical film. Chapter 4, "The Middleman

Factor" presents all relevant information from secondary sources on factors that have affected the history of the 54 genre. This information is not reintroduced in Chapter 5,

"The Musical Film 1955-1979."

In applying this method, Chapter 5 remains an objec­ tive presentation of film titles in a chronological order.

All other information presented in Chapter 5 serves to describe the individual films (primarily as a reference tool for use in future research) of the genre only. It does not present any further ramifications. 1 An alphabeti­ cal filmography listing title, year of release and the page on which it is mentioned is included at the end of the thesis as a further reference tool.

While this method of organization is not practiced in the popular works published on the genre, it does facili­ tate a scholarly endeavor and coincides with the concepts set forth in David Dunlop's article for the Journal of

Popular Culture, "Popular Culture and Methodology."

ALLEVIATION OF BIAS

Due to the fact that all of the research is based on either celluloid or literary fact, biases could be intro­ duced in only two ways. First would be through selec­ tivity, which is eliminated by a comprehensive review of the literature and objective and rigid criteria for the inclusion of films. Second would be through the research­ er's personal conclusions on the data in the summation.

This, however, is justified (and not considered biased) as 55 all of the facts are presented and the researcher, as presenter of those facts (and therefore considered expert in the field) is justified in drawing conclusions in the sununation.

STUDY LIMITATIONS

The primary limitation of this study is evident. It is impossible to view each film that is to be chronicled in this history at the time that this paper is being written. This limitation is rendered inconsequential, however, for two reasons. First is the researcher's 20 knowledge of the films of the genre. Second, because memory could prove invalid when attempting to prove lack of error or bias as well as in providing detail, available filmographies are used to provide adequate synopses of the lesser-known films.

Another limitation is the amount of detail provided on any given film named in the chronology. Since the purpose of this thesis is to offer the titles of films and not synopses of those films, the minimal details provided serve to maintain the focus on the film titles rather than on their content.

Thus, it is evident that the limitations inherent in this study will not provide cause for the research to be considered as anything other than accurate, comprehensive and descriptive of the state of the art. 56

CONCLUSION

All of the measures presented in this methodology-­ including following the methodologies of past filmograph­ ies, adhering to rigid definitions to alleviate biases, implementing an organizational structure that encourages objectivity, avoiding interpretations of facts and drawing conclusions based upon data and acquired knowledge of the field--insure that this study will be both a comprehensive and accurate descriptive account of the history of film musicals. 57

FOOTNOTES

1. Louis Gottschalk, Understanding History (2nd ed.; New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969), p. 9.

2. Paul Michael, ed., American Movies Reference Book: The Sound Era (New Jersey: Prent1ce Hall, Inc., 1969).

3. Roger Manvell, ed., International Encyclopedia of Films (New York: Crown Publishers, 1972).

4. Liz-Anne Bowden, ed., Oxford Companion to Film (London: Oxford University Press, 1976), p. 1.

5. Peter Cowie, Eighty Years of Cinema (London: A. S. Barnes, 1977), p. 1.

6. Leslie Halliwell, Halliwell's Film Guide (London: Granada Publishing Co., 1977), p. VII.

7. Abe Laufe, Broadway's Greatest Musicals (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1970).

8. Gene Arneel and Vance King, ed., Film Daily Yearbook (New York: DFI Communications Inc. Co., 1955-1970).

9. James M. Roberts, ed., Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences Screen Achievement Records Bulletin (Beverly Hills: Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, 1971-1978).

10. Variety Anniversary Issue (New York: Variety Inc., 1955-1980).

11. Halliwell.

12. Bowden.

13. Cowie.

14. Michael .

. 15. Stephen E. Bowles, ed., Index to Critical Film Reviews (New York: Burt Franklin and Co., Inc., 1974). 58

16. Richard P. Krafsur, ed., American Film Institute Catalogue of Feature Films 1961-1970 (New York: R. R. Bowker Co., 1976).

17. Philip Jenkinson and Alan Warner, Celluloid Rock (London: Lorrimer, 1974).

18. Dean Tudor and Andrew Armitage, Popular Music Periodicals Index (New Jersey: Scarecrow Press, 1973- 1976).

19. Leonard Maltin, ed., TV Movies (New York: New Ameri­ can Library Inc., 1978).

20. The researcher resides in Los Angeles where there are repeated "revivals" and special screenings of film musicals, which she seeks out. Chapter 4

THE MIDDLEMAN FACTOR

INTRODUCTION

In an article in the Journal of Popular Culture,

David Dunlop explains that popular art forms must be viewed within the context of the sociological, political or financial events that have affected them. Box-office receipts, producers and sales figures are cited as typical variables that may have an effect upon the development of a popular art form. Such variables are 1 called the "middleman factor." In this study, the influence of the middleman factor on the film and music industries (both separately and in relation to one another) is outlined in order to present a clear and comprehensive analysis- of the growth of the musical film. Particular emphasis is given to the growth

(both social and economic) of rock music in America because of its increasing influence upon the musical film genre.

The middleman factor explains many changes in market- ing music in America in its consideration of the growth of radio, its corporate structure of the industry, and gemographic ~nfluence. The middleman factor accounts for

59 60 much of the economic rise and fall of the film industry over the past 25 years, including its corporate structure and relevant demographic factors. With regard to the film musical, the middleman factor takes into account the record soundtrack as a marketing cooperative, with respect to corporate structure, demographic influence, and cross- promotion. As a result, in this chapter the middleman factor will be dealt with in three major sections: the music industry, the film industry, and the film musical.

THE MUSIC INDUSTRY

The most important music industry developments affecting the development of the film musical occurred in the areas of radio growth and demographic influence. The increased urbanization of blacks in the Thirties and

Forties resulted in the addition of numerous black rhythm and blues (R & B) radio stations by the early Fifties.

These stations began to attract a substantial white

11sten1ng. . aud' 1ence. 2 In an effort to counter these sta- tions, the white radio stations programmed several hours of R & B music by white cover artists on a daily basis.

These early "rock and roll" radio shows might have remained a limited programming venture-, but the cornpeti- tion from the growing television audience forced radio to 3 develop innovative programming techniques.

Out of this competition of the early Fifties carne 61

"radio specialization," the practice of a radio station programming only one type of music (all R & B, all country and western, all religious, etc.). The most important development of radio specialization was the establishment 4 of Top 40 radio stations. These stations highlighted rock and roll music as well as the established mainstream artists (Frankie Laine, Kay Starr, Patti Page, etc.).

Adapted from the popular 1940's weekly broadcast of the

"Lucky Strike Hit Parade" on NBC affiliates, Top 40 made the weekly broadcasting of hits a daily broadcasting con­ 5 cept in the mid-Fifties and brought in top ratings. In its concept of a small playlist, with the top 10 records receiving the greatest amount of airplay, Top 40 radio 6 became instrumental in the creation of hit records. This made Top 40 disc'-jockeys the targets of the record labels' promotion campaigns.

Yet in the mid-Fifties, rock and roll was not pro- mated by the major record labels--those that owned their own manufacturing plants and directly controlled their distribution outlets in addition to producing records.

These labels included Columbia, RCA, Decca, Capitol,

Mercury, and MGM.

With a few exceptions such as Buddy Holly, Gene

Vincent, the Big Bopper, Elvis Presley and Bill Haley, rock and roll was resisted by the big labels.

Three factors accounted for this: first, aesthetic 62 standards second, the majors' commitment to mainstream music; and third, the sexual content of many of the songs and the fact that black people were often singing them . . 7 b roug h t out f ears o f m~scegenat~on. But in spite of the lack of commitment to rock and roll by the major labels, by the end of 1956 rock and roll songs were accounting for more than one-third of the top 10 hits in Billboard maga- zine, and by 1957 Elvis Presley's records accounted for 8 nearly 25 percent of RCA Victor's overall sales.

Other than a minor slump in the early Sixties

(attributed to the absence of major artists with Elvis in the army, Little Richard in the ministry, Gene Vincent, Buddy Holly, Richie Valens and the Big Bopper dead, and

Chuck Berry in jail), the popularity of rock and roll con- tinued to increase. (The years 1955-1959 had seen retail sales increase as much as 36 percent each year. In 1960, sales were down .5 percent from the year before and 1963 sales were up only 2 percent from the year before.) 9 The major cause for the rise in rock and roll popularity and sales came in 1964 with the Beatles and the "British

Invasion." This time, the major labels supported the music. According to Ahmet Ertegun, President of Atlantic

Records, "Too much money was at stake for personal taste 10 to get in the way."

The number of AM rock and roll stations increased dramatically (see Chart 4.1), but more important was the 5000

4500

4000

3500 Rock'n'Roll

3000

2500 l

2000

1500 Progressive Rock J,

1000

~>...' ~ ~ AM TV 500 I

,- ~ 1920 1930. 1940 1950 1960 1970

11 0) Number of Authorized Radio and Television Stations 1922 - 1974 w Chart 4.1 64 increased use of the FM band. With the new technology providing more sophisticated home stereo units, and with monaural recordings a thing of the past, FM radio's stereo capabilities were important. The FM stations catered to a new white subculture that had been produced by the social and political conditions of the Sixties.

In 1967, the country's single largest age group was com- 12 posed of 20-year-olds. The music of this subculture was dominated by songs that were considered too long or uncom­ 13 mercial to be played on AM stations. FM responded to this music and formulated the album-oriented rock (AOR) station. Here the new rock music made its impact. By

1969, 80 percent of the record sales dollar went for 14 LP's.

The FM AQR. station was initially geared to the 18-25 segment of the public. However, by 1975 FM rock stations had garnered an audience primarily in the 18-35 age bracket while the milder AM Top 40 stations attracted the

12-25 age group. Taken together, the Top 40 and rock music AM and FM stations were the number-one preference for music listening of males and females ages 12-35. 15

Rock music dominated the record sales market. In

1968 rock music and folk/rock music accounted for 36 per- cent of all gold records (sales of 500,000 units). By

1972 it had increased to 76 percent, and by 1978 that 16 figure was 84 percent. Within 25 years rock music had 65 evolved to the number-one form of music sold in America.

To summarize, despite the initial lack of support by the major record labels and the established AM radio stations, rock music established itself with the American music consumer in the Fifties. With the advent of the

British Invasion in the Sixties the major record labels committed their support to rock music. The increased use of the FM radio band helped to further establish rock music in America. In addition, in the Sixties rock music became the preferred music of the nation's largest age group. By the 1970's rock music sales far surpassed the sales of all other music styles in America.

THE FILM INDUSTRY

Like the changes in the music industry, the film industry changes that affected the film musical were pri­ marily a response to demographic factors, in this case developments relating to ticket sales, also referred to as box office.

The film industry's problems began in the ·mid­

Fifties. Eight million television sets had been sold in 17 1950 alone. In addition, the five major film companies

-Paramount, RKO, Twentieth G:ntury-Fox, Warner Brothers, and Loew's Inc. {MGM)--had been given until 1952 to comply with a Supreme Court decision requiring them to sever their theater operations; no longer would each have its 66 own exhibiting chain-to ensure showcases. Finally, there was the McCarthy purge. As a youthful Senator Richard M.

Nixon observed, "The demonstrated activity of Communists within the motion picture industry is a matter of concern 18 to Congress and loyal Americans everywhere."

To lure movie patrons, the industry first tried numerous techniques and gimmicks. They experimented with

3-D but the optical process required viewers to wear glasses which were generally ineffective and it inevitably lost its novelty. Larger screens were employed--cinerama, and in 1953, Cinemascope. The drive-in theater was also created in an attempt to lure America back to the theaters. Each technique worked to a degree. Box-office 19 sales increased, but not dramatically.

Robert M. Weitman, managing director of the Paramount

Theater in New York and later head of production at MGM and Columbia in Los Angeles, stated that "the young must be introduced to and encouraged in the movie habit."20

By 1958 52 percent of the film-going audience was under 21 20 years old, 75 percent was under 30. The same group that made Bill Haley and the Comets and Elvis knock

Rosemary Clooney and Kay Starr off of the national sales charts was making Tab Hunter and James Dean into top box­ 22 office draws. The film industry became aware of the drawing power of Elvis Presley, Pat Boone, and Sandra

Dee but, according to film historian Marjorie Rosen, it 67 took the sharp commercial instincts of James H. Nicholson and Samuel Z. Arkoff to "pare the complexities of teen existence down to rock bottom." These foresighted busi- nessmen propagated the beach movie formula and founded

American International Pictures, creating series of teen- oriented films with "just the right doses of slapstick, 23 surfboards, rock and roll, and bikinis" to feed a generation for almost a full decade. Several of these films were actually musicals, but (possibly out of con- venience, possibly because they came out of AIP) they were grouped by critics (and later by historians) into the genre of teen or cult films with no further legitimiza- tion. This series of teen films ended in 1967 with Beach

Blanket Bingo and How to Stuff a Wild Bikini. (They were replaced with psychedelic, drug oriented and hippie- 24 populated films that related to the new youth culture.)

The genre died because it no longer appealed to the 25 new socially conscious youth. According to Marjorie

Rosen, "The most astonishing aspect of Hollywood in the mid-Sixties was its total inability to reflect the new youth culture, and perhaps its unwillingness to do so. .. 26

Hollywood's general insensitivity to the youth movement hurt the industry more than it affected its audiences.

Again, in 1967 the largest single age group was 20-year- olds. Due to the lack of relevant production by Hollywood studios, England exported a considerable number of low 68 budget films that dealt with the mod youth culture and competed with AIP for the youthful audience.

No longer relating to the need of the youth, the 27 industry's films lost patrons. During the Thirties more than 90 million moviegoers attended films regularly each week. In the mid-Sixties that figure had been 28 halved. Also, business conglomerates began engulfing studio complexes. By 1966 United Artists had merged with

Transamerica, Paramount was part of Gulf & Western,

Warners would ally itself with Seven Arts and then with

Kinney ·communications, Columbia merged with Screen Gems, and so on. While these corporate mergers would later net new forms of profitmaking, at that time it meant that cal- culating executives were calling the shots instead of the 29 veteran industry moguls. In 1968 the Hollywood magnates woke up to the profit potential in youth films. The critical and box-office success of Joseph E. Levine and Mike Nichols' The Graduate

(1968) opened the way for Easy Rider (1969), Midnight Cow- boy (1969), and Alice's Restaurant (1969), all of which explored the current culture, all of which utilized rock music in their soundtracks, and all of which did well at 30 the box office.

In 1969 the Motion Picture Association of America

(MPAA) reported that box-office sales were up; 94.4 million people bought tickets for the movies at least one 69 time. The Seventies continued to build on the young audience so that the largest gains in attendance from the movie-going audience between 1977 and 1979 has been in the

12 to 20 age group, where attendance was up 8 percentage points. During this time the average college student saw

13 films a year, which is 31 percent more than members of the 18 to 34 age group. MPAA figures for July 1978 through August 1979 show that 113.7 million people went to at least one movie. Nearly 90 percent of those admissions were persons 12-39 years old, and those between 16 and 20 were the most frequent moviegoers, representing nearly 30 . . 31 percent o f t h e a d m1ss1ons. The film industry located its problem, targeted its audience and was again on the financial rise. The increas- ing number of films targeted specifically at the 18-35 year old market throughout the Seventies can be credited with the coinciding increase in box-office sales.

To summarize, in the 1950s the film industry, beset with financial troubles, sought new techniques to bring patrons back into the theaters. The Fifties produced a series of low-budget films that were geared toward the teen audiences. Many of the films garnered a large profit margin. Few of the youth-oriented films were produced by major film studios. In the mid-Sixties multi- nationals bought up interests in the film industry while studios engaged in their own corporate mergings. In the 70 late Sixties films that explored the current culture and utilized rock music·became increasingly popular. A pri- mary cause for this popularity was that the dominant age group that went to the movies (18-35) coincided with the nation's largest age group (in 1969, 23-year-olds).

THE FILM MUSICAL

These changes in the music industry and the film industry led to inevitable changes in their shared art form, the musical film.

As rock and roll was gaining acceptance on mid-

Fifties radio, films began to experiment with rock and roll. Some musicals, such as Rock Around the Clock (1956) were built around the music with little storyline, while others just plugged in numerous rock and roll sequences in an attempt to draw the youth audience to an otherwise weak film, as in The Girl Can't Help It (1956). In each 32 case t h e f 1'l' ms were 1 ow b u d get an d 1 ow qua 1'1ty.

The major record labels' bias against the new music carried over to the major studios. And, as in the music industry, with a few exceptions (most notably Elvis

Presley) the major studios would not support the rock and 33 ro 11 mus1ca. 1 s w1t . h maJor . cap1ta . 1 . The few rock musicals that were allowed larger budgets featured established names like Elvis Presley and Pat Boone. But even they could not compete with established Broadway adaptations 71 like Oklahoma (1955), The King and I (1956), and The 34 Pajama Game (1957).

The trend continued, and in the early Sixties those films that contained rock music were defined by critics and historians as youth films. There was no separation between those films that incorporated a few rock songs and 35 t h e mus1ca. 1 s t h at ut1'1' 1ze d roc k mus1c. .

In 1964 England's Richard Lester scored a major hit with the Beatles' first feature length film, A Hard Day's

Night. The import was a critical and box-office success and, coupled with the fact that the British Invasion was in full swing, should have resulted in larger budget films of the same nature. However, it was overshadowed the following year by the enormous success of The Sound of

Music (1965). In Hollywood the big budgets went back to the traditional musicals and, the few rock musicals produced attempted to imitate the plot and success of A

Hard Day's Night but remained for the most part, low 36 budget and low quality . Yet as the decade progressed the decision to go with traditional musicals .proved to be a mistake. Multi-million dollar musicals like Star! (1968),

Dr. Dolittle (1967), Camelot (1967), Goodbye Mr. Chips 37 (1969), and Hello Dolly (1969) were box-office failures.

As FM radio increased in popularity and more AOR stations formed, and as rock album sales continued to increase, the film industry, now looking to attract the 72

18-35 age group, began experimenting with the new music (just as they had in the Fifties). Producing semi-

documentary films about the alternative culture (Medicine

Ball Caravan [1971], Celebration at Big Sur ,[1971], Wood­

stock [1970]) the new music musicals continued to be pro- duced on a low budget and, in most cases, generated a low

box office draw.

The film musical saw a definite slump in the early Seventies. The film industry, still unable to success-

fully integrate rock music into the musical format, settled for using rock music on the soundtracks of non- musical films (Two Lane Blacktop [1971]) or putting a rock

artist in a traditional musical format (Lady Sings The 38 Blues [1972]). Both methods worked. The film industry

targeted in on their desired audience with the new music,

while the music received greater ·exposure than the radio medium could alone offer it. Still, other than a few

notable exceptions (Cabaret [1972], That's Entertainment

[1974]) very few musical films were being produced by the major studios. When the major studios did bring back the musical,

in 1973, it was with rock music. Ken Russell's rock opera

T ommy 1 e d t h e way f or t h e rest o f t h e d eca d e 1 s mus1ca• 1 s. 39 Two key factors to the success of the new rock musical were the broadened demographics of the rock music audience

and the new corporate structure of the entertainment 73 industry.

Tommy was the first musical to benefit from this new 40 corporate structure. The conglomerate buys and mergings of the Sixties facilitated multi-media and cross- promotion so that film, television, radio, and record companies would all share the same corporate umbrella.

With Tommy, as with the future film musicals, the film and record companies not only shared a product, but were after the same audience. Mutual decisions on the release date of the soundtrack album and the film, co-opted time buys and commercial production evidenced this new merging of efforts. 41 The cross-promotion process was perfected to formulaic standards with vehicles like A Star Is Born and

Grease. 42

From 1975 to 1979 more than 80 percent of the musical films released contained a soundtrack by rock artists rather than traditional film composers. The cross- promoting techniques became integral to the film and soundtrack release. According to one record industry executive quoted in the Los Angeles Times, "Movies have proven to be unquestionably the best way to sell records -they're the ultimate commercial." 43 So important was the cross-promotion process that the decade's most publicized failure in the genre, Sgt. Pepper's Lonely

Heart's Club Band (1978) cited the "inability to use the music of Sgt. Pepper to pre-sell the motion picture" as 74 the prime cause of the film's failure, which, in turn 44 "killed the soundtrack."

Thus in the mid-Seventies the musical film adopted rock music as a standard element of the gen~e. This was made possible by the increase in the popularity of rock music, the film industry's desire to target the 18 to 35 year old audience, and the conglomerate status of the entertainment industry which facilitated cross-promotion techniques. To summarize, the initial bias against rock music in the Fifties carried over into the film industry. Thus, the major studios would not support musicals that utilized rock music with major capital. The rock musicals were termed teen films and grouped with all youth-oriented films by the critics and historians. In the late Sixties, the box-office failure of the traditional musical film coupled with the success of films that utilized rock music on their soundtracks generated major studio interest and, subsequently, production of rock musicals. Further production was prompted by the mutual corporate holdings of the film and music industries (which facilitated shared profits as well as cross-promotion) as well as a shared target audience.

CONCLUSION

Numerous factors contributed to the development of the rock musical. These included the increasing popularity 75 of rock-styled music since 1955, the rise of AOR radio stations on the FM band, the competition from television which fo~ced the film industry to build a new audience, the similar demographics of the patrons of the film and music industries, the national acceptance of rock music, and the corporate mergings and conglomerate buys in the entertainment industry which facilitated cross-promotion techniques. Although films with rock and roll music have existed since 1955, these factors were required for those films to gain mass appeal and the subsequent legitimization into the musical film genre. These sociological and financial

--rather than artistic--variables show the importance of the middleman factor in the development of the musical film genre. 76

FOOTNOTES

1. Donald Dunlop, "Popular Culture and Methodology," Journal of Popular Culture 36 (Winter 1975) :375.

2~ Steve Chapple and Reebee Garofalo, Rock and Roll Is Here to Pay (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1977), p. 39.

3 . Ibid. I p. 3 0 .

4. Ibid. I p. 59. 5. Ibid.

6 . Ibid. I p. 6 0 •

7. Ibid., p. 46.

8 . Ibid. I p. 4 3.

9. Ibid. I p. 4 9 .

10. Ibid. I p. 53.

11. Ibid. I p. 107.

12. Ibid. I p. 71.

13. Ibid. I p. 75.

14. Ibid., p. 76. 15. Ibid.

16. CBS Annual Report 1973, p. 8 (as based on data from McCann Erikson, Inc., and CBS Broadcast Group Economics and Research).

17. Marjorie Rosen, Popcorn Venus (New York: Avon, 1974), p. 286.

18. Martin Quiqley Jr., and Richard Gertner, Films in America (New York: Golden Press, 1970), p. 205.

19. Rosen. 77

2 0. Ibid., p. 300.

21. Ibid., P· 311. 22. Chapple and Garofalo, p. 32.

23. Rosen, p. 335.

24. Ibid., p. 336.

25. Ibid.

26. Ibid., p. 338.

27. Ibid.

28. Ibid. , p. 341. 29. Chapple and Garofalo, pp. 202-213.

30. Charles Schreger, "Crystal Ball Gazing at AFI Con­ ference," Los Angeles Times, October 15, 1979, sec. 4, p. 10.

31. Ibid. 32. Philip Jenkinson and Alan Warner, Celluloid Rock (London: Lorrimer, 1974), p. 18.

33. Ibid.

34. Bosley Crowther, "Survey of Movies: Out of Crisis They Achieve Stability," New York Times, February 6, 19 55 , sec . 2 , p . 5 .

35. Vincent Canby, Virtuous Films Good As Gold," New York Times, December 22, 19~5, p. 33, and Eliot Tiegal, 11 UI To Roll Em On Rock Films," Billboard, October 30, 1955, p. 1.

36. Jenkinson and Warner.

37. Vincent Canby, "Whatever Happened to Movie Musicals?", New York Times, July 7, 1974, sec. 2, p. 1, and Steve Simels, "Rock Goes to the Movies," Stereo Review, June 1978, p. 83. 38. Nat Freedland, "Rock and Film Roll Past Woodstock," Billboard, August 8, 1971, p. 28.

39. John Leverence, "Promoting Tommy," Journal of Popular Culture, 32 (Winter 1974) :465. 78

40. Ibid.

41. Ibid.

42. Ellen Farley and William K. Knoedeldeder Jr., "The Magical Musical Formula of Turning Coal into Gold," Los Angeles Times, September 30, 1979, Calendar, p. 7.

43. Ibid. I p. 6.

44. Susan Peterson, "Selling a Hit Soundtrack," Bill­ board, October 16, 1979, p. ST2. Chapter 5

THE MUSICAL FILM 1955-1979

INTRODUCTION

This chapter lists the titles of all films belonging to the genre of the musical film in a chronological order from 1955 through 1979. All musicals named in this chap­ ter adhere to the definitions set down in the introduction of this study are listed in this chapter.

In addition, the chapter offers prominent details from each film. These details include source (Broadway, book, remake of another film) producer, director, star(s), songs, publicity, synopsis, and Academy Awards. Each film title is not accompanied with all of these details, but rather the detail (or details) that can be termed as important to the definition and status of the film. The details included are those that the researcher deems significant to include for (1) the purpose of recognizing the film's contribution to the genre, or (2) for the pur­ pose of future research in the field. (The researcher acknowledges that the selection of detail presented on each film is a subjective endeavor. However, the details offered do not substantiate or eliminate any film's inclusion into the genre, but merely serve as a form of

79 80 further identification, rather than just presenting the film titles.) Much of this additional information is offered to facilitate future research of the genre. This includes the naming of two non-musical films that strongly affected 1 the genre. These details do not include either the researcher's or published critical reviews of the films named. The decision to not state the researcher's opinion serves to ensure the objectivity of the study. Eliminat­ ing the usage of quotes by critics alleviates the possibility of subjective selection on the part of the researcher and therefore also ensures objectivity. The chapter does not attempt to draw conclusions or summarize the films produced for each year. It simply presents information on the films in an objective and comprehensive format.

The manner in which film titles are presented is not restricted by a standard format for titles within each year. The implementation of such a format would not provide for the changes within the genre that this study evidences. Thus, within any given year film titles are grouped conceptually by common factors. Those factors include source, star(s), composers (both by name and style, i.e. rock music composers or Broadway composers), theme, or style (documentary, biography, etc.). As the commonalities among the films change for each year so 81

does the grouping by which they are presented in this

chapter.

In applying the methodology described previously,

this chapter is an objective and comprehensive compilation of all film musicals (that adhere to the definitions)

between 1955 and 1979.

CHRONOLOGY

Nineteen fifty-five produced more than one dozen musicals. Of them, the largest grosser was an animated 2 Walt Disney film, Lady and The Tramp. Tramp was later

surpassed in box-office billings by one of the several 3 Broadway adaptations of the year, Oklahoma. The Rogers

and Hammerstein operetta was adapted to screen version with the initial implementation of the Todd-AO process.

The process served to capture the grandeur of the middle-

America plains.

Other musicals adapted from the stage in 1955 were

the musical comedy Kismet, an MGM production which employed

Cinemascope, and Hit the Deck which was originally staged

in 1927. The Broadway play Wonderful Town which included

lyrics by Betty Comden and Adolf Green and a score by

Leonard Berstein, was brought to the screen under the

title of the original non-musical play, My Sister Eileen.

The final cinematic borrowing from Broadway for the year was the Damon Runyon classic Guys and Dolls. With music 82 and lyrics by Frank Loesser, and starring Frank Sinatra and Marlon Branda, the Runyon classic transferred to the screen the traditional brash New York characters.

The year's remakes included Three For The $how with

Betty Grable and Marge and Gower Champion in a remake of the 1940 Jean Arthur vehicle Too Many Husbands and

Sincerely Yours a remake of George Arliss' The Man Who

Played God (1932) which starred Liberace in his first screen starring vehicle as a popular concert performer whose career comes to a halt when--like Ludwig van

Beethoven before him--he finds he can no longer hear.

Three musical biographies were produced in 1955 including Love Me or Leave Me, the Ruth Etting story,

Interrupted Melody, the story of Marjorie Lawrence,,the

Australian opera star who made a comeback after being crippled by polio, and The Seven Little Fays, a Bob Hope vehicle about vaudevillian Eddie Fay and his performing family. James Cagney's portrayal of George M. Cohan is notable.

The year also produced one adaptation from a novel one sequel and one original film musical. Daddy Long Legs, adapted from the Jean ~'lebster novel, presented Leslie

Caron as a waif and Fred Astaire as her benefactor. Gen­ tlemen Marry Brunettes, a Jane Russell vehicle, was a sequel to Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953) which starred

Russell and Marilyn Monroe. The single original musical 83 was Comden and Green's It's Always Fair Weather, a tele- vision spoof with Gene Kelly, Dan Daily, and Cyd Charisse

as an advertising genius.

Ain't Misbehavin, with Piper Laurie and Rory Calhoun was filmed under the direction of Edward Buzzell. Pete

Kelly's Blues incorporated the music of the jazz age.

The film featured Peggy Lee and Ella Fitzgerald.

The biggest hit song of the year came out of the movies, but not out of a musical. "Rock Around the Clock" by Bill Haley and his Comets was played under the opening

titles of Blackboard Jungle. The song garnered the title

"Best Reco:J;"d of 1955" by the nation's juke-box operators

and in the annual Cash Box poll. Billboard awarded its

Triple Crown Award as a result of the song's climb to the

top of the record charts. The popularity of the song and, by association, the film, spawned a new style of musical

in 1956.

1956

Adaptations continued in 1956. Broadway lent the

screen Rodgers and Han~erstein's Carousel. Rodgers and

Hammerstein's The King and I was also adapted. By the end of the year The King and I was number 14 in all-time 4 box office grossing, according to Variety. Anything

Goes, originally produced on the stage in 1934, and then

filmed in 1936 with Bing Crosby and Ida Lupine was remade 84 with Mitzi Gaynor in Lupine's role and new songs· by James

Van Heusen and Sammy Cahn added to the original Cole

Porter score. Another Broadway musical. from decades

before, Funny Faae, had originally been pro4uced in 1927

with Adele and Fred Astaire. The 1956 film version sub­

stituted Audrey Hepburn for Adele Astaire. The Opposite

Sex was an adaptation of Clare Boothe's stage play The

Women. The classic version of the play was filmed by MGM

in 1939. This newest adaptation added five new songs by

Nicholas Brodszky and Sarmny Cahn.. The numbers were neatly integrated into the plot.

In the sole remake of the year Michael Curtiz

directed Kathryn Grayson and Oreste Kirkop (hailed as a

new star) in the Friml operetta, The Vagabond King. The

original was made in 1930. Nineteen fifty-six produced

two more biographical musicals. The Benny Goodman Story

and The Eddy Duahin Story glorified the lives and loves

of the two bandleaders. Steve Allen portrayed Goodman

and Tyrone Power stood as Duchin.

The year produced seven original musicals. Nicholas Broadszky and Sammy Cahn provided the music and lyrics

for the Dan Daily-Cyd Charisse film, Meet Me In Las Vegas

about an on-again, 6ff-again romance between a rancher and

a ballet star.

The rest of the original film musicals of 1956

utilized rock music rather than scores provided by 85 traditional film composers. Capitalizing on the success of the hit song, American International's Rock Around The

Clock featured Bill Haley and his Comets as an unknown band that comes to New York and makes it big. Renowned rock disc-jockey Alan Freed lent his presence to the film.

A sequel, Don't Knock The Rock, was produced only months later with the same stars and only slightly different story. Universal's Rock Pretty Baby was to become the prototype of rock and roll films centering on a high school rock group's efforts to win a big-time musical contest. The film starred Sal Mineo and John.Saxon.

Shake~ Rattle and Rock highlighted the talents of Fats Domino and was produced by American International Films.

The most successful of the 1956 rock films was a sort of cross breed entitled The Girl 'Can't Help It.

Featuring the acting of Tom Ewell, Edmond O'Brien and

Jayne Mansfield and the music of Gene Vincent, Eddie

Cochran, Fats Domino, Nino Tempo and Little Richard. The

Girl Can't Help It reached beyond the now established youthful rock movie audience. The studio publicized the film as a Jayne Mansfield comedy, thereby reaching beyond 5 the established rock movie audience.

A new film star debuted in 1956. Elvis Presley starred in Love Me Tender, originally titled "The Reno

Brothers." Producer Hal Wallis changed the title after listening to Presley render the traditional ballad "Lau~a 86

Lee" with new words "Love Me Tender, Love Me True, All My

Dreams Fulfill." Like Blackboard Jungle a year before,

Love Me Tender was not a musical (the film included only

three incidental numbers in addition to the title track) but it was nevertheless to spawn a series of new musicals.

1957

In 1957, rock musicals dominated the film musical genre terms of quantity. "Love Me Tender" became a million seller and 1957 included two Elvis Presley musicals, both of which produced million selling title songs. Loving

You, with Lizabeth Scott as the forceful press agent who contracts Elvis to the big-time and, Jailhouse Rock, which found Presley learning to play guitar in jail, established the Presley persona. Jailhouse Rock became one of the top 10 u.s. money-makers of 1957. 6 The rest of the year's rock musicals didn't fare as well. Mister Rock and Roll starred Alan Freed and was released by Paramount. The film was heavy on music (30 songs) but light on plot.

In The Big Beat the plot of a record company execu­ tive who hates rock and brings his pop-loving son into the business is notable for Fats Domino's introduction of his hit song "I'm Walkin."

The "grown-ups against the kids" theme was evidenced in Rockabilly Baby~ Rock All Night (made by Roger Corman) and Untamed Youth with Mamie Van Doren and Eddie Cochran. 87

Several of the rock musicals served to launch new stars.

Rock Around the World featured Tommy Steele while Rock

Rock Rock found Tuesday Weld lip-synching to Connie Fran­ cis.

Rock You Sinners., Bop GirZ ("It's a Rock 'n' Roll

Riot") and The Golden Disc all featured a maximum of songs and a minimum of plot. Lack of storyline in these films was evidenced in the credits. Rather than crediting a screenwriter several of these films merely said "mise en scene by-." Both The Golden Disc and Rock You Sinners were English imports. A third 1957 import, 6.5 Special, had no story and served simply as a showcase for various artists.

Jamboree and Harlem Rock and RaZZ were both unusual in their blending of traditional jazz music with rock and roll. Jamboree included Count Basie with Connie Francis and Harlem Rock and RaZZ featured Duke Ellington and The

Clovers ("Love Potion Number Nine"). Calypso Heatwave, produced by Sam Katzman, featured The Treniers, The

Hi-Lo's, and Joel Grey.

The more traditional musical format was seen in three original films in 1957. Let's Be Happy found Tony

Martin and Vera Ellen searching for a castle and each other in Scotland. Les Girls offered Cole Porter tunes and George Kelly, Kay Kendall, and Mitzi Gaynor as vaudevillians. The traditional musical's contribution to 88 ~ . the youth scene came with Pat Boone and Shirley Jones in

April Love, a remake of the 1948 film Scudda Hoof Scudda

Hey!, and Pat Boone with Janet Gaynor and Terry Moore in

Bernadine.

Two more biographies came out of the musical genre in 1957. The Joker Is Wild which starred Frank Sinatra as

Joe E. Lewis, the Prohibition-era singer who was almost ruined by a gangster and then switched to comedy, won an

Oscar for best song, 11 All The Way ... Ann Blyth lip-synched

Gogi Grant's bluesy torch songs in the melodramatic Helen

Morgan Story. The Pajama Game, based on 7~ Cents was true to the Broadway production. The only major difference between the stage and screen productions was the substi­ tution of Doris Day for Janis Paige's role of Babe. PaZ

Joey, 11 Broadway's first adult musical .. had debuted in 1940, with music by Rodgers and Hart and book by John O'Hara.

Frank Sinatra starred as the nightclub performer with ambition and minimal morals. The film's songs included

11 Betwitched, Bothered and Bewildered, .. "My Funny Valen­ tine," "The Lady Is A Tramp," and the notable "What Is A

Man .. dream sequence. Lastly, Fred Astaire and Cyd

Charisse starred in the adaptation of the 1955 Cole

Porter stage success, Silk Stockings, which in turn was based on the Greta Garbo vehicle, Ninotchka (1939). The

Girl Most Likely., a remake of Tom Dick and Harry (1941), starred Jane Powell as a woman choosing between three men. 89

Gower Chamption choreographed the film. J. Arthur Rank released the documentary The Bolshoi Ballet in 1957. The noteworthy direction by Paul Czinner found the camera anchored at stage center foreground in an effort to capture the foot movements of the famous ballet company with this "new technique. 11

1958

In 1958, Elvis Presley produced another million­ selling song and the screen adapted two more Broadway plays. King Creole, released in June for the teen audiences, offered Presley his first opportunity at true dramatic acting in this Michael Curtiz directed piece on Bourbon Street honky-tonk life-style. Out of the dozen songs in the film, it was Presley's 11 Hard-Headed Woman" that was pulled as a single and subsequently sold a million copies.

Presley received some competition on the screen in 1958 from Tommy Sands. In Sing Boy Sing, Sands portrayed the rising young star victimized by cold-blooded manager

Edmond O'Brien. His second film of the year, Mardi Gras, co-cast him with teen idol Pat Boone in a film designed to appeal to all age groups. With Sands and Boone to appeal to the young and music by Sammy Fain and Paul

Webster (in an effort not to limit the audience to the young) Mardi Gras adapted the Hollywood Canteen plot of winning a date with a star, from the Army to the more collegiate Virginia Military Academy. 90

The only multi-artist rock and roll film to appear in

1958 was Keep It Cool which featured seven pop artists, including Danny and the Juniors and Paul Anka.

Broadway donated the 1949 Rodgers and Harnrnerstein production South Paeifie to the screen with Mitzi Gaynor and Rosanne Brazzi in the roles originated by Mary Martin and Ezio Pinza. The production featured the Todd-AO process and ran close to three hours. Another adaptation was Damn Yankees, the 1955 stage musical that produced the songs "You Gotta Have Heart" and

"Whatever Lola Wants" by Richard Adler and Jerry Ross.

The film introduced Gwen Verdon to the screen as the temptress Lola.

Another adaptation, this time from_ a novel, cast

Leslie Caron in the title role of Gigi based upon the work by Colette. The notable aspect of the film, which also starred Maurice Chevalier and Louis Jordan, was the screenplay by-Allan Jay Lerner. With Frederick Lowe,

Lerner wrote the lyrics and music for this as well as for My Fair Lady, adapting it to resemble My Fair Lady in a

French milieu. At this time, Lady was in its third year on Bnoadway. Say One For Me starred Bing Crosby as a priest who gets mixed up with a chorus girl (Debbie Reynolds) .

The only musical biography in 1958 was St. Louis

Blues which starred Nat "King" Cole as W. C. Handy, the 91

renowned jazz coronet pl~yer. The film boasted a cast

that included Eartha Kitt, Pearl Bailey, Cab Calloway,

Ella Fitzgerald (who portrayed herself), Mahalia Jackson,

and Ruby Dee. A black and white documentary on Louis Armstrong,

called Satchmo the Great 3 followed the jazz musician on a tour of Europe and Africa. The hour-long film was an

expansion of footage originally made by Edward R. Murrow. The final contribution to the year was a low-budget

tribute to the Nashville sound entitled Country Music

Holiday, which featured Drifting Johnny Miller and Perlin

Husky along with Rocky Graziano and Zsa Zsa Gabor.

1959

The next two years produced a total of 21 musical

films. Almost one-third of those were rock musicals from

1959. Several of the films had little to offer in terms of stars (filmic or musical) or story. Among these were

Jazzboat, a British effort with Ted Heath as the strug­ gling young musician and Idle on Parade, also British, which cast Anthony Newley as rock and roller, "Jeep Jackson." The British continued to donate to the rock musical scene with Expresso Bongo, a musical comedy that launched the career of Cliff Richard. The American vehicle of the year was Jukebox Rhythm which featured Jack Jones as the 92 new young pop star. The film was produced by Sam Katzman who had produced Rock Around the Clock.

The now overused plot of the disc jockey discovering young talent was again applied in Go Johnny ,Go. Produced and mostly written by Alan Freed, the film starred Jimmy Clanton (as Johnny Melody), with Eddie Cochran and Ritchie Valens. The hit single "Angel Face" was presented by Clanton in the film.

Louis Prima and Keely Smith starred in two films in

1959. Hey Boy! Hey Girl! was highlighted with Smith and

Prima's rendition of "That Old Black Magic." Their second contribution, Senior Prom, also feat~red Mitch Miller.

Bridging the gap between rock and traditional musical biography was The Gene Krupa Story. Utilizing a familiar success-story line--young determined musician conquers the jazz world, makes mistakes and is on the outs, then finally returns to his sweetheart and success--The Gene

Krupa Story featured Sal Mineo and James Darren who were both box-office draw for the youth audience. Nineteen fifty-nine's other biography, The Five Pennies, had a similar plot, but starred the more established Danny Kaye as jazzman Red Nichols. The film featured established musicians such as Louis Armstrong (as himself), Bob Crosby, Bobby Troup, Ray Anthony, and Shelly Manne.

Two more Broadway musicals hit the screen in 1959.

LiZ Abner, the 1956 play based upon Al Capp's 1935 comic 93 strip, carne to the screen with music and lyrics by Johnny

Mercer and Gene DePaul and direction by Melvin Frank (who co-wrote the script with producer Norman Panama). The cast remained essentially the same in the film adaptation with Peter Palmer in the lead and Stubby Kay as Marryin'

Sam, but substituted Leslie Parrish for Edie Adams' Daisy

Mae and Stella Stevens for Tina Louise's Appassionata von

Climax. The second adaptation was triple Academy Award winner

Porgy and Bess. The film was directed by Otto Preminger·

(Reuben Mamoulian had directed the 1935 stage production as well as the original play Porgy in 1927) with a screen­ play by N. Richard Nash. Sidney Poitier, Dorthy Dandridge,

Sammy Davis Jr., and Pearl Bailey brought the Dorothy and

Dubose Heyward play and George and Ira Gershwin music and lyrics· to the screen in Technicolor and Todd-AO. The

"lyric drama" or "folk opera" which portrayed the lives of blacks on Catfish Row, an old slum quarter in Charleston, South Carolina, featured the classic songs "Summertime,"

"Bess You Is My Woman," "I Got Plenty O' Nuttin" and "It

Ain't Necessarily So."

The final contribution of the year was Never SteaZ

Anything SmaZZ. The film, which focused on union politics featured James Cagney in the lead role which continued his

"public enemy" persona with his singing and dancing

"Yankee Doodle Dandy." Shirley Jones co-starred. 94

1960

Nineteen sixty saw a total of six musical films, two of which were Broadway adaptations.

Bells Are Ringing brought Judy Holliday over from her stage role as Ella Peterson in love with playboy Jeff Moss (Dean Martin). The Comden and Green and Jule Styne screenplay was written for Holliday. Songs included "Just

In Time" and "The Party's Over." The second adaptation,

Can-Can had an all-star cast, which included Frank

Sinatra, Shirley MacLaine, Maurice Chevalier, and Louis

Jordan, and introduced Juliet Prowse. The Cole Porter-Abe

Burrows musical had played Broadway in 1953.

The year's biography was Song Without End with Dirk

Bogarde and Capucine as Franz Liszt and Princess Carolyne.

The film was notable for the nearly continuous presenta­ tion of Liszt's music (as well as some by Wagner,

Paganini, Beethoven, Chopin, and Verdi) performed by

Jorge Bolet in the piano pieces as well as the Roger

Wagner Chorale and the Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra.

The score won an Oscar. Also of note is that the film began production under the direction of Charles Vidor who died during filming after which the task was taken up by

George Cukor.

Bing Crosby portrayed a middle-aged collegiate (com­ plete with beanie) in the Blake Edwards directed High

Time. Fabian and Tuesday Weld headed up the rest of the 95 student body.

Elvis Presley returned from the army and starred in

G.I. Blues with Juliet Prowse. Presley's post-induction image found him proper and polite in contrast to his pre- khaki young ruffian image.

Jazz On A Summer's Day, a film shot at the Newport

Jazz Festival, was the first "live experience" musical film. The film, relatively low in budget, introduced a style of live musical filmmaking that would not reach its potential until the late 60's and 70's.

1961

The most popular film of 1961 was West Side Story.

The film won 10 Academy Awards and was the number one picture in box-office billing to that year. Directed by

Robert Wise and Jerome Robbins and starring Natalie Wood,

George Chakiris, Richard Beymer, Russ Tamblyn, and Rita

Moreno, the film adopted the Broadway musical about Puerto Rican and American youths on the streets of New

York caught up in a Montague/Capulet rivalry. The choreography earned Jerome Robbins a special statuette from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for his "brilliant achievements in the art of choreography on f l.'l m. ,7

The year's other two Broadway adaptations included

Joseph Fields and Rodgers and Hamrnerstein's Flower Drum 96

Song. The play, which opened in December 1958 was based on a book by Chin Y. Lee dealing with Old World and New

World Chinese customs in San Francisco's Chinatown. The other adaptation, Fanny, starred Horst Buchholtz and

Leslie Caron in the film version of the 1958 musical play.

A notable aspect of the transition was that much of the

Harold Rome score was relegated to background music in the film.

Two more Elvis Presley vehicles were produced in 1961 although only one of them, Blue Hawaii, was a musical.

The film, directed by Norman Taurog, was expensive escapist fare. Billed as "The Big Fun-Time Song-Time 8 Best-Time Show of Your Life, Blue Hawaii introduced two hit songs, "Rock-A-Hula Baby" and "Can't Help Falling in

Love."

Two rock musicals of 1961 capitalized on the latest dance fad. Twist Around The Clock and Hey Let's Twist revolved around the 1960 chart success "The Twist" per- formed initially by Hank Ballard and the Midnighters and more successfully by Chubby Checker. Twist Around The

Clock featured Dion, Clay Cole, and Chubby Checker, who sang "Twistin USA" and "Merry Twistmas." The film's bill­ 9 ing called it "Twist-eriffic." Hey Let's Twist starred

Joey Dee and the Starlighters and featured the number one song, "Peppermint Twist."

Other rock musicals in 1961 included Richard Lester's 97

It's Trad Dad which featured Del Shannon, Gene Vincent,

Chubby Checker, John Peyton, and Gary (U.S.) Bonds,

Teenage Millionaire with Chubby Checker and Dion, and The

Young Ones, which starred Cliff Richard in "The First Film to Have Three Tunes in The Top Ten." Walt Disney con­ tributed to the teen musical scene with Babes in Toyland, the Laurel and Hardy film of Victor Herbert's operetta which was remade with Tommy Sands and Annette Funicello along with Ray Bolger. Pat Boone was cast as a sailor in the musical comedy All Hands on Deck. The film was directed by Norman Taurog who directed most of Elvis

Presley's films.

Lastly, Paris Blues starred Paul Newman and Sidney

Poitier as two American jazzmen abroad. The film, which found them romantically involved with Joanne Woodward and

Diahann Carroll, also featured Louis Armstrong.

1962

Nineteen sixty-two brought two more Broadway musicals to the screen, but the rest of the year's musical films were geared toward a young audience.

Gypsy, the 1959 musical biography of Gypsy Rose Lee, was brought to the screen with Natalie Wood in the title role and Rosiland Russell as Mama Rose. The musical, with music by Jule Styne and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim, was directed by Mervyn Leroy and included the songs 98

"Everythings Coming Up Roses" and "Let Me Entertain You."

The Music Man was originally set to be a television special for CBS in 1955. The deal was cancelled and in

1957 The Music Man opened on Broadway. Meredith Willson and Franklin Lacey's musical starred Robert Preston as

"Professor"Harold Hill, a musical instrument.salesman who comes to River City, Iowa to sell his product and move on, but ends up staying and forming a band as well as a rela­ tionship with Shirley Jones as Marian (the librarian) .

Songs included "76 Trombones" and "Till There Was You."

The youth fare included two more Elvis Presley musi­ cals. Kid Galahad, which found Elvis as a neophyte prize­ fighter, contained only six songs. However, their utilization in the film exceeded that of incidental music.

Girls Girls Girls co-cast Presley with Stella Stevens and

Laurel Goodwin as his wealthy love interest. Presley portrayed a nightclub singer whose first love is boats, but his pride can't take it when Goodwin buys him one.

The problem resolves itself and they build a new boat together. The film produced the hit song "Return to

Sender."

The Twist saw a sequel in 1962 with Don't Knock The

Twist. Produced by Sam Katzman, the film showed yet another disc-jockey trying to put together a (television) show for the kids. Don't Knock The Twist featured Chubby

Checker ("in his greatest roll"), Gene Chandler, Vic Dana, 99 and Linda Scott. Chubby Checker was also featured in

Ring-A-Ding Rhythm with Helen Shapiro and John Leyton.

Canada contributed LoneZy Boy a semi-documentary produc­ tion on Paul Anka. The British imported Live It Up, starring David Hemmings and featuring Gene Vincent, Sounds Incorporated, The Saints and The Outlaws. The final rock offering, Two Tickets to Paris starred Joey

Dee (of 11 Peppermint Twist" fame) as a young man involved in a shipboard romance.

The balance of the year's musicals did not contain rock music, but were geared for a youth audience through either style or stars. Too Late BZues, directed by John Cassavetes, starred teen idol Bobby Darin as the lead man in a small-time jazz combo. Pat Boone starred in a remake of Oscar Hamrnerstein's 1945 film State Fair, which also starred Bobby Darin, Pamela Tiffin, and Ann Margaret. Gay

Purr-ee featured the established voices of Judy Garland and Robert Goulet in an animated feature.

1963

Nineteen sixty-three bro~ght one more Broadway adap­ tation, two more Presley musicals and several more low­ budget rock musicals.

Broadway gave Bye Bye Birdie to the screen. The

1960 musical about an Elvis Presley-like character,

"Conrad Birdie" and his manager's promotional gimmick of 100 having Birdie's last kiss prior to military induction per- formed on the Ed Sullivan show, featured Janet Leigh, Dick

Van Dyke, Ann Margaret, Bobby Rydell, Paul Lynde, and

Jessee Pearson as Birdie.

The real Elvis portrayed a bush pilot who falls for a nurse in Seattle in It Happened At The World's Fair, and as a singing lifeguard/ex-trapeze artist who is chased by

Ursula Andress in Fun In Acapulco.

A British lookalike for Elvis, Billy Fury, appeared in Play It Cool, which was directed by Michael Winner.

Other rock films included Just For Fun, which offered an extensive line-up of artists including the Springfields, the Tremeloes, Bobby Vee, Freddie Cannon, and the

Crickets. Other films boasting a line-up of rock talent were It's All Happening (Tommy Steele, Shane Fenton, and the Fentones) and Hootenany Hoot (Brothers Four, Joe and

Eddie, Johny Cash). Out of the beach genre came The

Horror of Party Beach which was billed as "the first' 10 horror musical."

1964

Musicals were top winners in the Academy Awards of

1964. My Fair Lady, based upon George Bernard Shaw's

Pygmalion opened on Broadway in 1956 and ran for 2,717 consecutive performances. In its transition to the screen, the leading role of Eliza Doolittle was portrayed by 101

Audrey Hepburn (and Marni Nixon's voice) in lieu of Julie Andrews. The film won Academy Awards for best picture,

best actor (Rex Harrison), best director (George Cukor),

best scoring (adaptation), costume design (color), sound, and art direction.

Mary Poppins, which was produced out of the Walt

Disney studios cast Julie Andrews as the magical nanny of

P. L. Travers' book. The Richard M. and Robert B. Sherman

scored film won academy awards for best actress, score

(original) song, editing, and special visual effects.

Another adaptation, The Unsinkable Molly Brown, based

upon the story of Molly Tobin, who survived the Titanic disaster, was adapted from the Broadway musical of the

same name. The film starred Debbie Reynolds. Three Elvis Presley vehicles emerged in 1964.

Roustabout had Elvis working on a carnival midway, Viva

Las Vegas cast him as a speed-racing bellhop (with Ann

Margaret as a pool manager), and Kissin Cousins saw twin

Elvises, one a G.I. scout and the other a country bumpkin.

Nineteen sixty-four brought the cinematic debut of the newest pop fad, the Beatles. A Hard Day's Night directed by Richard (It's Trad Dad) Lester followed the

"Lads from Liverpool" from their arrival in London, through press conferences and parties, to the taping of a

television special. Lester's decision to utilize "wild

shots" and allow his camera and microphones considerable 102 latitude contributed to the free-wheeling effect of the film. The music emerged naturally from the narrative, and the film was the first rock musical, other than Presley vehicles, to receive positive notices from the legitimate press.

Another important rock film emerged in 1964. Gather

No Moss was the first full length feature film obtaining a circuit release to base its entire action on the spontane­ ous happenings at a live concert. The film was staged at the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium in the summer of 1964, with director Steve Binder utilizing hand-held 16 rnrn equipment with fast stock that reduced the lighting requirements. The film featured Chuck Berry, the Beach

Boys, James Brown, the Supremes, the Rolling Stones, and

Gerry and the Pacemakers.

British rack and roll stars were at the top of the musical charts in America, but few of the British rock films were able to get a full circuit release. Important films Just For You with Peter and Gordon and the Bachelors and I've Gatta Horse, with Billy Fury as a pop star in love with his horse (with music by David--Half A Sixpence·

-Heneker), both received limited distribution in the

United States. Similarly, It's All Over Town, which featured the top-charted Hollies along with the Spring­ fields and Frankie Vaughn, was only distributed in major markets. Universal distributed Sing and Swing, which 103 starred David Hemmings and featured music by Kenny Ball and Norrie Paramor.

The American teen films had utilized the beach genre with Bikini Beaah~ Musale Beaah Party~ Surf,Party, and

Ride the Wild Surf, all of which contained incidental rock music. Frequent stars of the genre, Annette Funicello and

Tommy Kirk lent their talents to Pajama Party, an American

International musical about a Martian teenager.

Get Yourself a College Girl starred Mary Ann Mobley with Nancy Sinatra, Chad Everett, the Dave Clark Five, the

Animals, and the Standells. Nineteen sixty-four also produced a biography of Hank

Williams entitled Your Cheatin Heart. Casting included

Red Buttons, Arthur O'Connell, George Hamilton, and Susan

Oliver.

1965

The Sound of Musia was the only non-rock musical of

1965. The Academy Award winning film became the number one box-office grosser for the year, displacing Gone With

The Wind (1939). The film remained the top musical until

1978, when it was displaced by Grease. The score marked the final collaboration of Rodgers and Hammerstein. The musical debuted on the stage in 1959 with Mary Martin

(who conceived the idea) in the lead. Julie Andrews took the lead in the film and Christopher Plummer portrayed 104

Captain Georg von Trapp. Notable is director Robert

Wise's opening shot. Utilizing a helicopter Wise pans the

snow-capped Alps and then zooms down onto Andrews in a

green pasture. This is almost identical to,his opening

shot in West Side Story in which he opens wide overhead

on a shot of Manhattan and allows the camera to search the city until it closes in on a playground on the west side.

The second Beatles film was produced in 1965 and was

followed by a series of zany-styled British rock movies.

Help! put John Lennon, George Harrison, Ringo Starr, and Paul McCartney on run from a religious cult in pursuit of

one of Ringo's rings. Like A Hard Day's Night 3 Help! was more of a romp than a story.

Ferry Cross the Mersey had been produced in England in 1964 and got its American debut as a result of the

Beatle's first success. Similarly Seaside Swingers was originally titled Everyday's a Holiday when it debuted in England in 1964. The film starred John Leyton with

Freddie and the Dreamers. Be My Guest starred David

Hemmings with Jerry Lee Lewis, the Zephyrs, and the Nash­ ville Teens. Pop Gear, which was released in America under the title Go Go Mania featured the Animals, Herman's

Hermits, Matt Monroe, and newsreel footage of the Beatles.

Gonks Go Beat adopted the outer space plot of Pajama Party with the music of Lulu and the Luvvers, Graham Bond

Organization, and the Nashville Teens. Dateline Diamonds 105 featured the Small Faces and Kiki Dee in the story of a fictitious radio station. And Go Go Big Beat featured a line-up of talent including the Animals, the Hollies, Lulu and the Luvvers, the Merseybeats, and Mods and Rockers.

America attempted to duplicate the style and success of A Hard Day's Night with Hold On!, which starred the

British band Herman's Hermits. And Catch Us If You Can

(also released under the title, Having A Wild Weekend) featured the Dave Clark Five in a fast paced romp with music.

The beach genre produced Beach Ball featuring Edd

Byrnes with the Supremes, the Four Seasons, the Righteous

Brothers, and the Hondells, and Girls On The Beach about kids who (mistakenly) think they've booked the Beatles for their high school hop. In lieu of the Beatles, the film starred the Beach Boys with Leslie Gore and the Crickets.

Basically the beach genre with snow instead of sand and surf, Ski Party featured James Brown and Leslie Gore with

Frankie Avalon and Deborah Walley. And Winter-A-Go-Go starred James Stacy and William Wellman Jr. with the

Nooney Ricketts Four and the Reflections.

When The Boys Meet The Girls, starring Connie

Francis, Harve Presnell, Herman's Hermits, Louis

Armstrong, Sam the Sham and the Pharohs, and Liberace, was a remake of the Mickey Rooney-Judy Garland film, Girl Crazy (1943). A Swingin Summer featured the Righteous 106

Brothers and Gary Lewis and the Playboys.

Elvis Presley starred in three more musicals in 1965.

GirZ Happy co-starred Shelley Fabres as the boss' daughter, musician Elvis falls for. TickZe,Me featured

Elvis as a singing rodeo rider who works on a dude ranch/ beauty spa for wealthy women. And Harum Scarum had

Presley as a motion picture and recording star who is kidnapped while on a Middle-East promotional tour.

1966

Nineteen sixty-six brought three more Elvis Presley films, two of which were musicals. In Paradise Hawaiian

StyZe, Presley as Rick Richards operated an inter-island helicopter charter service. Frankie and Johnny put

Presley in a period piece on a southern riverboat as a singer-gambler. Frankie was portrayed by Donna Douglas.

England contributed several more musicals. BZues For

Lovers was British produced but starred American bluesman

Ray Charles (as himself) . The film found Charles befriending a blind boy and trying to instill self~ reliance in him. Songs included "Unchain My Heart" and

"I Got A Woman." Disk-0-Tek Holiday was another musical line-up with Peter and Gordon, the Bachelors, the Chiffons, Freddie and the Dreamers, Freddie Cannon, the Merseybeats, and the Orchids. The film production of Englishman

Anthony Newley's Stop The WorZd I Want To Get Off was 107 produced in England with American financing. The modern­ day version of everyman starred Tony Tanner and Millicent

Martin. The film was shot using the Mitchell Camera

Corporation's newer System-35, a three-film,camera setup with added electronic view-finders permitting monitoring from a console. The Broadway musical A Funny Thing Happened On The

Way To The Forum was adapted to the screen starring Zero

Mastel, Phil Silvers, Buster Keaton, and Jack Gilford in the farce about a slave in ancient Rome. The film was directed by Richard Lester. Debbie Reynolds starred in the new musical The Sing­ ing Nun. The family film dealt with a nun who must choose between her vows and recording career. The film included the million selling song, "Dominique."

Nineteen sixty-six produced two country music oriented films. Nashville Rebe·l starred Waylon Jennings,

Tex Ritter, Sonny James, Faron Young, Loretta Lynn, and

Porter Wagoner. Road to Nashville featured Marty Robbins with Hank Snow, Waylon Jennings, the Carter Family,

Johnny Cash, Connie Smith, and Kitty Wells in a story about a promotion man putting together a country-western jamboree.

The year's teen musical was The Ghost Goes Gear which featured Spencer Davis, Steve Winwood, Mr. Acker Bill, and the Paramount Jazz Band in a story about a pop group 108

I •

establishing themselves in a stately home in England.

1967

Joshua Logan's film treatment of Lerner and Lowe's Camelot was one of two Broadway musicals to be adapted to

the screen in 1967. The film starred Richard Harris and

Vanessa Redgrave. The second adaptation, How To Succeed

in Business Without Really Trying, marked the screen debut of Michelle Lee. Produced, adapted and directed by

David Swift, the film portrayed an ambitious window washer (Robert Morse) rising to the top of a corporation with the

help of an instruction manual.

Following the success of Mary Poppins and The Sound

of Music, Julie Andrews starred in Thoroughly Modern

Millie. Directed by George Roy Hill and with a score by

Elmer Bernstein, the film, a comedy of manners and style

in the Twenties, cast Andrews as a gold digger who falls

for a stock-boy (James Fox) who turns out to be a multi­ millionaire. Carol Channing also starred as a wealthy

widow.

From his success in My Fair Lady, Rex HarrLson starred in Doctor Dolittle, based upon the Dolittle

stories by Hugh Lofting about the doctor who could talk to

an~mals. Notable is the cinematography by Robert Surtees.

Elvis Presley starred in two more musicals in 1967 .

. ; Double Trouble featured Elvis as a musician in Europe. 109

Segments of the film were shot in London (py a second unit without Presley) in an effort to capture the swinging

Londo~ scene. Clambake produced one chart hit, "Guitar Man," from this film about a millionaire's son who leaves home to make it on his own. Similar to the storyline in

Thoroughly Modern Millie, although written from a different point of view, the plot has Presley presenting himself as a pauper and gold-digging Shelly Fabres falling for him in spite of her monetary goals.

Rock and roll films dominated the movie musicals of

1967. C'mon Let's Live A Little starred Bobby Vee as a farmer-student and Jackie De Shannon as the dean's daughter in this campus musical that also featured Patsy

Kelly and Ethel Smith. The Cool Ones was a rock and roll

Star Is Born that featured Debbie Watson as the pop star on the rise, Gil Peterson as the big-name crooner on the skids, and Roddy McDowell as their mutual manager who engineers their publicity romance.

British import Privilege worked its music around a story of the British government (in cahoots with bankers, social scientists, and church representatives) forcing an idolized pop singer (Paul Jones) to give up singing songs of protest in order to lead a "Christian crusade of con­ formity."

Sonny and Cher starred as themselves in Good Times, a musical-comedy-fantasy about their run-ins with 110 filmmakers. Directed by William Freidkin, the film dis- played the pop art of the period through utilization of colorful graphics and reversing the negative. The film also starred George Sanders.

The Fastest Guitar Alive starred Roy Orbison as a guitar slinging good-guy in this Civil War/Army vs.

Indians/romantic film produced by Sam (Rock Around The

Cloak) Katzman.

The successful documentary style of Gather No Mo-ss was applied to three musical documentaries in 1967. Don't

Look Back followed Bob Dylan on a British tour featuring stage performances and informal, improvisational sessions.

The film also featured Joan Baez, Alan Price, and Donovan. Songs included were "Times They Are A-Changing" and "Gates

\ of Eden." Festival featured in-concert performances of

Dylan, Joan Baez, Johnny Cash, Judy Collins, Peter, Paul and Mary, and Donovan. Originally produced and shown by the BBC, Magical Mystery Tour was released to movie theaters in the United States. The film followed the Beatles on their psychedelic bus trip and featured the songs "Fool On The Hill," "Your Mother Should Know," and

"I Am The Walrus."

1968

Nineteen sixty-eight saw film adaptations of Broadway musicals like Half a Sixpence which originated on the 111

London stage and was based on the H. G. Wells novel Kipps~

Oliver!, which also began on the London stage and was an adaptation of Charles Dickens' story of an orphan boy in nineteenth century London, Oliver Twist~ Finian's Rainbow, which had its stage debut in 1947, was directed by Francis

Ford Coppola and starred Fred Astaire. Funny Girl, directed by William Wyler marked the film debut of Barbara

Streisand, whose portrayal of Fanny Brice won her the best actress Oscar for the year.

Julie Andrews appeared in another musical, Star! A biography of Gertrude Lawrence, the film failed at the box office and was subsequently cut to 120 minutes (from

175) and retitled Those Were The Happy Times. Dick Van

Dyke, who had co-starred in Mary Poppins was cast in

Chitty Chitty Bang Bang, a family-oriented fantasy musical based on an Ian Fleming novel. Also family-oriented was a

Walt Disney production, The One and Only Original Family

Band, which starred Walter Brennan and Buddy Ebsen (as

Brennan's son) in a film revolving around the 1888 presidential election. Another family film, Yellow

Submarine, was an animated musical about the Beatles, featuring 12 Beatle songs and animation by Heinz Edelmann.

The year also produced two live musical documentaries~

Cream Last Concert utilized a mixture of video tape and film in its chronology of the band Cream's final appear­ ance at London's Albert Hall. Monterey Pop, directed by 112

D. A. Pennebaker (Don't Look Back), captured the 1967 Pop

Festival in Monterey, California. The hand-held Eastman­ color cameras recorded performances by Jimi Hendrix, Otis

Redding, Janis Joplin, the Who, and the Animals.

Combining storyline with recording studio footage,

French director Jean-Luc Godard featured the Rolling

Stones in a film that was released under the titles Sympathy For The DeviZ and One + One. (The last reel of

Sympathy contains the complete version of the song

11 Sympathy For The Devil, 11 while One + One does not.)

Zany rock films, borrowing from Gonks Go Beat as much as A Hard Day's Night, included Pop Down, a British pro­ duction and Head, which featured the television­ popularized band the Monkees and was written and co-produced by Jack Nicholson and Bob Raphelson. The films reflected the current hippie life-style. In·the same vein, You Are What You Eat featured psychedelic graphics and the life-style of flower children with the music of the Electric Flag, Paul Butterfield, Tiny Tim, and Harper's Bizarre.

Hank Williams Jr. was featured in a Sam Katzman production, A Time to Sing.

1969

In 1969, four more musicals were adapted from the stage to the screen. Paint Your Wagon, with a score by 113

Lerner and Lowe, had been produced on Broadway in 1947. The story, set in 1883, detailed western Americana.

Directed by Joshua Logan the film starred Lee Marvin,

Clint Eastwood, Jean Seberg, and Harve Presnell., and featured the song "They Call The Wind Maria" and addi­ tional score by Lerner and Andre Previn.

Based upon Thornton Wilder's play The Matchmaker~

Hello Dolly! opened on Broadway in 1964. The film version of the musical, scored by Jerry Herman, starred Barbra

Streisand also starred in the film adaptation of Burton

Lane and Alan Jay Lerner's On A Clear Day You Can See

Forever. The film was directed by Vincent Minelli. Shirley Maclaine replaced Gwen Verdon in the transi­ tion from stage to screen of the Cy Coleman/Dorothy Fields musical Sweet Charity. Based upon the Neil Simon play

Nights of Cabiria (which was based upon a Frederico

Fellini film of the same name), Sweet Charity marked the film directorial debut of Bob Fosse and featured the song

"If They Could See Me Now."

A New York play that did not make it to Broadway, Oh!

What A Lovely War marked the film directorial debut of

Richard Attenborough. The World War I satire that creatively presented its songs starred Laurence Olivier,

John Gielgud, Ralph Richardson, Michael Redgrave, Dirk

Bogarde, and Maggie Smith.

Goodbye Mr. Chips, based upon the novel by James 114

Hilton, was a musical remake of the 1939 film that starred

Robert Donat and Greer Garson. The musical version, directed by Herbert Ross, placed Peter O'Toole and Petula

Clark in the lead roles.

Based upon the top selling song "The Alice's

Restaurant Massacre" by Arlo Guthrie, Alice's Restaurant was directed by Arthur Penn. The film utilized Guthrie's music as the narrative.

From Nashville With Music featured the talents of

Marty Robbins, Buck Owens, Merle Haggard, and Charlie

Pride in a story based in the Deep South. Also focusing on country music was the documentary musical Johnny Cash;

The Man~ His World~ His Music. The film followed Cash,

June Carter, Bob Dylan, Carl Perkins, and the Carter

Family on their bus journey from concert to concert.

1970

In 1970, the most popular (in terms of quantity) format for the movie musical was that of the documentary.

Directed by Michael Wadleigh, floodstock utilized multi­ screen images and stereo sound to capture the visual and aural events of the 1969 music festival in upstate New

York. Cutting from live performances to backstage chatter to audience events and interviews with local residents, Woodstock received the Academy Award for Best Documentary.

Let It Be documented numerous rehearsal and recording 115 sessions by the Beatles. The film's climax was an impromptu concert by the band given on the roof top of their offices/studios in London.

Carry It On followed performer Joan Baez as she traveled across the country. The film, which opened up with Baez's husband David Harris being arrested for draft evasion, featured 13 songs in concert situations. Gimme

Shelter followed The Rolling Stones to their concert at the Altamont Speedway in northern California. The music for the film was recorded on 16-track .equipment.

Elvis: That's The Way It Is presented Presley prepar­ ing for a concert and culminated in the presentation of his opening night performance in Las Vegas. Reggae pre­ sented the 1970 Carribean Music Festival at Wembley

Stadium in London. Chicago Blues featured per-formances by

Muddy Waters and Junior Wells. It's Your Thing featured the Isley Brothers at New York's Yankee Stadium. Keep On

Rockin documented a Toronto concert that featured Chuck

Berry, Little Richard, and Jerry Lee Lewis. Directed by

D. A. Pennebaker, the film received a limited release in

America until 1973 when it received a full circuit release.

The "first electric western," Zachariah, featured

Country Joe and the Fish and Doug Kershaw in a western morality play. Song of Norway presented a musical biography of composer Edvard Grieg (Edward G. Robinson) 116 which was originally conceived as an operetta for Broadway in 1944. Another adaptation of a Charles Dickens' story,

A Christmas Carol, appeared as a musical film with Albert

Finney in the title role of Scrooge. Julie Andrews

starred in Darling Lili. Directed by Blake Edwards, this musical comedy featured Andrews as a World War I Mata

Hari. The score was by Henry Mancini and Johnny Mercer.

1 971

The musical film documentary continued to dominate

the genre in 1971. Celebration At Big Sur followed in the

shadow of Woodstock in chronicling the events of an out­

door music festival in California. Medicine Ball Caravan

documented the journey of 150 American counter-culturists

to the Isle of Wight Pop Festival. Mad Dogs and English­

men was a filmed record of the 1970 American tour by Joe

Cocker and his entourage, which included Leon Russell and Claudia Linnear.

Pete Seeger ... A Song and A Stone was filmed at

Brandeis University and included performances by Johnny

Cash and Woodie Guthrie. Jimi Plays Berkeley featured

rock musician Jimi Hendrix in his 1970 Memorial Day con­

cert. Rainbow Bridge also featured performances by

Hendrix. Raga was a documentary about Indian musician­

composer-teacher (to the Beatles), Ravi Shankar. The film

featured George Harrison. Love and Music was a filmed 117

record of the 1970 pop music festival. Its alternative

title was Stamping Ground. A semi-documentary, writer­

director-composer Frank Zappa's 200 Motels presented Zappa on a road tour. However, Ringo Starr portrayed Zeppa in

this subjective scripted account that also starred

Theodore Bikel. The Harder They Come starred Jimmy Cliff who in essence portrayed himself, a Jamaican musical per­

former involved in a recording career.

Ken Russell directed two musicals in 1971. The Music

Lovers, a biography based upon the letters sent between

Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky and Nadejda Von Meek as collected and edited in the book Beloved Friend, starred Richard

Chamberlain and Glenda Jackson. The Boyfriend, based upon

Sandy Wilson's 1954 stage satire of musical extravaganzas,

starred Twiggy in the role originated by Julie Andrews.

In the film, Russell's musical numbers were choreographed

in the Busby Berkeley tradition.

Another stage adaptation, Fiddler On The Roof starred Topol as Tevye, who tries to preserve the Jewish

.tradition ·in this musical based upon the stories of Sholem

Aleichem.

Anthony Newley and Leslie Bricusse scored the children's fantasy musical Willie Wonka and The Chocolate

Factory. 118

1972

Five more concert/documentary musical films emerged in 1972. The Concert For Bangladesh was produced by

George Harrison and Allen Klien. The film which featured musical sequences by Harrison, Bob Dylan, Eric Clapton,

Ravi Shankar, and Billy Preston, was a filmed record of the benefit concert held at Madison Square Garden in 1971. Unlike the majority of the rock documentary films,'

Bangladesh eliminated the numerous zoom shots, lab created light shows, and audience participation/exploita- tion sequences that had previously identified the form.

Elvis on Tour was the second documentary to be produced on

Presley. Fillmore documented the fin~l concert at Bill

Graham's Fillmore West concert hall in San Francisco.

Bird On A Wire followed Canadian singer/songwriter

Leonard Cohen on his 1971 European tour. Yessongs recorded a concert the band Yes performed in England in 1972.

The Tony award-winning musical 1776 was adapted to the screen in 1972. Howard de Silva maintained the lead

(Ben Franklin) in both versions of the Sherman Edwards scored musical. Man of LaManeha was also adapted to the screen. The play by Dale Wasserman was based upon Miguel de Cervantes' Don Quixote. The film featured the song

"The Impossible Dream." 119

Lady Sings The BLues, the musical biography of Billie

Holiday, starred ex-Supremes lead vocalist Diana Ross.

The story of the singer's demise from drugs was directed

by Sidney J. Furie. The final adaptation of the year was Bob Fosse's Cabaret, adapted from John van Druten's play

I Am A Camera (which was based on Christopher Isherwood's

Berlin Stories). The film, which cast Liza Minnelli and

Joel Grey in 1929 Berlin, separated the music from the

dramatic action. That is, all of the songs--except one in a beer garden--were performed on the stage of the cabaret.

The characters did not break into song in the middle of

the dramatic action, a technique that had previously been

characteritic of the musical film genre.

1973

Two of the Broadway adaptations in 1973 were rock musicals. Billed as a rock opera, Jesus Christ Superstar

contained 28 musical numbers (including "I Don't Know How

To Love Him") in its depiction of the last seven days of

Christ on Earth. The musical was written on the basis of a two-record set of the rock opera written by Andrew

Lloyd-Webber and Tim Rice. GodspeZZ, another religious

rock musical, was also adapted from the stage. An update on the Gospel according to St. Matthew, GodspeZZ was shot

on location on the streets of New York City. The Stephen

Schwartz score included the song "Day By Day." Jack 120

Good's stage show Catch My SouZ, a "rock Othello" was transferred to film with Ritchie Havens, Lance Le Gault, and Tony Joe White as its stars. The American Film

Theatre produced the only non-rock and roll,adaptation of the year. Lost In The Stars (based on Alan Patron's novel Cry The Be'loved Country) was adapted to the screen with the Kurt Weill music and Maxwell Anderson book/lyrics.

Brock Peters starred. As A'lice's Restaurant utilized music as a narrative, so did 0 Lucky Man utilize the music of Alan Price. The songs comprise approximately one-third of the film and, much like a Greek chorus, offer insight into the char­ acters and explain and connect the events of the saga.

They are performed by Price, who is excluded from the film's action although seen on film.

More than a sequel, Stardust served as the conclusion in a two-film venture. The first film was That'ZZ Be The

Day. Both films starred David Essex, although they had different directors and were distributed (in America) by different companies. That'ZZ Be The Day saw Jim MacLaine

(Essex) up to the point where he purchased his first electric guitar. Stardust followed MacLaine from small club appearances through his rise to fame and an American tour. The films also featured Ringo Starr. (Although produced in 1973 Stardust did not receive American dis­ tribution until January 1974.) 121

Let The Good Times RaZZ, a semi-documentary film presented filmed segments of 1950's events and rock and roll stars with the same stars performing in new film seg­ ments. Chuck Berry, Little Richard, Fats Domino, and the Shirelles were among the artists who performed while shar­ ing a split screen with film clips of James Dean, Fidel

Castro, Elvis, or themselves.

Jimi Hendrix presented another documentary about the rock musician by combining interviews with Hendrix's father and friends with concert footage from the Monterey

Pop Festival, Woodstock, and Isle of Wight concerts.

SouZ to SouZ showed American musicians Wilson Picket and Roberta Flack in concert in Ghana. Wattstax was a filmed record of the seven-hour concert sponsored in Los

Angeles in August 1972 by the Stax Organization, a black recording company. The concert-film featured the

Dramatics, the Staple Singers, Alb~rt King, and Isaac

Hayes. I Am A Dancer, a dance documentary, presented a

93-minute portrait of Rudolf Nureyev.

1974

Nineteen seventy-four saw the adaptation of the

Broadway musical Mame (based upon Auntie Mame) to the screen. The Jerome Herman scored musical replaced Angela

Lansbury with Lucille Ball in its transition to the filmed story of the eccentric auntie. (A non-musical version of 122

the story was produced in 1958 with Rosiland Russell in

the title role.)

Like Jesus Christ Superstar, Tommy was an adaptation of a recorded (not performed) rock opera. The fantasy

story of a deaf, dumb, and blind pinball wizard who achieves idol status was directed by Ken Russell and

starred Ann Margaret, Oliver Reed, and Roger Daltrey (lead

singer of the band, the Who, who originated the score) as

Tommy.

Phantom of the Paradise combined elements of Faust,

Phantom of the Opera, and Fifties rock and roll films in a farcial rock and roll picture. Also in the Fifties style, F~ame reworked the struggling rock band versus the

bad guy (in this case, a recording company) plot. The band Slade portrayed Flame.

Musical documentaries continued to be produced. Save

The Chi~dren was a filmed record of the Black Exposition

sponsored by Operation PUSH (People to Save Humanity) at the Chicago Amphitheatre. The line-up of artists in the film included Sammy Davis Jr., Marvin Gaye, Nancy Wilson,

Roberta Flack, and Gladys Knight and the Pips. Pink F~oyd displayed the band Pink Floyd' in concert and recording

settings as well as in interview situations. The film utilized split screen, montages, and rapid cuts. Antonia:

A Portrait of a Woman was a documentary on the life of conductor Antonia Brice. The narrative of her life 123

alternated with scenes of her at work, rehearsing or

teaching. The film was produced and co-directed (with

Jill Godrnilow) by pop songstress Judy Collins. A semi­

documentary, That's Entertainment, featured,film clips of

MGM musicals from 1929 to 1958. The film was written, produced, and directed by Jack Haley Jr.

1975

Two musical documentaries were released in 1975.

Arthur Rubenstein: Love of Life was produced in 1968 and

won the Aca~erny Award for best documentary that year.

However, it was only shown for a limited period of time in

New York and Los Angeles for Academy consideration, and

finally in 1975 the film received a theatrical release. The film combined black-and-white film clips and horne movies with color footage as it followed Rubenstein on a

concert tour that included Iran, Paris, and Israel. Also

included were excerpts from rehearsals and recitals.

Janis intermixed interviews with concert footage from

Woodstock, Monterey, Frankfurt, Calgary, and Toronto to

present the life of rock/blues songstress Janis Joplin. Robert Altman's character study set against the back­

ground of the country-western music industry was the basis

for his musical film Nashville. As in Cabaret, the musical performances were not unnatural. They were not

generated from within an unrealistic context. 124

In the same year the American Film Theatre adapted the off-Broadway play Jacques Brel is Alive and Well and

Living in Paris. More of a revue than a story, the film, starring Elly Stone, featured 26 songs by B~lgian Jacques

Brel.

The sequel to Funny Girl, Funny Lady, continued the life of Fanny Brice (Barbra Streisand) in her marriage to

Billy Rose (James Cain) . Funny Lady was directed by

Herbert Ross.

With Lisztomania, director Ken Russell portrayed the life of a classical composer--as he did in The Music

Lovers--with his star from Tommy, Roger Daltrey. The film portrayed the lives of Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner as nineteenth century pop stars. The anachronistic plot featured the composers within a milieu of chrome-lucite furniture, satin spacesuits, and groupies. Another cross­ period piece, The Rocky-Horror Picture Show, adapted from a stage show, intermixed rock music and 1970s life-style with the sinister castle and characters of the horror film genre. Never Too Young featured typically Seventies rock bands (the Glitter Band, Slick, the Rubettes), in the

Fifties plot of searching for bands for the big concert.

1976

Musical documentaries and biographies dominated the styles of musical films produced in 1976. Salsa examined 125 the growth as well as the misrepresentation of Latin music in America. Narrated by Geraldo Rivera, the film utilized clips of Desi Arnaz and Carmen Miranda with current con­ cert footage filmed in New York and Puerto Rico. The Song

Remains The Same, a semi-documentary on the rock band Led

Zepplin, intermixed concert footage with fantasy sequences. The semi-documentary compilation of film clips in That's Entertainment! Part 2 utilized MGM films from

1929 through 1962. Unlike That's Entertainment~ Part 2 utilized more than just musical sequences, however the greater part of the 72 films utilized were musical films or musical sequences from non-musical films. Ken Russell produced another musical biography, Mahler, presenting the life of the Viennese composer in a manner that combined the surrealism of Lisztomania with the plot format of the traditional musical film biographies. The film was made before Lisztomania but released five months after it. Two films focusing on the musical careers of women were Sparkle, in which three sisters try to become suc­ cessful pop singers, and A Star Is Born, the third remake based upon the 1923 film What Price Hollywood, featuring Barbra Streisand as the rising star and Kris Kristofferson as the alcoholic has-been. The updated film utilized the rock idiom in its transformation from portraying actors to portraying musicians. Two family-oriented musicals were produced in 1976. 126

Bugsy Malone, a satire of the gangster genre, featured a cast of teen- and pre-teenagers. The musical was written and directed by Alan Parker with music and lyrics by Paul

Williams. The Slipper and the Rose was a musical adapta- tion of the Cinderella story.

1977

Nineteen seventy-seven produced three dance musicals.

Saturday Night Fever was built around the newest dance fad, disco. Similar to the twist movies of the Sixties,

Saturday Night Fever revolved around the events and music associated with disco dancing. More than a ballet film, The Turning Point was a backstage film about ballet.

Starring Anne Bancroft, Shirley MacLaine, Mikhail

Baryshnikov, and the corps de ballet of Ballet Theater, the film focused on the characters rather than dance, but utilized excerpts from 12 ballets. Roseland also focused ~ on the lives of its characters. The film's action, which was set almost entirely within New York's Roseland Ball- room, occurred during the constant waltzes, foxtrots, and

New York~ New York was a period piece that re-plotted the backstage musicals of the Forties with Robert De Niro as a saxophonist and Liza Minnelli as a big-band vocalist.

The First Nudie Musical, a movie within a movie satire, presented a pornographic musical film as the sole 127

salvation of a family-owned film studio.

Two rock musical documentaries were produced in 1977.

The Grateful Dead was a 131-minute-long documentary of

the rock band of the same name filmed in the style of the

early Seventies rock documentaries with repeated zooms to

close-ups. The film included an animation sequence. Punk

in London recorded interviews and musical performances of musicians, manaqers, and fans of the new social, politi- cal, and economic musical movement called "punk."

1978

Nostalgia musicals made up 50 percent of the film musicals produced in 1978. Rock musicals made up 90 per­ cent of the total films produced in the genre.

American Hot Wax reproduced the rock musical of the

Fifties in biographical form with Tim Mcintire portraying disc-jockey Alan Freed. The Buddy Holly Story, a biography of the pioneer rock and roll composer and performer, mirrored the plot format of The Glen Miller

Story of the musician's struggle and rise to fame and early tragic death. Grease, an adaptation of the Broadway play by Jim Jacobs and Warren Casey, was set in the Fifties with a high school as its universe. The film which starred John Travolta and Olivia Newton-John became the highest grossing movie musical of all time, replacing 12 The Sound of Music. Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club 128

Band filmed the concepts put forth on the late-Sixties

Beatles album of the same name. The film starred record­ ing artists Peter Frampton and The Bee Gees.

The Wiz, an adaptation of the Broadway play by

William F. Brown, updated the 1939 filmed fantasy The

Wizard of Oz. The most expensive musical ever filmed

($30 million), The Wiz replaced Kansas with Harlem and Oz with Manhattan. Diana Ross starred as Dorothy and Sidney

Lumet directed.

Neither of the year's two musical documentary films were filmed in the traditional style. The Last WaZtz documented the final concerts by the Band. The film, directed by Martin Scorsese,who was assisted by seven directors of photography including Laszlo Kovacs and Vilmos Zsigmond, allowed the camera movements to partake in the music by rotating and swaying with the rhythm rather than just recording it. Utilizing Dolby sound, the film marked the first time that an established director worked on a rock concert film. Renaldo and CZara, written and directed by Bob Dylan, scripted a story that inter­ twined with the footage of his touring Rolling Thunder

Revue. The film also featured music by Joan Baez and

Roger McGuinn.

Thank God It's Friday spotlighted disco music and dancing. The film's action occurred in a discotheque within the space of a few hours on a Friday night. It 129 featured the music of Donna Summer and the Commodores.

The only non-rock music musical in 1978 was an adaptation of Ingmar Bergman's film Smiles of A Summer

Night, titled A Little Night Musia. Staged on Broadway in 1973, the musical contained a Stephen Sondheim score i and was directed for both the stage and screen by Harold

Prince.

1979

Two rock documentaries were produced in 1979. The

Kids Are Alright was a compilation of 15 years of footage on English rock band the Who. Rust Never Sleeps recorded

Neil Young's 1978 American tour.

The three adaptations of the year were each derived from different sources. Hair was adapted from the Broad­ way play. The film reviewed the story of hippie life­ style with choreography by Twyla Tharpe. Director Joseph

Losey adapted the opera Don Giovanni to the screen with the music of Mozart performed by the Paris Opera

Orchestra. As with Tommy, the Who adapted their rock opera Quadrophenia to the screen from its source as a record. The film displayed the mid-Sixties English rivalry between the social/musical factions known as

"mods,n "rockers," and 11 Teddy-boys."

An original script, The Rose starred Bette Midler as a rock songstress who dies from a drug overdose. Roak and 130

RaZZ High SohooZ featured rock band the Ramones in a

Fifties rock musical farce.

The year closed out with Bob Fosse's AZl That Jazz.

The semi-autobiographical film presented all its musical

sequences within the context of the action. All musical

sequences (except one in Joe Gideon's [Roy Scheider]

apartment) occurred in a performance or rehearsal setting.

SUMMARY

The purpose of this summary is to offer a compendium

of the information presented in this chapter. This sec­ tion presents figures on the trends of the genre and sum­ marizes the data in a quantitative manner. This section

presents the total number of film musicals produced

between 1955 and 1979 and summarizes the data on the use

of Broadway and other adaptations, biographies, rock music, and documentaries. All of the information pre­

sented in this section is based upon the data from this chapter. Interpretations of this data can be found in

Chapter 6.

Total Films The total number of musical films produced between

1955 and 1979 amounts to 304. Prior to 1973 the average

number of films produced each year was 13.5. Post 1973

that figure dropped to eight musical films per year (see

Chart 5.1). 30---

I I I\ I I ~ 20-+ II I I'I I 19-+ ; 1 \ ;\ 11l-+- I i I I 11-+ \ ' I 16-+1 \I I/\ \ ( 5-+- \ w ,j\ I \ I 1 14-+-13---+- \ I ' \ I

12--+- '/~ I Ir-\ I j 1 11---+- I I \ 1>---+- \ ! \ 9 ----f.- I / \j v 8-+7 ___..,._ \I\'

6 ___ .J._ If'

5 ---·- 4 ---·-

3 ---·-

2 -----

1 ---·- # of musicals ·-- Year: '5~ '56 '5' '58 '59 '60 '61 '62 '63 '64 '65 '66 '6? '68 '69 '70 '71 '72 'r3 '14 '75 '76 '71 '7~ 'Je

Chart 5.1 1-' Musical Films Produced, 19!:.5-1979 w..... 132

Rock Versus Non-Rock Musical Films In order to analyze the amount of rock and non-rock or traditional musicals produced, the total time period is broken down into five five-year periods., Musical films produced between 1955 and 1959 totaled 82. Of those almost 50 percent {38 films) utilized rock music. During the 1960-1964 period 57 musicals were produced, 31 of which utilized rock music. Sixty-seven musicals were pro­ duced between 1965 and 1969, 41 of which utilized rock music. Thirty-seven out of a total of 57 musicals produced between 1970 and 1974 were rock musicals. Nine­ teen seventy-five to 1979 saw a total of 41 musical films,

24 of which contained rock music. In total there were 171 rock musicals produced between 1955 and 1979 and 133 traditional musicals produced during that same period {see

Chart 5.2).

Adaptations

The musical film genre evidences the frequent usage of adaptations. If a remake is considered adaptation, 79

{over 25 percent) of the total film musicals were adapta­

tions {see Chart 5.3). Broadway adaptations constitute over half of that figure, 40 films. The Broadway adapta­ tions were most prevalent during the five-year periods of 1955-1959 {14) and 1965-1969 {12). During the period of

1975-1979 the only three Broadway musicals that were 801--t-

75-'-' --+-

70---!-

65--t-

60--+-

55--+-

50--+-

45--+-

40,--t-

35--+-

301--i---

25--+-

20--+-

15--1-

101--+-

5 --+-

R NR R NR R NR R NR R NR 1955-1959 1960-1964 1965-1969 1970-1974 1975-1979 ...... w Chart 5.2 w

Rock Versus Non-Rock Musicals Total film Total Broa.dwav Non-Broadway Rock music musicals adaptations a.aa.p:ea=ti-ons adaptations adaptations Chart 5.3 ,_. w Adaptations (Categories are not mutually exclusive.) ~ 135 p • adapted to the screen utilized rock music (The Wiz [1978],

Grea s e [ 19 7 8 ] , and Hair [ 19 7 9 ] ) .

Other sources, including books, plays, non-musical and musical films, and recordings accounted.for the remaining 39 adaptations. Non-rock music adaptations other than Broadway musicals accounted for an average of four musical films in any given five-year period. The first rock musical adaptation from a non-filmic source occurred in 1969 with the adaptation of Arlo Guthrie's song "Alice's Restaurant." Of the 12 rock musical adapta­ tions between 1969 and 1979 50 percent (6) were taken from their original sources as records. The other half were originally staged plays. Non-rock musicals did not adapt from the source of records. The musical film adapted from the record is exclusive to the rock musical.

Musical Biography The style of the musical biography is considered in this section as a non-adaptive form of the genre.

Eighteen (less than 6 percent) of the total film musicals produced were biographical. Of these almost 50 percent (8) were produced during the 1955-1959 period. Two-thirds of the total musical biographies were produced prior to

1964 (see Chart 5.4).

Documentary

The documentary musical film is dominated by the rock 8

7

6 5-+ 4J_ ~ I 3- t 2 --j I 1 i _____. ·-- --- · ---4------· · · ~M ·------...... - 1955-1959 1960-1964 1965-1969 1970-1974 1975-1979

Chart 5.4

Biographies I-' w 0'1 137 music form and makes its strongest showing in the years following 1964. With a total of 48 documentary musicals produced between 1955 and 1979, 10 utilized traditional music subjects while the remaining 38 films applied rock music scores and subject-matter. Only four musical documentaries were produced prior to 1965: The Bolshoi BaZZet (1957), Satchmo the Great

(1958), Jazz on a Summsr's Day (1960), and Gather No Moss

(1964). Past 1965 the remaining 44 documentaries were produced. Of these, 37 were rock music documentaries

(see Chart 5.5). The primary reason that the musical documentary film was rarely produced prior to 1965 was technological. The style often necessitated the usage of hand-held cameras, fast stock (for limited lighting con­ cert situations), and adequate mobile audio equipment.

(Further explanation of why rock music has dominated the style is found in Chapter 6.) 26

24

22

16

6

4 2 _I R NR R NR R NR R NR . ~~-~-~~ •. /•'- --- . -· - ·· " ~--- · -··- - -.. ---1______--- R NR 1955 - 1959 1960 - 1964 1965 - 1969 1970 - 1974 1975- ··- ·1979·

Chart 5.5 DocuJrentaries

(Rock and non-rock nrusic) 1--' w co 139

FOOTNOTES

1. Blackboard Jungle (1955) and Love Me Tender (1956). 2. Variety Anniversary Issue, 1956, p. 38. 3. Variety Anniversary Issue, 1957, p. 23.

4. Ibid.

5. Philip Jenkinson and Alan Warner, Celluloid Rock (London: Lorrimer, 1974), p. 18. 6. Variety Anniversary Issue, 1958, p. 42.

7. Michael B. Druxman, The Musical (New Jersey: A. S. Barnes and Co., 1980), p. 79.

8. Jenkinson and Warner, p. 49.

9. Ibid., p. 45.

10. Jenkinson and Warner, p. 58.

11. Variety Anniversary Issue, 1966, p. 26.

12. Variety Anniversary Issue, 1979, p. 57.

------~ Chapter 6

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The purpose of this chapter is to provide a summation and interpretation of the information from Chapters 4 and 5 and to then offer any conclusions based upon those interpretations. In doing this, this chapter will provide an overview of the information set forth in this thesis by viewing the genre as a whole. Recommendations for further research are also provided.

SUMMARY AND INTERPRETATION

Up to this point, this thesis has separated the film musical itself from those social and economic factors that have exerted influence over its growth in an effort to provide an unbiased presentation of each. Given that the film musical is a popular art form and is therefore sub- ject to such changes as brought about by such middleman factors, this summary will combine the data on the musical film with the data on the middleman factor in order to more clearly evidence their interdependency on the development of the genre.

The biases against rock music in the mid to late

Fifties were not reflected in the amount of rock musical

140 141

films produced during that period. As previously stated

(in the Summary to Chapter 5), the rock musicals nearly

equaled the amount of traditional musicals produced during

those years. The biases did however affect,the quality of

the rock musicals. The films were produced on low budgets

and, other than Universal International, virtually ignored

by the major studios. Even when the films did garner a

(proportionately) large profit the majors avoided them

because of the rock music factor. When a major studio did

venture into the rock music market (for the profit paten-

tial) it minimized its "respectability risk" by casting

established stars not traditionally associated with the

rock music idiom. (The most financially successful

example of this practice was The Girl Can't Help It [1956]

which starred Jayne Mansfield, Edmond O'Brien, and Tom

Ewell.)

Low budgets and major studios' avoidance were not the

only results of the rock music bias. The greatest problem

occurred with the alleviation of rock musical films from

the genre of the musical. Most of the rock musicals of

the Fifties fit into the definition of the musical revue.

The revue--simply a means to showcase talent with a

(traditionally weak) story built around it--had been an

established style of·the film musical since the genre's

___inc_eptio_n_._UoY[ever_~ the revue that utilized rock music

(Rock Around the Clock [1956], Rock Rock Rock [1956], 6.5 142

Special [1957]) was termed a teen or cult film. Because of this approximately half of the film musicals produced since 1955 have not been legitimized into the genre.

As is the rule with popular art, a successful product(ion) leads to a series of imitations and so it was with film musicals. The popularity of the Broadway adaptation and musical biography films in the early

Fifties made them frontrunners in production in the latter half of the decade.

The Sixties saw a decline in popularity for the tra­ ditional musical, then a rise and finally decline. The opposite held true for the rock musical. The early

Sixties saw only sporadic success for the genre with films like West Side Story (1961) and The Music Man (1962).

Then in 1964 and 1965, My Fair Lady~ Mary Poppins~ and then The Sound of Music put the musical at the top of the box-office draw.

The financial success of these films led to a series of large-budgeted, low-profiting musicals that featured similar stars or themes. Rex Harrison (My Fair Lady) starred in Doctor Dolittle (1967). Julie Andrews (Mary

Poppins~ Sound of Music) starred in Thoroughly Modern Millie (1967), Star! (1968), and Darling Lili (1970). Period and fantasy musicals (My Fair Lady and Mary Poppins)

Wel::'~PJ:"O

(1968), and Camelot (1967). Barbra Streisand's 143 appearance in Funny GirL (1968) was duplicated in On A CLear Day You Can See Forever (1969). But many of the musicals produced in the latter half of the decade were not successful financially. That fact would subsequently reduce the amount of musicals produced in the Seventies.

The early Sixties brought a modicum of success to the then termed teen film. Elvis Presley, still at the peak of his popularity, starred in BLue Hawaii (1961), Kid GaLahad (1963), GirLs GirLs GirLs (1962), and Fun In

AcapuLco (1963) as well as several non-musical films. The newest dance fad, the twist, was the basis for three films. And even Broadway devoted a musical to the teen/ rock life-style with Bye Bye Birdie (1963). But the rock musical hit its highest peak to date in 1964 with A Hard Day's Night. The "British Invasion" had hit the music industry a year before and record industry executives had acknow­ ledged the English rock music's profit potential. A Hard

Day's Night confirmed that profit potential speculation with its broad acceptance for the music of the Beatles.

However, in the following years the rock musicals floundered. Eager to jump on the bandwagon, British and American studios alike attempted to duplicate the success of A Hard Day's Night. The Beatles• own attempt, HeLp! (1965) did not match Hard Day's success, neither did lookalike film 144

Catch Us If You Can (1965) or lookalike/sound-a-like band

Gerry and the Pacemakers in Ferry Cross The Mersey (1965).

For the most part the rock musical continued to be a low­

budget production.

The occurrences of one social and one technological factor at the end of the Sixties greatly contributed to

the change in the musical film form in the Seventies. The primary sociological factor was that in 1967 the nation's

largest age group was composed of 19-year-olds. This demographic factor had numerous ramifications, however in respect to popular music, the most important point was the

increase in popularity of rock music. And in respect to

film, this age group coincided with the largest age group

of the filmgoing audience, 18 to 24 year olds. The

utilization of rock music on a film's soundtrack in the

late Sixties became common practice. The financial suc­ cess of films like The Graduate (1968), Easy Rider (1969),

and Midnight Cowboy (1969) helped to establish the usage

of rock music on film. Technically, the broadening usage of hand-held

cameras along with the new fast-film stock and advance­ ments in audio engineering made musical documentary film­ making feasible. As a result of these two factors many of the new musicals were rock documentaries that appealed to a large

segment of the filmgoing public. From 1970-1974 rock 145 documentaries accounted for almost 50 percent of the total film musicals produced. (Even 25 percent of traditional musicals produced during that time utilized the documen­ tary format.) While traditional musicals and rock musi­ cals continued to be produced, the traditional musical for the most part, lacked an audience and the rock musical-­ other than the documentary--lacked a form.

The film industry's corporate mergings of the Sixties facilitated a restructuring of media interests on the part of the film and music industries of the Seventies. The new corporate umbrellas found mutual interests in both film studios and record labels. The liaison (encouraged by the shared target audience) led to shared productions as well as shared promotion and advertising ventures.

This "crossing-over" of product and promotion facilitated the development of rock musicals other than documentaries.

The Seventies saw a decline as well as a balancing out in the amount of musicals produced (see Chart 5.1).

While this was in part due to the steadily decreasing production of the traditional musical film, it was more a result of the drastic decrease in rock musical films (see

Chart 5.2). The reason that production on rock musicals declined so rapidly was that their high profit potential combined with the new intercorporate production and pro­ motion nearly eliminated the low budget rock musicals that had previously been produced in great quantity. The new 146 rock musicals were produced for the most part by major studios with major capital. By the end of the Seventies, rock musicals became the dominant style in the film musi­ cal genre.

To conclude, each trend evidenced during each year or decade in the development of the musical film can be traced to an event or series of events that occurred independently of the genre, but nevertheless affected it.

CONCLUSIONS

The summarization and interpretation of information from Chapters 4 and 5 leads to the drawing of conclusions on the musical film genre as a whole.

First, with respect to this study, it is apparent that while a film may be studied as a piece of art inde­ pendent of its environment, the study of a film genre must be done with consideration to the non-filmic factors that may affect it. To do otherwise is to take the film form out of its context and present a distorted analysis.

Unlike other works on the musical film this study has con­ sidered non-filmic factors as directly related to the development of the genre. In addition, this study has formulated operational definitions for a film's inclusion into the genre and devised a methodology to insure the consideration of all films and the inclusion of all film musicals. In doing this, this study has been able to 147 substantiate the hypothesis formulated in the Introduction.

The key points set forth in the Introduction have also been proven in the body of the work. The review of the literature evidenced that there has bee~ no comprehen­ sive work published on the musical film genre since the end of the Golden Age of Musicals in 1955. This was shown to be a direct result of the absence of objective criteria and methodology in the chronicling of the genre as well as a result of the socio-cultural biases against rock music throughout the Fifties, Sixties, and early Seventies. The study has also shown that the broadening demographics of the rock listening audience to coincide with the film viewing audience in the early Seventies had an effect on the style of film musicals produced. In addition, it has been shown that the shared economic interests of the film and music industries as a result of their corporate expansions has also altered the style of the musical film.

The proving of these key points results in a par­ ticularly important conclusion. Over the past 25 years the musical film has gone from a style grounded primarily in Broadway adaptations and biographies to one dominated by the rock music idiom as a result of non-filmic factors.

The development of the art form is dictated by cultural and economic phenomena more than by its own artistic evolution.

This thesis has shown the development of the art form 148 as it is influenced by the middleman factor. In doing so

it has provided the film and popular culture historian with a valid reference tool for the purpose of further research.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE FURTHER RESEARCH

The compilation of the past 25 years of the musical

film genre has evidenced that while these films are united under a single classification, several subcategori­

zations are apparent. In future historical study of the genre, it is recommended that this initial compilation be broken down, and that the genre be sub-classified. Con­ cert films (musical documentaries), biographies, and

Broadway adaptations are three prominent styles of the genre that necessitate individual classification. Such a study would serve to further legitimize the genre as well as assist film historians in their additional research in the future. This study has evidenced strong trends in those filmic styles and it is recommended that standard criteria be established for each of these styles. The format utilized in this thesis can stand as the basis for such a study.

The form utilized in this thesis can be adapted to the study of other film genres as well. The establishment of standard criteria and methodology and the presentation of the middleman factor as an influence upon the art form 149 can be utilized in the analysis of additional film forms.

This thesis has laid the groundwork for such studies. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Mariani, John. "Come On With The Rain." Film Comment, May-June 1978, pp. 7-9. 154

Marsh, Dave. "Schlock Around the Rock." Film Comment, July/August 1978, pp. 7-10.

Meeker, David. Jazz in the Movies. New York: Arlington House, 1977.

Meyer, Frank. "Bonanza in New Soundtrack Albums."· Variety, November 24, 1976, p. 109.

Michael, Paul, ed. American Movies Reference Book: The Sound Era. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1969.

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Mitry, J., Sourlin, and F. Courtade. "Griffith, Murnau et les Historians." Avant Scene, May 1-5, 1978, pp. 62-65.

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Quigley, Martin Jr. and Richard Gertner. Films in America. New York: Golden Press, 1970.

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Zuckerman, Ed. "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band." Rolling Stone, April 20, 1978, pp. 18-20. 157

APPENDIX

FILMOGRAPHY 158

APPENDIX A

FILMOGRAPHY

A

Ain't Misbehavin' (1955), p. 83. Alice's Restaurant (1969), pp. 24, 28, 68, 114, 120. All Hands on Deck (1961), p. 97. All That Jazz (19?9), p. 130. American Hot Wax (19?8), p. 127. Anything Goes (1956), p. 83. Antonia: Portrait of a Woman (19?4), p. 122. April Love (195?), p. 88. Arthur Rubenstein: Love of Life (19?5), p. 123.

B

Babes in Toyland (1961), p. 97. Be My Guest (1965), p. 104. Beach Ball (1965), p. 105. Bells Are Ringing (1960), p. 94. Benny Goodman Story~ The (1956), p. 84. Bernadine (195?), p. 88.

Big Beat 3 The (195?), p. 86. Bird on a Wire (19?2), p. 118. Blue Hawaii (1961), pp. 97, 143.

Bolshoi Ballet3 The (195?), p. 89. Bop Girl (195?), p. 87. Boyfriend, The (19?1), p. 117. Buddy Holly Story, The (19?8), pp. 32, 127. Bugsy Malone (19?6), p. 126. Bye Bye Birdie (l963), pp. 99, 143. c

Cabaret (19?2), pp. 72, 119, 123. Ca l y p so He a twa v e (1 9 5 ? J , p . 8 7 . Camelot (196?), pp. 24, 71, 108, 142. Can-Can (1960), p. 94. Carousel (1956), p. 83. Carry It On (19?0), p. 115. Catch My Soul (19?3), p. 120. 159

Catch Us If You Can (Alternative title: Having a Wild Week- end) ( 1 9 6 5) , pp . 1 0 5 , 14 4 . Celebration at Bir Sur (1971), pp. 72, 116. Chicago Blues (19?0), p. 115. Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (1968), p. 111.

Christmas Carol 3 A (19?0), p. 115. Clambake (1967), p. 109. C'mon Let's Live a Little (196?), p. 109. Concert For Bangladesh (1972), p. 118.

Cool Ones 3 The (196?), p. 109. Country Music Holiday (1958), p. 91. Cream Last Concert (1968), p. 111.

D

Daddy Long Legs (1955), p. 82. Damn Yankees (1958), p. 90. Darling Lili (19?0), pp. 116, 142. Dateline Diamonds (1965), p. 104. Disk-0-Tek Holiday (1966), p. 106. Doctor Dolittle (196?), pp. 24, 71, 108, 142. Don Giovanni (19?9), p. 129. Don't Knock the Rock (l956), p. 85. Don't Knock the Twist (1962), p. 98. Don't Look Back (1967), pp. 110, 112. Double Trouble (196?), p. 108.

E

Eddy Duchin Story 3 The (1956), p. 84. Elvis on Tour (19?2), p. 118.

Elvis 3 That's the Way It Is (19?0), p. 115. Everyday's a Holiday (American title: Seaside Swingers) ( 1 9 6 5 ) ' pp . 2 6 ' 1 0 4 . Expresso Bongo (1959), p. 91.

F

Fanny (1961), p. 96.

Fastest Guitar Alive 3 The (196?), p. 110. Ferry Cross the Mersey (1965), pp. 104, 144. Festival (196?), p. 110. Fiddler on the Roof (19?1), p. 117. Fillmore (19?2), p. 118. Finian's Rainbow (1968), pp. 111, 142.

First Nudie Musical 3 The (197?), p. 126. Five Pennies~ The (1959), p. 92. Flame (19?4), p. 122. 160

Flower Drum Song (1961), p. 95. Frankie and Johnny (1966), p. 106. From Nashville with Music (1969), p. 114. Fun In Acapulco (1963), pp. 100, 143. Funny Face (1956), p. 84. Funny Girl (1968), pp. 24, 111, 124, 143. Funny Lady (19?5), pp. 28, 124. Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Foru~~ A (1966), p. 127.

G

G.I. Blues (1960), p. 95. Gather No Moss (1964), pp. 102, 110. Gay Purr-ee (1962), p. 99. Gene Krupa Story~ The (1959), p. 92. Gentlemen Marry Brunettes (1955), p. 82. Get Yourself a College Girl (1964), p. 103. Ghost Goes Gear~ The (1966), p. 107. Gigi (1958), p. 90. Girl Can't Help It~ The (1956), pp. 70, 85, 141. Girl Happy (1965), p. 106. Girl Most Likely~ The (195?), p. 88. Girls Girls Girls (1962), pp. 98, 143. Girls on the Beach (1963), p. 105. Go Go Big Beat ( 1 9 6 5 ) , p . 1 0 5 . Go Go Mania (1965), p. 104. Go Johnny Go ( 19 59), p. 92. Gods p e ll ( 19 ? 3), p • 119 . Golden Disc~ The (195?), p. 87. Gonks Go Beat (1965), pp. 104, 112. Good Times (196?), p. 9. Goodbye Mr. Chips (1969), pp. 71, 113. Grateful Dead~ The (19??), p. 127. Grease (19?8), pp. 30, 73, 103, 127. Guys and Dolls.(1955), p. 81. Gypsy (1962), p. 97.

H

Hair (19?9~ p. 129. Half A Sixpence (1968), pp. 24, 102, 110. Hard Day's Night~ A (1964), 26, 71, 101, 104, 105, 112, 143. Harder They Come~ The 119?1~ p. 117. Harlem Rock and Roll (19.5?), p. 87. Harum Scarum (1965), p. 106. Having a Wild Weekend (Alternative title: Catch Us If You Can) (1965), p. 105. Head (1968), p. 112.

Helen Morgan Story 3 The (195?), p. 88. 161

Hello Dolly! (1969), pp. 71, 113, 142. Help! (1965), pp. 104, 143. Hey Boy! Hey Girl! (1969), p. 92. Hey Let's Twist (1961), p. ~6. High Time (1960), p. 94. Hit the Deck (1955), p. 81. Hold On! (1965), p. 105. Hootenany Hoot (1963), p. 100. Horror of Party Beach (1963), p. 100. How To Succeed In Business Without Really Trying (196?), p. 108.

I

I Am A Dancer (19?3), p. 121. Idle on Parade (1959), p. 91. Interrupted Melody (1955), p. 82. It Happened at the World's Fair (1963), p. 100. It's All Happening (1963), p. 100. It's All Over Town (1964), p. 102. It's Always Fair Weather (1955), p. 83. It's Trad Dad (1961), pp. 97, 101. It's Your Thing (19?0), p. 115. I've Gatta Horse (1964), p. 102.

J

Jacques Brel Is Alive and Well and Living in Paris (19?5), p. 124. Jailhouse Rock (195?), p. 86. Jamboree (195?), p. 87. Janis (19?5), p. 123. Jazz on a Summer's Day (1960), p. 95. Jazzboat (1959), p. 91. Jesus Christ Superstar (19?3), pp. 119, 122. Jimi Hendrix (19?3), p. 121. Jimi Plays Berkely (19?1), p. 116. Johnny Cash; The Man~ His World~ His Music (1969), p. 114. Joker is Wild~ The (195?), p. 88. Jukebox Rhythm (1959), p. 91. Just For Fun (1963), p. 100. Just For You (1964), pp. 26, 102.

K

Keep It Cool (_1958), p. 90. Keep On Rockin' (19?0), p. 115. Kid Galahad (1962), pp. 98, 143. 162

Kids Are Alright~ The (1979) 1 p. 129. King and I~ The (1956) 1 pp. 711 83. King CreoZe (1958)1 p. 89. Kismet (1955) 1 p. 81. Kissin' Cousins (1964)1 p. 101.

L

Lady and the Tramp (1955)1 p. 81. Lady Sings the BZues (1972) 1 pp. 721 119. Last WaZtz~ The (19?8) 1 p. 128. Les GirZs (195?) 1 p. 87.

Let It Be (19?0) 1 p. 114. Let the Good Times RaZZ (19?3) 1 p. 121. Let's Be Happy (195?) 1 p. 87. LiZ Abner (1959) 1 p. 92. Lisztomania (19?5) 1 pp. 124 1 125. LittZe Night Music~ A (19?8) 1 p. 129. Live It Up (1962) 1 p. 99. LoneZy Boy (1962) 1 p. 99. Lost in the Stars (19?3) 1 p. 120. Love and Music (Alternative title: Stamping Ground) {19?1) 1 p. 116. Loving You (195?) 1 p. 86.

M

Mad Dogs and EngZishmen (19?1)1 pp. 27 1 116. Magical, Mystery Tour (196?)1 p. 110. MahZer (19?6) 1 p. 125. Marne (19?4) 1 p. 121. Man of La Mancha (19?2), p. 118. Mardi Gras (1958) 1 p. 89. Mary Poppins (1964) 1 pp. 23 1 101 1 108 1 111 1 142. Medicine BeZZ Caravan (19?1), pp. 27 1 72 1 116. Meet Me In Las Vegas (1956), p. 84. Mister Rock and RaZZ (195?) 1 p. 86. Monterey Pop (1968), p. 111. Music Lovers~ The (1971) 1 pp. 117, 124. Music Man~ The (1962) 1 pp. 98, 142. My Fair Lady (1964) 1 pp. 23 1 100, 108, 142.

N

NashviZZe (19?5), p. 123. NashviZZe RebeZ (1966), p. 107' Never SteaZ Anything SmaZZ (1969), p. 93r Never Too Young (19?5), p. 124. New York~ New York (19??)1 p. 126. 163

0

0 Lucky Man (1973), p. 120. Oh! What a Lovely War (1969), p. 113. Oklahoma (1955), pp. 71, 81. Oliver! (1968), pp. 24, 111. On a Clear Day You Can See Forever (1969), pp. 113, 143. One and Only Original Family Band~ The (1968), p. 111. One + One (1968), p. 112. Opposite Sex~ The (1956), p. 84. p

Paint Your Wagon (1969), p. 112. Pajama Game~ The (1957), pp. 71, 88. Pajama Party (1964), pp. 103, 104. PaZ Joey (1957), p. 88. Paradise Hawaiian Style (1966), p. 106. Paris Blues (1961), p. 97. Pete Kelly's Blues (1955), p. 83. Pete Seeger ... A Song and a Stone (1971), p. 116. Phantom of the Paradise (1974), p. 122. Pink Floyd (1974), p. 122. Play It Cool (1963), p. 100. Pop Down (1968), p. 112. Pop Gear (1965), p. 104. Porgy and Bess (1959), p. 93. PriveZege (1967) , p. 109. Punk in London (1977), p. 127.

Q

Quadrophenia (1979), p. 129.

R

Raga (1971), p. 116. Rainbow Bridge (1971), p. 116. Reggae (1970), p. 115. Renaldo and Clara (1978), p. 128. Ring-A-Ding Rhythm (1962), p. 99. Road to Nashville (1966), p. 107. Rock All Night (1957), p. 86. Rock and Roll High School (1979), p. 129. Rock Around the Clock (1956), pp. 26, 85, 92, 141. Rock Around the World (1957), p. 87. Rock Pretty Baby (1956), p. 85. Rock Rock Rock (1957), pp. 87, 141. 164

Rock You Sinners (195?), p. 87. Rockabilly Baby (1~5?), p. 86. Rocky-Horror Picture Show (19?5), p. 124. Rose, The ( 19? 9), p. 12 9. Roseland (19??), p. 126. Roustabout (1964), p. 101. Rust Never Sleeps (19?9), p. 129. s

Salsa (19?6), p. 124. Satchmo the Great (1958), p. 91. Saturday Night Fever (19??), pp. 31, 126. Save the Children (19?4), p. 122. Say One For Me (1958), p. 90. Seaside Swingers (British title: Everyday's a Holiday) (1965), p. 104. Senior Prom (1959), p. 92. Seven Little Fays, The (1955), p. 82. Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (19?8), pp. 73, 127. Shake Rattle and Rock (1958), p. 85. Silk Stockings (195?), p. 88. Sincerely Yours (1955) , p. 82. Sing and Swing (1964), p. 102. Sing Boy Sing (1958), p. 89. Singing Nun, The (1966), p. 107. Ski Party (1965), p. 105. Slipper and the Rose, The (19?6), p. 126. Song of Norway (19?0), p. 115. Song Remains the Same, The (19?6), p. 124. Song Without End (1960), p. 94. Soul to Soul (19?3), p. 121. Sound of Music, The ( 1 9 6 5), pp . 2 4 , 71 , 1 0 3, 1 0 7, 121 , 14 2 . South Pacific (1958), p. 90. Sparkle (19?6), p.' 125. St. Louis BZues (1958), p. 90. Stamping Ground (Alternate title: Love and Music) (19?1) PP. 116 Star! (Retitled:· Those Were the Happy Times) (1968), pp. 24, 71, 111, 142. Star Is Born, A (19?6), pp. 29, 73, 109, 125. Stardust (19?3), p. 120. State Fair (1962), p. 99. Stop the World I Want to Get Off (1966), p. 106. Sweet Charity (1969), p. 113. Swingin' Summer (1965), p. 105. Sympathy for the DeviZ (1968), p. 112. 165

T

Teenage Millionaire (1961), p. 97. Thank God It's Friday (1978), pp. 30, 128. That'll Be the Day (1973), p. 120. That 1 s Entertainment (1974), pp. 72, 123, 125. That's Entertainment II (1975), p. 125. . Thoroughly Modern Millie (1967), pp. 108, 109, 142. Those Were The Happy Times (Originally titled: Star!) (1968), p. 111. Three For the Show (1955), p. 82. Tickle Me (1965), p. 106.

Time to Sing 3 A (1968), p. 112. Tommy (1974), pp. 78, 79, 122, 128, 129. Too Late Blues (1962), p. 99.

Turning Point 3 The (1977), p. 126. Twist Around the Clock (1961), p. 96. Two Tickets to Paris (1962), p. 99. u

Unsinkable Molly Brown (1964), p. 101. Untamed Youth (1957), p. 86. v

Vagabond King 3 The (1956), p. 84. Viva La& Vegas (1964), p. 101. w

Watts tax ( 1 9 7 3) , p • 121 . West Side Story (1961), pp. 95. 104, 142. When the Boy's Meet the Girls (1965), p. 105. Willie Wonka and the Chocolate Factory (1971), p. 117. Winter-A-Go-GO (1965), p. 105.

Wiz 3 The (1978), p. 128. Woodstock (1970), pp. 27, 32, 72, 114. y

Yellow Submarine (1968), p. 111. Yessongs (1972), p. 118. You Are What You Eat (1968), p. 112.

Young Ones 3 The (1961), p. 97. Your Chea tin' Heart ( 19 64) ;-p. 103. 166 p '

z

Zachariah (19?0), p. 115.

Additional Films 6. 5 Special (195? ), pp. 87, 141. 1??6 (19?2), p. 118. 200 Motels (19?1), p. 117.