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Integrating Environmental Safeguards into Disaster Management: a field manual Volume 1: Reference material Sriyanie Miththapala Ecosystems and Livelihoods Group, Asia, IUCN Integrating Environmental Safeguards into Disaster Management: a field manual Volume 1: Reference material Integrating Environmental Safeguards into Disaster Management: a field manual Volume 1: Reference material Sriyanie Miththapala Ecosystems and Livelihoods Group, Asia, IUCN This document was produced under the project ‘Rehabilitating coastal ecosystems in a post-tsunami context: Consolidation Phase’ carried out with financial support from the Autonomous Organisation for National Parks (Organismo Autónomo Parques Nacionales - OAPN) of the Ministry of Environment of Spain. The designation of geographical entities in this technical report, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN or OAPN concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN or OAPN. Published by: Ecosystems and Livelihoods Group Asia, IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Copyright: © 2008, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Citation: Miththapala. S (2008). Incorporating environmental safeguards into disaster risk management. Volume 1: Reference material. Colombo: Ecosystems and Livelihoods Group, Asia, IUCN. viii + 130 pp. Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorized without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission of the copyright holder. ISBN: 978-955-8177-86-0 Cover Photo: © Earthquake damage in Pakistan, 2005 © Karl Schuler/IUCN Design: Sriyanie Miththapala Produced by: Ecosystems and Livelihoods Group Asia, IUCN. Printed by: Karunaratne & Sons (Pvt) Ltd. 67 UDA Industrial Estate Katuwana Road Homagama [email protected] Available from: Ecosystems and Livelihoods Group, Asia IUCN 4/1, Adams Avenue Colombo 4 Sri Lanka Phone: +(9411) 255 9634-5 Fax: +(9411) 255 9637 email: [email protected] website: http://data.iucn.org/places/asia/coastalinfo/ Contents Acknowledgements v List of figures and tables vi Executive summary vii Why is the environment necessary for sustainable living? 1 Ecosystem well-being in Asia 4 Human well-being in Asia 8 An overview of Asian ecosystems and their status 12 Terrestrial inland ecosystems 13 Tropical lowland rain forests 13 Montane and sub-montane forests 15 Monsoon forests 16 Scrub forests 17 Tropical coniferous forests 18 Temperate broad-leaved and mixed forests 19 Grasslands 20 Deserts 22 Aquatic inland ecosystems 23 Rivers and streams 23 Ponds and lakes 25 Coastal ecosystems 26 Coral reefs 26 Mangroves 28 Seagrasses 30 Sand dunes 31 Lagoons and estuaries 32 The value of ecosystems 34 Natural hazards and natural disasters 38 The difference between natural hazards and natural disasters 39 Risk and vulnerability 39 Natural hazards 41 Geological hazards 41 Earthquakes 41 Volcanoes 45 Landslides 47 Hydrological hazards 47 Floods 47 Drought 49 Tsunamis 50 Climatic hazards 51 Hurricanes/tropical cyclones/typhoons 51 Other natural hazards 52 Wildfires 52 Disease 52 Natural disasters 54 Global warming and climate change 60 References 70 Annex 1 Ecosystem services of and threats to lowland tropical rain forests 74 Annex 2 Ecosystem services of and threats to montane and sub-montane forests 79 Annex 3 Ecosystem services of and threats to monsoon forests 83 iii Annex 4 Ecosystem services of and threats to scrub forests 87 Annex 5 Ecosystem services of and threats to tropical coniferous forests 90 Annex 6 Ecosystem services of and threats to temperate broad-leaved and mixed forests 93 Annex 7 Ecosystem services of and threats to tropical grasslands 97 Annex 8 Ecosystem services of and threats to deserts 101 Annex 9 Ecosystem services of and threats to rivers and streams 105 Annex 10 Ecosystem services of and threats to ponds and lakes 109 Annex 11 Ecosystem services of and threats to swamps and marshes 113 Annex 12 Ecosystem services of and threats to mangroves 116 Annex 13 Ecosystem services of and threats to coral reefs 119 Annex 14 Ecosystem services of and threats to seagrasses 122 Annex 15 Ecosystem services of and threats to sand dunes 125 Annex 16 Ecosystem services of and threats to lagoons and estuaries 127 Photocredits 130 iv Acknowledgments Many people assisted with the preparation and production of this manual. The author expresses her grateful thanks to Saima Baig, Channa Bambaradeniya, Lucy Emerton, Janaki Galappatti, Ranjit Galappatti, Usman Ifthikar, Mikkel Kallesøe, Sanjeewa Lellwala, Maeve Nightingale, Thushara Ranasinghe, Ali Raza Rizvi, Rebecca Roberts and Devaka Weerakoon for content inputs and comments. Yvanka de Soysa prepared most of the annexes in Volume 1 and Eric Wikramanayake generated some GIS maps used for illustration in Volume 2. Anouchka Wijenaike and Irushnie Wedage proof-read the document. Many people generously provided photographs for use. They are credited individually at the end of each volume. This document was produced and published with financial support through a grant made from the Autonomous Organisation for National Parks (Organismo Autónomo Parques Nacionales - OAPN) of the Ministry of Environment of Spain to IUCN. v List of Figures Figure 1: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) framework 2 Figure 2: Impacts of the main drivers of ecosystem change 6 Figure 3: Current world population 9 Figure 4: World poverty distribution 10 Figure 5: Global distribution of tropical rainforests 13 Figure 6: Global distribution of temperate broad-leaved forests 19 Figure 7: Global distribution of grasslands 20 Figure 8: Global distribution of deserts 22 Figure 9: Major river basins of the world 23 Figure 10: Extent of mangroves remaining compared to coral reefs and tropical rainforests 29 Figure 11: Total economic value 36 Figure 12: Total economic value related to the MA framework 36 Figure 13a: The different elements of vulnerability 39 Figure 13b: The relationship between risk, hazard and vulnerability 40 Figure 13b: The relationship between risk, hazard and the different elements of vulnerability 40 Figure 14: Cutaway views showing the internal structure of the Earth 41 Figure 15: Tectonic plates of the world 42 Figure 16: Types of boundaries: top: Extensional; middle: Compressional; and bottom: Transform 43 Figure 17: Earthquake prone areas in the world 44 Figure 18: Cross section of a volcano 45 Figure 19: Volcano prone areas in the world - the Pacific ‘Ring of Fire’ 46 Figure 20: Major floods reported in 2008 47 Figure 21: Number of drought disaster reported by country: 1970-2006 49 Figure 22: Diagram of a tsunami waves 50 Figure 23: Distribution of tropical cyclones 51 Figure 24: Emerging and re-emerging diseases 52 Figure 25: Natural hazard hotspots, by risk type 53 Figure 26: Natural hazards in the Asian region, current situation 55 Figure 27: Past and future concentrations of CO2 62 Figure 28: Melting snow on Kilimanjaro 62 Figure 29: Extent of ice on polar ice cap 63 Figure 30: Diagram of El Niño conditions 64 Figure 31: Climate change and vector-borne diseases 65 Figure 32: Potential impacts of climate change 66 Figure 33: Trends in natural disasters 66 Figure 34: Incidence of floods 1950-2000 67 Figure 35: Incidence of wildfires 1950-2000 67 Figure 36: Incidence of tropical storms in the north Atlantic 68 List of Tables Table 1: Population and poverty in Asia 9 Table 2: Economic value of Muthurajawela marsh, Sri Lanka 37 Table 3: Rapid and slow onset and cyclic disasters 55 Table 4: Some of the worst natural disasters recorded (evaluated by the number of human deaths) 56 Table 5: Some of the worst natural disasters recorded (evaluated by cost) 56 Table 6: Natural disasters in Asia in 2008 56 Table 7: Greenhouse gases 61 vi Executive summary Environmental facets are essential components of human well-being and contribute positively to human security, providing basic materials for good life, good health and good social relations. Yet, these are being damaged and overexploited, ultimately to the detriment of humans. In addition, increasing incidence and intensity of natural disasters and climate change are having over-arching impacts on the environment. Sustainable development, often of the most vulnerable sectors of society, is thus being undermined. One of the key reasons why this damage continues is that an integrated approach is adopted rarely in disaster risk management. For example, relief organisations may focus on damage to life and property while others examine impacts on livelihoods. Very often, ecological services and their indirect economic values are omitted completely from assessments. Adaptation to climate change is ignored. Mainstreaming ecosystem concerns – both ecological and economical – into the development agenda and integrating them into disaster management, therefore, becomes essential. This manual attempts to provide background information and guidance for integrating environmental concerns into disaster management. Volume 1 of the manual describes briefly the framework of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA). The MA links clearly ecosystem well-being
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